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THE PHILIPPINES
UNDER SPANISH AND AMERICAN
RULES
BY
C. H. FORBES-LINDSAY
AUTHOR OF
"India, Past and Present", "America's Insular Possessions",
"Panama, the Isthmus and the Canal", etc.
ILLUSTRATED
PHILADELPHIA
THE JOHN C. WINSTON CO.
1906
-C'
Plfl
LIBRARY of CONGRESS
Two Copies Received
NO^ 30 1906
V, Copyright Entw /
CLASS Xf\ l^Cn No.
COPY-B.
Copyright, 1906
By the JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY
0^
^ ^3lJ
Honorable William Howard Taft
DeMcateb
BY PERMISSION TO THE
HONORABLE WILLIAM H. TAFT
First Civil Governor of the Philippines
THAN WHOM NONE HAS LABORED MORE ASSIDUOUSLY
In THE Cause of the Filipino
PREFACE.
Prior to 189 S, when iVmerica knocked rudely at her
doors, the Philippine Archipelago was one of the most
secluded portions of the earth. Only within the
present generation have its ports been open to the
commerce of the world. When the Archipelago
passed into the possession of the United States there
was not an American firm in Manila. The Islands
have never been brought within the ever-extending
bounds of tourist travel and are not yet upon a main
steamship route, but are reached by a branch line
from Hong Kong.
Before the Spanish- American War brought us into
intimate relations with the Philippine Islands, little
had been published relating to them in this country
or, indeed, in the English language. It is not strange,
then, that the average American knew almost nothing
about this country which is destined to play an im-
portant part in the history of the United States, until
his newspapers and magazines began to educate him.
By this time we are well awake to the fact that the
Filipinos are not naked savages and that their country
is something more than the place from which we get
Manila hemp. It is beginning to dawn upon us that
the Filipinos and the Philippines represent great pos-
sibilities, but few of us have an adequate conception
of how great they are, or of the vast field for Amer-
ican endeavor and enterprise afforded by them.
In the past iew years the Philippines have evoked
a constantly growing interest which most often takes
the form of the concrete query : ^^Are the people good
for anything and what are the islands worth ?" I
have made an effort to answer this question with some
degree of definiteness.
V
yJ tub PHILIPPINES
For my statements regarding industries, resources,
etc., I have depended, in the main, upon the ample
sources of information afforded by the U. S. War
Department, having been taught by experience to
regard them as the most reliable.
I have avoided polemic discussion, because there
are others much better qualified than myself to pass
opinion on the controversial questions connected with
the Philippines ; but that the reader, who will natu-
rally look for some such expressions in a book of this
kind, may be satisfied, I have fully remedied the
deficiency on my part by inserting a chapter of ex-
tracts from public addresses delivered by the Honor-
able AVilliam H. Taft, who is recognized as the fore-
most authority on our insular possessions in the
Pacific. These addresses are the most direct, logical,
and consistent statements of the conditions and pros-
pects in the Philippine Islands, as well as the most
clear and unequivocal expression of the policy of the
American Government towards those islands. I much
regret that the quotations are, necessarily, limited to
a few brief extracts and strongly recommend the
reading of the addresses in extenso to all who would
have a clear idea of our relations to the Philippines
and the problems involved in their administration.
I take this opportunity to acknowledge my obliga-
tions to Colonel Clarence R. Edwards, Chief of the
Bureau of Insular Affairs, and the Assistant Chief,
Captain Prank Mclntyre, who have rendered me val-
uable assistance in the preparation of this volume.
Philadelphia, April, 1906.
CONTENTS
THE PHILIPPINES
CHAP. P-'^GE.
I. General Description 17
II. The Inhabitants 'i'5
III. Early History 119
IV. The Passing of Spanish Dominion 101
V. American Administration 203
VI. Commerce ^^^
VII. Agriculture 285
VIII. Agriculture {Continued) 323
IX. Public Lands, Timber, Minerals, etc 357
X. Manila, Old and New 393
XI. Luzon ^^^
XII. The Visayas ^^^
XIII. Mindanao and Sulu ^^^
XIV. Vital Issues "^^ '
INDEX ^^^
ILLUSTRATIONS
THE PHILIPPINES
PAGE.
Manila Bay Frontispiece.
Hon. William H. Taft Facing Dedication. ^
The Highlands of Benguet 22 '^
A Visayan Family 54
Manila Cathedral 78
A Head Hunter 110 '^
Chinese Mestizos 126 -^
LoMA Church 150
FiLiPiNA Women 174 '
The Young Idea 190
Office of a Justice 214 -
Manila Hemp 230 "
The Busy Pasig 254 "^
Cleaning Abaca 270 y
A Rope Walk 294 /
Farming in the Philippines 310
Threshing Rice 350 .
A Street Scene 382 ^
Taal Volcano 390
.on/
Primitive Transportation 422
A Humble Home 430 ^
Antique Defenses 454
A Mestiza 4G2 ^
A Weaver 486 /
A Village Scene 510
Native Police 522 /
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
THE PHILIPPINES.
I.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Physical Features — Luzon — Taal Lake and Volcano — The
Story of an Eruption — Mayon Volcano — Rivers of Luzon
— Cagayan and Isabela — A bra, Lepanto-Bontoc, and Nueva
Vizcaya — I locos Norte, I locos Sur and La Union — Benguet
— Pangasinan — Zambales — Bataan — Tarlac — Pampanga —
Nueva Ecija — Bulacan — Rizal — Laguna — Cavite — Batan-
gas — Tayabas — Ambos Camarines — Albay — Sorsogon —
Railroad Extension — Marinduque — The Island of Mindoro
— The Visayan Group — ^^Masbate — Samar — Leyte — Bohol —
Cebu — Negros — Panay — Paragua — Mindanao — Sulu — Tawi
Tawi — Fauna — Flora — Vegetable Products of Commercial
Value — Minerals — Climate.
The Philippine Archipelago extends from 4° 40'
to 21° 10' north latitude and lies between the meridi-
ans of 116° 40' and 126° 34' east longitude. The
chain of islands commences in the north at a point
within one hundred miles of Formosa and terminates
with the Sulu Group, lying close to the northeast
coast of Borneo. The nearest land on the east is
one of th« Pelew Islands, in the possession of Ger-
many, five hundred and ten miles distant, and on the
west. Cochin China, distant five hundred and fifteen
miles.
2 (17)
18
THE PHILIPPINES.
The most recent official enumeration gives a total
of 3,141 islands to the Archipelago. Three-fourths
of that number have areas of less than a square mile
each; one-half are unnamed; and by far the majority
are uninhabited. The aggregate area of the islands
is 115,000 square miles ; that is, greater than the
combined areas of the States of IN'ew York, Xew
Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware.
In the broadest territorial division, the principal
islands are thus classified:
Island. Area in Sq. Miles. Population.
1. Luzon 40,969 3,798,507
2. Marinduque 352 50,001
3. Mindoro 3,851 28,361
4. Paragiia, or Palawan 4,027 10,918
5. Visayan Islands.
Masbate 1,236 29,451
Samar 5,031 222,090
Leyte 2,722 357,641
Bobol 1,141 243,148
Cebu 1,702 592,247
Negros 4,881 460,776
Panay 4,611 743,(>i6
6. Mindanao 36,292 499,634
7. Sulu Archipelago.
Sulii, or Jolo 326 44,718
Tawi Tawi 232 1,179
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
The prevailing physical features of the Philippines
are mountain and forest. There are several broad
valleys intersected by numerous streams, but ex-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 19
tensive plains and large rivers comparable with con-
tinental standards are not to be fonnd in the islands.
The Philippines have no deserts, nor even barren
lava beds. Everywhere vegetation flourishes in ex-
uberant variety. Very little of the scenery can be
fairly termed grand, but almost everywhere it is made
beautiful by the diversity and abundance of vegeta-
tion which covers the hills and the lower slopes of
the mountains. About seventy per cent, of the entire
surface of the islands is covered with forest, including
some of the most valuable species of trees in the world.
The Archipelago is of volcanic origin, evidences
of which are everywhere to be found in extinct or
dormant volcanoes, at least ten having records of
activity.
To such an extent are the shores of the islands
indented that, although their area is but one twenty-
sixth that of the mainland of the United States, the
coast line of the latter is less than half that of the
Philippine Islands. Such a formation would gen-
erally indicate the presence of a great number of har-
bors, but as a matter of fact there are comparatively
few of present commercial utility. Shoals and reefs ;
the absence of lights and channel buoys ; and the
lack of reliable charts render many deep water anchor-
ages impracticable for vessels of heavy burthen.
Most of the anchorages are only available during a
portion of the year owing to the alternating character
of the winds. Prom June to October the wind sets
20 THE PHILIPPINES.
in from the southwest, and during the remainder of
the year the northwest monsoons prevail. There are,
however, some exceptionally good harbors, that of
Manila, upon which extensive improvements are rap-
idly progressing toward completion, being one of
the very best in the Orient. With the exception of
Bohol, each of the principal islands has at least one
harbor capable of accommodating vessels of the great-
est draft.
There are but three rivers attaining a length of two
: hundred miles, namely, the Rio Grande de Cagayan,
y of Luzon, and the Rio Grande and Agusan, of Min-
danao. Aside from these, and the Pampanga, the
Agno and the Abra, all of Luzon, there are no rivers
in the islands exceeding a length of one hundred
miles. However, economic importance cannot al-
ways be gauged by figures. The Pasig, one of the
shortest rivers in the country, carries the greatest
commerce. It may be mentioned here as a curious
fact, that the Lanao, of N^egros, although only nine
miles in total length, has a width of one thousand
feet and is twenty feet deep.
LUZON.
Luzon is the chief island of the Archipelago, and
has contained the seat of government since the time
of Legaspi. It is paramount in the matters of area,
population and development. Its greatest length
from northwest to southeast is four hundred and
LUZON. 21
eighty-nine miles, and its utmost breadth one hun-
dred and thirty-eight miles. Its principal mountain
range is the Sierra Madre, which, commencing in
the extreme northeast corner of the island, follows
an unbroken course of three hundred and fifty miles
along the eastern coast to the Lag-una de Bay. The
general elevation of the Sierra Madre is from 3,500
to 4,500 feet, the latter figures being exceeded by a
few summits. This range forms the eastern bound-
ary of the great valley of the Cagayan, one of the
two large and fertile stretches of comparative level
on the island. Its length is one hundred and sixty
miles and its breadth fifty miles. On the west the
valley is bounded by the conglomeration of elevations
and short mountain ranges styled the Caraballos Oc-
cidentales, covering an area two hundred miles in
length by seventy miles in breadth. This complex
system embraces several peaks exceeding 6,000 feet
in altitude. At the south, as at the north, a sub-
sidiary range effects a junction between the Cara-
ballos Occidentales and the Sierra Madre, so that
these two mountain systems convert the northern part
of Luzon into a basin of which they form the sides.
The Zambales range extends the length of the prov-
ince of that name, closely following the coast. It in-
cludes many summits higher than 5,000 feet, and for
a considerable distance maintains an average elevation
of 4,000 feet. Extending fifty miles eastward from
this range and southward to the distance of one hun-
22 THE PHILIPPINES.
dred and fifty miles from Lingayen Gulf, is a great,
flat depression traversed by the rivers Pampanga,
Agno and Pasig, and by innumerable small streams.
A great deal of tlie land is alluvial soil. The valley
is extremely fertile, and supports 1,750,000 souls,
being about two-fifths of the popidation of the entire
island. At the southern end of this valley is Laguna
de Bay, a large, shallow body of water at no point
more than twenty feet in depth. It is the source of
the Pasig, at the mouth of which stands Manila. The
shores of Laguna de Bay are thickly settled. A very
large traffic is carried on amongst the to^\Tis and vil-
lages along its littoral and between them and Manila.
Southern Luzon has no defined mountain system,
but grouped summits and isolated volcanic peaks are
scattered over its surface.
TAAL LAKE AND VOLCAl^O.
Laguna de Bombon, or Lake Taal, is one of the
most curious natural formations in the world. It is
an immense crater, seventeen miles lonff bv twelve
miles in breadth, surrounded, except upon the south-
ern end, by a clearly defined rim several hundred
feet in height, towards which the neighboring coun-
try gradually slopes. Upon the edge of the lake
are several elevations of volcanic character, and from
an island in the center rises, to a height of one thou-
sand feet, an active volcano, several eruptions of
which have been recorded. Different theories have
The Highlands of Benguet.
These beautiful mountains boast scenery equal to
that of the Tyrol, a climate temperate and bracing,
rich mineral deposits, and vegetable products ranging
from coffee to apples.
TAAL LAKE AND VOLCANO. 23
been advanced by scientific observers to account for
the phenomenon of Lake Bombon. Father Zuniga
expressed the opinion that the lake originated from
the collapse of a volcanic cone. Doctor Becker at-
tributes the present formation to the combined action
of eruptions and cataclysms, and concludes that the
peak "Taal itself is the small inner cone of a great
crater of explosion.'^ Mr. H. D. Caskey, B. S.,
says : "My own notes and observations in these prov-
inces tend to the belief that Taal was unquestionably,
at a prehistoric period, very high and of tremendous
activity; that it stood partly surrounded, if not
wholly, by a stretch of the sea extending from the
Gulf of Batangas to the Lingayen Gulf; that during
its activity large quantities of volcanic ejecta fell into
this island sea, forming the more or less stratified de-
posits of tuif now furnishing much of the rich soil
of the provinces of Batangas, La Laguna, Cavite,
Rizal, and Bulacan ; that an explosion, or a series of
them, blew out the entire upper cone, leaving the rim
of the present boundaries of the Lake Taal ; and
that subsequently minor cones were formed and this
region was gradually raised to its present level."
During historic times this volcano has undergone the
most remarkable changes and new craters have been
formed on three or four occasions. Of the several
recorded eruptions of Taal, that of 1754 is the most
notable. The following is from the account of Father
Buenuchillo, the parish priest of Taal at the time :
24 THE PHILIPPINES.
THE STORY OF AN ERUPTION.
''It began on May 13tli and did not end till the 1st
of December. During this time the intensity and
aspect of the eruption were constantly changing. It
was two hundred davs of devastation and ruin for
the inhabitants, to whom the time must have ap-
peared an eternity. During this time the principal
towns of the Laguna of Bombon disappeared, viz.,
Sala, Lipa, Tanuan, and Taal, with the numerous
villages around them. Other towns of the same prov-
ince at a distance, as well as towns of the neighbor-
ing provinces of Balayan, Batangas, and Bauan, also
suffered great damage. Rosario, Santo Tomas, and
San Pablo also felt the effect of the rain of ashes
and scorise, as also did almost all the provinces below
the center of Luzon. The quantity of ashes and sco-
rise which was sent up by the volcano was so great
that a large quantity of pumice stone appeared on
the surface of the Laguna; and several villages
around Tanuan and others around Taal, being near
the volcano, and because the wdnd w^as east, were
totally destroyed by this rain."
The eruption continued, with greater or less in-
tensity, but continuously, till the 10th of July, when
the nature of the volcanic rain changed, as may be
gathered from the following words :
''There was not a single night throughout the whole
of this month of June till July 10th in which flames
THE STORY OF AN ERUPTION. 25
were wanting on the volcano, or in which there were
not rumbling noises. This went on till July 10th,
when it rained mud over the town of Taal, and the
mud was of so black a character that ink would not
have stained so blackly, and when the wind changed
the mud covered a village called Balele, which is
near Sala, which village was the most fertile of the
whole district. The volcano continued to throw out,
with more or less intensity, flames and black smoke
during July and August and part of September, till,
on the 25th of this last month, it appeared as if the
volcano Avished to parade all its forces against us,
because on that date, to the horrible rumblings and
the tremendous flames, was joined a tempest which
originated in the cloud of smoke. The lightnings
which accompanied the storm continued without in-
terruption till December 4th. It is truly marvelous
that the cloud lasted for more than two months. Over
and above this, there was from the same 25th of
September till the morning of the 26tli such a copious
rain of pumice stones that we were obliged to abandon
our homes for fear the stones would break through
the roof, as indeed happened in some houses. We
were thus compelled to flee through this hail of stones,
and some were w^ounded by the stones falling on their
heads. During that one night the ground was cov-
ered with scorise and ashes to the depth of a foot and
a half, thus destroying and drying up the trees and
plants as if a fire had passed over them.
26 THE PHILIPPINES.
"The activity of the volcano continued with short
intervals of quiet during the months of October and
^tsTovember. On the evening of the feast of All Saints
the volcano again began to vomit forth fire, stones,
sand, mnd, and ashes in a greater quantity than ever.
This went on till November 15th, on which date, after
vespers, there commenced a succession of rumblings
so loud as to deafen one, and the volcano began to
vomit forth smoke so dense and black as to darken
the atmosphere, and at the same time such a quan-
tity of large stones fell into the lake as to cause big
waves ; the earth trembled, the houses shook, and yet
this was but the preparation for a fresh rain of
scoriae and ashes which lasted the whole of the after-
noon and part of the night.
"Notwithstanding the disaster that had overtaken
us, I still remained in the said towm, together with
the chief justice of the province, till on the night of
the 27th (November) the volcano began once again to
vomit such a quantity of flames that it seemed as if all
that had been erupted during the preceding months to-
gether did not equal that which was thrown forth
during that hour.
"Every moment the violence of the volcano in-
creased so that the whole of the island (that is, the
island in the lake) was covered with fire. This in-
creasing volcanic activity, accompanied, as it was,
by frightful subterranean rumblings and earthquakes,
THE STORY OF AN ERUPTION. 27
caused the unfortunate inhabitants to abandon their
town and at any risk to gain tlie heights which rise
between it and Santuario de Caysasay.
'^Thus passed the 28th, but on the morning of the
29 th smoke was observed rising in various points
of the island from Calauit to the crater in a straight
line, just as if a fissure had been opened all along
the line. Between 4 and 6 o'clock of the same even-
ing the horizon darkened, leaving us in complete
darkness, and at the same time it began to rain mud,
ashes, and sand, and although not in such quantities
as before, yet it kept on without interruption the
whole of that night and the morning of the 30th.
^'The rain of mud ceased somewhat at 4 o'clock in
the afternoon. It then measured a meter in depth
in Santuario de Caysasay, which is distant about
four leagues from the volcano. In some places near
the island the depth of the mud, etc., reached more
than three yards. The rain of ashes completely ceased
on the 1st of December, and then a hurricane, which
lasted two days, came to put the finishing touches to
so many disasters by tearing up the little that had
been left standing."
The simple and pathetic narrative of this priest is
one of several similar stories extant of the eruptions
of this and other volcanoes; indeed this was by no
means the only experience of the kind that Father
Buenuchillo survived.
28 THE PHILIPPINES.
MAYON VOLCAXO.
With the exception of Taal, Mayon, on the east
coast of the province of Albay, is the most notable
volcano for its activity in the Archipelago. It rises
to a height of 7,916 feet in an almost perfect cone
with a slightly truncated apex, from which it con-
stantly emits smoke and steam. Doctor Becker says :
''It is possibly the most symmetrically beautiful vol-
canic cone in the world, and at times its crater is al-
most infinitesimal, so that the meridional curve of
the cone is continuous almost to the axis." Mayon
has been in eruption on countless occasions since the
discovery of the islands. Father Coronas records
nearly thirty eruptions between the years 1616 and
1897. Some of these were very serious in their con-
sequences. In 1814 about twelve hundred lives were
lost, and in many instances the towns at the base of
the volcano have suffered severely. This has not de-
terred the natives from repopulating the same spots.
At the present time sites on the southern base of
Mayon are occupied by Legaspi, Albay, and Daraga.
At the time of the Spanish conquest one of the most
numerous communities was settled in the vicinity of
Taal, and the district has always been notably popu-
lous.
Earthquakes are frequent, and have often been
very destructive, notably that of December, 1645,
which laid Manila in ruins. One of the most re-
RIVERS OF LUZON. 29
markable seismic disturbances of record began in
Xueva Yizcaya on the 3d day of January, 1881.
During that month, May, July, August, and Septem-
ber the shocks were ahnost incessant, some of the
waves extending over the entire island of Luzon.
Father Maso, the Assistant Director of the Philippine
Weather Bureau, remarks, with the satisfaction of
the scientist, that ' 'Manila is most advantageously
situated for experiencing almost all the shocks radiat-
ing from the different centers of Luzon." In a long
course of years the average of seismic disturbances
at Manila has been one a month. In the great ma-
jority of instances they have been hardly noticeable
shocks. Since the sixteenth century the capital has
been visited by thirty-two violent earthquakes. The
last destructive shock was in July, 1880, when the
city w^as considerably damaged.
The northern islands of the Archipelago are sub-
ject to violent cyclones which do immense injury to
standing crops and buildings. The destructive ef-
fects of these natural visitations are decreasing as
the people learn to adopt measures for minimizing
them, and, as in our western States, I^ature compen-
sates for occasional turbulence by her serenity and
bounteousness at other times.
EIVEKS OF LUZON.
Luzon has three rivers which greatly surpass all
others of the island in drainage basin, length, and
30 THE PHILIPPINES.
navigability ; these are the Cagayan, the Agno, and the
Pampanga.
The Cagayan, popularly called El Tajo (the in-
cision), drains one-fourth of the entire island. Ris-
ing in Caraballos Snr, at the southern boundary of
Isabela Province, it follows a northward course to
its mouth at Aparri, distant upwards of tw^o hundred
miles from its source. It is navigable for native
boats as far as one hundred and sixty miles from the
sea, and rafts may travel to within twenty miles of
its headwaters. Like most of the rivers of the Phil-
ippines, it forms a bar at its mouth which is a serious
obstruction to traffic. Vessels which are excluded by
these impediments would often find beyond them
ample water to carry them far up stream. The Ca-
gayan carries the entire produce, consisting largely
of tobacco, of the provinces of Isabela and Cagayan
to the port of Aparri. This very extensive and im-
portant traffic is fed by the contributions of the
two principal tributaries of the river, which are
navigable, one for twenty miles and the other for
forty miles from the points of juncture.
The Agno rises in the mountains of Benguet Prov-
ince. It flows through the northern portion of the
great central valley of Luzon and reaches the Gulf of
Lingayen through several mouths at important com-
mercial points, carrying a considerable burden of
produce.
The Pampanga, which is second in size to the
RIVERS OF LUZON. 31
Cagayan, has its source in the same mountain range
as the latter, and pursuing an opposite course, along
which it is joined by many branches, discharges
into Manila Bay through several channels, forming an
extensive delta.
The Pasig runs from Laguna de Bay to the Bay of
Manila, a distance of about eighteen miles. The city
of Manila is situated at the mouth of the river. The
Pasig has a considerable depth and width, and is at
all times navigable by the cascos, large native cargo
boats which carry on enormous traffic between the
city and the lake.
Hitherto the rivers of the Archipelago have been
the principal inland channels of trade, owing to the
almost total absence of railroad and the impassa-
bility of most highways during the rains. Whilst
these waterways will always afford convenient and
economical means for the movement of native pro-
duce, with the development of the islands and the
completion of projected transportation facilities much
of the traffic must be diverted to the railway ; indeed,
the path of the locomotive will necessarily conform
to the general direction of the principal rivers.
There is hardly a province of Luzon but has a
wealth of resources of varied descriptions ; many, per-
haps most, of them quite undeveloped. One may
hazard the prediction that under a liberal policy of
government and with the aid of American capital
and enterprise, this island is destined to become one of
32 THE PHILIPPINES
the most productive and prosperous regions of its
size in the world.
At present we will take only a cursory view of the
several provinces, with special regard to their eco-
nomic condition and possibilities, leaving more par-
ticular consideration of the principal resources and
industries for another portion of the volume.
CAGAYAN" AND IS ABEL A.
These provinces are the main field of tobacco cul-
tivation. The entire district is extremely fertile.
Hon. William H. Taft, writing in 1901, said: 'The
enormous capacity for development of this valley,
w^hich includes the provinces of Cagayan and Isa-
bela, can hardly be exaggerated. It is a common
thing for the natives to use their land seven or eight
months in the year for tobacco and then to derive
two successful crops of corn in the four or -^ve re-
maining months of the year. There are some very
large haciendas owned by tobacco companies, but
after Spain ceased to conduct her monopoly of the
tobacco business, she divided up much of the tobacco
land among the tenants, and there are now in both
provinces a great number of small holders working
their own land, and the great business of the valley
is tobacco buying. '^
The district is traversed by a wagon road, with an
extensive system of branches connecting the most
important towns in the provinces. This highway is
ILOCOS NORTE. 33
an integral portion of the trunk road which extends
from Aparri to Manila, taking a route which will be
followed by one of the proposed new railroads. Al-
most all the main roads of the island are paralleled
by telegraph lines.
ABRA, LEPANTO-BONTOC^ AND NUEVA VIZCAYA.
These provincial divisions comprise a region which
is in a somewhat backward condition, due largely to
physical conditions unfavorable to the successful pur-
suit of agriculture. Despite the extremely rugged
character of its surface, Abra has a considerable
area of rich alluvial soil in the valleys which yields
its scant population bountiful returns for their tillage.
The province is enclosed on every side by a barrier
of impassable mountains, and the only outlet is along
the bed of the river. The other two provinces in
this group are even less promising from an agricul-
tural outlook, but they may in the future achieve a
considerable degree of prosperity by reason of their
mineral resources. Lepanto-Bontoc is extremely rich
in copper of a high grade. At one time the mines of
Mancayan produced about five hundred tons of metal
annually.
ILOCOS N-ORTE, ILOCOS SUR AND LA UNION.
A- narrow strip along the northern portion of the
west coast encloses the above named provinces. It is
a fertile region, in which extensive crops are raised.
34 THE PHILIPPINES.
including wheat and other products of the temperate
zone. The inhabitants are amongst the most pro-
gressive and industrious in the Philippines. AMiilst
the men are engaged in agriculture, fishing, and rais-
ing live stock, which is one of the chief industries
of the section, the women are occupied in spinning and
weaving various fabrics that find an export market.
There is a highway commencing in the extreme
north and following the coast through the entire
length of these provinces. It forms a connection
with the Manila-Dagupan Raihvay and is the pro-
posed route of the extension of that line to Laoag,
the capital of Ilocos ^orte.
The progress of this, one of the most productive
districts of Luzon, was prevented by internecine war-
fare until the Spaniards brought it under subjection
in the first half of the nineteenth centurs^ In the
past fifty years its population has increased several
fold.
BENGUET.
Benguet is to the Americans in Manila what
*^the hills'' are to the English in India. The
entire area has an exceptional altitude which gives
it a climate similar to that of the northern part of
the Temperate Zone. The maximum temperature is
76° 2' F. and the minimum 46^ 4' F., giving a mean
of 62° 6' F. The scenery is beautiful and the water
excellent and abundant. The qualifications of the dis-
PANGASINAN. 35
trict for a health resort were long since appreciated
by the Commission, and it was determined to establish
a sanatariiim at Baguio. An extension of the railroad
from Dagupan will afford ready access to the place.
The crops of the Temperate Zone are successfully
cultivated here, and it is believed that the physical
conditions are especially favorable to the growth of
tea and coffee.
The province is rich in minerals. Copper mines
have been profitably worked by natives at Baguio,
Tavas, and Sudab. Gold, iron, and coal are also
found in different localites.
Oak, narra, molave, and other valuable trees are
numerous, besides extensive areas of pine.
PANGASINAN.
This is a well-watered province capable of great
development in several directions. The chief prod-
ucts are rice, sugar and wine. The building of boats
is an important industry, for which the favorable
coast and abundance of suitable wood afford excep-
tional facilities. Superior physical conditions exist
for the cultivation of indigo, chocolate, and coffee, but
little attention is paid to these profitable products
at present. The Chinese enjoy a practical monopoly
of the trade of this province. The Chinese element
has been prominent in Pangasinan, Pampanga and
Bulacan for two hundred years.
Pangasinan is rich in minerals. Its name is de-
36 THE PHILIPPINES
rived from the extensive salt deposits. The Igorrotes
of the mountains extract gold and copper by their
crude methods. Rich lodes of iron and magnetite in
a pure state are known to exist.
The only railroad at present operating in the
islands has one of its termini at Dagiipan on the
Gulf of Lingayen. The road runs through the prov-
ince of Pangasinan and continues nearly due south
to its terminal at Manila, the total length being about
125 miles.
ZAMBALES.
A somewhat backward race with turbulent tenden-
cies inhabits Zambales. Although the industrial con-
dition of the province is not promising, it offers great
opportunities for development under more favorable
circumstances. The soil is capable of yielding the
most desirable crops of the Archipelago. Copper and
coal mines are in operation at Agno and near San
Isidro. There are indications of iron in the moun-
tains of the north and in those of the south. The
forests are unusually rich in valuable woods and
gums. Amber is found in large quantities along the
coast. This is a commodity which, owing to increas-
ing scarcity, is constantly enhancing in value.
The development of this promising province was
for a long time retarded by the periodical inroads
of the Moro pirates. During the last century emi-
gration has combined with immunity from disturb-
PAMPANGA. 37
ance to produce a multiplication of more than six-
teen in the population.
BATAAN.
The province is a peninsula forming the eastern
boundary of Manila Bay. It is almost entirely cov-
ered by mountains. The chief product is rice. Build-
ing-wood and ships' timbers are exported to Manila.
There are quarries of valuable marbles in the moun-
tains and probably rich mineral deposits.
TAELAC.
Tarlac has good road and river communication be-
tween its own towns and those of the neighboring
provinces. Rice and sugar-cane are the principal
products. There are no mechanical industries with
the object of trade. The forests should be a source
of great future wealth to the province. They contain
large stands of the most valuable trees, including
narra, ipil, and molave, and the facilities for lum-
bering are exceptionally good. The province offers
no opportunities for mining, and in this respect it
resembles its neighbor, Pampanga.
PAMPANGA.
Pampanga province is in a highly prosperous con-
dition OAving to the industry of its people, the fer-
tility of its soil, and the extent of its transportation
facilities. It has good road and river communica-
38 THE PHILIPPINES.
tion and, which is of the greatest importance, it is
intersected by the raih'oad.
The delta of the Pampanga River affords a rich
area for the cultivation of rice, with the necessary
facilities for irrigation. Rice is the main crop, and
it is exported in great quantities.
The forests are disappearing as tillage extends,
and the grazing grounds, which formerly afforded
occupation to a considerable proportion of the popu-
lation, are giving out. On the other hand, the fish-
eries and mechanical industries show a marked de-
velopment in recent years. There are several hun-
dred stone mills in the province and more than six
hundred sugar factories, about one-third of them be-
ing worked by steam and hydraulic power.
NUEVA ECIJA.
Nueva Ecija is, thanks to the great productiveness
of its soil, a highly prosperous province. Seventy-
five miles of the Pampanga run within its boundaries,
wdiich also embrace more than forty distinct tribu-
taries of that river. The Pampanga and its branches
support a great trafiic in the products of this district.
There is a network of good roads in the province.
The soil is to a considerable extent alluvial and every-
where fertile. It is capable of producing any of the
staple crops of the island. In the centre of the prov-
ince is an extensive depression, subject to inundation.
This makes the best possible paddy-land, and is de-
BULACAN. 39
voted chiefly to the raising of rice, which constitutes
the principal product of the district. Of this grain
over 30,000,000 of quarts are exported annually.
Corn is raised in large quantities, and the cultivation
of tobacco and sugar receives considerable attention.
The central portion of the province contains excellent
pasture where the greater part of the cattle for the
Manila market is fed.
BUI.ACA:t3'.
Bulacan embraces the greater part of the delta of
the Pampanga. It is a highly productive and densely
populated district. The entire province, which, with
the exception of a small portion on the east, is flat
and well-watered, produces rich crops under the care-
ful cultivation of the Tagalog inhabitants.
Coal, iron, and copper exist in abundance and
amongst other minerals, gold and silver are found.
The mountains are covered with trees of commercial
value, including some of the species most prized by
the cabinet-maker.
The great vegetable and mineral wealth of Bula-
can is supplemented by ample transportation facili-
ties. It has communication with Manila by road,
rail, and steamer. Most of the rivers are navigable
by the native cargo boats, and good wagon roads con-
nect it with the adjacent provinces.
Bulacan has an extensive industry in the manufac-
ture of fabrics. Its plna cloth has a world-wide
40 THE PHILIPPINES.
reputation. The fibre from which it is produced is
extracted from the leaf of the pineapple. It is woven
into a very beautiful silk-like textile which commands
a high price in the Philippines and is finding favor
in Europe.
Bulacan and Pampanga have been prosperous prov-
inces since early times. Father Zuniga, one hundred
years ago, foimd their rivers laden with the produce
of the countryside which reached Manila by way of
the bay.
A consolidation of the former province of Manila,
excluding the capital city, and the district of Morong,
has formed the new province of Rizal. The princi-
pal products of the land are rice, sugar-cane, com,
and tobacco. The chief industries are the manufac-
ture of lime, rush mats, and native clothing, and
sugar-making, and quarrying. The proAance has, of
course, exceptional facilities for the distribution of
its output.
LAGUNA.
The province extends along the east and south
shores of Laguna de Bay, from which it derives its
name. It has an extensive river system which thor-
oughly irrigates the whole of its area. The highways
of the province are good and it has convenient and
economical communication with Manila from vari-
ous points on the lake via the Pasig River.
CAVITE. 41
Laguna is a populous and prosperous province. Its
soil and climate favor the growth of all the tropical
plants of the Archipelago. An exceptionally large
proportion — probably as much as one-fourth — of its
land area is under cultivation. The staple products
are sugar-cane, rice, corn, cotton, cocoanuts, tobacco,
indigo, and various vegetables. Fruits in great variety
and quantity are raised and their shipment to Manila
constitutes an important element of the trade of La-
guna. The raising of live-stock is also an industry of
consequence. There are several hundred factories en-
gaged in the extraction of oil and the distillation of
wine from the cocoanut. Amongst other industries,
the manufacture of holos and of furniture deserve
mention.
Laguna has no considerable endowment of mineral
or forest resources, but its busy population will al-
ways find ample scope for their industry in agricul-
tural pursuits.
CAVITE.
Cavite gains a great deal of importance from the
fact that its capital, the town of the same name, is
the naval headquarters of the Philippines. The inlet
upon which it stands affords the best anchorage in
the Bay of Manila and is the refuge of ships during
severe storms.
The province has a frontage of thirty miles along
the bay. The inhabitants of the littoral are engaged
42 THE PHILIPPINES.
in the extensive cultivation of rice, in fisheries, and
in the manufacture of salt. The output of all these
industries is exported to Manila. Rice and sugar
are extensively grown in the interior, where pastoral
pursuits also engage a large number of the people.
BATAN^GAS.
Batangas has three or four excellent harbors and
a good system of roads, many of which, hoAvever, are,
owing to the preponderance of clay in the soil, im-
passable for wagons in the rainy season. The prov-
ince contains more towns of a considerable population
than any other province in the islands. This district
is one of the most fertile and well-developed in
Luzon. The output of coffee and sugar is very large.
Rice, hemp, chocolate, and other products of agricul-
ture help to swell an important export trade. Live
stock is also raised extensively, the Batangas breed
of horses being widely celebrated. At various points
in the province are mineral springs whose waters
have remarkable curative properties and are found
to be efficacious in a great variety of diseases.
Abundance of commercial timber stands in the
mountainous districts, and the facilities for market-
ing it are unusually good. This is but one of several
fields which Batangas offers for the profitable invest-
ment of capital.
The population — almost entirely Tagalog — is civ-
ilized, progressive, and industrious. Every hut con-
TAYABAS. 43
tains one or two looms, from which the women turn
off a variety of fabrics of the finest texture and the
"brightest hues.
TAYABAS.
By act of the Philippine Commission, 1902, the
long and narrow strip along the east coast compos-
ing the districts of Principe and Infanta, and in-
cluding the island of Polillo, was annexed to, and
incorporated ^vith, the province of Tayabas. The
attached region is in great part mountainous wilder-
ness, extensive portions, particularly in Principe, be-
ing impenetrable. Its meagre population — averag-
ing about one to the square mile — consisting of wild
or semi-civilized tribes, subsist mainly by fishing and
hunting. In the vicinity of the five or six small
towns agriculture of a primitive sort occupies a few
of the inhabitants. The people of this region have
made no increase in numbers and hardly any progress
toward civilization in the centuries which have
elapsed since the Spaniards first landed upon Luzon.
The earliest accounts of this Pacific coast and its
inhabitants might almost serve for a description of
to-day. Coal is found in the Island of Polillo, but
owning to the difiiculties of transportation it is not
mined. The forests abound in a varietv of timber
of economic value, and there is good ground for the
belief that the mountains are rich in mineral deposits,
but the difficulty of marketing any products will
44 THE PHILIPPINES.
prove a hindrance to the development of the district
for many years to come.
Tayabas proper has a very mountainous surface.
Its coast-line affords good anchorage at several points,
and the province is in water communication with all
the ports of the x\rchipelago.
Tayabas is traversed by the great highway and
telegraph line wdiich, commencing at Sorsogon in
the southeast of Luzon, passes through the provincial
capitals, Albay, E^ueva Caceres, Lucena, Santa Cruz,
and so to Manila.
N^otwithstanding the rugged character of its area,
Tayabas affords its inhabitants ample opportunity
for the pursuit of agriculture. The mountain ranges
slope to the coast in well-watered terraces, whose fer-
tile soil yields large crops of rice, sugar cane, and
coffee. Lumbang is a specialty of the district. It
is a seed from which a peculiarly oleaginous sub-
stance is obtained.
The forests contain a great variety of useful hard-
woods as well as Avax, gums, and resinous substances,
in w4iich there is an important export trade to foreign
countries.
Indications of coal have been marked in various
parts of the province. The island of Alabat, off the
north coast, contains veins of excellent coal in the
vicinity of Sanguinin on its northwest side. The
facilities for shipping should make mining at this
spot an attractive proposition.
AMBOS CAMARINES. 45
The people manufacture a great variety of useful
articles for export and several kinds of native
fabrics. The towns along the shore of Tayabas Bay
have boat-building yards from which cascos, paraos,
and other kinds of native craft are turned out.
AMBOS CAMAEIlSrES.
Ambos Camarines has several fine roads connecting
the principal towns and marts of commerce. The pro-
jected new railroad system of the Philippines in-
cludes a line to run from Nueva Caceres, the capital
of the province, to the towm of Albay, with a branch
from each point to the coast. Within a radius of
ten miles from the capital are eleven towns of im-
portance, between which communication is main-
tained by means of excellent highways. The Bicol
River, by reason of its superior navigability, is one
of the most important inland waterways of Luzon.
Steamers drawing eleven feet may go up to ^ueva
Caceres, twenty-five miles from the ocean. Steam
vessels of the lightest draft may go as far as the
head of Lake Bato, seventy miles from the mouth,
whilst, at certain seasons, native boats can penetrate
to Polangui, in the province of Albay.
Ambos Camarines contains extensive areas of fer-
tle land, from which are produced an excellent quality
of rice, chocolate superior to that of the Moluccas,
and sugar cane. The peninsula south of and includ-
ing; this province is one of the principal hemp dis-
46 THE PHILIPPINES.
tricts of the Archipelago. Large quantities of the
fibre are exported from Ambos Camarines, whilst a
considerable amount is consumed by the local looms,
which convert it into sinamay and guimaras.
A variety of mechanical industries afford employ-
ment to a large proportion of the inhabitants. There
are numerous sugar mills, hemp presses, refineries,
and distilleries, besides the factories of metal workers
and tool makers.
The forests are particularly rich in woods of great
utility, and the by-products, such as resin, pitch, and
wax, are numerous and abundant.
Ambos Camarines is regarded as one of the most
important auriferous regions in the Philippines.
Gold, silver, iron, lead, and copper are worked on
the north coast. Mr. Drasche, a well-known German
geologist, has reported rich quartz veins at Mambulao,
which, at the time of his inspection, in 1875, were
being worked by seven hundred natives. At Para-
cale there are parallel quartz veins in granite, one
twenty feet in width, the ore from which assays thirty-
eight ounces to the ton. Quicksilver is found at Isa-
rog and coal near Caramuan. In the vicinity of
Daet, on the northern coast, are several gold mines.
Near Sogod is an extensive layer of coal similar to
the Australian product. In the southern part of the
province there are mines of pit coal and quarries of
marble and gypsum.
ALBAY. 47
The continuation of the peninsula to the south
forms the province of Albay. In general the dis-
trict is rugged and volcanic. Xear its east coast
Majon rises in solitary beauty from an extensive
plain. Albay has numerous waterways and good
roads forming connections between all the important
towns and villages. Legaspi and Tabaco are ports of
entry from which the immense hemp output of the
province is shipped to Manila. An idea of the ex-
tent of this trade may be conveyed by the statement
that at Legaspi alone $1,000,000 changes hands every
thirty days. The surface of Albay is admirably
adapted to the cultivation of hemp, or abaca, as it is
called in the islands. The plant thrives on mountain-
ous slopes where it may get plenty of moisture with
good drainage, ample shade, and a fertile soil. Albay
contributes about one-fourth of the total hemp export
of the Philippines, the value of Avhich in the last
twelve years has averaged upwards of $18,000,000.
In addition, a considerable quantity of the product
is devoted to home consumption in the manufacture
of fabrics, cordage, etc.
PEOSPEKITY OF ALBAY.
The production of oil from the cocoanut is an im-
portant industry.
As an index to the prosperity of Albay and the
two contiguous provinces it may be stated that their
population has increased more than seventeenfold in
48 THE PHILIPPINES.
the past two liimdred and fifty years. The hemp
trade has been a predominating factor in this increase.
ISTative boats, inchiding sails, rigging, etc., are
made in the coast towns. A great number of the craft
are engaged in the coastwise trade, carrying hemp
from the numerous villages along the shore to the sea-
ports, where it is baled and shipped.
Coal mining is carried on to a considerable extent,
and there are indications of gold, silver, and iron in
commercial quantities amongst the summits of the
eastern coast-range.
The forests contain great stands of valuable trees,
but they may be only sparingly felled, since extensive
shade is essential to the successful cultivation of the
hemp plant.
SOESOGON.
Sorsogon, the southernmost district of Luzon, is
particularly favored in the matter of good harbors.
That in which the port of Sorsogon stands is one
of the best in the Archipelago. The shores of this
gulf are w^ell cultivated and populous, and a large
traffic is carried on by water between its towns.
The population of the province is largely engaged
in the hemp industry, and in the production of copra,
the dried meat of the cocoanut, from which the oil is
expressed. Both of these commodities are shipped in
great quantities.
The presence of abandoned mines of gold, silver.
RAILROAD EXTENSION. 49
iron, and coal, indicate extensive workings in former
times, and it is believed that the operations might
be resumed with profit.
EAILKOAD EXTEIi^SIOlSr.
The commercial development of the Archipelago
and the general welfare of its people will be greatly
advanced by the extensive railroad system, for the
construction and operation of which contracts were
made by the Philippine Commission in 1905. The
immediate effect will be to double, and treble, the
commerce of certain sections where almost limitless
products need only transportation facilities to find
ready markets.
In Luzon it is proposed to extend the Manila-Dagu-
pan line northward along the coast to Laoag. A
branch will run from San Fabian, near Dagupan,
to Baguio, the capital of Benguet province, and the
site of the government sanatarium. Southward from
Manila the line will be prolonged to the town of Ba-
tangas. This extension will skirt the west shore of
Laguna de Bay, and a branch will continue round
the southern end of the lake to Santa Cruz. Another
branch will connect Lipa, Batangas province, with
Lucena, on Tayabas Bay.
The portion of the system destined to traverse the
hemp belt of the southeastern peninsula has already
been mentioned.
50 THE PHILIPPINES.
MARINDUQUE.
Marinduque, although less than seven hundred
square miles in extent, is an island of considerable
commercial importance. It is almost circular in
shape and has the prevailing mountainous character-
istics. The greater part of its population of about
60,000 Tagalogs is found in the to^^Tis, of which Boac,
the capital, is the largest and most important in every
respect. The island has a large export trade^ es-
pecially in rice, copra, and hemp. Marinduque has
excellent facilities for stock raising, and that indus-
try is pursued to a moderate extent. The island is
distant only ten miles from the mainland of Luzon.
THE ISEAK^D OF MINDOEO.
Mindoro lies immediately south of the province of
Batangas. It is one hundred miles long by sixty at
its broadest part, and has an area of about 3,500
square miles. Its mountain range nuis through the
middle of the island and traverses its entire length.
In Mt. Ilalcon the range attains an elevation of 8,800
feet. The island is, for the most part, covered with
forests of useful trees. The valleys, copiously watered
by exceptionally great rainfall and numerous streams,
contain extensive stretches of the best kind of graz-
ing land. The central portion of the island is a large
plain of this description. There are a few civilized
settlements on the coast, but the inland districts are
MASBATE. 51
inhabited by the wild tribe of Manguianes, or
"savage mountaineers/'
Mindoro has extensive stretches of highly fertile
coast land that are unoccupied save for a little ham-
let here and there. This is due to the fact that dur-
ing many generations the island was ravaged by the
Moro pirates, who at the beginning of the nine-
teenth century had almost depopulated it.
THE VISAYAN GEOUP MASBATE.
Masbate, with its dependent islands, form the north-
ernmost province of the Visayas. The island occupies
a position in the latitudinal center of the Archipelago,
and about eighty miles east of the axis of longitude.
The surface of Masbate is very broken and moun-
tainous, but in tha w^est and southeast portions there
are extensive and well-watered grazing grounds.
There are several good harbors and a number of
streams of considerable size.
The staple products are cotton, chocolate, sugar-
cane and hemp. The island has long been famous
for its herds of cattle and for its horses and hogs.
The grazing industry has increased largely since
the American occupation, but Masbate, like almost
every other island of the Archipelago, suffered se-
verely from the recent visitation of rinderpest, for-
mally the island will ship in the course of a year from
twelve to fifteen thousand head of cattle to Manila, be-
sides supplying other parts of Luzon and Negros with
52 THE PHILIPPINES.
numeroiTS carahao. An important industry is the
manufacture of sugar sacks and palm mats for export.
Numbers of the inhabitants are engaged in collecting
the by-products of the forests, in fishing, hunting, and
weaving. A fine quality of lignite is found upon
the island, and gold is washed from the sands of the
rivers.
SAMAR.
Samar, the chief of the Visayan Group, is the third
in size of the islands of the Archipelago, having an
area of 5,000 square miles. It lies about ten miles
off Sorsogon, from which it is separated by the Strait
of San Bernardino. The island has a very irregular
surface, but there are no great elevations. The coast
line is extremely broken and is fringed with islets and
reefs, making approach difiicult, especially upon the
eastern side. Samar has several rivers of considerable
length, but they are all very shallow and beset with
rocky obstructions, so that navigation is limited to
native boats. In connection with the present railway
improvements, a line will be constructed to cross the
island from Paranas, about midway of the west
coast, to San Julian, almost directly opposite, upon
the east coast. Physical and climatic conditions in
Samar are favorable to the production of all the
staple crops of the Archipelago. The output of hemp,
sugar, rice, and copra is very large. The island is
said to be rich in coal and other minerals, but the
BOHOL. 53
hostility of the natives in the interior has hitherto
been a bar to satisfactory exploration.
LEYTE.
Leyte belongs to the Visayas and is situated to the
southwest of Samar, from which it is separated by
less than half a mile of water. Its length is one hun-
dred and twenty miles and its utmost breadth fifty
miles. The greater part of the island is broken up
by groups of mountains and volcanic cones. One
continuous range of hills traverses its entire length.
Leyte has several fine bays and harbors, and three or
four rivers of commercial consequence, including the
Binahaan, which permits of cascos going up to Da-
gami, an important town, fifteen miles from the coast.
The railroad is planned to extend from Tacloban,
on the northeast coast, to Casigara, upon the bay of
that name ; in a southerly direction the line will run
from Tacloban to the town of Abuyog.
The population of about 300,000 consists of Visay-
ans almost exclusively, and their language is the cur-
rent dialect. Leyte is one of the most highly culti-
vated of the Philippine Islands. The chief product
is hemp, of which the quality is excellent. Sugar
and live stock are important exports from the island.
BOHOL.
Bohol, of the Visayas, lies between Leyte and Cebu.
It has a length from east to west of about sixty miles
64 THE PHILIPPINES.
and a breadth of about forty miles. Xowhere are
there any great elevations. The southern half of the
island is hilly, but in the north the land is level, or
undulating, seldom reaching a height of one thousand
feet. The outline of Bohol is unusually simple,
but the northern and eastern coasts are rendered diffi-
cult of approach by reefs. The island is without a
harbor of consequence. There are four or five rivers
in Bohol that are navigable by large native cargo
boats. The population is notable for its industry.
The soil is not particularly favorable to agriculture,
but a large quantity of vegetable produce is raised
by careful tillage. The chief mechanical industries
are the weaving of textiles from cotton and pineapple
fibre.
CEBU.
Cebu occupies a central position amongst the south-
ern members of the Visayan Islands. It is a narrow
strip of land, one hundred and forty miles in length,
lying between Bohol and JSTegros. The Cordillera
Central range of mountains runs the entire length
of the island and bisects it in almost equal parts.
Whilst this range nowhere attains an altitude much
in excess of two thousand feet, it is difficult of passage
and forms a serious obstacle to communication be-
tween the coasts. Its entire length only affords about
half a dozen easy cross routes.
Cebu has no navigable rivers. Its appropriation
A Vtv^wax Family.
This is the family of an educated and wealthy
Visayo. The type differs very little from the Tagal
of the same class. The picture affords excellent illus-
trations of the native costume.
From Stereojjraph Copyriorht. hv Underwood & Underwood. Xcw VaiW.
NEGROS. 55
in the new railroad system contemplates a line run-
ning north from the city of Cebu to Danao on the
east coast, and south from Cebu to Argao on the
same coast. In addition there may be constructed a
line across the island from Carcar, or Sibonga, to
the west coast, and thence along the coast betweea
Dumanjug and Barili.
The province, which embraces a few small adjacent
islands, is the most populous in the Archipelago,
having 600,000 inhabitants: that is, 337 to the square
mile, a density unapproached by any other of the
Philippine Islands, which have an average of sixty-
seven to the square mile. The city and port of
Cebu has an excellent harbor. It is, next to Manila
and Iloilo, the largest municipality in the islands.
Cebu exports hemp, sugar, and copra in large quanti-
ties and raises a great deal of rice, mainly for local
consumption. The principal manufactures are sugar,
salt, pottery, sacks, and various fibre fabrics.
NEGEOS.
Negros, one of the Visayas, is situated between
Cebu and Panay. It is nearly as large as Samar
and in form somewhat resembles Leyte. A con-
tinuous mountain range, embracing several peaks
exceeding six thousand feet in height, traverses the
island from end to end. Negros is almost entirely
encircled by a broad belt of coast land, which is par-
ticularly well adapted to sugar raising. This is the
56 THE PHILIPPINES.
principal seat of that industry in the Philippines. It
has been carried on here for forty years. Steam and
hydraulic machinery is used in the process of extrac-
tion. The fisheries are an important element in the
industries of the island.
I^egros is deficient of good harbors, and most of its
rivers are navigable only by lorclias, but the Pasig
and Danao admit vessels drawing ten feet of water
to a distance of ten miles from their mouths. The
railroad will run from the harbor of Escalante, on
the northeast coast, westerly, following the coast line
to Himamailan.
PANAY.
Panay, the westernmost island of the Visayan
group, has the shape of a rough isosceles triangle
with its apex pointing in a southwesterly direction.
Its equilateral lengths are one hundred miles and its
base seventy-five miles. In area it is not far short
of ^N^egros and Samar. A range of mountains runs
along the entire w^est coast and, from a point about
midway, throws out a spur w^hich traverses the island,
terminating in the northeast corner. The eastern
half of Panay contains large reaches of level and fer-
tile land, intersected by numerous streams. None of
the rivers of the island will accommodate any but
the lightest craft. There are, however, many fine
roads running coastwise between important trade cen-
ters, but, owing to the difficulty of crossing the moun-
PANAY. 57
tains in the interior, communication between the
provinces is carried on solely by sea. Panay is one
of the most populous of all the islands, its inhabitants
numbering in the neighborhood of 800,000. It has
several large towns and three important cities,
namely, Antique, Capiz and Iloilo. The last ranks
next to Manila amongst the commercial centers of the
Philippines. It has a good harbor, and vessels draw-
ing fifteen feet of water may safely approach the city
at all seasons. The staple products are sugar-cane,
rice, and copra. In 1892 the shipments of sugar
from this island aggregated the enormous amount of
354,934,482 pounds. In recent years the production
has fallen off more than fifty per cent., owing mainly
to a decreased foreign demand.
A large portion of Panay is exceptionally fine
grass-land, on which live stock, chiefly carabao, is
raised in large numbers. The horses of Iloilo
are famed throughout the islands and are in constant
demand.
The mechanical industries are important. The ex-
ports include the best quality of pina cloth, silk, cot-
ton, hemp and other fabrics. The province of An-
tique in particular is celebrated for the quality and
quantity of its textile manufactures, which give em-
ployment at the looms to upwards of twelve thousand
women. Panay was noted for its beautiful homespun
fabrics one hundred years and more ago.
The projected railway will consist of a line running
58 THE PHILIPPINES.
in a northeasterly direction from Iloilo and forking to
the towns of Capiz and Bataan.
The island has exceptionally great mineral re-
sources, but they have not been scientifically worked.
Deposits of quicksilver, gold, iron, and copper, are
known to exist. There are indications of coal in sev-
eral localities. Fine marbles, and a beautiful variety
of tonalite, are quarried. Veins of gypsum and marl
have been located, and petroleum and natural gas are
reported.
PAKAGUA.
Paragua, or Palawan, stretches 275 miles north-
west and southwest with a maximum width of twenty-
five miles. It is inhabited almost entirely by wild
tribes. It has no trade of consequence and hardly a
town worthy of the name. The industries consist
mainly of stock-raising and weaving of cloth for local
use. The island contains a fair proportion of fertile
land and some good grazing grounds. The forests
abound in very valuable woods, and the physical con-
ditions would be favorable to lumber operations by
improved methods.
MINDANAO.
Mindanao approximates to Luzon in size, but with
a greatly differing shape. The surface formation of
the island is very irregular and diversified. A range
of mountains skirts the whole of the east coast. Min-
MINDANAO. 59
danao, like Luzon, contains two large valleys. That
of the Agusan lies to the west of the eastern mountain
range, from which the great Agusan river receives
its supplies as it flows northward over a course of 240
miles to its mouth in Butuan Bay. Vessels with a
six-foot draft may navigate the Agusan to a distance
of tw^enty miles from its outlet, and light native
craft go much farther. The river has several strong
tributaries, some of which are of great utility to
the natives as channels of traffic. The Agusan in
its upper course drains Lake Lanao, the surface of
which is 2,200 feet above sea level. On the south
its shore rises abruptly to a plateau nearly one thou-
sand feet above the lake. Several detached extinct
volcanoes rise to heights varying from one to two thou-
sand feet above the plateau. The lake is almost sur-
rounded by mountains. The valley of the Agusan has
a breadth of from forty to fifty miles, and is bounded
on the west by a succession of ranges traversing the
entire length of the island through its center and
dividing its two great plains. These ranges are fre-
quently broken, presenting many low and easy passes.
The Rio Grande de Mindanao is the first river in
length of the Archipelago. It rises in the northern
part of the island, and after passing through the
valley, to which it gives its name, discharges into the
Bay of Illana, distant three hundred miles from its
headwaters. It is navigable for small steamers as
far as Lake Liguasan, a distance of about thirty
60 THE ^PHILIPPINES.
miles, and for boats drawing three and a half feet
of water for fifteen miles higher. By blasting the
rocks with which its bed is beset, a much more exten-
sive channel would be freed to commerce. With the
development of the island such an undertaking may
prove of economic advantage, for the course of
the stream is through a region rich in forest products,
including rubber and gutta percha.
The coast of Mindanao is not intricately indented
like those of most of the Philippine Islands. Al-
though it has several large bays, penetrating far
inland, there are few good harbors.
A range of mountains hugs the southern shores of
the Zamboanga peninsula, and is continued in de-
tached spurs along the coast to the Gulf of Davao.
About thirty miles to the west of the port of Davao
stands Apo volcano, the highest peak in the Archi-.
pelago. Its summit rises 10,311 feet above the level
of the sea. ^'Looking at the volcano from Davao,
or Samal, on a cloudless morning, there may be seen
distinctly a wide space with small cones of sulphur,
from which burst forth intermittent eruptions of
white sulphurous vapors. This is a magnificent spec-
tacle when, at sunrise, the sulphur mantle and cones
are shining, and there then appears a sudden jet of
vapors sometimes growing and growling until the
white, fine cloud covers the whole spot, and even the
summit of the volcano. Though Apo is well kno^vn
to be active, there is no record of its eruptions.
MINDANAO. 61
The Apo volcano-seismic center is one of the most
active of the Archipelago; small seismic shocks are
felt weekly if not daily ; very often a rumbling sound
precedes the stronger shocks."
With the exception of Mindoro and Paragua, Min-
danao is the most sparsely settled of all the principal
islands. It has a population of about half a million,
which gives only about fourteen to the square mile.
The towns are mainly situated upon the coast, and
the banks of the larger rivers and great inland lakes.
A considerable portion of Mindanao is teri^a incognita,
and it is believed that extensive areas are practically
uninhabited.
Development might transform Mindanao into one
of the wealthiest islands of the Archipelago. There
is reason to believe that it contains rich deposits of
gold and other valuable minerals. Its forests abound
in the most desirable hardwoods, and its vegetable
products only need exploitation to exceed those of
any other island in the Philippines. Mindanao has
the peculiar advantage of producing spices of several
varieties and in great quantities. Live stock is raised
extensively, but the production of chief commercial
value is hemp, in the output of which the island ranks
fifth amongst the various hemp sections of the Archi-
pelago. Except in a limited way, for local purposes,
the mechanical industries are not prosecuted in Min-
danao.
62 THE PHILIPPINES.
SULU.
Sulu, or Jolo, is the chief island of the group of
that name. It lies to the southwest of Mindanao.
Sulu has a commercial and political importance quite
incommensurate with its insignificant area. The
scenery of the island is extremely beautiful, and it
has a splendid climate. The soil is highly fertile
and the greater proportion of the inhabitants are en-
gaged in agriculture. There is a large extent of vir-
gin forest composed mainly of trees of commercial
value. There is some trade in the shipment of choice
cabinet woods, but the chief exports are oyster pearls
and mother-of-pearl shell.
TAWI TAWI.
This group of more than one hundred and fifty
islands has an aggregate area of only 358 square
miles. The principal island, Taw^i Tawi, is 232
square miles in extent. The group forms part of the
Sulu Archipelago. After the treaty of cession of the
Philippine Islands had been made it was discovered
that these islands lay six miles beyond the boundary
limits. They were acquired by special convention
and the payment of an extra gratuity to Spain.
The inhabitants number less than twelve hundred.
They are Moros, with no industries other than those
of the simplest domestic character. During many
centuries these islands have been a favorite resort of
Malayan pirates.
FAUNA, 63
The fauna of the Philippines, whilst in general re-
sembling that of the neighboring Malayan islands,
shows some marked differences from them. Borneo
and Java have many more species than are to be
found in the Philippines, which have but three repre-
sentatives of the carnivora, but six species of deer,
and only two of the monkey tribe. Rodents are
scarce, but there are at least thirty varieties of bats.
ANIMAL LIFE.
The carahao, few of which remain in a wild state,
and the timarau, or antelope buffalo, are the only
large mammals. The distribution of the fauna of
the Archipelago is very remarkable. There are
numerous species of animals which are found only
in restricted localities. The timarau is peculiar to
Mindoro. Porcupines are known only in Paragua
and the Calamianes Islands. These two divisions
also possess a number of birds which are not to be
found elsewhere in the Philippines, although they are
similar to Borneon species. The island of Balabac
is the habitat of a curious animal little larger than a
cat, but which in form is exactly like a doe.* Luzon
contains 286 species of birds, 51 of which are not
known in any other island. In Cebu, despite its
proximity to Bohol on one side and to I^egros on the
♦The Traouliis Ranchil. It is also found in Malacca and
in Cochin China. Vide, Lucon et Palaouah, par Alfred
Alarche, Paris, 1887.
64 THE PHILIPPINES.
other, there are nine species of birds not found else-
where. Upwards of three hundred species of land
birds exist in the Philippines. These include such
game birds as duck, geese, snipe, plover, and quail.
Crocodiles, snakes, and lizards are numerous and
widely distributed. There is a small, chirping lizard
which makes its home in the walls of houses and is
regarded with a sort of superstitious favor by the
natives. Pythons are to be found in many localities
and are said to attain a length of forty feet.
Whilst there are a great variety of insects, some of
them exceedingly beautiful, insect life is not abundant
numerically. There are comparatively few house
flies, and, except about the marshy coast lands, mos-
quitoes are nothing like the pest they become in most
East Indian countries.
The waters of the Archipelago harbor abundance
of fish of various species, which form an important
factor in the domestic economy of the natives.
FLORA.
In general the flora resemble those of Borneo, Su-
matra, and Java. The principal features of the flora
in their commercial aspects will be described else-
where in connection with commerce and agriculture.
The forests of the Archipelago are of enormous ex-
tent and their product of incalculable value. Under
conservative regulations, if these are not made so
stringent as to discourage the investment of capital
VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 65
in lumber operations, the products of the forests
should prove to be one of the chief factors in the pros-
perity of the country. The Philippine Forestry
Bureau reports 750 different kinds of wood brought
to market during the year 1902, but this is probably
far from representing the number of species avail-
able for industrial purposes and domestic use under
favorable conditions of operation. Under the Span-
iards no scientific exploration of the forests was at-
tempted. For some time past the Insular Forestry
Bureau, under Captain G. P. Ahern, has been en-
gaged in a systematic survey of the forest lands and
a careful examination of species by experts. Climatic
and other considerations are such that but for the
interference of man these islands would be practically
covered with trees, even up to the higher slopes of the
mountains. As it is, tw^o-thirds of the area of the
Archipelago is occupied by almost virgin forest, the
cleared regions being in the main centers of popula-
tion, such as the coast districts and the great valleys
of Luzon and Mindanao.
VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF COMMEECIAL VALUE.
The principal vegetable products, in the order of
their commercial importance, are abaca (hemp), to-
bacco, sugar, copra, coffee, and rice.
The chief hemp districts are the southeastern prov-
inces of Luzon, the islands of Catanduanes, Samar, and
Leyte. Abaca is practically a monopoly of the Philip-
66 THE PHILIPPINES.
pines, for despite several efforts in different regions,
this plant has not been successfully grown elsewhere.
The main tobacco district is the valley of the
Cagayan, in which an excellent variety of leaf is
raised. It is believed by connoisseurs, familiar with
the Cnban product, that with improved methods of
cultivation, curing, etc., the Philippine leaf would
compare favorably with any in the w^orld, excepting,
perhaps, the output of the Yuelta Aba jo district of
Cuba. Upwards of 20,000,000 pounds of leaf are
shipped annually, most of it to Spain, and over 100,-
000,000 cigars. These go chiefly to China, Japan,
and the East Indies.
Sugar is produced in many provinces, but particu-
larly in Pampanga, of Luzon, and the island of Ne-
gros. The cane is raised in a very haphazard fash-
ion, and the greater part of the product is extracted
by the crudest methods. Nevertheless, the export
averages about 200,000,000 pounds a year. The pos-
sibilities for an extension of this trade under more
favorable conditions are very great.
Copra, the dried kernel of the cocoanut, is shipped
in large quantities to Prance and other countries,
where oil is expressed from it. Probably there is no
vegetable product in the island the cultivation of
w^hich might be developed with greater profit. It is
one of the few products which enjoy a commercial
demand constantly equal to the entire supply. At
present the industry is carried on in the most waste-
VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 67
ful and unintelligent manner and profits are allowed
to accrue to the foreign manufacturer wliich should
be retained by the cultivator.
Coffee is grown in the provinces of Batangas, La-
guna, Tayabas, and Cavite, of Luzon, and in parts of
Mindanao. The Philippine article compares favor-
ably with the products of Mocha and Java. At one
time the annual crop amounted to about 14,000,000
pounds, but in recent years it has greatly diminished,
owing to the destruction of the plants by a parasitic
insect.
Palay, or rice, of a good quality may be raised in
most of the provinces of the islands. It is the chief
food of the natives, who annually consume a quan-
tity greatly in excess of what is produced in the
islands. The fact has not necessarily an unfavorable
economic significance. In many districts, as for
instance in the hemp provinces, the inhabitants can
devote their land and energies to the production of a
more valuable crop. Still, it cannot be denied that
the Philippines should import less and raise more of
this staple. There was a time when rice was a great
article of export from Manila.
The other vegetable products of note are chocolate,
corn, w^heat, indigo, sesame, peanuts, and many varie-
ties of garden vegetables.
In Mindanao and Paragua cinnamon, nutmegs,
cloves, mace and other spices grow, and there is a
large field for the extension of their cultivation.
68 THE PHILIPPINES.
The tea plant thrives in certain localities, and it
is believed that the camphor tree might be introduced
v^ith success.
MINERALS.
There can be no doubt about the mineral wealth
of the Philippines. It is probable that each island,
and indeed almost every province, has rich deposits
of one kind or another. Mining operations have never
been sufficiently extensive to afford a satisfactory cri-
terion of the profitability of that industry. There is
sound ground, however, for the belief that with the
increased working and transportation facilities that
will soon be available the development of the mineral
resources of the islands will yield large returns to
investors.
Coal in varying quality, from excellent to worthless,
underlies a great part of the islands, deposits having
been discovered in many provinces. Gold is distrib-
uted over a large area and in some sections it has been
worked from prehistoric times. It was doubtless ex-
changed with the earliest traders, for the Chinese had
a tradition that a mountain of the precious metal ex-
isted in Luzon. Rich veins of copper have been dis-
covered and worked to a very limited extent and in a
primitive fashion. Iron is abundant on several of the
islands, and natives have worked it in a crude man-
ner into ploughshares and other implements. Lead,
silver and other valuable metals are kno^Mi to exist in
CLIMATE. 69
various widely-distributed localities, but the scientific
exploration of tlie mineral resources is only just
beginning imder the direction of the United States
Geological Survey and that of the Mining Bureau of
the Philippine government.
CLIMATE.
The entire Philippine Archipelago lies within the
Torrid Zone. Its climate therefore is in general
tropical, but there are portions of the island to which
the statement cannot be strictly applied. Not only
are there great climatic differences amongst the vari-
ous islands, but in those of the larger class the cli-
matological conditions of the eastern coasts are dis-
tinctly different from those in the interior and on
the western coasts of the same islands. Such is the
case in Luzon, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, Panay, and
Mindoro — more particularly in the last three — and
other islands whose greatest length similarly extends
from east to w^est.
The year is popularly divided into three seasons:
(1) E^ovember, December, Ja]iuary, and February,
when it is dry and temperate, the monthly mean tem-
perature oscillating between 25 C. and 26.5 C. ;
(2) March, April, May, and June, the hottest period
of the year, the monthly mean ranging from 27.5 C.
to 28.5 C. ; (3) July, August, September, and Octo-
ber, which is an intermediate period, the mean fluc-
tuating between 26.5 C. and 27.5 C.
70 THE PHILIPPINES.
The climate is a perpetual summer, with a tempera-
ture varying but little. There is a great deal of
humidity, stimulating to vegetable life, but enervat-
ing to human beings. It rains on an average two
hundred days in the year. The mean heat in Luzon
is about 81° Fahrenheit. The rainy season lasts for
about six months, beginning the middle of April in the
greater part of the islands, but on the coasts washed
by the Pacific, the order of the wet and dry seasons is
reversed. In general the hottest period is during the
months of March, April, and May, except on the
Pacific littoral, where the greatest heat is experienced
during June, July, and August.
The thermal map of the Archipelago supports the
following classification, omitting notice of localities
which are necessarily affected by unusual altitude :
First. Pegions of high temperature. The great
valley of the Cagayan ; the west coast as far south
as the Bay of Manila ; the plains of Pangasinan ;
the eastern portion of Tarlac and the western part
of i^ueva Ecija; the lowlands of Pampanga and
Bulacan; the northern coast of Tayabas and Am-
bos Camarines; the entire southeastern peninsula,
with the exception of Sorsogon ; the northern part
of the Island of Panay.
Second. Pegions of intermediate temperature.
That portion of the province of Pampanga that bor-
ders upon Zambales, and Bataan ; the uplands of Bula-
can ; the province of Rizal ; the northern and eastern
CLIMATE. 71
sections of Bataan ; Manila, and its eastern vicinage ;
the west coasts of Samar, ISTegros, Panay, and Boliol ;
the island of Cebn, and tlie peninsula of Zamboanga.
Third. Regions of mild temperature. The east
coast of the province of Sorsogon; the greater part
of the eastern Visayas (Samar, Leyte and the ad-
jacent islands) ; the peninsula of Surigao ; the east
coast of Mindanao; the entire Sulu Archipelago.
THE INHABITANTS.
11.
THE INHABITANTS.
Negrito Characteristics — Tlie Malays at Home — ISIalay Inva-
sion of tlie Philippines — Early Malay Occnpation — Le-
gaspi's Opinion of the Natives — Modern Estimates of the
Filipino — An Effort to Reconcile Differences of Opinion
— The Non-Christian Malays — The Moros — The Growth
of Population.
The aborigines of these islands are the ITegritos,
or Aetas, of the mountains, who, nnder various local
designations, are found widely scattered over the
Archipelago to the number of about 30,000. Doctor
Barrows says: ''The origin of these little people is
unsolved, but even in historic times we know that
they were more widely distributed, if not more numer-
ous, than now, and the occurrence of the same little
type in the Malay Peninsula and on the Andaman
Islands in the Indian Ocean leads to the inference
that they w^ere once in perhaps even continuous oc-
cupation of the Malay Archipelago and the adjacent
mainland from the Andaman Islands to the Philip-
pines." Their resemblance to the Papuans has sug-
gested the theory that New Guinea was their original
habitat, but there is no substantial data to support
the' surmise. The • E^egritos are completely savage,
and almost as isolated to-day as they were centuries
ago.
(75)
76 THE PHILIPPINES.
They are much darker than the natives of Malayan
descent, and many of them are quite black. They do
not exhibit the ISTegroid cranial formation, but have
the same cast of features, with "kinky" hair. They
are pygmies — the average height of their men being
about fifty-six inches — ill-formed and unmuscular,
but supple and agile. Their intelligence is low.
NEGRITO CHAEACTEEISTICS. - ,
They are deficient in courage and apparently have
few attractive characteristics. All attempts at civil-
izing them, collectively or individually, have failed,
although in a few instances they have been domesti-
cated. They live in small communities, subsisting
on fish, roots, and such A^egetables as may be raised
with the least effort. Their utmost agricultural
achievement consists in scratching the earth and
casting seed, without taking the trouble to clear the
ground. Their manner of life is characterized by
makeshift methods consistent with their nomadic ten-
dencies. They do not build houses, but for shelter
use a kind of lean-to, made of cane and matted leaves.
lNrot infrequently they make raids into the plains and
carry off the cattle of their more civilized neighbors.
The costume of the men is restricted to an irreducible
minimum of covering; that of the women consists,
at most, of a string of beads and a loose cloth tied
round the waist and reaching to the knees. The
weapons of the Negritos are a bamboo spear, a club,
NEGRITO CHARACTERISTICS. 77
and a bow, with sometimes poisoned arrows. Their
religion, like that of all primitive people who live in
forests and mountains, includes a belief in spirits,
who take an active interest in the affairs of men, and
the adoration of such natural phenomena as excite
their wonder or apprehension. The moon is their
principal deitj. They have a great respect for old
age and an awesome reverence for death. The Negrito
is not originally, nor by natural inclination, a hill-
man. The advance of civilization has forced him
into the fastnesses of the mountains. The earliest
Malay immigrants found him in undivided posses-
sion of the land. The newcomers, until their num-
bers became great enough for resistance, lived in
vassalage to the Negritos and, at as late a period as
that of the arrival of the Spaniards, there were com-
munities of Tagalogs in Luzon paying tribute to the
aboriginal inhabitants.
Pure-blooded Xegritos still exist in different sec-
tions, but their number is believed to be decreasing.
Their mixture with the Malayan natives has generally
resulted in an advance in mental and physical devel-
opment.
There are several hybrid races sprung from union
of Malays and Negritos. The most notable of these
in Luzon are the Dumagas. They occupy the coun-
try lying east of the Sierra Madre. The Dumagas
who live in the vicinity of Christian villages are
slightly removed from the savage state.
78 THE PHILIPPINES.
The Maiigyans, a Xegrito-Visayan race, occupy
nearly the entire interior of Mindoro Island and parts
of Paragua. They engage in a primitive form of
agriculture and collect forest produce, which is bar-
tered with the Christians. These people have made
a considerable advance from the state of the aborig-
ines. Worcester, who appears to have been much im-
pressed by the morality of the Mangyans, devotes a
considerable portion of his book to a description of
their customs, etc.*
Doctor David P. Barrow^s, Chief of the Philippines
Bureau of non-Christian Tribes, believes that, with
the exception of the Xegritos, all the tribes of the
islands, whether Christian, Muhammadan, or pagan,
are derived from the Malayan race. ''We probably
have," he says, ''in these tribes, two types, w^hich rep-
resent an earlier and a later wave of immigration, but
all came from the south, all speak languages belong-
ing to one common stock, and all are closelv related
in physical type and qualities of mind. As represen-
tative of the first migratory movement may be named
the Igorot, the mountain head-hunters of !N^orthern
Luzon, and of the latter almost any of the present
Christian, or Muhammadan tribes. The migratory
period of this latter type is almost covered by the his-
torical accounts of the exploration and settlement of
the Far East."
*The Philippine Islands. Dean C. Worcester. New York^
1899.
Manila Cathedral.
This stately cruciform building is the most beautiful
structure in Manila. In the foreground is a caromata,
with Philippine " poney '' and native hackman.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
THE MALAYS AT HOME. 79
The Portuguese adventurers, who were first, of all
white men, to reach Asia by sea, found the territory
we call the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago inhab-
ited by a people of Mongolian origin, who styled them-
selves Malayu. They were short of stature, of a
brown color, with black hair and prominent facial
bones. They engaged in agriculture, had some trade,
and displayed a tendency to seafaring.
THE MALAYS AT HOME.
A thousand years before the arrival of the Portu-
guese the Archipelago had been invaded by the Hin-
dus, who subjugated some of the islands and estab-
lished in them the Brahmin religion. Traces of this
Hindu occupation are to be found at the present day
in the ruins of temples upon the island of Java.
Later, the Arabs began to trade in this region and,
following their invariable custom of proselyting
wherever they went, converted large numbers of the
inhabitants, and particularly the dwellers along the
seaboard, to Islam. Before the advent of the Euro-
peans, Muhammadanism had completely supplanted
Brahmanism, but the influence of the Hindu occu-
pation upon the language of the people is traceable
to-day in the great proportion of words of Sanskrit
origin, and there is every reason to believe that the
Malays owe a considerable advance toward civiliza-
tion to the Hindu invasion.
Sometime about the end of the thirteenth, or the
80 THE PHILIPPINES
beginning of the fourteenth, century these Muhamma-
dan ''Sea Folk," as the inhabitants of the Mahiy
Archipelago were called, made a settlement in the
northwest section of Borneo, which was already peo-
pled by tribes of Malayan origin in a low state of
development. From Borneo the Orang Salat (Sea
Folk) advanced to the Sulu Archipelago and thence
to Mindanao, to Mindoro, and the shore around
Manila Bay.
MALAY INVASIOi:^ OF THE PHILIPPII^ES.
The Muhammadan invaders found upon the islands,
besides the Xegrito aborigines, another race of the
same physical type as themselves and speaking a
language w^hich had the same root as their own.
These were the descendants of an earlier, or per-
haps of more than one, tide of Malay immigration.
They occupied a much lower grade in the scale of cul-
ture than did their Mvihammadan kinsmen. They
painted and tattooed their bodies and lived in nest-
like houses in the trees. They were pagans and ate
dog meat.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century the IRe-
gritos were still a very numerous element in the popu-
lation of the Philippines. The wild tribes of Malayan
origin probably predominated over them in the
Visayas and some of the southern islands. The Mu-
hammadans were as yet numerically weak, but the
tide of their immigration had fairly set in and they
MALAY INVASION. 81
began from tliis time to come into the country in
constantly increasing numbers* A boatload of these
newcomers were the first natives with whom Magel-
lan's expedition came in contact when they landed in
the neighborhood of Samar. One Pigafetta kept a
diary of this ''first voyage around the world," from
which we get the earliest description of the inhabi-
tants of the island."^ The vessels of Magellan visited
several of the islands in the Archipelago south of
Luzon, but did not touch there. Everywhere they
found a very sparse population, and despite their
offers of merchandise in exchange for provisions they
were with difiiculty able to secure enough food to
stave off starvation. Cebu seems to have been one
of the most populous and important centers. Ves-
sels from far foreign parts came there for gold and
slaves. The voyagers heard that a junk had departed
thence to Siam just before their arrival and were told
that the Chinese had been trading with the islands for
centuries. ^'To the northeast," says Pigafetta, "is
the island of Lozon, which is very great, to which
go every year for the sake of traffic six or eight
junks from the country of the Lechios," by which he
probably meant one of the provinces of China. f At
* Primer Viaje alrededor del Muudo. Spanish translation,
Madrid, 1899.
-}■ Some of the writers of the sixteenth century entertained
a belief, for which there does not appear to have been any
j;ood ground, that the Philippines at one time constituted a
colony of the Chinese Empire. Meudoza in his History of
6
g2 THE PHILIPPINES.
the island of Siilii the pearl fisheries, for which the
locality is celebrated to-day, excited the interest of
the Spaniards. On the coast of Mindanao they fell
in with the curious ^^sea gypsies," the Samal Lant,
who frequent the same region at the present time and
now, as then, form communities of boat-dwellers,
moving from place to place with the changing seasons
and conditions. They passed an island ^Svhose in-
habitants," says the chronicler, ''are negroes like
those of Ethiopia." This is the only mention he
makes of the Negritos, who must, however, have been
numerous inland of several of the islands touched at.
EAKLY MALAY OCCUPATION.
The three expeditions succeeding that of Magellan
made no settlement in the islands and added hardly
anything to the information we have regarding them.
In 1565 Legaspi landed on the island of Cebu and,
despite resistance, maintained his footing, with per-
haps one hundred and fifty men, until reinforce-
ments reached him three years later from Mexico.
Legaspi then proceeded to the conquest of Panay,
China (1586) states that "these islands were formerly sub-
ject to the King of China until he relinquished them volun-
tarily." In "The Philippine Islands" (1609), De Morga
said: "The Dutch MemoraWe Emhassics states that the
Spaniards subjected these islands almost without striking a
blow, the inhabitants having forgotten the art of war. and
almost renounced civil life since they shook off the Chinese
Yoke. Since the Chinese had lost their dominion over these
islands they had not ceased to trade with them," etc.
EARLY MALAY OCCUPATION. 83
which was made the base from which the occupation
of Mindoro and Luzon was effected. The most popu-
lous portions of the Archipelago at this time were
Cebu, Panay in the vicinity of Iloilo, the country
about Manila Bay, and around Laguna de Bay, the
valleys of the Pampanga and Bicol rivers, and the
coast of Ilocos. Even in these sections, however, the
inhabitants were very scanty, and the largest centers
consisted of communities of only a few thousand
souls under their independent chieftains, who still
retained the Hindu title of rdjd. Tavera says, ''these
small groups were in many places known by the name
of harangay, which is also the exact word used to de-
scribe a small craft used by the indigines, and would
therefore appear to indicate that the people forming
each of these town groups were descendants of the
crews of particular crafts since the time of their
original immigration to these islands. The popula-
tion of the various harangayes was in some cases
not over fifty inhabitants and in others, as was ob-
served by Selcedo in Ilocos, the number reached as
high as seven thousand.""^ Slavery was universally
maintained amongst these natives of Malay blood.
* "The term halangay, or boat, still applied to the villages,
recalls the time when these mariners, encamping on the
beach, continued to lead much the same life as when scour-
ing the high seas in their praiis. As was the case with the
sampans, or junks, of the more recent Chinese settlers every
MJangay became the cradle of a Malay colony." The Earth
and its Inhabitants. Elisee Reclus. New York, 1892.
84 THE PHILIPPINES.
There were different degrees of the condition, and
it was created in a variety of ways. Prisoners of
war, or persons secured by purchase, were absolute
chattels. Others were held in perpetual service who
might not be disposed of by their masters. A man
sometimes entered into bondage as security for a loan,
and in this case the creditor might transfer the debt
and the security. One forfeited his freedom by
trespassing upon the lands or dwelling of the chief,
or by looking at the chief's wife. Slavery was some-
times the penalty, by commutation from capital pun-
ishment, for certain crimes, such as the seduction
of the wife, or daughter, of a leading member of the
community.
Each resident, or perhaps family unit, of the
harangay had a definite allotment of land. !N^o mem-
ber of the community might violate his neighbor's
landrights, nor might the members of one harangay
encroach upon the boundaries of another. Land might
pass by purchase, gift, or inheritance, and in some
instances the chief had acquired all the land of the
harangay.
Occasionally independent harangayes would form
a confederation for mutual defense, or for co-opera-
tion in soiue enterprise. They would then create a
common chief by popular election, usually from one
of_the families in which that office was hereditary.
The chief, who was called rdjd, or dato, acted as
judge in all criminal trials and civil disputes. There
EARLY MALAY OCCUPATION. 85
were certain recognized offenses and penalties, but
nothing approaching to a code of laws. It was al-
most always possible for the criminal to secure exemp-
tion from other punishment by the payment of a
compensatory fine to the injured person, or to the
chief. A constant state of petty warfare existed. In
addition to fights among themselves, the various com-
munities, or federations, had to repel the attacks of
ladroiies and pirates and to hold in check the ISTegritos.
As a rule only free men were engaged as warriors,
but slaves were commonly employed as rowers in the
sea fights. The arms used were lances, bows and
arrows, and the famous Malay kris. For protection,
helmets, and shields of wood and copper, were em-
ployed, and breastplates of horn. In various locali-
ties the Spaniards were opposed by natives using can-
non. There was a foundry in Manila under the
supervision of a Portuguese, or Hindu, where the
cannon were cast. It is probable, however, that the
art was learned from the Chinese. Legaspi, writing
to the King of Spain (1570), regarding the Moros of
Panay, says: 'The latter have artillery, which they
themselves cast and finish, and likewise powder and
other ammunition. ... I send you two bronze
culver ins made by the Moros of this land, so that
your Majesty may see what dexterity they possess
in making and casting artillery."
Money was unknown and crude gold was used as
a substitute, but their trade was for the most part
86 THE PHILIPPINES.
conducted on a system of barter in kind, that was,
perhaps, better adapted to the economic condition of
the bulk of the people. They had standard weights
and measures derived from the Chinese, some of
which are still in use. They held periodical fairs
(an old-time institution of the Malays) at different
points, to which the natives of neighboring districts
resorted in their light draft boats, bringing the prod-
uct of the field and the loom, as well as articles of
ornament fashioned from gold, silver, copper, and
mother-of-pearl.
Some of the Malayan tribes had a primitive liter-
ature. Their alphabet consisted of seventeen letters,
three of which were vowels. Like the early Singalese,
they employed the palm leaf in making their books.
These, which doubtless contained valuable records of
their history and customs, were unfortunately burned
by the first missionaries, who deemed them an impedi-
ment to the furtherance of the conversion of the
islanders.
The religion of the Malayan pagans seems to have
been an idolatrous polytheism. They recognized three
supreme deities, by whom all the affairs of life were
ordered. There were a number of minor gods, or
spirits of malevolent intent, who might, however, be
propitiated on occasion. Each family worshipped the
spirits of its ancestors, termed anitos, who were be-
lieved to be capable of exerting a beneficial influence
over the lives of their descendants. Anito idols, fash-
EARLY MALAY OCCUPATION. 87
ioned from various materials, were part of the furni-
ture of every home. A certain number of slaves were
slain and buried with a man of consequence in order
that he might have a proper retinue in the next
Avorld. The Visayans interred the slaves alive on
these occasions in the belief that living attendants
would be more pleasing to the deceased noble. Some-
times slaves were killed and their spirits despatched to
the master's ancestors for the purpose of pleading with
them to remove from him some illness or calamity.
The funeral ceremonies were feasts at which it was
customary to dissipate in food and drink a consid-
erable portion of the property left by the deceased.
At these ceremonies, animals, and sometimes slaves,
were sacrificed, and the priests performed war dances
of the wildest character.
The costume of men and women was similar, ex-
cept that the latter wore cloth of a finer texture. It
consisted of a loose shirt-like garment not unlike that
worn by the up-country Filipino at the present time,
reaching to below the loins, supplemented by a cloth
hanging from the waist. It was their custom to go
without head-covering. The apparel of the well-to-do
was decorated with laces and embroidery, which the
natives made with great skill. Men and women wore
combs in their hair and adorned their bodies with
ear and finger rings, bangles, necklaces, and anklets.
The majority of the people went barefoot, but the
upper class wore shoes, or slippers. It was consid-
88 THE PHILIPPINES.
ered a mark of distinction to perforate the teeth and
fill the holes with gold, and to file the incisors to a
point. The latter practice still prevails among cer-
tain wild tribes.
Their houses, of bamboo and palm leaf thatch, were
erected at a considerable height npon timber supports.
A village was frequently built several hundred feet
out in the water of a lake, or river, or upon the shore
of the sea.
It is from these people that the great body of Chris-
tian and domesticated natives of the Philippines are
descended. They are from the same Malayan stock
as the Moro, but owing to differences of religion, en-
vironment, manner of life and political condition,
have developed diversified physical and mental char-
acteristics. They are the ^ 'representative" people
of the Archipelago, and to them the name ' 'Filipino"
is applied in a distinctive sense.
LEGASPl's OPIITIOIS^ OF THE IN'ATIVES.
In 1565, after four years' residence in the islands,
Legaspi w^rote thus of the Malay natives of Cebu:
"These people wear clothes, but they go barefooted.
Their dress is made of cotton, or of a kind of
grass resembling raw silk. . . . They are a
crafty and treacherous race, and understand every-
thing. . . . They are naturally of a cowardly
disposition and distrustful, and if one has treated
them ill, they never came back. . . . They are a
LEGASPI'S OPINION OF THE NATIVES. 89
people extremely vicious, fickle, iintriithful, and
full of superstitions. No law binds relative to
relative, parents to children, or brother to brother.
.]^o person favors another unless it is for his own
interest. On the other hand, if a man, in some time
of need, shelters a relative, or a brother, in his house,
supports him and provides him with food for a few
days, he will consider that relative as his slave from
that time on and is served by him. . . . \Vlien
these people give or lend anything to one another the
favor must be repaid double, even if between parents
and children, or between brothers. At times they sell
their own children when there is little need or neces-
sity for doing so.
'^Privateering and robbery have a natural attraction
for them. Whenever the occasion presents itself they
rob one another, even if they be neighbors, or rela-
tives, and when they see, or meet, one another in the
open fields at nightfall they rob and seize one another.
Any native who possesses a basketful of rice
will not seek for more, or do any further work until
it is finished. Thus does their idleness surpass their
covetousness. ... I believe that these natives
could be easily subdued by good treatment and the
display of kindness, . . . but if we undertake
to subdue them by force of arms and make war on
them they will perish and we will lose both friends
and foes, for they readily abandon their houses and
towns for other places, or precipitately disperse among
90 THE PHILIPPINES.
the mountains and uplands, and neglect to plant their
fields. . . . One can see a proof of this in the
length of time it takes them to settle do^\Ti again in
a town which has been plundered, even if no one of
them has been killed, or captured. . . . Thev
easily believe what is told and presented forcibly to
them. They hold some superstitions, such as the
casting of lots before doing anything, and other
wretched practices, all of which will be easily eradi-
cated if we have some priests who know their lan-
guage and will preach to them."
The early descriptions of native character must be
taken with a great deal of reserv^e. Indeed, nothing
in the least approaching a general agreement upon
the subject has ever been arrived at. WTien several
witnesses in later times, who have enjoyed the ad-
vantage of intimate contact with the native over a
long term of years, reach materially differing, and
often contradictory, conclusions, it is easy to believe
that the earlier Spanish residents, whose opportuni-
ties for close observation were much inferior, should
have erred in their estimates. Furthermore, the
point of view of the Spanish conquerors was entirely
unfavorable to a right understanding. They had a
fanatical belief in a divine mission and considered
the islands a possession of their King by right of
Papal gift. That the natives did not fall in with
this idea was incomprehensible to them and created
in their minds an adverse prejudice.
LEGASPrS OPINION OF THE NATIVES. 91
During the past four centuries of European in-
fluence the character of the Filipino has doubtless
improved in many respects, but the more recent writ-
ers have depicted it in anything but a flattering light.
The character of a people is always, to a considerable
extent, a reflection of its government, and the history
of the colony under Spanish dominion will afford
many a key to the present traits and disposition of
the Filipinos. Tomas de Comyn expresses this idea
in his ''State of the Philippine Islands" (1820).
Referring to the Christian tribes, whom we now have
under consideration, he says:
''They are credulous and superstitious, cunning,
yet of weak capacities, but possibly a great number
of their defects may be attributed to their ignorance,
want of civilization, and the had administration of
justice. They are, nevertheless, hospitable to stran-
gers and, excepting in their robberies, piracies, and
acts of public, and private, revenge, harmless in their
manners.
"Besides distance from the mother country and,
as will be seen by their history, the dreadful misfor-
tunes to which they have been so often exposed, the
wavering and uncertain nature of the regulations in-
tended for their government, the hostility of the
European rivals (to one another), and the litigious
spirit of the inhabitants themselves, as well as the
unceasing lawsuits and dissensions to which this has
92 THE PHILIPPINES.
given rise have been of most material injury to the
colony."
MODEEI^ ESTIMATES OF THE FILIPINO.
Although the differences of opinion prevail at all
periods among writers dealing with the Filipinos, it
is noticeable that their strictures decrease with the
advancing years and that their condemnation is more
frequently tempered by the mention of redeeming
features.
Dean C. Worcester, at present a member of the
Philippine Commission, writes as follows :
^'The native is a philosopher. He works when
obliged to and rests whenever he can get an oppor-
tunity. . . . From the very outset our servants
stole from us. . . . The Philippine native seems
ever ready to kill his last fowl for a stranger or share
with him his last pot of rice. . . . On the whole
I believe that they are fairly intelligent, and they
are often most anxious for an opportunity to get
some education. . . . They frequently lie with-
out any excuse whatever, unless it be the aesthetic
satisfaction derived from the exercise of their remark-
able talent in this direction. When one of them is
detected in a falsehood he is simply chagrined that
his performance was not more creditably carried out.
He feels no sense of moral guilt and cannot under-
stand being punished for what is not to his mind an
offense. . . . The Filipino certainly has many
MODERN ESTIMATES OF THE FILIPINO. 93
good qualities to offset his bad traits. The traveler
cannot fail to be impressed by his open-handed and
cheerful hospitality. ... If cleanliness be next
to godliness, he certainly has much to recommend him.
Every village has its bath if there is any chance for
one, and men, women, and children patronize it
liberally. . . . Hardly less noticeable than the
almost universal hospitality are the well-regulated
homes and the happy family life that one finds to be
the rule. Children are orderly, respectful, and obedi-
ent to their parents. Wives are allowed an amount
of liberty hardly equaled in any other Eastern coun-
try, and they seldom abuse it.
^'The native is self-respecting and self -restrained to
a remarkable degree. He is patient under misfortune,
and forbearing under provocation. While it is
stretching the truth to say that he never reveals anger,
he certainly succeeds much better in controlling him-
self than does the average European. . . . He is
a kind father and a dutiful son. His aged relatives
are never left in want, but are brought to his home
and are welcome to share the best that it affords to
the end of their days.* Among his fellows he is
genial and sociable. He loves to sing, dance, and
make merrv. He is a born musician. . . . He
*. The testimony to the Filipino's hospitality and his re-
j?arcl for the welfare of his family and relatives is indisput-
able, although in strong contrast to the statements of Legaspi
and other early writers.
94 THE PHILIPPINES.
is naturally fearless and admires nothing so much as
bravery in others."
AI^ EFFOKT TO KECONCILE DIFFERENCES OF OPINION.
Perhaps the differences of conclusion regarding the
Filipino character, to which we have referred, are
due in some measure to failure to allow for artificial,
or acquired, characteristics in the cases of the Fili-
pinos of the cities and large centers of civilization,
who exhibit effects of long-continued and close con-
tact with their European over-lords. A subject race
which is doomed to occupy a position of hopeless in-
feriority is more apt to acquire the vices than the
virtues of its conquerors and is often forced in self-
protection to adopt the natural safeguards of the weak
— prevarication, deception, treachery and the rest.
Other characteristics of the native may be attribut-
able, in degree at least, to the conditions of domina-
tion under which they have lain for centuries.
Perhaps the most universal characteristic of the
native is his disregard for truth. This is a confirmed
habit due to mental perversion, rather than to vicious
impulse, or sinister calculation. The Filipino lies
spontaneously, often without purpose, and always
without any sense of wrong. This peculiarity is
shared by the Chinese and other Orientals. In some
cases, where falsehood is contrary to the religious doc-
trine, justification is found for it, and, perhaps,
priestly excuse extended, when it is used to confound
THE TRUE FILIPINO. 95
the foreigner, or the oppressor. After all, this is
only human nature in the raw.
Until it is thoroughly understood, and allowance
is made for inherent peculiarities, the character of
an Oriental people cannot be fairly measured by
Western standards, nor, since their reasoning is based
upon conflicting principles, can one race judge the
other with impartiality. The European verdict that
"all Asiatics are liars" is true only from the view-
point of the former. The underdog will generally
lie for the sake of saving his hide, and Europeans
under such conditions have frequently lied, indi-
vidually and collectively. The early conquests of the
white men have invariably been marked by bad faith
toward the conquered, and the story of Spanish col-
onization is certainly not less marred in this manner
than that of any other nation.
The Oriental is above all things exuberantly imag-
inative ; he thinks in hyperbole and speaks in hyper-
bole. The consequence is that the slow-blooded
European, with his precise mental processes and lit-
eral expression, is very apt to conceive deliberate
deception where no such design is entertained. Even
when the Oriental lies with forethought the animus
behind the act is frequently harmless. It is often
merely a resistless ebullition of his innate love of sub-
tle processes or a desire to please his hearer. Such a
mental condition is diflicult of comprehension to the
Anglo-Saxon Avith his inborn habit of directness in
thought and speech.
96 THE PHILIPPINES.
Laziness is another defect with which the native is
justly charged, but here again it is not difficult to
find extenuating circumstances. The energy of any
people is measurable by the stimulus to exertion to
w^hich it is subject. The indolence natural to all in-
habitants of the tropics has been encouraged in the
Filipino by the knowledge that increased effort would
entail an increase in his taxation, rental, and con-
tribution to the Church, without commensurate ad-
vantage to himself ; thus his ambition has been reason-
ably limited to the accomplishment of a slight im-
provement in his material comfort. Hitherto the
Filipino has not had a sufficient incentive to exer-
tion. With worthy objects for which to work; with
the possibilities of social advancement and material
betterment ; with opportunity for mental culture, and
with the spread of education, may come, or rather
surely will come, awakening of ambition and quick-
ening of energy. It is not, however — fortunately
for the Western nations — possible that a tropical peo-
ple should exhibit the activity characteristic of the
dwellers in temperate climes.
The Filipino is not practical. He has no concern
beyond to-day, and is apparently incapable of a sus-
tained purpose, but when one surveys the environ-
ment, and political and economic condition, of these
people during the past centuries it is difficult to
see how it could be otherwise with them. On the
other hand the native is very susceptible to guidance
THE TRUE FILIPINO 97
and is always willing, and frequently eager, to learn.
Unlike the Chinaman, he has a humble estimate of
his own mental powers, and never thinks to pit his
own ideas against those of his European mentor. In-
deed, the Filipino is a docile and a faithful pupil, and
probably much of the condemnation of him as a la-
borer is due to the fact that, in the hands of a Euro-
pean master, he is prone to refrain from all initiative
in action, and even thought, and to do precisely as he
is told. It is more than likely that, if intelligent ad-
vantage is taken of this tendency, the native appren-
tice may be converted into a highly capable and satis-
factory workman. He lacks originality, it is true,
but he has the imitative faculty in an extreme degree,
and ''only needs to be shown," as one who has em-
ployed native labor extensively declares, in order
to do a thing as well as the demonstrator. It must be
borne in mind that the restricted place opened to the
Filipino in the Spanish civilization afforded little
scope for the cultivation of responsibility, initiative,
or endeavor. Under the encouraging conditions of
the new regime, with its ample opportunities, he may
develop unsuspected qualities of a high order.
Under guidance, or control, the average native will
live in a useful and rational manner, but he is very
thoughtless, and, lacking good influence, is likely to
act .unwisely, and may even commit grave offenses on
impulse, or for want of serious consideration. Sel-
dom, however, will he be guilty of a crime on his own
98 THE PHILIPriNES.
initiative. There is comparatively little vice in his
composition, bnt he is easily led toward good, or evil.
In fact his faults and shortcomings are largely those
of an infant stage of mental development. There is
much of the child in his makenp, and of a child whose
training has not been of the best. He is deferent,
almost to the extent of servility, to superiority of
intellect, station, or w^ealth. Although he exhibits
ingenuity and resourcefulness in the everyday affairs
of life, he lacks self-reliance and moral courage. He
is not deficient in physical bravery, but the quality is
of the spontaneous and evanescent order. He is read-
ily depressed by a check, or by a sense of inferiority
to his antagonist. Unlike the Moro, he accepts de-
feat with placid resignation, and as a victor he is
cruel and ungenerous. Like the Sipahi, the Filipino
makes an excellent fighting man under European
leadership, but his worth in this capacity is entirely
dependent upon such leadership. His dislike of dis-
cipline is a bar to his becoming a good soldier at pres-
ent. He displays the common Oriental trait of en-
durance under hardship and suffering and the equally
common Oriental tendency to supine submission to
the buffets of Fate.
The Filipino is extremely sober, and scrupulously
clean in his person and surroundings, traits that may
have been derived from early Hindu influences, and
which were certainly never enhanced by contact with
the aboriginal tribes. He has the domestic qualities
THE TRUE FILIPINO. 99
well developed. He is a good father and husband,
and displays great regard and respect for aged pa-
rents. Indeed, the ties of relationship are acknowl-
edged to a remarkable extent. A household com-
monly includes two, or three, poor kinsmen, whose
connection with the heads of the family is almost
too remote to be traced. His hospitality is proverbial.
A well-to-do Filipino will house a traveler as long
as he may choose to stay. Everything that his host
possesses — horses, carriages, guns, servants, and the
rest — is cheerfully placed at the command of the vis-
itor. Xo remuneration whatever would be accepted,
nor is any kind of return expected, or desired.
The Filipino is grave and dignified in bearing, and
rarely displays emotion of any kind, although he is
capable of strong passion. He has little, or no, sense
of humor, never makes a jocular remark and seldom
appreciates one. He is genial and extremely sociable.
Gambling is a mania with him, and he is very fond
of show. He is improvident to the extent of reck-
lessness, and will spend his last jjeso on a cock-fight,
for a feast, or in the purchase of cheap trinkets for
his wife.
Whilst the Filipino is honest in the main, his con-
ception of moral obligations is not of the keenest. He
rarely steals, but he may borrow without any thought
of return, unless demand is made upon him. He will
secure money as a loan, or in consideration of future
service, and, although he never repudiates the in-
LOFC
100 THE PHILIPPINES.
debtedness, it is frequently difficult to enforce re-
payment, or the performance of the promised work.
His sense of gratitude is rather dull. He is apt to
suspect an ulterior motive behind a concession, or a
gift, and this may be a logical outcome of his experi-
ence with the white man.
The Filipino compares favorably with the China-
man, or the Hindu, and gives greater promise of
future development than either. He is more tracta-
ble than the former, and has none of his innate aver-
sion to Western civilization; he is more intelligent
than the latter, and is not hampered by religious preju-
dices, nor caste restrictions. Indeed, there is no East-
ern people that presents more favorable material for
conversion to Western civilization than do the Chris-
tian tribes of the Philippine Islands.
AVhilst the foregoing applies in general to the
Christian natives, some of the tribes furnish marked
exceptions in certain particulars and the small upper
class, the gente ilustrada, have developed many quali-
ties that are at variance with the typical Filipino
character.
THE NOX-CHKISTIAN- MALAYS.
Of the non-Christian Malays, excepting Moros,
the Igorots are by far the most numerous. The cen-
sus enumeration places them in excess of 183,000.
They are distributed over eleven of the northern
provinces of Luzon in various stages of development,
THE NON-CHRISTIAN MALAYS. 101
ranging from the wild head-hunters of Bontoc to the
semi-civilized Tinguian of Abra. They are most
numerous in Lepanto-Bontoc, Nueva Vizcaya, and
Benguet, where they constitute the hulk of the popu-
lations. They inhabit the higher valleys and moun-
tain ranges. In general they are physically superior
to the Filipinos of the lowlands. They are an in-
telligentj happy people, of good morals and indus-
trious habits, with a strong vein of independence in
their composition.
The Malays never effected large political organiza-
tions. The point is illustrated in the harangay system
of the early Tagalogs. The political unit of the Igo-
rots is the harrio, or hamlet, several of which may go
to make up a township. Under normal conditions the
town across the valley is an enemy and seeks the
heads of its neighbors. ''I have stood," says Doctor
Barrows, ''in a single Igorot town and looked across
the steep hillsides and river valleys where in every
direction within a radius of six miles a man's life
of that town would have been unsafe. His head
would unfailingly have been taken had he ventured
unprotected so far from home." This applies par-
ticularly to the eastern portion of the Igorot coun-
try. Toward the west coast the people are much
more nearly civilized and have abandoned their old-
tinie practice of head-hunting. Here the central gov-
ernment is recognized and respected and, although
in many districts the ancient petty courts are still
102 THE PHILIPPINES.
maintained, appeals from their decisions are fre-
quently made to the American authorities.
Every Igorot harrio has its judicial body of old
men, who dispose of all cases from petty theft to
murder. If the matter is one affecting the entire
tOAvn a composite court is formed of members of
the various barrios interested. Most penalties take the
form of a fine payable in cattle, or other property.
Trial by ordeal is commonly practiced. The podung,
or bloody test, consists in boring holes in the scalps
of the suspect and his accuser. The verdict goes
to the one who bleeds the least. AMien one of a num-
ber of persons is believed to be a criminal, each of
them is given a mouthful of dry rice to chew. After
mastication this is spat out upon the hands of the
judges and he whose mass exhibits the least saliva
is deemed convicted, in accordance with their proverb,
which says, ^'A guilty man has a dry mouth."
The Sun is the great god of the Igorots, and the
Moon is his brother. They believe in a number of
evil spirits. An Igorot maintains that personally he
is sinless and can do no wrong unless at the instiga-
tion of one of these spirits, which enters into him and
subdues his will. One who has had intimate rela-
tions with them says, ^^the conception of right and
wrong is a quality fully developed in the Igorot mind
throughout all conditions of life ! and fully in accord
with the present civilized conception of right and
wrong. They believe in virtue in both male and
THE NON-CHRISTIAN MALAYS. 103
female; they believe in honesty and faithfulness in
the performance of any task, no matter how arduous
it is made for them by those in authority, and perform
these tasks cheerfully/'
The canao is a ceremonial dance and feast. It is
the occasion for the consumption of a great deal of
meat and drink. Horse, carahao, hog, and deer
are eaten, and dog is an especial delicacy. It is a
point of etiquette with the Igorot to continue eating
as long as a fragment of the viands remains. Bassi
is an intoxicant produced from rice and sugar-cane.
It is freety consumed by the Igorots, who are by no
means so abstemious as the Filipino.
Amongst the Igorots, as with almost all wild, or
savage, races, tlie women perform the greater share
of labor, but the men are very far from being idle,
and it is possible that the arrangement had its origin
as a defensive measure. Even at this day, amongst
the worst head-hunters, the women work in the paddy
fields whilst the men mount guard with their arms
against their neighbors.
Unlike the N^egritos they are a stationary people.
A village wdll move only for serious reasons, and then
never more than a few miles from its old site. For
the Igorot the whole world is peopled with evil spirits,
and human beings eager to decapitate him, and there-
fore he dreads to cross his communal boundaries-
This of course does not apply to the western com-
munities which are in touch with the civilization of
104 THE PHILIPPINES.
the seacoast provinces, but even these retain their
sedentary tendencies.
They live poorly and not nnder the most sanitary
conditions, but their wants are few, and they are
perfectly contented. There is no such thing as pau-
perism amongst them. The aged, indigent, and
crippled are cheerfully supported by the community.
The case is reported of a man in one of their barrios
who has been dangerously insane for nine years. He
has been confined in a hut all this time and two men
of the community have been detailed each Aveek to
feed him and keep his habitation clean. AYlien any
person dies one-half of his edible possessions and of
his herds and flocks is eaten up by the community to
which he belonged. During the feast the body of the
deceased is tied in a chair in his house that he may
see that no personal enemy partakes of his bounty.
The burial of a rich man may thus be deferred for
months.
THE MOROS.
The word ^'Moro," or Moor, in its original sig-
nification simply meant Muhammadan. It is not an
ethnologic term, but is generally used at present as
a comprehensive designation for the several Malayan
tribes of the southern islands, who adhere to Islam.
We have already mentioned the Samal Laut, those
curious gypsies of the sea, wdio wandered long ago
from their old haunts in Johore and the Straits of
THE MOROS. 105
Malacca to the Suln Archipelago. Great numhera
of their descendants, named Bajaiis, are found about
those islands to-day and along the southern coast of
Mindanao. They maintain the manner of life of
their roving ancestors. Each family inhabits a boat
and a fleet of half a dozen or so comprises a com-
munity. They have no political organization, but
recognize temporarily the authority of the dato off
whose shore they may happen to be lying and pay
tribute to him during their stay. They move about
as inclination, or the monsoon, may dictate, and
absolutely make their home upon the waters. They
traffic in the products of the sea and find their main
subsistence in them. They barter trepang, edible
seaweed, and sharks' fins with the Chinese traders,
for tapioca and cloth.
Slavery is general among the Bajaus, and every
man of a community is required to work one or two
days of each week for his chief, or capitan Bajau.
Despite their wandering lives upon the water, the
Bajaus never consign their dead to the sea, but bury
them upon some particular island which has been
selected as the family, or community, cemetery. IN^o
matter how far away they may be, or how engaged,
when one of their number dies they will carry his
body to the customary burying ground. Absolutely
everything that the Bajau possessed is interred with
him. Even his boat is broken up and the pieces
placed in his grave.
106 THE PHILIPPINES.
The Samal Moros are descended from the same
stock as the Bajaus, but have abandoned the life upon
the water, though thej still live over it, their villages
being built over the sea, facing broad, sandy beaches.
The Samals affect to despise their boat-dwelling broth-
ers, who are degenerates in the matter of religion.
Large villages of Samals are found in different parts
of the Sulu Archipelago. They are the dominant peo-
ple of Zamboanga peninsula, and form the bulk of the
population of the Tawi Tawi group. Their chief oc-
cupation everywhere is fishing, with which, in some
localities, they combine a little agriculture.
The Samals were the dreaded Malay pirates whose
depredations the Spaniards were powerless to check
until gunboats were brought to bear against them. Up
till within sixty years ago they made annual raids
upon the Visayan Islands, looting towns and carry-
ing away captives to slavery. It is said that the last
such expedition dates from less than twenty-five years
ago.
For the most part the Moros live upon the coasts,
but there is a great tribe, the Malanao, numbering
upwards of 95,000, in the interior of Mindanao.
Their towns are thickly clustered about the district
around Lake Lanao. Another numerous tribe is the
Maguindanao, settled chiefly in the district of Cot-
tabato, whence they have extended to the Gulf of
Davao, on the opposite coast.
The Moros are prosperous and happy. All their
THE MOROS. 107
needs, or possible wants, are easily supplied. The sea
and the soil yield subsistence with very little effort
and beyond a full stomach and a few simple luxuries
the desires of the Moro do not extend ; nor does his
environment afford any scope for ambition, or energy.
Since the exercise of his fighting proclivities has been
curtailed there does not appear to be any outlet for
his activity.
Almost all Moro industries are of the domestic
order. Agriculture, supplemented by fishing, is the
mainstay of the people. They raise rice, corn, ca-
motes, or sweet potatoes, and other vegetables by a
very simple, but apparently satisfactory, method.
The ground is broken with pointed sticks and, aside
from sowing and weeding, nothing more is done to it.
Boat buildiug is a hereditary occupation with the
Moros and an important industry, where every family
owns one boat at least and often several. Every man
can repair a boat, and most of them are able to make
some kind of craft. Even the inland Moro passes
a great part of his time upon the waters of the lakes
and rivers.
Another industry of consequence and repute is
that of the manufacture of weapons. From Chinese
traders are obtained the iron and steel which are
forged into hrisses, holos, spears, daggers, and knives.
As with all war-like people, the smith is an honored
member of the community. Aside from construct-
ing craft and fashioning weapons, the Moros show
108 THE PHILIPPINES.
little aptitude, or inclination, for mechanical pur-
suits. There are among them a few artisans who
work metal into articles of ornament, and a rude
form of pottery is produced without the use of a
firing kiln. The women weave a serviceable quality
of cloth, but they know little about spinning and are
dependent upon the Chinese for their thread.
The Moros live in the ordinary Malayan type of
dwelling, elevated upon piles and often erected near,
or over, the water. The timbers are fastened with
rattan, and the roofs and walls covered with palm
leaves. These houses answer their purpose very
well. They are cool and waterproof and withstand
the frequent earthquake shocks. The Moros are not
clean in their surroundings as are the Filipinos,
nor do they seem to consider domestic comfort to the
same extent. They are polygamists, in accordance
with Kuranic license. Wives are purchased, the
suitor paying to the family of the bride an amount
commensurate with his position, or means. Divorce
may be effected by mutual agreement, or a man, find-
ing himself unable to support all his wives, may send
one, or more, back to their families. A w^oman thus
returning to her home takes all her personal belong-
ings and whatever she may have received from her
husband during her wedded life. The family rela-
tions are closely drawn. Wives receive kindly treat-
ment and are consulted in family matters. Both
parents display affection toward their offspring. The
THE MOROS. 109
Muhammadan law of abstinence from the use of in-
toxicants and the flesh of swine is observed, but in
other respects the Moros are far from being faithful
disciples of Islam. The habit of chewing betel-nut
is confirmed amongst men, women, and children.
This is a favorite indulgence with the Hindus, and
other Asiatics, and doubtless the Malay immigrants
to the Philippines brought the custom with them. It
does not appear to be injurious, but on the contrary
is said to act as a tonic-digestant and a preservative of
the teeth.
The social organization of the Moros is simple.
There are two main political divisions of the people —
freemen and slaves. Slavery existed as an institu-
tion among them prior to their advent to the Philip-
pines. The communal unit, ranging from perhaps a
dozen in the case of the Bajaus, to possibly ten thou-
sand with the larger tribes, is ruled by a chief, vari-
ously termed sultan, raja, and dato. There is no
code of laws, but custom and precedent are zealously
adhered to. The office of dato is generally heredi-
tary and the authority pertaining to it is always recog-
nized by the clan. The chief usually associates with
himself a number of men of noble blood, or wealth,
who form a sort of court and take an active part in
the regulation of the community. All datos maintain
a retinue of fighting-men, who accompany them every-
where, display being considered quite as important
as protection. The dato is absolute in authority,
no THE PHILIPPINES.
but not often despotic. All land of the community is
vested in him, but he rarely disturbs established oc-
cupation. He declares war and makes peace, and
presides at the administration of justice. A difficulty
involving two or more villages is usually adjusted
by their respective headmen, but the decision is sub-
ject to the vetoes of the chieftains concerned.
Crimes are generally punished by fine, or sub-
jection to slavery. An adulterous woman is mulcted
in a heavy fine, which is paid by herself, or her fam-
ily, to the injured husband, and is shared by him
with the dato and headmen composing the court. In
default of payment the woman is adjudged a slave
and her husband has the right to sell her. A man
convicted of adultery is sentenced to a fine twice as
great as that imposed upon a woman and it is dis-
posed of in the same manner, whilst the culprit is
subject to the same alternative in case of failure to
pay. A husband discovering his wife in the act of
adultery is justified by custom in killing her and her
paramour. Incest and carnal assault upon a young
girl are punishable by death.
A convicted thief must pay to the victim twice the
amount of the theft in addition to a fine, which goes
to the headmen. The alternative penalty is enslave-
ment, but the culprit may substitute one of his off-
spring, who is thus consigned to bondage for life, a
striking illustration of visiting the sins of the fathers
upon their children. Murder is generally punish-
A HEAi>HUNTER.
The portrait is that of Ifugao, an Igorot chieftain
of Nueva Vizcaya/ one of the few districts in which
head-hunting is still practised when favorable oppor-
tunity offers.
i*-
THE MOROS. Ill
able by a heavy fine, subject to the usual division
with the court. Confinement is hardly ever resorted
to as a penalty, the Moro considering it an incon-
venient and uneconomical method of punishment.
Slavery with the Moros takes a mild form. The
slave may be a captive from a neighboring tribe, or a
wild man of the woods, but more often than the lat-
ter he is of pure Malay blood. Such slaves, and
those condemned to the condition by the court, as well
as those held as security for debt, may be bought
and sold. Very often slavery is merely a temporary
service in consideration of some benefit received.
Slaves usually live in the same house w4th their
master and practically under the same conditions, eat-
ing at his table and, with the exception of liberty, far-
ing in all respects as well as himself. They are not
compelled to onerous labor in a country where no hard
work is done, and the female slave, in particular, is
often treated with the greatest consideration. Under
such circumstances the condition of the bondsman is
often a great improvement over the life he has been
accustomed to.
In general, the Moros are illiterate, superstitious,
and non-progressive. Some few have learned to read
and write from their priests, or jMnditas, but learning
is not esteemed nor encouraged amongst them. They
use. the Arabic alphabet in the expression of a Malay
dialect. The Kuran is an object of abstract venera-
tion. They know very little of its doctrine and are
112 THE PHILIPPINES.
only slightly submissive to the influence of the priests.
I^evertlieless, their religion, such as it is, and their
jealous regard for their customs will prove a serious
bar to civilizing them. The Keverend Pio Pi, supe-
rior of the Jesuit Order in the Philippines, writing
in 1901, expressed the opinion that the Moros were
influenced in their opposition to reduction and cul-
ture by (1) their character; (2) their history, or tra-
dition; (3) their fanaticism; (4) their interests.
(Certainly a substantial basis of opposition to sub-
vert.) The reverend father characterizes them as
haughty, independent, and domineering, accustomed
to look upon all other natives wdth disdain. All of
which is unquestionably true, but when it comes to
the rest of the arraignment, which is as severe as
language can make it, some allowance must be had
for a would-be proselyter dealing with a people equally
fanatical with his own, and equally convinced of the
righteousness of their religious belief.
THE GKOWTH OF POPULATION'.
The peoples of the Philippines have multiplied
rapidly during the past hundred years or so. Accord-
ing to the recent census, the total population of the
Philippine Archipelago on March 2, 1903, was 7,635,-
426. Of this number 6,987,686 enjoyed a consider-
able degree of civilization, while the remainder,
647,740, consisted of wild people. The civilized peo-
ple, with the exception of those of foreign birth,
THE GROWTH OF POPULATION. 113
were practically all adherents of the (Roman) Catho-
lic Church, while of the peoples here classified as wild
a large proportion, probably more than two-fifths, were
Muhammadans in religion and were well known in
the islands as Moros. The remaining three-fifths
belonged to various tribes, differing from one another
in degrees of barbarism. At the close of the six-
teenth century the subjection of the islands by the
Spaniards was almost as complete as at any later time.
As the conquest extended, the population was par-
celled out amongst soldiers, and others under a sys-
tem of encomiendas, which prevailed from the time
of Legaspi, the first governor, until the beginning of
the seventeenth century. The system, as practiced in
the American possessions of Spain, practically em-
braced slavery, but its extension to the Philippines
was accompanied by several conditions and restric-
tions in the interests of the natives, which, however,
were more or less disregarded. The encomienda was
a royal grant of a certain portion of the land with its
native population, and included the right to collect
from these the trihuto and to enjoy the fruit of their
labor. Soldiers, as they retired from service, had
appropriated to them certain communities for their
special benefit and other villages were reserved for
the King. Ofiacials and favored civilians became
grantees in the same manner. The system naturally
had the effect of extending the settlement of the
country; indeed, it became the chief factor in that
114 THE PHILIPPINES.
movement and eventually the vhole population, aside
from the wild Xegritos and Igorots, and the uncon-
querable Moros, was included in encomiendas. Each
family represented one trihuto and the Spaniards
reckoned four souls to a family.
The RelaciSn de Encomiendas^ submitted to the
King in 1591, reported a total of 166,903 trihutos,
which would give, in approximate figures, a popula-
tion of 667,612 for the territory under military con-
trol. In all probability the total population of the
islands at that time^ including the country of the
Muhammadan Malays, did not much exceed 800,000
During the first two hundred and ^ij years of their
occupation^ the Spaniards, actuated by a policy of pro-
tection toward their other colonies and the merchants
at home trading with them, prohibited all trade of the
Philippines with foreign countries. Thus not only
was commercial development checked, but actual ret-
rogression was effected by the discontinuance of the
trade wMch had existed before the Spanish conquest.
Under such conditions large increase of population
was not to be expected, and we learn from the account
of Father San Antonio, the Franciscan historian,
that in 1735 the islands contained but 837,182 souls.
In 1800 Zuniga estimates the population at 1,561,251.
In the nineteenth century greatly improved eco-
nomic conditions, due to the opening of the country to
the commerce of the world, had a marked effect in
the multiplication of the people. In 1815 Fray
THE GROWTH OF POPULATION. 115
Manuel Buzeta published a notable work entitled a
^'Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Dictionary
of the Philippines/' from which the following is ex-
tracted :
''We have already seen how, in the last years of
the past century and the first of this century, the
political conditions of the Philippines presented in
twenty-five provinces, 1,522,221 souls and 312,251
tributes, and according to the state of the population
published by order of his excellency, the ayuntamiento
of Manila, this population was increasing, so that in
1808 the number of souls was 1,741,034; in 1812
to 1,933,331; in 1815 to 2,052,992; in 1817 to
2,062,805; in 1818 to 2,106,836.
"Various data which we have, and for whose exact-
ness we cannot vouch, give in 1829 2,593,287, and in
1833 a population of 3,153,290. The Guia de Manila
of the year 1840 presents the population as 3,209,077
and compared with the population that w^e have seen
was reported in 1735, it would appear that the 837,-
182 souls of the earlier epoch were to those of 1840
as 1 to 3, a proportion which represents a gain of 283
per cent, in one hundred and five years. In the five
years since, the population of the Philippines had
been increasing at the rate of 1.7 per cent, per year,
so that in 1845 the number of souls was 3,488,258.''
In the fifty-eight years that have elapsed since
Buzeta's enumeration the population of the islands
has more than doubled. 'No doubt, had as complete
116 THE PHILIPPINES.
a census as that of 1903 been taken in 1897, the
figures would have shown a larger population than
at present. Since the latter year the people have been
subject to the effects of war, destruction of industry,
loss of cattle and homes, and, perhaps most serious
of all influences, dreadful visitations of smallpox
and cholera. Doctor Barrows says that 'Hhe con-
clusion to be arived at is that the Christian Philippine
population shows a power of multiplying scarcely
exceeded by any race of people. The hope of building
up here in the course of a few generations a people
equal in numbers and national resources to the Japan-
ese at the present time, does not seem illusory. Given
a prolific stock, expanding prosperity and commerce,
and favorable political conditions, population, as
proved by a hundred historical instances, can go up
by leaps and bounds. I believe that all these con-
ditions together may be realized here in the Philip-
pines. A great deal depends also upon the mental
attitude of the people. If it be hopeful, aspiring,
cheered by increasing gains and opportunities — then
is there added a factor of the utmost consideration.
Population has no deadlier enemy than despondency
and melancholia. There is a deep wisdom in the in-
tentions of the American Government to meet more
than half way the eager ambitions of this race."
EARLY HISTORY.
III.
EARLY HISTORY.
The Discovery of the Philippines — The Inception of Spanish
Dominion — Tlie Chinese Invasion — Internal Dissensions
— Growth of the Ecclesiastical Power — Conflict of Church
and State — The Important Services of the Friars — At-
tempts to Christianize Japan — Dutch Attacks Upon the
Colony — Influx of Chinese Traders — The Spaniards Come
into Contact With the Moros — The British Take Manila
— Uprisings of the Natives.
At the beginning of tlie sixteenth century the two
great maritime powers, Spain and Portugal, were
at the height of their rivalry and in the midst of their
extensive discoveries. In the hope of settling the
frequent disputes as to their respective trading rights
Pope Alexander the Sixth had issued a papal bull, in
1494, dividing the world into two hemispheres, prac-
tically the same as those recognized to-day, and giving
to the Spaniards all heathen lands in the western half
and to the Portuguese all those in the eastern.
The path of Portuguese exploration had been east-
ward, and they had reached Asia by way of the Cape
of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean. Following
the discovery of America the eyes of all the world's
geographers and navigators were turned toward the
west. When Balboa sighted the Pacific a fresh in-
centive was given to adventure, and ardent spirits of
(119)
120 THE PHILIPPINES.
both nations became eager to follow the course of
the setting sun until they should reach the vast ocean
which lay beyond the American continent. Chance
favored the Spaniards, and strangely enough they
owed their success in this instance to a Portuguese
as they had formerly OAved it to a native of Genoa.
In truth, the Spanish discoveries were mainly due
to religious zeal and greed for gold. Their native
sailors were seldom actuated by sheer love of ad-
venture, as were many of the English sea captains of
the same age, or by a desire for scientific investiga-
tion, such as moved Magellan and Columbus.
THE DISCOVEEY OF THE PHILIPPINES.
Hernando de Maghallanes was a Portuguese noble,
a practical mathematician and navigator, and a man
of extraordinary parts. As a soldier and a sailor he
had distinguished himself in a wide field. He served
under the famous Albuquerque in his expedition to
Asia, and took part in the siege of Malacca. Later he
accompanied the expedition to the Moluccas, which
discovered Ternate and other islands. On this oc-
casion he gained information which confirmed his
belief that a passage existed between the two great
oceans of the globe, and he returned to Europe pos-
sessed with a detennination to seek it. Whilst pur-
suing investigations tending toward the execution of
his project, Magellan, to give him the familiar form
of his name, was ordered to the wars in Africa,
DISCOVERY OF THE PHILIPPINES. 121
where he received a wound which rendered him lame
for life. Upon his return he fell a victim to one
of the court intrigues so common at the time. Jeal-
ous of his achievements and favor with the Kins:,
certain nobles made false accusations against him,
which gained the credence of King Emmanuel. Dis-
gusted at the perfidy of his companions in arms
and the ingratitude of his royal master, Magellan re-
nounced his nationality and offered his sendees to the
Spanish monarch. He was graciously received by
King Charles the First and immediately became a
naturalized Spaniard. Magellan was eager to essay
the discovery of a western passage to the Orient, and
the King of Spain readily granted the necessary per-
mission, notwithstanding numerous attempts in the
same direction had failed. An agreement was signed,
by the terms of which the King undertook to defray
the expense of fitting out five ships with their comple-
ment of men-at-arms and sailors. Magellan on his
part agreed to devote his energies to the discovery of
spice islands within the limits of the papal grant.
On the 10th of August, 1519, the fleet sailed out of
the harbor of San Lucar de Barrameda. On the 13th
of December they reached Rio Janeiro and continued
their voyage along the coast in search of the passage
to the Pacific. Soon the hardships incident to such
an undertaking began to breed discontent among the
men and dissensions arose between the captains. Two
of the latter broke into open mutiny. They were put
122 THE PHILIPPINES.
to death by the orders of the commander, and dis-
cipline was restored. On the 2Gth of November,
1520, the expedition had rounded Cape Horn and
found itself in the Pacific Ocean. The fleet, now
reduced to three sails, shipAvreck and desertion ac-
counting for the others, cheerfully headed across the
broad expanse of ocean and, on the 16th of March,
1521, arrived at the island of Limasagua, just off
the south end of Leyte. Magellan continued to
Cebu, where he made a treaty with the Chief, and
ratified it by the ancient Blood Compact of the Ma-
lays. A few days afterwards Magellan accompanied
a war expedition of his new ally to the Island of Mac-
tan and in the affray that followed he was wounded,
probably by a poisoned arrow, and died on the 27th
of April, 1521. Thus ended, in a petty skirmish
with savages, one of the most brilliant lives of the
age.
On the 6th of September, 1622, Juan Sebastian
Elcano, in command of the ''Victoria," representing
all that remained of Magellan's expedition, cast
anchor in the port from which he had started three
years before. In returning from the Philippines, El-
cano had reached Spain by way of the Cape of Good
Hope, thus circumnavigating the earth for the first
time. In token of the achievement his family arms,
created by royal patent, consist of a globe with the
motto: Primus circundedit me. Two more expedi-
tions went to the East in search of spice islands dur-
INCEPTION OF SPANISH DOMINION. 123
ing tlie reign of King Charles, but they accomplished
little beyond increasing the rancour of the Portu-
guese, who complained, not without cause, that the
Spaniards were encroaching upon their territory.
King Philip of Spain w^as a man of strong religious
convictions and proselyting tendencies. He became
possessed of an ambition to subdue and Christianize
the Philippines and ordered an expedition to be pre-
pared in Mexico with that object. In accordance with
the royal instructions the Governor of Mexico fitted
up five ships and manned them Avith four hundred
soldiers and sailors. The command of the expedition
was given to Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, a Spaniard
of noble birth and a man of wide experience, and to
him was delegated the task of representing the King
in such territory as might be occupied by the force.
Under Legaspi, but with a certain degree of inde-
pendence in his particular field, was Andres de LFr-
daneta, an Austin priest, and five friars of his order.
To these missionaries was committed the spiritual
care of all heathens Avho might be brought into sub-
jection by the expedition. This division of authority
foreshadowed the never-ending conflict between the
civil and clerical functionaries in the Philippines dur-
ing the Spanish regime.
THE INCEPTIOISr OF SPANISH DOMINION.
The expedition left ISTavidad in Mexico on the 21st
of I^ovember, 1564, and in the following year, on the
124 THE PHILIPPINES.
27th of April, the anniversary of Magellan's death,
landed at Cebu. This, and some of the neighboring
islands, were subdued and pacified with comparative
ease by the handful of Spaniards.
In 1570, Legaspi, having received reinforcements,
despatched his grandson, Juan Salcedo, to the Island
of Luzon, which had not up to this time been invaded
by the Spaniards. Salcedo probably landed at some
point in the Bay of Manila without opposition. He
was well received by the local chiefs, Raja Lakan
Dola of Tondo, and his nephew, the Eaja Soliman
of Maynila, as it was then called. These chieftains
appear to have surrendered their independence with-
out resistance and a treaty was entered into with
them. Salcedo then proceeded to the district of
Lake Bombon, one of the most populous in the island,
reducing the tribes in his path. He subdued the
province of Batangas and returned to Manila.
The ease with which a few hundred Spaniards were
able to conquer these islands may excite surprise,
but a sufficient explanation is to be found in the
fact that the natives had no political organization
more extensive than that of the ancient clans of Scot-
land and no confederation at all resembling, for in-
stance, that of the Maharatas in Hindustan, or that
of the ^orth American Indians. The greatest num-
ber of fighting men any one chief could oppose to the
invaders was probably less than one thousand, and the
idea of combining for mutual defense does not seem
INCEPTION OF SPANISH DOMINION. 125
to have been entertained. Indeed, the Spaniards
never experienced any serious opposition, or hard
fighting, in their acquisition, or possession, of the
Philippines, unless it was in contests with foreign
enemies, until the Tagalog Rebellion of 1896. Learn-
ing of the success of his forces in Luzon^ Legaspi
repaired to the island and declared Manila the capital
of the Colony. A fort commanding the Pasig was
constructed, a church was built, and houses erected
for the Spaniards.
In August, 1571, Legaspi, the first Governor-Gen-
eral of the Philippines, died and was succeeded by
Guide de Lavezares. Legaspi's life had been a very
useful one to his country, and the speedy pacification
of the Philippines was doubtless due in great measure
to his wisdom and humanity.
The process of subjugating Luzon proceeded rap-
idly under Salcedo and Martin de Goiti, the Maestre
de Campo. On more than one occasion they were ac-
companied in their expeditions by the Rajas of Tondo
and Manila with their armed followers. As a rule,
conquered territory was left in the hands of the native
caciques to govern in the name of the King of Spain.
The Xegritos invariably refused submission, simply
retiring into the mountain fastnesses before the in-
vaders and retaining the independence which they
have to-dav.
Shortly after Legaspi's occupation of Cebu the Por-
tuguese made a weak effort to wrest the possession
126 THE PHILIPPINES.
from liim, but from that time the Spaniards were
not disturbed by foreign interference nntil 1574,
when a formidable invasion by Chinese occurred.
THE CHIInTESE INVASION.
Li Ma Hung was the commander of a powerful
band of corsairs who had for years infested the China
Sea and plundered the coast towns of the Empire.
From Chinese traders he learned of the easy conquest
of Luzon by a few hundred white men and conceived
the idea of displacing them himself. In November,
1574, Li Ma Hung appeared in the Bay of Manila
with a fleet of sixty well-equipped war junks, having
on board four thousand fighting men and sailors. A
portion of this force was landed after several of the
vessels had been destroyed by a gale. The Spaniards
appear to have been surprised, and it was not until
the Chinese were within the confines of the city that
any resistance was offered to them. The defenders
took refuge in the fort, which would probably have
been carried by assault but for the opportune arrival
of a small body of fresh troops before whom the Chi-
nese fled under the impression that they were the van-
guard of an army. Two days later the Chinese re-
newed the attack, but in the meanwhile Salcedo had
arrived at Manila with reinforcements and the charge
of the defense was committed to him.
The Chinese landed fifteen hundred picked men,
who proceeded to burn the city before storming the
Chinese Mestizos.
The Chinese quarter in Binondo, showing the manner
in which bamboo is floated to market on the canal.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood tt T'nderwood. New Yr^'k
THE CHINESE INVASION. 127
fort. The latter was no more than a stockade
strengthened with a few cnlverins. The Chinese as-
saulted furiously under cover of a shower of hand
grenades and at length broke into the enclosure.
Here the most desperate hand-to-hand fighting oc-
curred with the result in the balance for a time.
Eventually the Chinese were repulsed with great
slaughter. Salcedo followed them up in their retreat
and inflicted heavy loss upon them.
Li Ma Hung now abandoned the attempt to take
Manila, but determined to make a settlement else-
where. He sailed northward along the coast till he
arrived at the mouth of the Agno, up which for a
short distance he took his vessel and debarked. The
natives offered no opposition, and the Chinese, ex-
pecting to be left in peace by the Spaniards, erected
houses and a pagoda.
For some months the invaders were undisturbed,
but at length Salcedo, having collected a force of
two hundred and fifty Spanish men-at-arms and six-
teen hundred w^ell-armed natives, with artillery, came
upon the Chinese settlement and laid siege to it. For
some time Li Ma Hung held out, but realizing the
hopelessness of his situation, took advantage of an op-
portunity to slip out of the river with his fleet. This
manoeuvre necessitated his leaving the major part of
his • troops behind, and these, having no further in-
centive for fight, fled to the mountains. It is gener-
ally believed that from these refugees are descended
128 THE PHILIPPINES.
in large part the numerous Chino-Igorots of the prov-
ince of Pangasinan.
IITTERNAL DISSENSIONS.
Almost with the inception of the orderly adminis-
tration of the colony began the internal dissensions
which have always characterized the Spanish rule of
the Philippines. The Governor-General, the Supreme
Court, and the religious Orders, perpetually con-
tended with one another and the last among them-
selves. Questions of respective authority were con-
stantly in dispute between the civil and ecclesiastical
officers, often culminating in disgraceful scenes and
acts. The jealous antagonism of the friars of one
Order toward those of another retarded the work of all
and, what was worse, not infrequently destroyed their
influence with the natives. Add to this the vacillat-
ing and ill-advised policy of the Spanish Government
with regard to the Philippines and it would be diffi-
cult to imagine a condition of affairs less conducive
to the generation and growth of political and com-
mercial prosperity in a newly-acquired country.
The Spanish colony of Mexico was governed by an
excellent code of laws, termed the Leyes de Indias.
These were applied to the Philippine Islands, and had
they been observed, conditions must have been very
different. The entire system of justice was cumber-
some and ill-adapted to the conditions, and, indeed,
it remained so to the last. Corruption entered into
ECX^LESIASTICAL POWER. 129
every branch of the government from an early date,
and, although the home authorities devised measures
to prevent the exploitation of the islands by adven-
turers, they were frequently avoided and little check
was placed upon the dishonesty of officials. These
were not the shortcomings and failures of a govern-
ment contending with the difficulties of an experi-
mental problem, but the natural results of the system
which obtained during the entire tenure of the islands
by Spain.
Civilians and missionaries consulted their own in-
terests regardless of the rights of the natives, or of
the prohibitions of law and royal writs. The Spanish
alcaldes and encomendei'os maltreated the natives at
their pleasure and extorted from them the fruits of
their labor.
Slavery was practiced by all classes of Spaniards,
and a royal decree prohibiting it was opposed by the
governor. These and other abuses led to frequent
uprisings, so that twenty years after the death of
Legaspi the islands were in a less pacific state than
that in which he left them.
GROWTH OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL POWER.
Perhaps the chief weakness in the Spanish rule
of the Philippines lay in the undue deference and
consideration paid to the friars and their interests by
the Spanish Government. Valuable concessions were
constantly made to them; their power in the islands
9
130 THE PHILIPPINES.
was ever on the increase and always had the support
of the national government; they were permitted to
interfere with increasing influence in state affairs
nntil the tenure of office of Governors-General and
other officials depended upon their good-will; their
grievances met with ready redress at Madrid, and
complaints against them seldom received considera-
tion.
Members of the Augustin Order, who came with
Legaspi's expedition, were the first friars in the
Philippines, and they strove hard to prevent the in-
coming of other Orders. However, the Franciscans,
Jesuits, Dominicans^ and, last of all, the Eecoletos
succeeded, with more or less difficulty, in entering
the country, each Order in turn being opposed by the
members of others which already had representation
in the islands. It was sought to minimize their dis-
sensions by dividing the territory between them, but
quarrels were nevertheless frequent.
The friars were vowed to poverty and to monastic
life. From the latter condition the Pope exempted
them of necessity, but only temporarily, and until
secular clergy could be provided to take their places
in the native communities. They invariably arrived
poor, and the allowance for their maintenance was
no more than sufficient to keep them in ordinary com-
fort, but the Orders became the recipients of dona-
tions from devotees and received large bequests, so
that in a short while they had become rich landed
ECCLESIASTICAL POWER. 131
proprietors. In 1601, the wealth of the friars hav-
ing become notorions, the King commissioned the
Auditor to make a report on their property. The
friars, however, refused to give the Auditor any in-
formation, and the Archbishop threatened to excom-
municate him unless he ceased the investigation. As
usual with all movements that had the disapproval of
the ecclesiastics, the matter was dropped.
In 1653 the friars successfully combatted the order
of the Pope to subject them to the authority of the
bishops. They maintained that they were amenable
to no control except by the superiors of their respec-
tive Orders. The point was never settled, and was
the cause of numerous disputes and much litigation.
The differences between the various Orders seldom
prevented them from opposing a solid front to any-
thing looking like an invasion of their general inter-
ests.
Royal decrees were heeded as little as the mandates
of the local authorities. In response to repeated
complaints the King ordered the friars to cease from
persuading dying men to will their property to the
clergy ; from obliging women to enter domestic ser-
vice in their houses under the pretext of learning
Christian doctrine ; from charging the natives fees
for the administration of the sacrament; and from
other well-known abuses. ^Reither then nor at any
later time was there a perceptible decrease in these
practices.
132 THE PHILIPPINES.
The constant conflicts between the representatives
of Church and State were a perpetual impediment to
the administration of government, and, indeed, at
times plunged it into a condition bordering upon an-
archy. It was impossible for a viceroy to perform
his duties fearlessly and impartially. He might never
depend upon loyalty and obedience in the people, or
subordinate officials, when the clerical influence was
liable to be exerted against him at any time. So
jealous were the ecclesiastics of what they considered
to be their prerogatives that differences between them
and the civil power often arose from the most trivial
circumstances and sometimes involved the most seri-
ous consequences.
CONFLICT OF CHURCH AND STATE.
Toward the middle of the seventeenth century a
Spaniard in Manila murdered a female slave and
afterwards sought sanctuary in a convent. The Gov-
ernor, Hurtado de Corcuera, caused him to be dragged
from his asylum and publicly executed. This w^as
the occasion for a violent dispute between the Gov-
ernor and Archbishop. The latter closed all the
churches of the city, doubtless with a view to enlisting
the sympathy of the populace upon his side. In this
instance the Jesuits upheld the Governor and were
forbidden by the Archbishop to preach in any public
place under pain of fine and excommunication.
Finally a strong coalition of clerics was formed
CONFLICT OF CHURCH AND STATE. 133
against the prelate. He was excommunicated; his
property was seized, and his office suspended. He
appealed to the Supreme Court, but the answer of
that body was to impose an additional fine upon him.
Eventually he made total submission and issued an
official decree admitting his guilt and expressing re-
pentance.
Soon afterwards the Archbishop, smarting under
his recent humiliation, seized another opportunity to
oppose the civil authority. The Supreme Court, in-
stigated by the Governor, resolved to oust him from
his See and banish him from the city. In pursuit
of this determination a body of soldiers was sent
to arrest him. The Archbishop awaited the troops
in the Cathedral, holding the Host aloft in his hands.
The soldiers doggedly remained until the prelate w^as
forced by fatigue to replace the sacred object upon
the altar, when they seized him and carried him to the
uninhabited island of Corregidor, in Manila Bay.
Again the Archbishop made an unconditional sur-
render and was permitted to resume his office.
On account of his part in these events Governor
Corcuera was imprisoned for five years by his succes-
sor, but upon his release and return to Spain the King
rewarded his services with the appointment of Gov-
ernor of the Canaries. Such uncertainty as to the
consequences of his proceedings was sufficient to
paralyze the actions of any executive officer.
Governor-General Diego Salcedo, during his entire
134 THE PHILIPPINES.
term of office (1663-1668), contested the interference
of the then Archbishop (Poblete) in civil affairs. The
persistent refusal of the Archbishop to comply with
certain royal decrees relating to Church appointments
led the Governor to expel him from Manila. lie
was allowed to return upon promise of good be-
havior, but the friction between the functionaries
continued until the death of Poblete. The Governor
exhibited his joy at this event by ordering a festival
in celebration of it. This indiscretion brought the
full power of the Church, with the approval of the
King, against the ill-fated Governor. He was seized
by order of the Inquisition and cast into a dungeon,
where he suffered extreme privation for years. He
died on board ship a prisoner consigned to the tender
mercies of the 8an Oficio in Mexico.
The successor, like the predecessor, of Salcedo
contrived to preserve peace with the representatives
of the Church by the simple, if unsatisfactory,
method of allowing them to have their own way in
all matters, whether or not they came properly within
the province of the Church.
With the assumption of office by Juan de Vargas in
1678 the old troubles broke out afresh, and culminated
in the banishment of the Archbishop. Upon the ex-
piration of the Governor's term the cleric sought to
inflict a public penance upon the former in expiation
of his offense, but N^argas was protected by his suc-
cessor in office, Fernando de Bustamente, from the
vengeance of the Archbishop.
CONFLICT OF CHURCH AND STATE. 135
Governor-General Bustamente, having discovered
serious irregularities in the management of the royal
treasury, determined to institute reforms in the col-
lection and disposition of public moneys. It was
a righteous, but extremely daring, step to take when
every branch of the government was seamed with cor-
ruption. A conspiracy was set on foot which in-
cluded high civilian officials and of course was sup-
ported by the ecclesiastics, who had other grievances
against the Executive. The Archbishop attempted the
arrest of a judge of the Supreme Court, who in turn
issued warrants against the Prelate and his follow-
ers and the former was imprisoned. A riot ensued,
in which it is said the friars sought to enlist the
Chinese residents. Priests of each of the Orders,
except that of Jesus, led the mob in an attack upon
the palace of the Governor. The guards lowered their
arms before the upraised crucifixes of the friars,
who headed the rioters. The Governor boldly faced
the mob with a gun, but it missed fire and he was
cut do^m. Dying and in agony he w^as dragged to
jail, where nothing in alleviation of his suffering was
permitted, even water being denied him. He died in
the evening of the same day.
Meanwhile Bustamente's son, who had come to his
father's assistance, was shot and thrown into the
stable of the palace, where he lay for hours without
any kind of relief until he expired. ]^o one was
ever punished for the murders and other crimes com-
136 THE PHILIPPINES.
mitted on this occasion. Indeed, the chief instigator
of the affair, the Archbishop, assumed the head of
the Government upon the death of Fernando de Bus-
tamente and was permitted to retain the position for
nine years, after which he was promoted to a See
in Mexico.
The strife between Church and State continued,
with only brief intervals of peace, during the terms
of succeeding Governors, three of whom are said to
have died in consequence of the grief and shame
brought upon them in these conflicts.
UNWISE MEASURES KESPONSIBLE.
As between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities
it is extremely difficult to apportion blame fairly.
The data at the command of the student of Philippine
history is never wholly reliable nor impartial, but
the records and chronicles of the time clearly estab-
lish the fact that Spaniards of all classes, laymen and
clergy, fell woefully short of the performance of their
complete duty. But the chief and fundamental fac-
tor in the maladministration of the colony was the
system of government that was applied to it. There
can be no doubt about the good intentions and hu-
manitarian motives of the legislators in Madrid, but
the measures adopted for the execution of their de-
signs were frequently characterized by the utmost
unwisdom.
SERVICES OF THE FRIARS. 137
The condemnation of the friars should be tempered
by a recognition of their inestimable services.
THE IMPOETANT SERVICES OF THE FRIARS.
What noticeable degree of progress has been at-
tained in the islands is mainly dne to them, and v^^ith-
out them Avonld not have been achieved. That they
labored hard and effectively for the conversion and
civilization of the natives is indisputable; that they
w^ere moved by a sincere, if sometimes misapplied,
zeal for the promotion of religion must be admitted ;
and that they displayed wonderful devotion and cour-
age in the pursuit of what they considered their re-
ligious duties cannot be questioned. The story of the
padre of Taal is touching testimony to the bravery
and self-abnegation which was characteristic of most
of his fellows. When we turn with natural disgust
from the picture of priests leading a mob of howling
rioters in Manila, it were well to cast back a century
in the history of Philippine evangelization and look
upon the fervent friar penetrating the wilderness
upon his solitary mission with crucifix and missal
in hand ; braving a thousand unfamiliar dangers,
reckless of his life, cheerfully inhabiting a shack
amongst savages, with no thought but for their wel-
fare. We can forgive the pampered priest of later
days much for the sake of the memory of his pioneer
prototype.
It must not be supposed that, although the priests
138 THE PHILIPPINES.
in the capital and the richer parishes lived luxuri-
ously, the lot of the average friar was one of ease.
On the contrary, the life of the majority was devoid
of pleasure, or even comforts. For years, more or
less, according to the ability he displaj^ed, the mis-
sionary, after coming into the field, was obliged to
live under conditions scarcely differing from those
of the natives under his charge. His allowance was
barely sufficient to supply the demands of decency.
He was cut off from civilization, often not seeing a
w^hite man for weeks and months at a stretch. The
climate and diet w^ere not the greatest of his trials in
an entirely strange environment, and it is greatly to
the credit of the class that there was never a lack
of ready and eager volunteers with a full understand-
ing of what was before them.
The friars never deserted their flocks in time of
danger: on the contrary, they have always been fore-
most in relief and encouragement. More than one
priest has fallen to the fire of an invading enemy,
and in time of stress the friar's frock has ever been
found to the front. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
and epidemics have always found them steadfast at
their posts. [N^umerous charitable and educational
institutions owe their being to the Orders, and cer-
tain of their members have made notable contributions
to the cause of science.
The friars frequently protected the natives against
the severities of the encomenderos and the civil power.
SERVICES OF THE FRIARS. 139
In the earlier days they were generally on the most
amicable terms with their parishioners, and their in-
flnence with the natives was the chief factor in en-
abling the Spaniards to hold the country without
the aid of a commanding force.
Some writers expatiate unnecessarily upon the im-
morality of the priests, which they pretend to have
been almost universal. There is no doubt that the
charge is justified in the cases of several, but the
sweeping indictment of the class is neither supported
by evidence nor probability. Those who, like Fore-
man and Younghusband, are familiar with life in the
tropics, might be expected to make allowance for the
frailties of a comparatively small number of the only
body of voluntary celibates east of Suez.
The power of the friars for good was rapidly wan-
ing before the Spanish-American War put an end to
their control. With the growing enlightenment of the
natives and the spread of education among them, the
influence of the priests, which had always owed much
of its force to superstitious ignorance, began to fail.
Political and religious unity had formed a basis for
a national spirit, such as had never existed before,
and which now began to exhibit itself in sundry mani-
festations of a desire for independence. There was
no place for the old-time friar in the new order of
things. He had become an anachronism. Even
though he had been willing, he was quite unable to
adapt himself to the changed conditions. The very
u
140 THE PHILIPPINES.
forces that operated against him were of his own cre-
ation.
The fanaticism of the friars often led them into
serious errors of judgment, but no matter how severely
we may condemn the resultant acts, w^e must admire
the splendid courage displayed in the prosecution of
their convictions, which finds a striking illustration
in the story of the attempted conversion of Japan.
ATTEMPTS TO CHRISTIANIZE JAPAIS'.
At the close of the sixteenth century the Emperor
of Japan, w^hose people had for long maintained
trade relations with Luzon, sent an ambassador to
Manila. He was well received and the Governor-
General in turn despatched an embassy to Japan,
where a commercial treaty was effected and the
Spanish representatives set sail for the Philippines,
accompanied by a party of Japanese nobles and mer-
chants, but the ship with all hands went down upon
the way. A second expedition w^as despatched, and
on this occasion the purpose of proselyting was dis-
tinctly provided for. Fray Pedro Bautista was ap-
pointed ambassador, and his suite included three other
priests. A new treaty of commerce was entered into
and Bautista secured permission for himself and his
fellow priests to remain indefinitely in Japan and to
build a church near Osaka.
A Portuguese settlement of traders had been es-
tablished for many years at ^N'agasaki, wdiere they had
ATTEMPTS TO CHRISTIANIZE JAPAN. 141
a Jesuit Mission, whose priests had apparently con-
ducted their affairs and effected their conversions with
the tactful diplomacy characteristic of the members
of the Order of Jesus, for they seem to have had no
friction with the Japanese authorities. Bautista and
his companions did not observe the same prudence in
their actions, and soon incurred the displeasure of the
Emperor on account of their too open and zealous
proselyting. An order of expulsion was issued
against them, but, although their leader set sail for
Manila, the other three Franciscans remained. One
of them was thrown into prison and his colleagues be-
came refugees. Fray Bautista's return to the Philip-
pines did not betoken abandonment of the project
by any means. In fact, his purpose was solely to
secure reinforcements, and he soon landed in Japan
again with a number of friars. This proceeding, in
the face of his prohibition, seriously angered the Em-
peror, who ordered the arrest of all the Franciscan
priests and their native followers. Twenty-six of
these, including Pedro Bautista, were put to an
ignominious death. After their ears and noses had
been cut off they were paraded about the country and
finally crucified at Nagasaki. Meanwhile no restric-
tions were put upon the priests of the Portuguese
settlement.
The horrible end of the Franciscan missionaries,
far from deterring their brethren from similar ef-
forts, seems to have created a zealous enthusiasm.
142 THE PHILIPPINES.
Xumbers of priests in the guise of traders succeeded
in landing in Japan, and for twenty years or more
the influx continued, despite that they were killed
w^henever discovered. At length the Emperor was
forced to issue an edict imposing the penalty of death
upon all who might carry priests to the country and
the forfeiture of any ship in which a priest had
come. This led the owners of vessels to decline to
convey missionaries to Japan, and the Archbishop and
Governor added their prohibition.
I^ot deterred by these difliculties the heads of
the Orders bought a vessel and paid a large premium
to the crew to carry a number of friars and smuggle
them into Japan. Ten priests were thus landed and
shortly afterwards met death at the stake.
Following this disaster $10,000 was subscribed
in Manila for the purpose of shipping another party
of would-be martyrs to Japan. On this occasion
thirty-six priests, a greater number than had ever
sailed at one time before, embarked, but the vessel
was wrecked upon the coast of Ilocos.
A large junk was next prepared at a distance from
Manila for the same purpose, but before it could sail
the Governor interfered and from that time strictly
interposed his power and authority against further
missionary enterprise in the same direction. Thus
after forty years' endeavor the Philippine friars aban-
doned the project of Christianizing Japan only when
it was physically impossible to proceed with it.
DUTCH ATTACKS UPON THE COLONY. 143
DUTCH ATTACKS UPON THE COLONY.
During the sixteenth and the first half of the fol-
lowing century Spain and Holland were bitter ene-
mies, and their fleets were constantly in collision.
Dutch privateers infested the waters about the eastern
possessions of Spain. They lay in wait for the Span-
ish treasure galleons from Mexico, and occasionally
secured a rich prize. On the other hand, the Span-
iards in the Philippines from time to time fitted out
expeditions to attack the Dutch settlements in the
Moluccas. *
During the Governorship of Juan de Silva (1609-
1616) a Dutch squadron anchored off the entrance to
Manila Bay. It happened that owing to recent losses
by shipwreck and the absence of several vessels the
naval forces of the Philippines were unusually weak
and in no condition to withstand the enemy. The
Dutchmen lay in the path of Chinese and Japanese
traders and secured an immense booty. In this oc-
cupation several months passed and meanwhile the
Spaniards Avere enabled to prepare an armament.
The Governor took advantage of the superstitious fail-
ings of the age to pretend a dream in which Saint
Mark had appeared to him and promised aid against
the enemy. For several days previous to the battle
holy images and relics Avere exposed to public view
and carried in procession through the city. The
clergy exhorted the populace and did much to dispel
the prevailing dread.
144 THE PHILIPPINES
De Silva had determined to risk everything upoTi
the impending fight, and in the event of a decisive
victory by the Dutch, Manila must have fallen into
their hands. The Governor took the command in
person and embarked all the available Spaniards, to
the number of one thousand, together with a large
force of natives, upon the eight ships A\^ich formed
the line of battle.
The Battle of Playa Hondo was fought on Saint
Mark's day. After a fierce fight^ that lasted for six
hours, the Dutch were completely defeated, three of
their ships were destroyed, and merchandise to the
value of $300,000 was captured.
In 1626 the Spaniards from the Philippines made
a settlement upon the island of Formosa, but it was
neglected, and in 1642 fell into the hands of the
Dutch, who held it until they were driven out by
the Chinese about twenty years later.
Iiq^FLUX OF CHII^ESE TEADEKS.
With a view to the development of the commerce
of the islands Legaspi encouraged the Chinese traders
and passed protective measures for their benefit. Pre-
vious to this the dealings of Chinese traders had
been conducted on board their junks, and even that
precaution did not save them from being occasionally
boarded and pillaged by the natives. In time the
Chinese gained sufficient confidence to come ashore
with their wares, and before the close of the sixteenth
INFLUX OF CHINESE TRADERS, 145
century they were paying rent for the land they oc-
cupied.
As the numbers of Chinese merchants in Manila
grew, the Government provided them with a large
building, which w^as called the Alcayceria. This was
a large square of shops with a dwelling room above
each. It was opened in 1580 in the section of Bi-
nondo. Later on, when the Chinese had outgrown
the Alcayceria, another and much larger center was
provided for them. This was the celebrated Parian,
or market place, which was demolished by order of
the Government in 1860.
In the middle of the sixteenth century the Span-
iards w^re alarmed by the threatened invasion of the
Chinese who had wrested Formosa from the Dutch
settlers. The apprehension of the residents of Manila
was increased by the presence in their midst of a large
body of Mongols with whom no ties had been formed.
With a view to disposing of this internal danger be-
fore the arrival of the expected enemy, the Chinese
traders of the Parian were incited to an act of vio-
lence. This was made the pretext for turning artil-
lery upon the quarter. A great number, probably
thousands, of the Mongols were killed in the assault
that followed. In the opinion of Juan de la Con-
cepcion it had been the original intention of the
Spaniards to slaughter all the Chinese, who numbered
about ten thousand, but they were restrained by the
thought of the loss to themselves that would inevitably
10
146 THE PHILIPPINES.
ensue, for, as the historian says, ''without the trade
and commerce of the Chinese these dominions could
not have subsisted."* In addition to the foreign trade
which was conducted by them, almost all the mechan-
ical industries of Manila were in the hands of the
Chinese.
In 1603 a serious uprising of the Chinese oc-
curred. It seems impossible to learn the true cause
that led to this appalling affair, but it would appear
that the rapid growth of the Mongol colony had ex-
cited the apprehensions of the Spaniards with whom
the fear of a Chinese invasion was a periodical night-
mare from the time of Li Ma Hung's incursion. On
this occasion a crisis was reached when two mandarins
arrived in the Philippines as ambassadors from the
Emperor of China. After their departure prepara-
tions for defense were pushed with feverish haste.
Troops were drilled, arms and artillery were over-
hauled, and the natives were ordered to carry their
weapons constantly. The Chinese in Manila looked
upon these preparations as a menace to themselves,
as no doubt they were, and proceeded to raise for-
tifications outside the city. Finally the frightened
Chinese began hostilities by burning houses in the
suburbs and threatening the city. Of a picked body
of one hundred Spanish troops led by an ex-governor-
*Historia General de Philipinas. Juan de la Concepeion.
14 Vols. Manila, 1788. De la Concepeion estimates the number
of Chinese in the Philippines in 1638 at 33,000.
INFLUX OF CHINESE TRADERS. 147
general, which was sent against them, hardly one
escaped with his life. Elated by this victory, the
Chinese proceeded to lay siege to the city, and a long
struggle ensued, in which they were finally repulsed
and fled. They w^ere pursued for miles, and utterly
scattered. It is said that upwards of eighteen thou-
sand Chinese were slain in this uprising. In 1639,
and again in 1660, similar outbreaks occurred, and
were only quelled after thousands of the Orientals
had lost their lives.
In 1755 it was resolved to expel and to ex-
clude all non-Christian Chinese. Before the date
of its execution this decree was evaded by a large
number, who became baptized, or signified their inten-
tion to do so. The order of expulsion was enforced
against upwards of two thousand residents, and for
a time newcomers were rigidly excluded.
In 1763 the Chinese joined the British invaders,
and as a consequence great numbers of them were
killed in the provinces where the Spaniards retained
control of the country.
Foreman-^ says : ''Except a few Europeans and a
score of Western Asiatics, the Chinese who remained
were the only merchants in the Archipelago. The
natives had neither knowledge, tact, energy, nor de-
sire to compete with them. They cannot at this day
do so successfully, and the Chinese may be considered
*The Philippine Islands. John Foreman, F. R. G. S New
York, 1899.
148 THE PHILIPPINES.
a boon to the colony, for without them, living would be
much dearer, commodities and labor of all kinds more
scarce, and the export and import trade much em-
barrassed. The Chinese are really the people who
gave to the natives their first notions of trade, indus-
try, and fruitful work. They taught them, amongst
many other useful things, the extraction of saccharine
juice from sugar-cane and the working of wrought
iron. They introduced into the colony the first
sugar-mills with vertical stone crushers and iron
boiling-pans."
The history of the last hundred and fifty years
shoAvs that the Chinese, although tolerated, were al-
ways regarded by the Spanish colonists as an imwel-
come race, and the natives have learned from example
to despise them. From time to time, especially since
the year 1763, the feeling against them has run very
high.
During the nineteenth century the status of the
Chinese was much improved. Many of them have
adopted Christianity and have married native women.
Important Government contracts have at times been
made with Chinamen, and some few have received
public recognition in the form of decorations and
titles.
Their numbers have steadily increased since the
enactment of the exckision law in the eighteenth cen-
tury, many ways of evading which have been devised
by the wily Oriental. That the influx has continued
SPANIARDS' CONTACT WITH THE MOROS. 149
during recent years is shown by the Census return
of over forty thousand Chinese of foreign birth.
THE SPANIARDS COME INTO CONTACT WITH THE
MOROS.
During the early years of the Spanish occupation
no attention was paid to Mindanao and the Sulu
Archipelago, and the Moros on their part seemed to
have refrained from encroaching upon the islands
under Spanish control. In 1596 a Portuguese"^
adventurer obtained the royal sanction to attempt
the conquest of Mindanao. The expedition, which
consisted of one vessel carrying men-at-arms and the
invariable complement of priests, ended disastrously.
The commander and several of the soldiers were killed
and the ship returned to Manila, having accomplished
nothing more than arousing the resentment of the
Muhammadans.
From this time commenced the troubles with the
southern natives, which continued over a period of
two hundred and fifty years. Hitherto the piracy,
which was the chief occupation of those people, had
been confined to the waters adjacent to their own ter-
ritory, but they now began to extend their depreda-
tions to the northern islands. The sultans of Min-
danao and Sulu entered into an offensive and de-
fensive alliance against the Spaniards and co-operated
*From 1581 to 1640, Portugal was an appanage of the Spanish
Crown.
150 THE PHILIPPINES.
in the organization of piratical expeditions. They
never lacked for men to man their ships from a popu-
lation of sea-faring freebooters by heredity, and they
were well armed. I^o portion of the Archipelago was
free from the incursions of the Muhammadans, who
swooped, in their war jnnks, upon coast towns, plun-
dered and burned, and were at sea again before any
punitive force could reach the spot. The principal
part of their booty consisted of captives who were
carried into slaverv. Amonff these were sometimes
white men, and priests were regarded as particularly
desirable prizes.
These depredations seriously impeded the devel-
opment of coast towns and inter-island traffic. The
effects were especially severe in the Visayas, some of
the islands of which were almost depopulated in con-
sequence, and all of their inhabitants were reduced
to a condition of abject poverty, so that the Govern-
ment was more than once constrained to remit all
taxes. Each succeeding governor essayed the task
of suppressing these marauders. Countless expedi-
tions were despatched against them. They were at-
tacked on land and at sea. A garrison was main-
tained in Mindanao at great expense. All these meas-
ures proved ineffectual to suppress the scourge, and
it was not until the introduction of gunboats that the
Spaniards succeeded in getting the upper hand. The
Moros were never, however, subdued by the Span-
iards. Some of the chiefs made nominal submission
LoMA Chubch.
This is one of the churches that were originally built
with an eye to defense, as may be seen from the high
port-like windows and thick walls. It was the scene
of hard fighting in the Tagalog Eebellion.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
/ ...
I'
THE BRITISH TAKE MANILA. 151
while retaining actual independence, and several cam-
paigns were conducted in Mindanao during the last
twenty years of Spanish occupancy of the Philip-
pines.
THE BRITISH TAKE MANILA.
In 1762 England declared war against France and
Spain, and a British fleet was despatched to the
Philippines. It arrived in September of that year
under Admiral Cornish, with General Draper in
command of the troops. The British squadron
anchored in Manila Bay and two officers were sent
ashore to demand the surrender of the city, which was
refused. The entire garrison of Manila at the time
consisted of six hundred soldiers with eighty pieces
of artillery, whilst the British force numbered three
thousand seamen, fifteen hundred European soldiers,
and about a thousand Sipahis.
Troops were landed from the British vessels and a
siege and bombardment of the city commenced. Dur-
ing the first week of the attack the defenders were re-
inforced by five thousand native troops, with whom
an assault in three columns upon the British posi-
tions was made. Thev were beaten back with loss
and the natives dispersed through the province. On
the 5th of October the British troops entered the walls
of the city and upon the following day Manila was
given up by the Archbishop, who was acting-Governor
at this time. By the terms of this capitulation the
162 THE PHILIPPINES.
entire Archipelago was surrendered and an indemnity
of four millions of dollars was agreed upon. The day
before the capitulation a judge of the Supreme Court,
named Simon de Anda j Salazar, escaped in a native
boat and fled to the Province of Bulacan, where he
proclaimed himself Governor-General, and affected
to ignore the action of the Archbishop. Simon de
Anda raised troops among the natives and carried on
a guerilla war until the British evacuated the islands,
which they did early in 1764.
During the period of something more than a year
of British occupancy, Luzon was in a condition of
extreme disturbance. In the provinces lawless-
ness was rampant and necessarily unchecked. It
was some years before the effects of this violent dis-
turbance of the administration of government had
subsided.
The most notable of these affairs was the rising in
Ilocos Sur under the leadership of one Diego de
Silan, a native Christian. The city of Vigan was
taken and sacked; the friars were held for ransom
and the surrounding neighborhood was pillaged.
Silan made his headquarters at Vigan and issued a
manifesto in which he declared that Jesus of Kazareth
was Captain-General of the district and that himself
was His Alcalde. Silan sent a messenger to Manila
conveying his acknowledgment of the sovereignty of
the King of England, and the British Governor seems
to have appointed him Alcalde Mayor.
THE BRITISH TAKE MANILA. 153
This rebellion was only suppressed with the assas-
sination of Silan in May, 1763.
The Island of Luzon was not pacified until 1765,
after the Spaniards had lost, according to Zuniga,"'^
seventy of their countrymen and one hundred and
forty native soldiers. The rebels are said, by the
same authority, to have lost ten thousand lives in these
uprisings.
The conduct of Simon de Anda during this crisis
in the affairs of the Colony met with the approval of
the King, and a few years afterwards he was ap-
pointed Governor-General. His first act was to wreak
vengeance upon all who had opposed him in his self-
constituted authority and upon others with whom his
uncontrollable temper and imperious disposition had
brought him in conflict. He imprisoned several mili-
tary officers and officials, and others he sent back to
Spain. He quarreled with the clergy, and in fact
created enemies on all sides. The consequent spirit
of unrest and hostility to the Executive spread from
Manila to the provinces, and the term of Anda, which
expired with his death in 1776, was marked by a num-
♦ "Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas o mis viajes por este
pais, por el Fadre Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga, Augustino
calzado. Publica esta obra por primera vez extensamente
anotada, W. E. Retana. Two Vols,, 1893. Although ^Yritten
in 1803 and drawn upon by later writers, notably Buzeta,
this valuable book remained in manuscript form for ninety
years.
154 THE PHILIPPINES.
ber of riots and rebellions in different parts of the
island.
UPKISINGS OF THE NATIVES.
The entire period of Spanish occupation of the
Archipelago was marked by revolutionary movements
and uprisings of more or less gravity in different
parts of the islands. There were numerous causes
for the spirit of discontent that led to these dis-
turbances. Amongst the most important may be
mentioned the system of encomiendas; conscrip-
tion for military service ; enforced labor for the Gov-
ernment without remuneration ; taxation and com-
pulsory contributions to the Church ; the conduct of
the friars and their exactions ; and the maladminis-
tration of Spanish minor officials in the provinces.
These causes led through many minor movements of
a similar character in a gradually rising tide of
rebellion to the Tagalog outbreak in 1896.
In 1622 the natives of the island of Bohol broke
into resistance to the missionaries. They burned sev-
eral churches and otherwise inflicted damage upon
the towns before they were subdued. A more serious
rising in 1744 in the same island is said to have
been occasioned by the tyranny of a priest who ab-
rogated to himself the powers of a magistrate and
caused natives to be confined at his pleasure. It
seems that the priest had ordered the body of a
native to lie unburied until it decomposed. The
UPRISINGS OF THE NATIVES. 155
brother of the latter, a man named Dagohoy, killed
the priest in revenge and raised the standard of
revolt.
A large number of disaffected natives joined the
rebel, and the band maintained its independence for
thirty-five years, during which time the Government
frequently found it necessary to send troops against
them. Finally Dagohoy and his followers surren-
dered on condition of receiving a full pardon.
Leyte was the scene of an insurrection in 1622,
when it became necessary for the Governor of Cebu
to reinforce the local Governor w^th forty vessels and
troops before peace could be restored. In 1649 the
Governor-General decided to press natives of Samar
into service at the Cavite Arsenal. The result was a
serious uprising under a native named Sumoroy. The
rebels killed a priest and burned several churches
before they took to the hills. This outbreak was only
crushed with difficulty and not until the leader had
been betrayed by some of his own people.
The riots of 1649 extended to other provinces for
the same reason. In Albay the natives rose ; in Mas-
bate Island they killed a Spanish officer ; a priest was
murdered in Zamboanga ; a Spaniard was assassinated
in Cebu ; and several Europeans lost their lives in
Caraga and Butuan. In 1660 the natives of Pam-
pahga and Pangasinan broke into revolt as the result
of an order to cut timber for the Government. The
insurgents formed three bodies aggregating upwards
156 THE PHILIPPINES.
of ten thousand armed men under the leadership of
''King'' Malong. Ilocos province declared for the
rebel chief and furnished him with a body of recruits.
Reinforcements came in from every hand until Ma-
long was enabled to take the field with forty thousand
followers. Against this formidable uprising the
Spaniards sent several detachments of troops and a
flotilla of armed vessels. The insurgents were routed
at all points and their leaders hanged.
In 1823 a body of native troops, headed by a creole
officer named N^ovales, attempted to seize the capital
and subvert the Government. In 1827 Cebu and
several other towns of the island Avere the scenes of
violent outbreaks, and in 1844 the Governor of N^egros
Island was killed in a rising due, it is said, to the
forced employment of State prisoners on the Gov-
ernor's private account.
What is known as the Cavite Insurrection occurred
in 1872. A portion of the native troops was im-
plicated in this affair. They took possession of the
Arsenal expecting to be supported by their accom-
plices in Manila, but through some misunderstanding
as to the signal for the uprising the plan for co-
operation failed. The mutinous soldiers were soon
suppressed.
For alleged complicity in this affair Doctor Joseph
Burgos and three other native priests were executed
and several native clergy and laymen were banished
from the country. The victims had made themselves
UPRISINGS OF THE NATIVES. 157
odious to the Spanish clergy by demanding the en-
forcement of the enactments of the Council of Trent,
which Avould have required the friars to retire from
their incumbencies to monastic life.
There appears to be evidence that the friars insti-
gated the Cavite outbreak with a view to inculpating
the native priests.
THE PASSING OF SPANISH DOMINION.
IV.
THE PASSING OF SPANISH DOMINION.
Birth of the Katipunan— The Patriot of the Philippines—
The Tagal Rebellion — War with the United States— The
Treaty of Paris — The Form of Spanish Administration—
The Encomenderos — The Alcaldes — The Provincial Gov-
ernors— Municipal Officials — The Andencia — Inadequate
Reforms — The Judicial System — The Tardiness of Legal
Processes.
The severity of the Government in meting out pun-
ishment to those suspected of implication in the Ca-
vite disturbance had a deep and lasting effect upon the
natives. They knew that it was due to the insistence
of the friars, who had by this time established so
complete an influence over the civil authorities that
the former were justly held responsible for most of the
abuses under which the people suffered. The eccle-
siastics were the open opponents of reform, and from
the inception of the Colony had thwarted most move-
ments in that direction, whether emanating from the
local, or the national, government. Toward the close
of the Spanish regime in the islands, the friars had
become fully aware of the widespread hatred for them-
selves, which existed among all classes of the natives.
The knowledge seems to have goaded them to a
greater display of arrogance and to wholesale repris-
als against all whom they knew or suspected to be
inimical.
11 ( 161 )
162 THE PHILIPPINES.
Freemasonry had been introduced to the Philip-
pines about ten years before the Cavite outbreak.
The Roman Catholic Church is everywhere opposed
to secret societies, and to the Freemasons most of ail.
BIKTH OF THE KATIPUNAN.
The Insular lodges soon turned into political or-
ganizations, and thus incurred the extra antagonism
of the priests. The majority of those executed, and
those exiled, on account of the Cavite insurrection
were members of the Masonic body. Out of the Free-
masons grew a number of independent societies, each
more radical than its predecessors, culminating in the
Katipunan. The members of this order were Tagals,
mostly in the ranks of the working people ; deter-
mined, desperate men, who had nothing but their lives
to lose. Their purpose was ^'to redeem the Philip-
pines from its tyrants, the friars, and to found a
communistic republic.'^ In 1896 the Katipunan prob-
ably numbered about fifty thousand members. It was
the inciting factor in the Tagal Rebellion and the
backbone of the movement.
In 1895 and 1896 the authorities adopted the most
severe measures to suppress the Katipunan, with pre-
cisely the reverse effect to that intended. The friars,
who often acted in the capacity of detectives for the
civil power, caused the deportation of gi'eat numbers
of suspects.
Without entertaining the sentiment of patriotism
THE PATRIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES. 163
in the broader sense, the Tagal has always evinced
strong attachment to the soil and no penalty, short of
death, could be more severe than exile from his
native village.
Sawyer* says : ''The greatest and the best-founded
complaint of the natives against the priests was that
whoever displeased them, either in personal or money
matters, was liable to be denounced to the authorities
as a filibuster, and to be torn from home and family
and deported to some distant and probably unhealthy
spot, there to reside at his own cost for an indefinite
time by arbitrary authority, without process of law.
Such a punishment, euphoniously termed 'forced resi-
dence,' sometimes involved the death of the exile and
always caused heavy expense, as a pardon could not be
obtained without bribing some one."
THE PATEIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES.
The most notable victim of this system of lawless
persecution was Kizal, the hero patriot of the Philip-
pines, who suffered deportation, and ultimately death,
as a result of the machinations of the friars.
Jose Kizal y Mercado was born about the year
1865, at Calamba, in Laguna Province. His father,
a Filipino of some means, was able and anxious to
afford him all possible facilities for acquiring a lib-
eriil education, especially after the boy had displayed
*The Inhabitants of the Philippines. F. N. Sawyer. New
York, 1900.
164 THE PHILIPPINES.
unusual talent and application under the instruction
of the Jesuits at Manila. He was sent to the Uni-
versity of Madrid, from which he secured the degree
of Doctor of Medicine and Philosophy. Later he
prosecuted his studies in Paris and at various Ger-
man universities, not without imbibing something of
the socialistic ideas that pervaded those institutions
at the time. The unhappy condition of his native
land was the subject of Rizal's constant concern, and
he pondered deeply upon the problem of its deliver-
ance from the thraldom of the friars. Xeither then,
nor at any later time, does Rizal appear to have har-
bored any treasonable thoughts against the Spanish
Government. Indeed, his last voluntary act was an
exhibition of loyalty. But in his early years he be-
came firmly convinced that the future prosperity of
the Philippines depended upon its freedom from the
domination of the friars, and he was ready to support
any movement having that object in view.
During Doctor Rizal's stay in Germany he pub-
lished a romance entitled ''Noli me tangere/' in
which the priests of the Philippines were depicted in
an unattractive light and their worst practices ex-
posed. This was followed by another political novel
on somewhat similar lines. The books were written
in Spanish and were doubtless widely read amongst
the class which was held up to odium in them.
Upon his return to the islands, shortly after the
publication of these works, Rizal further excited the
THE PATRIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES. 165
enmity of the ecclesiastical body by disputing the
title of the Dominican Order to certain lands which
they occupied in his native town. He also allied him-
self with other patriots of similar disposition and
founded the ''Liga Filipina/* a secret society, most
of the members of which were Freemasons. The prin-
cipal article of their program was the ''expulsion of
the friars, and confiscation of their estates."
At length it became patent to Rizal that his safety
depended upon leaving the country. He returned to
Europe, and during his absence his relatives and the
chief families of Calamba were evicted without notice
or compensation from the holdings they rented from
the religious order.
In 1893 Rizal took up his residence in Hong
Kong with the intention of following his profession.
He appears to have received the assurance of the
Governor-General, through the Spanish Consul, that
he might return to the Philippines with confidence as
to his personal safety. It is hardly probable that
without some such guarantee he would have ven-
tured to land openly at the capital and less probable
that he would have included in his luggage revolu-
tionary literature. However, he was immediately
arrested upon the charge that the Custom House of-
ficers had discovered seditious proclamations amongst
his effects.
Rizal was tried and sentenced to an indefinite term
of ''enforced residence" at Dapitan, on the north
166 THE PHILIPPINES.
shore of Mindanao Island. In July, 1896, he peti-
tioned the Governor-General to be permitted to go
to Cuba and serve the Government as an army doc-
tor. His request was granted, and he proceeded to
Manila, arriving, by unfortunate chance, just as the
Rebellion broke out. Ere this the name of Rizal had
become a power Avith his countrymen, and his exile
had strenghtened, rather than relaxed, his hold upon
their memories and affections. Emilio Aguinaldo had
not yet come into the public view, and there was
at this time no Filipino whose influence over the
masses could have been as great as that of Rizal.
His presence in the capital at this juncture excited
the apprehension of the authorities and he was shipped
to Spain at the earliest possible opportunity.
In view of succeeding events it is w^ell to note that
Rizal carried commendatory letters from Governor-
General Blanco to the Minister of War and to the
Minister of the Colonies. They were similar in strain
and recited that : '^I recommend to you with real in-
terest Dr. Jose Rizal, who leaves for the Peninsula
to place himself at the disposal of the Government as
volunteer army doctor in Cuba. His conduct during
the four years he has been in exile in Dapitan has
been exemplary, and he is, in my opinion, the more
worthy of pardon and benevolence, because he is in
no way associated with the extravagant attempts
which we are now deploring, neither in conspiracy
nor in the secret societies which have been formed.''
THE PATRIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES. 167
Had he wished, Rizal might have left the steamer at
Singapore as his companion and fellow-patriot Rojas
did.
Upon his arrival at Barcelona, Kizal was arrested
and confined in the fortress of Montjuich. Charges
had been formulated against him by his relentless
enemies, the friars, and cabled to the authorities in
Spain. At the close of the year 1896 Rizal, a closely
guarded state prisoner, was handed over to the Insular
jurisdiction. By this time Blanco, whose humanity
and sense of justice would at least have prevented
the judicial murder of Bizal, had been recalled at the
behest of the ecclesiastical party. Polavieja was at
the head of the Insular Government and the country
was under martial law.
Hizal was hastily brought before a court-martial
on the charges of sedition and rebellion. The testi-
mony adduced by the prosecution was of the flimsiest
character, and was amply refuted by Rizal, who con-
ducted his own defense with ability and eloquence.
Considering the fact that he had been virtually a
state prisoner for close upon five years and that it
was physically impossible for him to have taken any
active part in the rebellion, it is difficult to see how
the charges could have been substantiated, l^everthe-
less, Rizal was convicted and sentenced to be shot.
The execution was carried out on the last day of the
year 1896.
The death of Kizal was one of several similar acts
168 THE PHILIPPINES.
in which the priests allowed their hatred to get the
better of their judgment, and brought upon themselves
a copious harvest of vengeance. The affair created a
more profound impression upon the Filipinos than
even the execution of Doctor Burgos.
!
THE TAGAL EEBELLION.
In August, 1896, the smouldering fire of discon-
tent burst into flame. At the time of the outbreak of
the Tagal Rebellion, General Blanco, the Governor-
General, had but fifteen hundred European troops
and six thousand native auxiliaries at his command.
Of the former only seven hundred were in Manila and
the loyalty of the latter was doubtful. Under these
circumstances the General was forced to confine his
operations to the defense of the city, around which
several skirmishes took place during the first few
months following the inception of the rebellion.
Meanwhile the rebels were making good use of the
respite. They established their headquarters in
Imus, of the province of Cavite, which became the
most important center of the rebellion.
In IsTovember Blanco had received from Spain ad-
ditions to his force, which brought the European con-
tingent up to ten thousand, and he began to extend
his operations, but he was recalled before any con-
siderable headway had been made against the insur-
rection.
In the meantime the prisons of Manila were
THE TAGAL REBELLION 169
i
crowded with natives suspected of sympathy with
the insurgents. All process of law was disregarded
in their arrests, and their disposition hy court-martial
was equally summary. This military tribunal is
strongly suspected of extortion in collusion with some
of the civil authorities. Hundreds of the wealthi-
est natives and mestizos of Manila were brought be-
fore it and many of them are kno^vn to have pur-
chased their release, in some instances only to go
through the process again in a few weeks' time. Ship-
loads of prisoners were consigned to the Caroline
Islands, Fernando Po, Ceuta, and other penal colo-
nies. The Manila volunteers were allowed to make
domiciliary searches without warrant and to perpe-
trate the worst kind of outrages upon native resi-
dents of both sexes. N^umbers of suspects were exe-
cuted without trial and not a few were tortured so
that they became cripples for life. In fact, the acts
of officials during this reign of terror equaled the
deeds of the Inquisition at its worst.
In December, Blanco was succeeded by General
Polavieja, who brought with him two thousand fresh
troops and who was rapidly reinforced until the num-
ber of European soldiers under his command
amounted to twenty-eight thousand.
Several engagements were fought with the result
that the insurgent forces in Cavite were dispersed
after fifty-two days of hard and continuous fighting.
The scene of the insurrection now shifted to the north
170 THE PHILIPPINES.
of Manila. During the operations in Cavite a half-
caste named Llaneras had raised a body of a few
thousand in the provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan
and had contrived to withstand the Spanish force
sent against him. He was now joined by Aguinaldo
with the remnant of the rebel army from the south.
Immediately following the junction of the two chiefs
the area of rebellion spread over the provinces of
Pangasinan, Zambales, !N^ueva Ecija, Tarlac, and
Ilocos. Meanwhile General Polavieja had retired on
account of failing health and his place was taken
by General Primo de Pivera.
In July, 1897, the rebels circulated a proclamation
in which was set forth their demands as follows :
1. Expulsion of the friars and restitution to the
townships of the lands which the friars have ap-
propriated, dividing incumbencies held by them, as
well as the episcopal sees, equally between Peninsular
and Insular secular priests.
2. Spain must concede to us, as she has to Cuba,
Parliamentary representation, freedom of the press,
toleration of all religious sects, laws common with
hers, and administrative economic autonomy.
3. Equality in treatment and pay betw^een Peninsu-
lar and Insular civil servants.
4. Eestitution of all lands appropriated by the
friars to the townships, or to the original owners, or,
in default of finding such owners, the State is to put
them up to public auction in small lots of a value
THE TAGAL REBELLION. 171
within the reach of all and payable within four
years, the same as the present State lands.
5. Abolition of the Government authorities' powers
to banish citizens, as well as all nnjust measures
against Filipinos ; legal equality for all persons,
whether Peninsular or Insular under the civic as well
as the Penal Code.
The conflict dragged on without prospect of ter-
mination. Each day made it more clear to the Gov-
ernor that, even if the rebels failed to make any
headway, they could at least hold out indefinitely. In
this dilemma General Rivera decided to resort to
diplomacy. He employed a Pilipino, named Pedro
Patemo, to open negotiations with the insurgent
chiefs. After 'pourparlers extending over three or
four months the Pacto de Biac-na-hato was signed,
December 14, 1897, between Emilio Aguinaldo and
other chiefs, representing the rebels, and Pedro A.
Paterno, as attorney for the Captain-General. The
terms of this agreement remain in dispute. The
insurgents, whilst charging the Spaniards with bad
faith in the matter, never published anything pur-
porting to be a literal copy of, or extract from,
the compact. The Spaniards have always claimed
that the monetary consideration was the only one
conceded. The insurgents have persistently main-
tained that reforms and a general amnesty were con-
diti-ons of their surrender, and it seems highly proba-
ble that the latter at least must have been promised
172 THE PHILIPPINES.
to them. It is a singular fact that the originals of
this treaty have never seen the light. The most likely
hypothesis appears to be that the Governor-General
cunningly inserted a clause to the advantage of the
rebel leaders which they dared not divulge to their
followers, and that the Spaniards, having broken their
part of the compact, were equally concerned in keep-
ing the details of it secret.
The insurgents gave up their arms and on the 27th
of December, 1897, Aguinaldo and thirty-four other
leaders embarked for Hongkong. One instalment,
representing about one-fifth of the total amount of
money promised, was all that the insurgent leaders
ever received. A wholesale persecution of those who
had taken part in the rebellion followed the surrender
and many executions took place.
WAR WITH THE UT^ITED STATES.
War was declared between Spain and the United
States on the 23d of April, 1898. In Manila prepara-
tions were made in feverish haste to withstand the
American fleet which was known to be at Hongkong.
The defenses of the city were in a lamentably deficient
state. The land batteries were short of their comple-
ment of guns and such as were mounted were out-
of-date and encrusted with rust. Material for con-
structing mines was lacking and the torpedoes on hand
proved to be defective and useless. Augusti, who had
succeeded Rivera as Governor-General, issued a bom-
WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES. 173
bastic proclamation in which he characterized the
Americans as a composition of ''all the social excres-
cences/' and declared their squadron to be ^'manned
by foreigners possessing neither instruction nor dis-
cipline." He sought to lull the apprehensions of
the citizens with this assuring declaration: ''The ag-
gressors shall not profane the tombs of your fathers,
they shall not gratify their lustful passions at the cost
of your waives' and daughters' honor, or appropriate
the property that your industry has accumulated as a
provision for your old age. 'Nol they shall not per-
petrate any of the crimes inspired by their wickedness
and covetousness because your valor and patriotism
will suffice to punish and abase the people who ex-
terminated the natives of !N^orth America instead of
bringing to them the life of civilization and progress."
The American fleet entered Manila Bay at three
o'clock on the morning of May the first, and found
the Spanish squadron ranged round the point of the
peninsula of Cavite. The Spaniards, under Admiral
Montojo, displayed the utmost bravery, but they were
completely outmatched, and by eleven o'clock every
one of their vessels was either destroyed or disabled.
Admiral Dewey's demand for the surrender of Manila
met with a refusal, but Cavite was evacuated and the
Americans took possession of the arsenal and forts.
There is no doubt that the Spaniards might easily
have been shelled out of Manila, but in that case
they would most assuredly have been massacred by
174 THE PHILIPPINES
the insurgents, large bodies of whom hemmed the city
in on all sides, for Admiral Dewey had neither troops
to hold the capital nor to overpower the rebels in case
of a conflict with them. Throughout the succeeding
operations not the least difficult task of the American
commanders lay in preventing the Spaniards from
falling into the hands of their enemies.
Believing that Aguinaldo might be usefully em-
ployed in controlling the insurgents. Admiral Dewey
had brought him from Hongkong and he, with other
leaders, was now landed and supplied with arms and
ammunition. With thirty thousand rebel troops
Aguinaldo laid siege to Manila, whilst the American
squadron blockaded the port. For three months, and
until the arrival of the American generals with rein-
forcements, Aguinaldo' s force contrived to repel all
sorties from Manila and to cut the city off from out-
side communication. In the provinces the Spaniards
were almost every^vhere defeated and large numbers
were taken prisoner. By the middle of June two-
thirds of Luzon was in the possession of the rebels,
and on the 18th of that month Aguinaldo summoned
deputies to a congress and formed what was called
the Kevolutionary Government. This body admin-
istered a large portion of the island, maintained order,
and collected taxes. Upon the 12th of August, 189 S,
the Protocol providing for the appointment of com-
missioners to conclude a treaty of peace was signed
in Washington. Upon the night of the same date the
FiLIPINA WOMEX.
These are typical full-blooded Tagals Id the universal
costume of the better class. The portraits are thosp of
two school-teachers.
From Stereograph Copj'right, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES. 175
Spaniards made an attack in force upon the American
lines without the city and some hours of fierce fight-
ing ensued. On the following day the combined land
and sea forces of the Americans, with the co-operation
of the insurgent army, made a vigorous attack upon
the city. About mid-day Manila surrendered and
terms of capitulation were negotiated between Gen-
eral Greene and General Jaudenes, the rhetorical
Augusti having fled aboard a German cruiser before
the cessation of fighting. The articles of capitula-
tion included the surrender of the Philippine Archi-
pelago.
Previous to the attack upon the capital the Amer-
ican commander instructed Aguinaldo that his troops
would not be permitted to enter the city, and the
prohibition was continued in force after Manila fell.
A few days later a provisional agreement w^as entered
into, by the terms of which the Americans retained
jurisdiction over Manila and the surrounding dis-
tricts whilst the rest of the island remained under
the control of the Eevolutionary Government.
Aguinaldo selected Malolos for the temporary cap-
ital of the insurgent government, and a Congress
convened there on the 15th of September. Pedro A.
Paterno was elected President and Deputies Legardo
and Ocampo were elected Vice-President and Secre-
tary respectively. One of the first decrees of this
Congress imposed compulsory military service upon
every able-bodied Filipino over the age of eighteen.
176 THE PHILIPPINES.
Aguinaldo was retained in the position of Generalis-
simo with a salary of $25,000 and an allowance of
$50,000 for expenses. The proceedings of this Con-
gress indicate that its members confidently expected
that the independence of the Philippines wonld be
a provision of the pending treaty of peace, or follow
their cession to the United States.
THE TREATY OF PARIS.
The treaty of peace between the United States
and Spain was signed at Paris by the respective
commissioners on the 10th day of December, 1898,
and ratified by their governments a few months later.
Spain agreed to cede to the United States the Philip-
pine Archipelago in consideration of receiving $20,-
000,000. Article 8 of the Treaty declares that "the
abandonment and cession stipulated shall in no way
affect the property and rights accorded by custom or
law to the peaceful holders of goods of any sort
in the provinces, cities, public or private establish-
ments, civil or ecclesiastical corporations, or any other
collectively which has any legal right to acquire goods,
or rights in the ceded or abandoned territories, and
the same applies to the rights and properties of indi-
viduals of every nationality whatsoever."
Article 9 recites that "Spanish subjects born in the
Peninsula and resident in the territories, the sover-
eignty of which Spain abandons, or cedes, may remain
in, or go away from, those territories and still hold,
THE TREATY OF PARIS. 177
in either case, their property rights as well as the
right to sell, or dispose of, the real estate, or its
produce. They shall also have the right to follow
their trades, or professions, subject to the laws affect-
ing all other foreigners."
It is easy to comprehend the grief and angei* with
which the Filipinos learned the terms of the Treaty
of Paris. Apparently the friars were as fii^mly
entrenched as ever. The Americans had given them
a title to the lands which the natives protested had
been stolen from their rightful owners. Their arch-
enemy with whom they had struggled for many years
appeared to have the support of the powerful Gov-
ernment of the United States, for no intimation of
the ultimate action of the American authorities in
the disposition of the friars' lands had as yet been
given.
The insurgent leaders were thoroughly disgusted
with the turn of events, and it must be confessed that
they had no little ground for their discontent The
money which they had received from the Spanish
Government ($400,000) as a condition of surrender
in 1897, had been carefully husbanded for the future
struggle that they anticipated and had been expended
in their operations supporting the American invasion.
There is no doubt that someone, who they had reason
to suppose was authorized to speak for the American
Government, had assured the Junta Patriotica in
Hongkong that they might look for the independence
12
178 THE PHILIPPINES.
of the Philippines to follow American success in
wresting the islands from Spain. The expectations
of the Filipinos were strengthened by Admiral
Dewey's action in bringing Aguinaldo and his lieu-
tenants to Manila in an American war vessel; in
supplying them with arms; and in employing them
in the ensuing campaign. The services rendered by
the insurgents during the three months that the Amer-
ican fleet lay in Manila Bay, quite unable for lack
of troops to take advantage of the naval victory,
should not be lightly estimated. Even after the ar-
rival of reinforcements from America, the revolution-
ary forces afforded valuable assistance in the reduc-
tion of the city and afterwards in holding the island
and maintaining order.
To have granted independence to the Philippines
at that time would have been to visit the people with
a greater misfortune than a continuance of the rule
of the friars, and it is well that the American Gov-
ernment did not entertain either idea. But it can
hardly be questioned that both policy and justice de-
manded prompt and substantial recognition of the
services of the leaders in the Filipino rebellion. Had
this been done it is probable that Aguinaldo and his
companions could have been induced to lay do^^m their
arms and to submit to the authority of the American
Government. That they continued the contest for
the possession of their country — a contest in which
they had already sacrificed fifty thousand lives — is
THE TREATY OF PARIS. 179
not to their discredit. Senator Hoar, addressing
Congress on the subject, said: ''Mr. President, there
is one mode by which the people of the Philippine
Islands could establish the truth of the charges as to
their degradation and incapacity for self-government
which have been made by the advocates of Imperalism
in this debate, and that mode is by submitting tamely
and without resistance to the United States."
There had been serious friction, bordering at times
upon open rupture, between the American and in-
surgent troops from the time of the arrival of the
former, but it was not until February, 1899, that
the ill-advised and hopeless armed opposition of the
Filipinos to the United States Government began. It
is impossible to determine the responsibility for the
immediate outbreak. Each side accused the other
of undue precipitancy and aggravation, but the ques-
tion is of little consequence.
The subjugation of the insurrectos was accom-
plished under extreme difficulties. The native troops
maintained a guerilla war for years, retreating to
the mountains, or the jungle, when pressed, and only
attacking in overwhelming numbers. The capture of
Aguinaldo broke the back of the resistance, and al-
though a few armed bodies remained at large in dif-
ferent parts of the Archipelago, the Philippine Com-
mission was able to certify on September the 11th,
1902, that ''The recently existing insurrection of
the Philippine Islands has ceased and a condition of
180 THE PHILIPPINES.
general and complete peace has been established
therein." At this point it may be well to sketch in
outline the system of administration under the Span-
iards. We shall thereby gain some idea of the task
which was presented to the American Government
upon taking over the islands, the extent of its achieve-
ment up to the present, and the difficulties yet to be
overcome.
THE FOEM OF SPANISH ADMINISTRATION.
The supreme head of the Spanish administration
of the Philippines was the governor-general. The
commission of Legaspi authorized him to exercise
judicial functions, to ''hear, examine, and decide any
civil, or criminal suit, and to administer over civil
and criminal justice, in company with the officers of
justice who may be appointed." For many years
the judiciary formed a part of the executive govern-
ment and always exercised considerable influence
upon its actions.
The governor-general was invested with despotic
powers. He might remove any official at will, and
expel any person from the islands. On the other
hand, unless these powers were exercised in accord-
ance with the will of the priests, the governor-gen-
eral's tenure of office was likely to be cut short, and
so if he endeavored to suppress the dishonesty and
malfeasance of the civil officials. The term of office
of the governor-general was three years, with a salary
THE ENCOMENDEROS. 181
of $40,000 per annum, and liberal allowances. This,
like all other appointments in the Philippines, was
subject to wire-pulling and bribery in Madrid. Dur-
ing later years all the civil posts in the islands were
systematically farmed by the members of the Cortes
and other influential persons at the Spanish capital.
THE ENCOMENDEROS.
As the country yielded to the Spaniards it was
divided into provinces and military districts and
these in their turn into encomiendas, patterned after
the repartinientos of Spanish America. The holders
of these sections of territory collected the Govern-
ment tribute and as much else as they could exact
from the natives on their own account. They prac-
tically held the trihutos in slavery and subjected them
to the grossest cruelties. Bishop Salazar wrote to
the King in 1583 regarding the encomenderos, ^They
collect tribute from children, old men, and slaves,
and many remain unmarried because of the tribute,
while others kill their children. . . . But the
end is not here, but in the manner of collecting, for,
if the chief does not give them as much gold as they
demand, or does not pay for as many Indians as
they say there are, they crucify the unfortunate chief,
or put his head in the stocks. . . . What the
encomendero does after having collected his tribute
in the manner stated is to return home and for an-
other year he neither sees nor hears of them. He
182 THE PHILIPPINES.
takes no more account of them than if they were deer
until the next year, when the same thing occurs."
There is some satisfaction in the knowledge that sev-
eral of the encomenderos fell victims to the wrath of
the miserable trihutos.
THE ALCALDES.
The encomenderos were succeeded by alcaldes,
whose rule was less inhuman only because greater
restraint was placed upon them. They had not, like
their predecessors, the right to the fruits of the na-
tives' toil, but they enjoyed the ''indulto de comercw'
or privilege of trading. This indulgence was never
intended to act as a restriction upon the operations
of the natives, but the alcaldes made it the medium
for exercising a virtual monopoly and forced the na-
tives to conduct all their transactions with them.
The office of alcalde carried with it a salary of
$300 a year and upwards. From this sum, however,
taxes were deducted and the annual fee for the in-
dulto, which usually amounted to nearly as much as
the entire salary. IsTevertheless the office of alcalde
was much sought after and high prices were paid for
the appointment. Mazorca stated, in 1840, that:
''There are candidates up to the grade of Brigadier
who relinquish a $3,000 salary to pursue their hopes
and projects in Governorship." The alcaldes often
found an additional source of profit in the collection
of the Royal tribute. Silver being scarce in the in-
THE ALCALDES. 183
terior the natives were frequently obliged to make
payment in grain, or other produce. This the alcalde
accepted at an arbitrary appraisement very much be-
low the actual value and in accounting to the central
authority made a personal profit of the difference.
These men, to whose hands the functions of gov-
ernment and the administration of justice were en-
trusted, were generally ignorant, often brutal, and
never honest. In 1810 Tomas de Comyn had the
following to say of the alcaldes: 'Tn order to be a
Chief of a Province in these islands no training, or
knowledge, or special services are necessary ; all per-
sons are fit and admissible. . . . It is quite a
common thing to see a barber, or a Governor's lackey,
a sailor, or a deserter,' suddenly transformed into
an alcalde. Administrator, and Captain of the forces
of a populous province, without any counsellor but
his rude understanding, or any guide but his pas-
sions.'^
In 1844: a Koyal Decree prohibited future trading
on the part of any Government ofiicials but the ad-
ministration of the civil rule of provinces remained
in the hands of Alcaldes-May ores, who exercised ex-
ecutive and judicial functions. The situations some-
times arising out of this anomalous condition might
have furnished material for the libretto of a comic
opera. The Alcalde-Mayor issued an order in his
capacity of Governor. A protest was made to himself
in the capacity of Judge. The Judge supported the
184 THE PHILIPPINES.
Governor, and an appeal was taken to the central
anthority in Manila. The central authority referred
the matter back to the Alcalde-Mayor for a report
upon the actions of the Governor and the Judge.
The only result of this circumlocutionary proceeding
was to put the composite official in possession of a
list of complainants upon whom he could visit his dis-
pleasure.
In 1886, a much-needed reform was effected by
the appointment of Civil Governors and the restric-
tion of Alcaldes to judicial duties. Each Governor
was provided with an assistant, who was styled Secre-
tary, and whose most important duty was to act as
a check upon his superior.
THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS.
The Provincial Governor was the representative of
the Governor-General; whose edicts he was expected
to publish and enforce. He was charged with the
maintenance of order and the control and direction of
the Civil Guard and local constabulary. He was
responsible for the proper performance of the duties
of the petty municipal authorities, and he could re-
move them at discretion. As chief of the police
force, it was his duty to cause the arrest of suspicious
persons and law-breakers, but he was bound to bring
the suspect, or offender, before the judicial authority
within three days of his seizure. The Governor had
the powers of a police magistrate. He could dispose
THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS. 185
of minor cases and might impose a fine not to exceed
$60, and in default of payment he might order the
offender to undergo imprisonment not to exceed thirty
days.
The Governor was responsible for the postal serv-
ice and telegraph ; public lands, woods, forests and
mines ; education, health, charities, and prisons ; pub-
lic works, and the collection of taxes ; agriculture and
industry.
The Governor was not permitted to have any hand
in the disposition of public funds. His provincial
and municipal accounts were required to be coun-
tersigned by his Secretary, w^ho prefixed the word
''Intervine" to his signature. The Governor was not
allowed any of the percentages which the Alcaldes-
May ores formerly enjoyed, nor any emoluments be-
yond his stipulated salary.
Under these conditions the Provincial Governor was
a great improvement over the Alcalde-Mayor, but it
was mainly on account of negative qualities. Few
Governors took an active interest in the betterment of
their provinces, and, indeed, their scope of action
was greatly restricted by circumstances. In the first
place, the Governor found that peaceful administra-
tion, and perhaps the retention of his office, de-
pended upon the goodwill of the friars and conformity
with their wishes. Loss of office might follow a
change of ministry, the death or downfall of a patron,
or the desire of some influential personage to make a
186 THE PHILIPPINES.
place for a favorite. With such uncertainty as to the
term of his official life it could hardly be expected
that a Governor would devote himself very earnestly
to schemes for the improvement of his province. He
would seldom have the satisfaction of Avitnessing the
fruition of his efforts, or even the assurance that
his interrupted work would be carried on by his suc-
cessor. As has been said, he had no control of
the disposition of public revenues raised in his prov-
ince, and which should, in large part at least, have
been expended upon public works within the dis-
tricts from which they were derived. All such moneys
were, however, remitted to Manila, and by the central
government diverted to other purposes, whilst the
plans and estimates of provincial officials for roads
and bridges were pigeon-holed. If a bridge broke
down, so it remained, and the Government even made
money out of the misfortune of the community by
selling the right to establish a ferry. There was in
each municipality a local tax termed ''Caja de Com-
munidad/' a sinking fund, contributed by the peo-
ple against a time of stress and need, but this found
its way to Manila and was misappropriated.
Foreman says that in 1887 the parish priest of
Banan, Batangas Province, told him that although
there must have been $300,000 paid into this fund
up to the year 1882 by his parish alone, yet financial
aid was refused by the Government during the
cholera epidemic of that year.
THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS. 187
To quote further from Foreman : "The 'Tribunal/
which served the double purpose of Town Hall and
Bak Bungalow for wayfarers, was often a hut of
bamboo and palm leaves, whilst others, which had been
decent buildings generations gone by, lapsed into a
wretched state of dilapidation. In some villages there
was no Tribunal at all, and the official business had
to be transacted in the municipal Governor's house.
I first visited Calamba (on the Laguna de Bay shore)
in 1880, and for fourteen years to my knowledge the
headmen had to meet in a sugar-store in lieu of a
Tribunal. In San Jose de Buenavista, the capital of
Antique Province, the Town Hall w^as commenced in
good style and left half finished during fifteen years.
Either some one for pity's sake, or the headmen for
their own convenience, went to the expense of thatch-
ing over half the unfinished structure. This half was
therefore saved from utter ruin while all but the stone
walls of the remainder rotted away. So it continued
until 1887, when the Government authorized a por-
tion of this building to be restored.
"As to the roads connecting the villages, quite
twenty per cent, of them serve only for travelers on
foot, on horseback, or on buffalo back at any time,
and in the wet season certainly sixty per cent, of
all the Philippine highways are in too bad a state for
any kind of passenger conveyance to pass with safety.
]n the wet season many times I have made a sea
journey in a prahu simply because the highroad near
188 THE PHILIPPINES.
the coast had become a mud track for want of mac-
adamized stone and drainage, and only serviceable for
transport by buffalo. In the dry season the sun
mended the roads and the traffic over the baked clods
reduced them more or less to dust so that vehicles
could pass. Private property owners expended much
time and money in the preservation of public roads,
although a curious law existed prohibiting repairs to
highways by non-official persons.
"Every male adult, or resident (with certain ex-
ceptions) had to give the State fifteen days' labor
per annum or redeem the labor by payment. Of
course thousands of the most needy class preferred
to give their fifteen days. This labor and the cash
paid by those who redeemed the obligation were theo-
retically supposed to be employed in local improve-
ments.
"The Budget for 1888 showed only the sum of
$120,000 to be used in road-making and mending in
the whole Archipelago.
"It provided for a Chief Inspector of Public Works
with a salary of $6,500, aided by a staff of forty-eight
technical and eighty-two non-technical subordinates.
"As a matter of fact the Provincial and District
Governors were often urged by their Manila chiefs
not to encourage the employment of labor for local
improvements, but to press the laboring classes to pay
the redemption tax to swell the central coif ers, re-
gardless of the corresponding misery and discomfort
MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS. 189
and loss of trade in the interior. But labor at the
disposal of the Governor wae not alone sufficient.
There was no fund from which to defray the cost of
materials; or, if these could be found without pay-
ment, some one must pay for the transportation by
buffaloes and carts, and find the implements for the
laborers' use. How could laborers' hands alone re-
pair a bridge which had rotted away ? To cut a log
of wood for the public service would have necessitated
communications with the Inspection of Woods and
Forests and other centres and many months' delay."
MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS.
Each township had its principales, or headmen, of
whom there were twelve, elected by popular vote.
From this body the petty local officials were chosen ;
namely, the Gohernadorcillo, or ''Petty Governor,"
and his lieutenants, the alguaciles, or constables, and
other minor officers. For the maintenance of order,
and for the protection of the town, chiefly against la-
drones, there was a body of local police called cuadril-
leros, who were generally armed with bolos and lances,
but in the more important centers carried firearms.
The Gobernadorcillos were responsible to the Pro-
vincial Governor for the condition of affairs in their
respective towns and for the due payment of taxes.
•The immediate collection of taxes was effected by
the headman of each harangay, or hamlet, which
was the municipal unit. The harangay consisted of
190 THE PHILIPPINES.
from forty to fifty families, who were termed sdcopes.
For the payment of the proper taxes of his sdcopes
the headman was held responsible and a great deal of
latitude was permitted in the methods of collection.
The son of the Barangay Chief was recognized as
his assistant, and both were exempt from taxation
as remuneration for the performance of their duties.
The office was hereditary, and on account of the
unpleasant nature of its duties and the penalties at-
tendant upon failure, was seldom desired, but it could
not be avoided, l^o excuse was admitted for delin-
quency on the part of the headsman. His goods were
liable to be sold to make up a shortage in his returns,
and that recourse failing, he would be cast into prison.
The Goheriiadorcillo disposed of petty disputes
arising in his town, but when these assumed a legal
aspect they were referred to the local Justice of the
Peace, who was directly responsible to the Provincial
Judge.
The salary of a Gohernadorcillo was $2 per month,
which, of course, fell very short of the actual ex-
penses which he incurred in the performance of
his duties, so that he was often forced to recoup
himself by illegal exactions from the to^vnspeople.
The office carried with it the title of '^Captain," and
on that account was frequently sought by wealthy
natives without regard to any profit that might be de-
rived from it.
Under this system of administration five or six
jj^fM f^n:
bitf hj
jt'.i
ai.
The Young Idea.
One of the municipal primary schools of Manila, with
the scholars and native teachers who are instructing
in English.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS. 191
Spaniards would furnish the entire coiUplement of
European civil servants of a province. The salaries
attached to all offices were very small. The system
was therefore economical in the extreme, but the
taxpayers derived no benefit from that circumstance.
Every official, the native no less than the Spaniard,
looked upon his position as a field for plunder. The
reform of 1886 did not effect any improvement in
this respect. In fact, one of its immediate results
was to increase the number of the parasites who fas-
tened upon the country and pilfered the funds that
should have been applied to public w^orks. Fre-
quently officials retired to Spain with accumulations
far in excess of the aggregate of their salaries for the
term of office, and this despite the fact that in most
cases they paid a large premium for the appointment,
or remitted a considerable proportion of its emolu-
ments to the patron annually. So universal was the
corruption pervading the administration that it came
to be regarded as a matter of course. Foreman re-
lates that he "met at table a provincial chief judge,
the nephew of a General, and other persons, who
openly discussed the value of the different Provincial
Governments (before 1884) in Luzon Island on the
basis of so much for salary and so much for fees and
'caidas/ '"^
♦Caidas, literally "droppings." This was the expressive
term employed by the Spanish officials to denote what we
would call "rake-offs."
192 THE PHILIPPINES.
The office of Governor-General was not free from
the taint. Sawyer, referring to what is practically
a proven fact, says: ''Weyler was said to have pur-
chased the appointment from the wife of a great min-
ister too honest to accept bribes himself, and the
price was commonly reported to have been $30,000
paid do-\vri and an undertaking to pay the lady an
equal sum every year of his term of office." Fore-
man undoubtedly refers to the same individual when
he writes : ''A General who has quite recently made
for himself a world-wide notoriety for alleged cruelty
in another Spanish colony enriched himself by pecu-
lation to such an extent that he was at his wit's ends
how to remit his ill-gotten gains clandestinely.
Finally he resolved to send an army Captain over to
Hongkong with $35,000, with which to purchase a
draft on Europe. The Captain left, but he never re-
turned." If the story lacks anything of truth let
us hope that it is only in an understatement of the
sum involved.
Worse, however, than the corruption that character-
ized the civil departments of the administration was
the shameful venality of the judicial branch from the
supreme court to the provincial justice of the peace.
THE AUDENCIA.
The Audencia Avas established in 1584. It con-
sisted of a president, that office being filled by the
Governor-General; three auditors, or associate jus-
THE AUDENCIA. 193
tices ; a fiscal, or prosecuting attorney, and minor
auxiliary officials. The Audencia had jurisdiction in
all cases that might be appealed from the provincial
authorities. It acted as a court of first instances
only in ''cases which, on account of their importance,
the amount involved, and the dignity of the parties,
might be tried in a superior court, and criminal
cases arising in the place where the court might
meet."
There was no appeal from the findings of the
Audencia, except in civil cases of sufficient magni-
tude to justify an appeal to the King.
In the event of the inability of the governor to con-
tinue his duties, the Audencia was empowered to as-
sume the government. The Audencia had authority
to summon citizens of the islands either in peace or
war. The Audencia also had a certain degree of
jurisdiction in matters ecclesiastical. The duties and
functions of this body were multiplex and various,
being judicial, legislative, and administrative in
character.
The Audencia soon incurred the displeasure of the
priests, and their representations to the King resulted
in the abolition of the body in 1589. It was, how-
ever, re-established in 1598, and in 1776 its personnel
was enlarged by the addition of several members.
Previous to 1840 the Audencia had discretionary
power over the retention and removal of judges and
justices, thus subjecting them to an altogether unde-
13
194 THE PHILIPPINES.
sirable influence. In that year a royal decree consid-
erably curtailed that power.
From time to time there have been changes in the
composition and functions of the Audencia which it is
not necessary to consider.
USTADEQUATE REFORMS.
We have already noticed the alcaldes-may ores, the
governor- judges of provinces. A royal decree of
1844 instituted a reform in the qualification and
status of these officials. From that time the alcaldes
were divided into three classes. Three years' service
in each category was required for promotion to the
next, and members of the highest grade were eligible
for appointment to the post of justice. It was pro-
vided that no person might be made alcalde unless
he had practiced law for ten years, or had held an
office for which a similar qualification was required.
By the royal decree of 1860 the composite func-
tions which had been performed by the alcaldes-
mayores were separated, and thereafter their author-
ity was restricted to judicial matters. All the ordi-
nary jurisdiction and functions of a judge of first
instance devolved upon an alcalde. Some governors
continued to exercise similar functions. Courts of
first instance, and governors exercising the functions
of such, took cognizance of all criminal and civil
cases arising within their territories, except such as
came under the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical au-
THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM. 195
thorities, or other special courts, and the audencias.
They gave judgment in all civil cases in which the
interest involved exceeded 1,000 pesetas.
THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM.
A royal decree of 1870 divided the provinces for
the purpose of the administration of justice into
judicial and municipal districts. Each district was
given an audejicia, each judicial district a court of
first instance, and each municipal district a justice of
the peace. The positions of judges were given to
lawyers, or persons who had some professional, or
academic title, or to those ^Svhose position and circum-
stances warranted" the appointment.
As a rule, down to the end of the Spanish sover-
eignty, the judges of the courts were Spaniards, and
the entire judicial system, including the codes of civil
and criminal law, followed closely, if not literally,
the forms observed in Spain. These were charac-
terized by many proceedings calculated to prolong
litigation indefinitely, to add greatly to the expense
of lawsuits, to keep prisoners in confinement for long
periods, and to prevent the impartial and speedy
administration of justice.
Among other causes which were calculated to aug-
ment the troubles and expenses of all litigants was
the ignorance of the alcaldes-may ores, and of many
of the judges of first instance, of the law and the
proper mode of procedure, as these ofiicials were ap-
196 THE PHILIPPINES.
pointed as a rule for political reasons, or for almost
any reason but proficiency, until after the separation
of judicial and executive functions as already set
forth. Again, the judges of first instance and fi scales
had very small salaries, and municipal judges, and
the clerks, and secretaries, of the courts had none
at all, being dependent for remuneration upon official
fees and such additional compensation as the liti-
gants were willing and able to pay. The result was
a great deal of corruption and extortion, and, taken
in connection with the many legal obstructions always
at hand and always resorted to by the dishonest and
unscrupulous, made an appeal for redress to the
courts so expensive as to be entirely beyond the reach
of the average Filipino. Sawyer, whose opportuni-
ties for experience were exceptional, compares the
alcaldes' courts to those of the Chinese Yamens, and
goes on to say that ^'bad as the alcaldes' courts were, T
think that the culminating point of corruption was the
Audencia of Manila. Escrihano, ahogado, juez,
auditor, fiscal, vied with each other in showing that
to them honor and dignity were but empty words.
The records of these courts from the earliest
times is one of long-continued infamy." The venality
of the courts and their tortuous methods of procedure
were only equaled by their tardiness of action. Saw-
yer and Foreman each cite instances of deferred jus-
tice which came under their personal observation and
which it is safe to assert could not have occurred
under any other civilized government in the world.
TARDINESS OF LEGAL PROCESSES. 197
THE TARDINESS OF EEGAL PROCESSES.
In 1888, Juan de la Cruz, a Filipino, was arrested
upon a charge of murder and lodged in Cavite jail.
Direct evidence against him was not forthcoming,
although circumstances pointed strongly to his guilt.
Witnesses were examined and their depositions taken,
but the prisoner was not brought before the court. So
months and years passed away and still Juan con-
tinued in prison. ''Judges came and judges Avent,
but the trial came no nearer. Year after year a judge
of the Audencia came in state to inspect the prisoners
and year after year Juan was set do^^m as await-
ing his trial.'' Meanwhile some of the witnesses
had left the islands and one, at least, was dead.
In 1896 a Scotch engineer, who had not been in
the Philippines at the time the crime was com-
mitted, was cited by a judge and asked if he could
identify the prisoner, ten years after his arrest.
Juan de la Cruz was never tried. He may have died
like many another prisoner awaiting judgment, or
he may have been released when the rebels occupied
Cavite.
In 1884, a band of pirates raided the plantation
of an Englishman in the province of Tayabas and
committed several murders. Twenty-six of their
number were captured and lodged in jail. To quote
from Sawyer, ''Year after year passed, still they re-
mained in prison ; judges came, stayed their term,
198 THE PHILIPPINES.
were promoted, and went, but still these men were
never sentenced. In 1889 I visited Laguimanoc,
this Avas five years after the date of the mur-
ders ; some of the prisoners had died in prison, the
others were awaiting their sentence. ... A year
later I again visited Laguimanoc, but the trial of the
prisoners was no further advanced. No less than
nine of them died in prison; still no sentence was
pronounced. ... A few years ago . . . the
surviving prisoners were pardoned by the Queen Re-
gent, on the occasion of the young King's birthday."
Foreman says : '' . . . Whoever might be the
legal adviser retained, a criminal, or civil, suit in the
Philippines was one of the worst calamities that could
befall a man. Between notaries, procurators, so-
licitors, barristers, and the sluggish process of the
courts, a litigant was fleeced of his money, often wor-
ried into a bad state of health, and kept in horrible
suspense and doubt for years. When judgment Avas
given it was as hard to get it executed as it was to
win the case. Even then, when the question at issue
was supposed to be settled, a defect in the sentence
could always be concocted to reopen the whole affair.
If a case had been tried and judgment given under
the Civil Code a Avay was often found to convert it
into a criminal case, and when apparently settled
under the Criminal Code a flaw could be discovered,
under the Laws of the Indies, or the Siete Partidas,
or the Roman Law, or the Novisima Recopilacion, or
TARDINESS OF LEGAL PROCESSES. 199
the Antiguos fiieros, Decrees, Royal Orders, Orde-
nanzas de huen Gohierno, and so forth, by which the
case could be reopened."
Foreman mentions the celebrated case of Jurado
and Company versus the Hongkong and Shanghai
Banking Corporation, as an illustration of the delays
and uncertainties attendant upon litigation in the
civil courts. Suit was entered in the j^ear 1884.
^'The Bank had agreed to make advances on goods
to be imported by the firm in exchange for the firm's
acceptance. ... In due course the Bank had
reason to doubt the genuineness of certain documents.
Mr. Jurado was imprisoned, but shortly released on
bail. He was dismissed from his official post of sec-
ond Chief of Telegraphs, worth $4,000 a year. Goods
as they arrived for his firm, were seized and stored
pending litigation, and deteriorated to only a fraction
of their original worth. His firm was forced by
these circumstances into liquidation and Jurado sued
the Bank for damages. The case was open for sev-
eral years, during which time the Bank coffers were
once sealed by judicial warrant, a sum of cash was
actually transported from the Bank premises, the
Bank manager was nominally arrested, but really a
prisoner on parole at his house. Several sentences
of the court were given in favor of each party. Years
after this they were all quashed on appeal to Madrid.
Mr. Jurado went to Spain to fight his case. In 1891
I accidentally met him and his brother (a lawyer) in
200 THE PHILIPPINES.
the street in Madrid. The brother told me the claim
against the Bank then amounted to $935,000, and
judgment for that sum would he given in a fortnight
thence. Still years after that, when I was again in
Manila, the case was yet pending and another on-
slaught was made on the Bank. The Court called on
the manager to deliver up the funds of the Bank. On
his refusal to do so a mechanic was sent there to open
the safes. This man labored in vain for a week.
At one stage of the proceedings the Bank
especially retained a reputed Spanish lawyer, who
went to Madrid to push the case. Later on a British
Q. C. was sent over to Manila from Hongkong to ad-
vise the Bank. The Prime Minister was appealed to ;
the good offices of our Ambassador in Madrid were
solicited. For a long time the Bank was placed in a
most awkward legal dilemma. The other side con-
tended that the Bank could not be heard, or appear
by itself, or by proxy, on the gTound that mider its
own charter it had no right to be established in
Manila at all, etc. Half a dozen times over the case
was supposed to be finally settled, but reopened again.
Happily it may now (1899) be regarded as closed for-
ever."
It appears that after all the futile litigation this
case was finally settled out of court.
AMERICAN ADMINISTRATION.
V.
AMERICAN ADMINISTRATION.
The Central Government and Legislative Authority — Pro-
vincial and Municipal Governments — Administration of
Justice — Civil Service System — The Education of the
Filipinos — Means of Communication — Foreign Commerce
— Sources of Revenue — Navigation, Health, etc. — Manila
— Bonded Indebtedness — The Census of the Philippine
Islands — A Model Proclamation — American Census Meth-
ods Followed — Novel Experiences of Census Agents —
Great Scope of the Census.
''The Philippines are ours, not to exploit, but to
develop, to civilize^ to educate, to train in the science
of self-government. This is the path of duty which
we must follow, or be recreant to a mighty trust com-
mitted to us.
"The question is not will it pay, but rather will we
do what is right."
In these noble sentiments President McKinley
gave expression to the policy of the American Gov-
ernment toward the Philippines and their people.
The high standard of conduct set by this platform
has continued to characterize our rule in the Archi-
pelago, and it is to be hoped that it will ever do so.
• Even at the best period of Spanish sovereignty the
political and economic condition of the islands af-
forded but a poor basis for the acquirement of
( 203 )
204 THE PHILIPPINES.
enlightened ideas upon government. There is every
reason to believe that had the Filipinos secured their
independence they would not, in the course of a long
time, if ever, have brought their country to the state
of reformation and advancement which has already
been bestowed upon it under American administra-
tion. Furthermore, it is unquestionable that the Fili-
pinos would have been content with a much less de-
gree of liberty and beneficent action than that which
they have experienced.
The most severe indictment of the American Gov-
ernment by foreign observers rests upon the asser-
tion that they have granted to the Filipinos more
extensive freedom than they are capable of exercis-
ing with good effect; that the polic}^ of the Philip-
pines for the Filipinos is founded upon an "impossible
and quixotic theory" ; and that the scheme of placing
the "brown brother" upon a political equality with
the white man is ill-advised and bound to result
disastrously.
\^TLether these are errors time alone can tell, but
at worst they will prove to have been the outcome
of benevolent mis judgment. Better a thousand times
that we should be convicted of over-indulgence in our
dealings with the natives than that an accusation of
oppression, or unfairness, should be established
against us. One thing is beyond dispute, and that is,
that if the Filipinos should display ineptness under
the present conditions of American guidance and con-
INSULAR ADMINISTRATION. 205
trol their incapacity for self-government will be abso-
lutely proved.
By the terms of the Treaty of Paris, which went
into effect March 7, 1899, the Philippine Islands be-
came a possession of the United States. The Taft
Commission was appointed by President McKinley,
in March, 1900, from w4iich time the civil adminis-
tration of the territory dates.
Let us see what has been done for the islands and
their inhabitants in these five years of American
rule :*
"Peace has been restored to the islands, and in a
greater degree and over a larger area than at any
period during the centuries the Archipelago was
subject to the sovereignty of Spain."
THE cj:ntral government and legislative
AUTHORITY.
During the term of military administration not a
little was accomplished in preparation for organizing
and establishing civil government. The first efforts
of the Taft Commission were directed toward perfect-
ing and extending this work under instructions from
the President contained in a document dated April 7,
1900. This state paper, which was prepared by Hon.
Elihu Hoot, as Secretary of War, has been character-
"*The following statements are a resume of a Senate Doc-
ument (No. 304, Fifty-eighth Congress), printed from a
report of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, dated 1904.
206 THE PHIIJPPINES.
ized by eminent authorities as ''the most nearly per-
fect example of organic law, jurisprudence, guarding
of rights, distribution of powers, administrative pro-
visions, checks and balances, civilization ever beheld
in a single document." It Avas a constitution, a code
judicial, a system of laws ready made, statutes ad-
ministrative, covering all the activities of a nation
and meeting wants and solving problems innumerable.
It was a masterly summing up of the governing ex-
perience of the self-governing people of the world,
adapted to^ and especially for, effective work in a given
field. This ''Magna Charta" of the Philippines has
furnished the groundwork for a civic machinery
which, after an amazingly brief constructive period,
is moving so smoothly and effectively as to excite the
wonder and admiration of all who are acquainted
with it. The first step in the process was the separa-
tion of the various functions of government, pre-
viously centred in the military authority. To the
latter was continued, for the time being, the executive
powers ; the legislative powers were conferred upon
the Commission, and the judicial powers were trans-
ferred to courts created by the action of the Commis-
sion.
The scope of the legislative authority conferred
upon the Commission was defined in the instructions
as follows: "Exercise of this legislative authority
will include the making of rules and orders, having
the effect of law, for the raising of revenue by taxes,
INSULAR ADMINISTRATION. 207
customs, and duties, and imposts; the appropriation
and expenditure of public funds of the islands; the
establishment of an educational system throughout
the islands; the establishment of a system to secure
an efficient civil service; the organization and estab-
lishment of courts; the organization and establish-
ment of municipal and departmental governments,
and all other matters of a civil nature for which the
military governor is now competent to provide by
rules or orders of a legislative character.'^
From the outset the legislative sessions of the Com-
mission have been public, and their enactments have
been printed in the form of bills. Matters of general
public interest have been discussed by committees
before which natives have been called to express
their views. Ordinary legislative opportunities for
amendment have been afforded and bills and amend-
ments have been publicly debated and voted upon, and
when passed have had the force and effect of statutes.
During the year following its inception, the Com-
mission enacted 263 statutes, every one of which re-
ceived the approval of Congress.
In 1901 a further extension of civil government
was effected by the transfer to the Commission of
the executive authority over all the pacified prov-
inces of the islands. The Hon. William II. Taft
was appointed Governor, and separate executive de-
partments were created and assigned to members of
the Commission as follows: Department of the In-
208 THE PHILIPPINES.
terior. Dean C. Worcester ; Department of Commerce
and Police, Luke E. Wright ; Department of Finance
and Justice, Henry C. Ide ; Department of Public In-
struction, Bernard Moses.
At the same time, by appointment of the President,
three distinguished Filipinos were added to the mem-
bership of the Commission, namely, T. II. Pardo
de Tavera, Benito Legarda and Jose Luzuriaga.
The administrative duties of the government are
distributed in the following apportionment :
The Department of the Interior controls bureaus
of health, forestry, mining, agriculture, fisheries,
weather, public lands, ethnology, patents and copy-
rights, quarantine service, government laboratories,
and the marine-hospital corps.
The Department of Commerce and Police embraces
bureaus of inland and inter-island transportation,
post-offices, telegraphs, coast and geodetic survey, en-
gineering and construction of public works, other
than public buildings, insular constabulary, prisons,
light-houses, and all corporations, except banking.
The Department of Finance and Justice directs
the bureaus of the insular treasury, the insular audi-
tor, customs and immigration, internal revenue, cold-
storage and ice-plant, banks, banking, coinage and
currency, and the bureau of justice.
The Department of Public Instruction includes
the bureaus of public instruction, public charities,
public libraries and museums, statistics, public rec-
INSULAR ADMINISTRATION. 209
ords, government printing, arcliitecture, and construc-
tion of public buildings.
The powers of the judicial branch of the govern-
ment are exercised by the Supreme Court, composed
of seven members, appointed by the President, three
of whom are Filipinos. All other judicial positions
are filled by appointees of the Commission. At pres-
ent fifteen Americans and six natives are judges of
the courts of first instance. Practically all the judges
of the minor courts are natives.
Congress has vested in the government of the Phil-
ippine Islands authority to exercise certain powers of
sovereignty never before conferred upon any portion
of the territory of the United States for the exclusive
use and benefit of that territory. The Philippine
government is authorized to impose duties upon goods
coming to the islands from ports of the United States ;
to issue its own distinctive currency and assume direc-
tion and control of its postal service. Furthermore,
Congress has conveyed to the government of the
Philippine Islands all the public property, and the
rights pertaining thereto, which passed from the
crown of Spain to the United States of America.
Following an election to be held April, 1906, the
legislative power will become vested in a legislature
consisting of two houses, to wit : The Philippine Com-
mission and the Philippine Assembly, the members
of the latter to be elected by the inhabitants of the
islands.
14
210 THE PHILIPPINES.
Pursuing the policy laid down in the instructions
of the President, the Commission passed a general
act for the organization of provincial governments.
The municipality was made the political unit, and the
entire territory of the islands is divided into munici-
palities very similar to the townships in America.
Up to the present the system has been applied to the
thirty-four Christian provinces, except that the city
of Manila is incorporated under a special charter.
The provincial and municipal officials are elected by
popular vote, exercised under liberal suffrage regula-
tions.
PKOVINCIAL AT^D MUTsTICIPAL GOVERNMENTS.
The administration of each municipality is com-
posed of a president, vice-president and a municipal
council, chosen by the qualified electors of the munici-
pality, to serve for two years. The franchise is ex-
tended to those who (a) prior to August 13, 1898,
held certain offices under the Spanish Cro^vn ; those
who (b) own real property to the value of 500 pesos
(a peso is now equivalent to fifty cents American
money), or who pay annual taxes of thirty or more
pesos; and those who (c) speak, read, and write Eng-
lish or Spanish.
The municipal government of the city of Manila
closely resembles that of the city of Washington, but
whilst the Federal Government pays one-half of the
expenses in the latter case, in the former the con-
PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS. 211
tribution of the General Government is no more
than three-tenths. The Municipal Board consists
of three members (one of whom must be a Fili-
pino) appointed by the Governor, with the approval
of the Commission. There is also an Advisory
Board, consisting of one member (appointed by the
Governor, with the consent of the Commission) for
each of the eleven districts of the city. The Advisory
Board is charged with the duty of investigating the
special needs of the municipality and its citizens, and
of making such suggestions to the Municipal Board
as it may deem necessary. All important matters of
municipal legislation must be submitted to the former
body before being acted upon.
Under the general provincial law providing for the
aggregation of several municipalities in larger admin-
istrative divisions, the thirty-four Christian provinces
were organized. The provincial government consists
of five officers for each province (except that in some
cases the offices of treasurer and supervisor are com-
bined), namely, governor, treasurer, supervisor, secre-
tary and fiscal, or prosecuting-attorney ; of these, the
first three form the governing board. The functions
of the provincial government include the collection of
taxes, the construction of roads, bridges, and public
buildings, and the supervision of municipal officers.
It is the duty of the provincial governor to make visits
twice a year to each of the towns in his province. He
is responsible for the proper conduct of the municipal
administrations, and he may remove any municipal
212 THE PHILIPPINES.
officer for cause. The provincial treasurer collects
all the taxes, remits those due to the town to the
municipal treasurer, and audits the accounts of that
official. The supervisor, who must be a civil en-
gineer, is charged with the execution of all public
w^orks and the supervision of them. The fiscal acts
as counsel for the governing board and for each of
the municipalities in the province. The provincial
governor is elected biennially by a convention com-
posed of the counsellors of the municipalities in the
province. The positions of treasurer and supervisor
(usually filled by Americans) are subject to the civil
service law and the positions of secretary and fiscal
are filled by appointment of the Philippine Commis-
sion. At this time all the provincial governors of
the Christian provinces are duly elected Filipinos.
The remaining provincial offices are filled by 86
Americans and 238 natives.
It will be noticed that the provincial and municipal
governments conform very much in structure to the
similar administrative branches under the Spaniards.
It was wisdom on the part of the Commission to
retain as nearly as possible the form of local govern-
ment to which the natives w^ere accustomed, whilst
giving them a greater share in the administration
and a promise of honest and capable officials.
The system is w^orking to the satisfaction of the
people and of the Commission. Amongst upwards
of twelve thousand Filipino municipal officials there
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 213
have been remarkably few instances of misconduct
and no case of a violation of the oath of office has
been established against a president.
The administration of the Moro province is
especially designed to preserve as far as possible,
consistently with the general policy applied to the
Philippine Islands, the '^customs of the Moros, the
authority of the Datos, and a system of justice in
which the Moros shall take part," and to these ends
a very large measure of discretion is allowed to the
legislative council. That body consists of a governor,
who is an officer of the U. S. Army, a secretary, at-
torney, engineer, superintendent of schools, and treas-
urer. The five remaining provinces, namely, Ben-
guet, Lepanto-Bontoc, Mindoro, I^ueva Vizcaya, and
Paragua, are inhabited for the most part by well-dis-
posed though deeply ignorant tribes, to whom it would
be impracticable, for the present, to extend any meas-
ure of self-government. Consequently all the pro-
vincial and municipal positions in these provinces are
filled by appointment. The system under which they
are governed, approximates, however, as closely as
possible to that which obtains in the Christian prov-
inces, and will be assimilated to it as rapidly as con-
ditions justify.
ADMIiq'ISTEATION" OF JUSTICE.
A complete judicial system has been established by
legislative enactment throughout the Archipelago.
214 THE PHILIPPINES.
"New codes of criminal law and procedure will shortly
be enacted, with the effect of ''simplifying procedure
and eliminating those provisions of the existing codes
which pertain to the sovereignty of Spain, the union
of church and state, the rigid restrictions on the ex-
ercise of discretion by the judges, the giving to private
individuals the right to control and compromise crim-
inal prosecution, or to use such prosecutions for the
purpose of blackmail and extortion, and the authority
of the executive branch to control the courts."
The judicial powers of the government are dis-
tributed as follows :
The territory of the Archipelago is divided into
fifteen judicial districts, in each of which there is a
court of first instance. A judge is assigned to each
of these districts and four to the district of Manila.
There are three additional judges to fill vacancies.
The appellate jurisdiction is vested in the Supreme
Court, which consists of seven members, three of
whom are Filipinos. Provision is made for appeal
from the supreme court of the islands to that of the
United States. There is a justice of the peace and
an auxiliary justice of the peace in each municipality.
There are a court of customs appeals, a court of land
registration, and registrars of deeds for each of the
provinces.
The attorney-general is an American, the solicitor-
general a Filipino, and their assistants about equally
divided between the two nationalities.
Office of a Justice.
A hearing before a justice of the peace in a country
district, the prisoner guarded by native constabulary.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
CIVIL SERVICE SYSTEM. 215
The civil service bill provides for the selection and
promotion of civilians to government positions solely
on the basis of merit. The chief preference is given
to natives of the islands, and next, to honorably
discharged soldiers, sailors, and marines of the United
States. Examinations are made in the Philippines
and also throughout the United States by the United
States Civil Service Commission. From the first it
has been found practicable to employ Filipinos ex-
tensively in the provincial and municipal services
where a knowledge of English was not essential, and
with the progress made by them in acquiring that
knowledge large numbers have been appointed to
positions in the central government at Manila. With
the exception of a few requiring special technical and
professional knowledge, and the elective offices of the
provinces, all government positions come within the
scope of the civil-service act.
It was the purpose of the Commission in passing
the civil-service bill to provide a system which would
secure the selection and promotion of civilian officials
solely on the ground of merit, and would permit any
one, by a successful competitive examination, to enter
the service and by the efficient discharge of his duties
reach the head of any important department of the
government.
• The Annals of the American Academy of Political
and Social Science, May, 1902, contained the fol-
lowing comment:
216 THE PHILIPPINES,
^'It is hard to see how our government of the Philip-
pines could be started upon its path in any better way
than by the excellent provisions established by the
Philippine Commission. The reflex action upon our
Government at home of the establishment of a com-
plete merit system in the Philippines is sure to beget
good results when contrasted with the inefficiency and
corruption that flow from the remnants of the spoil
system here at home. It will be remembered that
England first tried competitive methods in her Indian
possessions before she established the civil service
system at home, and it was the successful working of
this commission in India which led to its adoption in
England. It may not be improper to repeat here
the opinion expressed on a former occasion that inas-
much as the beginnings of this reform came from Cal-
cutta to London, it is not impossible nor unreasonable
to expect that its perfect consummation may come
from Manila to Washington."
In support of the foregoing prediction it may be
affirmed that there is no department of the United
States Government more free from the corrupt prac-
tices common to most administrations than those
branches of it that pertain to the Philippine Islands.
Whilst this is true to-day it might have been stated ten
years ago wdth equal truth that in no part of the civil-
ized world were such practices more prevalent than in
the Philippine Islands.
' The following table shows the distribution of
CIVIL SERVICE SYSTEM. 217
government positions. It does not, however, include
the Philippine Scouts, which body is on the establish-
ment of the United States, nor the numerous unskilled
employees of the various departments :
Amerirans. Filipincc.
Members of the Philippine Commission ... 5 3
Justices of the Supreme Court 4 3
Judges of the Courts of First Instance ... 16 7
Judges of the Court of Customs Appeals.. 1 1
Judges of the Court of Land Registration. 1 1
Justices of the Peace and Auxiliary Jus-
tices 1J08
Civil Service of the General Government.. 1,777 2,697
Governors of Provinces 8 32
Other Provincial Officials 86 238
Municipal Presidents (Mayors) 982
Municipal Counselors 8,159
Municipal Secretaries-Treasurers 2,906
Total 1,898 16,737
Municipal School Teachers 3,500
Teachers of English 1,000
Total 1,000 3,500
Municipal Police 10,000
Philippines Constabulary 345 7,000
Total 345 17,000
218 THE PHILIPPINES.
The duty and expense of providing educational
facilities for the Filipinos is assumed by the general
government (augmented in some instances by munici-
palities), and the work is carried on by a department
of public instruction. About 3,500 natives and 1,000
Americans are engaged as teachers, the latter in im-
parting a knowledge of English to the former and in
instructing classes of children. At present the de-
partment maintains about 2,000 primary schools and
38 secondary schools. In addition, the government
conducts a number of technological institutions, in-
cluding a trade school and an agricultural school.
There is also a well-equipped nautical school, pri-
marily for the purpose of educating officers for the
inter-island merchant marine. Night schools in Ma-
nila and other centers afford facilities to adults and
the average attendance is recorded as 10,000 daily.
FILIPINOS IN THE UNITED STATES.
An enactment of the Commission made continuous
provision for the education of a certain number of
Filipinos in the United States. In accordance with
its terms not fewer than 100 Filipinos are to be sent
to America each year, to remain for a period of four
years, during which time they will receive advanced
instruction in various schools and colleges and will
be afforded the widest facilities for acquiring any
knowledge which may be useful to themselves and
their people upon their return. This privilege is
EDUCATION OF THE FILIPINOS. 219
extended upon the condition that those who enjoy it
will upon the completion of the educational term of
four years submit to the competitive examination for
the civil service, and upon appointment serve under
the government for at least the length of time spent
at its expense in the United States, but otherwise
the benefaction is free of conditions or obligations.
It is expected '^that the return of these people to
the islands and the dissemination of information by
them will have a most beneficial and far-reaching
effect."
It is impossible to subscribe to this sanguine con-
clusion without qualification. The experience of all
colonial governments has been that the most trouble-
some element of a native population is the compara-
tively small number who have received education, and
particularly those who have been educated abroad.
However, that is only one of the risks necessarily
involved in the liberal policy the American Govern-
ment has determined to pursue in the Philippines.
In the last fiscal year the Bureau of Education
expended 2,438,185 pesos in addition to the sums con-
tributed by different municipalities and provinces for
educational purposes. The amount of the Spanish
expenditures on the same account in 1894 was
404,731 pesos.
- A complete system of currency has been estab-
lished, which, by maintaining a fixed medium of ex-
change, avoids the fluctuations which were such a
220 THE PHILIPPINES.
grave detriment to trade in former days. The silver
coinage is based upon the decimal system and ranges
in value from the ten-centavo piece to the one-peso
piece. There is also a nickel coin of ^ve-centavos
and bronze coins of one and one-half centavo. These
coins have a fixed convertible value to the United
States currency in the ratio of 2 to 1. A gold re-
serve is maintained for the purpose of preserving
this parity. The islands have a distinctive paper
currency consisting of silver certificates in the de-
nomination of two, five and ten 'pesos, bearing the
vignettes respectively of Jose Kizal, McKinley. and
Washington. During the Spanish regime the cur-
rency of the Philippines was subject to the fluctu-
ations of the silver bullion market, and the trade of
the islands was effected by the varying influences of
an ever-changing currency as well as an ever-changing
rate of exchange.
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.
The Postal System has been extended to every part
of the Archipelago, and mail is carried betAveen the
several ofiices with promptness and regularity. The
issuance of money orders has proved a great boon to
the outlying districts which entirely lack banking
facilities. There are more than 200 post-offices in
the islands. The rate of postage is the same as in
the United States.
The extensive telegraph and telephone systems
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 221
operated during the military occupation have been
enlarged and improved, so that at present 8,000 miles
of land and sea telegraph lines exist, connecting al-
most every municipality with the seat of the central
government. The new Pacific Cable connecting the
United States with the islands will materially reduce
the cost of messages and should prove of the utmost
importance to commercial interests.
Much labor and millions of money have been ex-
pended upon the construction and improvement of
highways imder the direction of army engineers.
Although the work has been carried on under many
adverse conditions, highly satisfactory progress has
been made. The extensive system of railroads whose
construction is in immediate prospect must prove a
factor of the greatest importance in the development
of economic and social conditions.
The Archipelago has not as yet been completely
surveyed, but the official estimate of 74,000,000
acres doubtless expresses very closely its extent.
About 5,000,000 acres of this area are owned by pri-
vate individuals, the balance being public lands.
The purchase of the friar lands by which 410,000
acres passed to the government at a cost of $7,239,000,
was an important measure from the politic as well
as the economic point of view. The native occupants,
who entertained the most bitter feelings toward their
landlords, held their leases under conditions which
precluded the possibility of development and pros-
222 THE PHILIPPINES.
perity. In the hands of the Commission these landa
promise to be a source of profit to both the tenant and
the State.
Referring to this important matter, Governor Taft,
in his report for the year 1903, says:
^'It is thought that the results of these negotiations
and the purchase of the lands form a most important
step in the rehabilitation of the people of the islands
and that the readjustment of their relations to the
Roman Catholic Church, which cannot but be of ma-
terial benefit in a political way to the insular and
provincial governments. , . . We cannot prophesy
that the adjustment wall rid us entirely of the agra-
rian questions. There will be, doubtless, litigation
and local centres of disturbance growing out of gov-
ernment landlordism ; but the elimination of the friars
from the question cannot but tend to greatly facilitate
satisfactory adjustment. . . . The number of
friars in the islands is rapidly diminishing from year
to year, and with the adjustment of the land question
and the division of the proceeds between the Orders
and the Church and the use of the part belonging to
the Roman Church for improvement of the Philippine
church, we may reasonably hope that in a decade the
agrarian and political question of the friars in the
Philippines will have been completely removed from
among the obstacles to good government with which
the Americans, in coming to the islands and assum-
ing control thereof, were confronted."
INVESTIGATION OF RESOURCES. 223
Extensive investigation of the resources of the
islands has been conducted by the appropriate bureaus,
and a mass of extremely valuable information has
been published in the form of government reports.
The forests prove to contain an enormous wealth of
valuable timber and vegetable growth. The mineral
and coal fields have been surveyed and laws favorable
to their development have been enacted. In the de-
partment of agriculture, which is the chief resource
of the inhabitants, the most striking utilitarian results
have been produced by a competent corps of scientific
assistants. Experimental stations and model farms
have been established, and steps taken, by means of
quarantine establishments and serum laboratories, to
stamp out rinderpest and other cattle diseases. A
stock farm is in operation for the purpose of carry-
ing on experiments in breeding with a view to pro-
ducing farm animals especially adapted to the condi-
tions of the Philippines. In order to alleviate the
heavy losses from disease during the earlier years of
American occupation, the government imported a
great number of draft animals, chiefly carabao, which
were sold to the farmers at less than cost. A move-
ment to rehabilitate the coffee industry, which some
ten years ago collapsed under insect blight, bids fair
to restore to the islands what was formerly a very
iniportant and profitable commercial enterprise. The
agricultural college on the island of Kegros is doing a
notable work in the education of native farmers to
scientific agriculture
224 THE PIIILirriNES.
The tariff regulations were adopted only after the
submission of the draft of the proposed legislation to
the importers and exporters of Manila and of the
United States.
FOREIGN COMMERCE.
With a view to the rapid development of the
islands import duties (except upon luxuries) have
been placed at low figures, lower, in fact, than
those which prevailed during the Spanish regime,
or those- in force in the United States. An act
of Congress allows for a reduction of 25 per cent,
of the Dingley tariff on imports into the United
States from the Philippines, and further provides
that all duties collected in the United States on arti-
cles coming from the Philippines and also tonnage
dues shall be remitted to the Philippine treasury for
the benefit of the islands ; also that the Philippine
government shall refund the export duties upon hemp
and other products of the islands in the event they
were exported to the United States.
During the first five years of American adminis-
tration the commerce of the Philippines increased 150
per cent., from $25,000,000 in 1899 to $66,000,000
in 1903. Despite agricultural depression the ex-
ports have advanced during that period from $12,-
000,000 to $33,000,000, leaving a balance of trade in
favor of the islands. The passage of the act of Con-
gress relating to customs, etc., enabled the United
States immediately to displace the United Kingdom
as the chief customer of the Philippine Islands.
NAVIGATION, HEALTH. ETC. 225
SOURCES OF REVENUE.
The chief sources of revenue are customs receipts,
from which approximately 80 per cent, of the whole
is derived; internal revenue, including an industrial
tax on all trades, professions, and arts; a land tax;
registration taxes; etc. It may he stated that the
postal service is nearly self-supporting.
The total revenue for the fiscal year ending June
30, 1903, amounted to $15,326,125, and the ex-
penditures to $14,262,503. During the first five
years of American occupation the revenue aggregated
$49,915,944, and the expenditures $37,516,076.
NAVIGATION^ HEALTH, ETC.
Harhor improvements have heen carried out at
Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, and other points, and extensive
surveys of the more important harbors and gulfs have
been completed under officers of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey. An appropriation of
$6,000,000 for the harbor of Manila is designed to
increase greatly the accommodation of that port, and
to enable vessels, from the shelter of a breakwater,
to discharge cargoes at all seasons upon the docks,
without the medium of lighterage, whereas formerly,
during the monsoons, ships frequently lay for several
days in the bay, incurring heavy demurrage, whilst
awaiting a favorable opportunity to unload.
An efficient coast-guard service has been estab-
15
226 THE PIIILirPINES.
lished, with seventeen vessels, fifteen of which are new
ones purchased by the Philippine government. In
the matter of health and sanitation, the government
encountered one of the most serious and difficult of
the many problems presented by the condition of
the islands when transferred to the United States.
In spite, however, of indifference and in many cases
active opposition, upon the part of the natives, meas-
ures for the improvement of the health of Manila
and the different provinces have been applied with
vigor and the most remarkable results. Owing to
compulsory vaccination, smallpox, formerly the great
scourge of the islands, has ceased to be an important
factor in the death rate. The ability of the board of
health to cope with serious emergencies was severely
tested by the cholera epidemic, which broke out over
a wide area in 1902. Many of the towns affected
were without medical aid, or any knowledge of means
of checking the plague. ^Nevertheless, by prompt and
energetic action the attack was eradicated in less than
a year. The magnitude of the operations of the
board of health on this occasion may be judged from
the fact that its expenditures were considerably in
excess of 1,000,000 pesos. Hospitals, dispensaries,
detention wards, and their appropriate auxiliaries,
have been established and an efficient quarantine serv-
ice is maintained. At Benguet, in the highlands, a
sanatarium has been established by the government for
the recuperation of civilians and soldiers. As a so-
MANILA. 227
journ at Bengiiet produces results equally good with
those following transfer to the United States, great
saving in time and money, it is believed, will be
effected by the institution.
MANILA.
Manila is the seat of central government and the
commercial centre of the islands. Its system of
municipal administration is based upon that of the
city of Washington. The streets, which formerly were
frequently submerged during heavy rains, have been
elevated, graded, widened and paved. The bridges
across the Pasig have been improved and an addition
made to them by a fine double bridge of the latest pat-
tern. The water supply has been increased and im-
proved. Under Spanish rule Manila was entirely
destitute of sewage accommodation. The deficiency
has been remedied by the installation of an adequate
system, in course of extension. Modern market build-
ings have displaced the aggregations of native huts,
which represented the trading marts of Spanish days.
An electric road of forty-five miles has solved the
problem of transportation in the widely-straggling
city. The corporation which operates this railroad
will supply electric light and power to the munici-
pality. The antiquated and wholly inadequate fire
department maintained by the Spaniards has been
transformed into a first-class fire department, with an
ample supply of up-to-date apparatus. The city is
228 THE PHILIPPINES.
excellently policed by natives under the supervision
of Americans. The public parks have been improved
and enlarged, and a plot of land set aside for a
botanical garden.
BOIS'DED II^DEBTEDNESS.
The finances of the islands have been managed with
the utmost skill and economy. The funded debt has,
paradoxical as the statement may appear, been so
far a source of profit. Under the Spanish Crown
the debt of the islands was $40,000,000. This was
disposed of by the purchase and the payment by the
United States of $20,000,000. The present obliga-
tions of the Philippine islands, the rates of interest
paid upon them and the premiums received are shown
in the following table:
Character of Loan. Interest. Premium.
First issue one-year certificates, $3,000,000. $120,000 $75,390
Second issue one-year certificates, $3,000,-
000 120,000 67,200
Bonds for tlie purchase of friar lands,
$7,000,000 280,000 530,370
Distributing the premium of the friar lands bonds
over the redemption period of ten years, the net an-
nual interest charge is reduced to 3.1 per cent.
The net interest charge upon the government for
its funded debt is $224,410, a rate of about 2.25 per
cent, of the customs receipts, the principal revenue
of the islands. No other country in the world can
BONDED INDEBTEDNESS. 229
boast that the interest on its public debt is offset by
such a small percentage of its revenue. In France, 30
per cent, of the gross revenue is required to meet the
interest on the national debt; in Great Britain, 19
per cent. ; in the United States, 5 per cent, without
taking into account State indebtedness. In the Phil-
ippines the funded debt amounts to $1.62 per capita,
and the annual interest charge to four cents per
capita ; in the United States the first item is in ex-
cess of $12, the second of 30 cents ; in Great Britain
the figures are $90 and $3 ; in France, $150 and $6.
^' There are few, if any, civilized States, moreover,
which have so much to show as the Philippines for
the debt which they have incurred. A part represents
a substantial asset in gold in the custody of banks and
trust companies in New York. The other part repre-
sents the acquisition of the best lands in the Philip-
pine Islands, which the Government has acquired
from the friars, in order to give them back to their
natural cultivators, the people of the islands. Both of
these debts will be subject to reduction in the course
of events without levying taxes or providing a sinking
fund. In the case of the $6,000,000, which has been
appropriated temporarily to meet the expenses of
inaugurating the new coinage system, half of the
amount w^ll be no longer necessary when the system
is completed. The money was made available simply
for the purpose of covering capital tied up in bullion
in transit from the mines to the completed coin."
230 THE PHILIPPINES.
The taking of the Philippine Census of 1903 was
an act of the greatest importance and in more than
one respect an extraordinary achievement. The work
was undertaken in accordance with an act of Con-
gress approved July 1, 1902, which provided ''that
whenever the existing insurrection shall have ceased
and a condition of general and complete peace shall
have been established therein .... the Presi-
dent, upon being satisfied thereof, shall order a cen-
sus of the Philippine Islands to be taken by said
Philippine Commission; such census in its enquiries
relating to the population shall take and make, so far
as practicable, full report of all the inhabitants, of
name, age, sex, race, or tribe, whether native or for-
eign born, literacy in Spanish, native dialect or lan-
guage, or in English; school attendance, ownership
of homes, industrial and social statistics, and such
other information, separately for each island, each
province and municipality, or other civil division, as
the President and such commission may deem neces-
sary."
POLITICAL OBJECT OF CENSUS.
The chief political object of the census was set
forth in the following words :
''That two years after the completion and publica-
tion of the census, in case such condition of general
and complete peace with recognition of the authority
of the United States shall have continued in the terri-
Manila Hkmf.
'J'his picture depicts the preparation of Manila hemp,
or abaca, for shipment at Cebu. In the background
is one of the many vessels that ply between the capital
and various insular ports.
From Stereoirraph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New V'ork.
CENSUS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 231
tory of said islands not inhabited by Moros, or
other non-Christian tribes, . . . the President
upon being satisfied thereof shall direct said Com-
mission to call, and the Commission shall call, a gen-
eral election for the choice of delegates to a popular
assembly of the people of said territory in the Philip-
pine Islands, which shall be known as the Philippine
Assembly. After said assembly shall have convened
and organized, all the legislative power heretofore
conferred on the Philippine Commission in all that
part of said islands not inhabited by Moros, or other
non-Christian tribes, shall be vested in a legislature
consisting of two houses — the Philippine Commission
and the Philippine Assembly. Said assembly shall
consist of not less than 50, nor more than 100, mem-
bers, to be apportioned by said Commission among
the provinces as nearly as practicable according to
population."
The censuses effected under the Spanish Govern-
ment were little more than mere enumerations, and
even as such were very far from being complete or
reliable. Their main object was to form a basis for
taxation and conscription. They were, therefore,
highly unpopular with the masses, who obstructed
and misinformed the enumerators. It was to be ex-
pected that the agents of the American Government
would experience similar difficulties, if not greater,
on account of the recently disturbed state of the coun-
try. However, the Commission boldly essayed the
232 THE PHILIPPINES.
task, voluntarily increasing its magnitude, and delib-
erately choosing the most arduous, though also the
most effective, method for its accomplishment. The
outcome was a triumph for the Commission and a
complete refutation of the predictions of pessimists
at home and in the islands.
A MODEL PKOCLAMATIOIS'.
It was also a thorough justification of the confi-
dence Governor Taft has always been ready to place
in the Filipinos when appealed to in the right way.
His proclamation upon this occasion, simple, concil-
iatory and logical, was unquestionably a potent factor
in the result. As a pattern for the style of public
document which is most effective with a people like
the Filipinos it is well worth quoting:
"In accordance with the policy of President Mc-
Kinley, announced in his instructions of April 7,
1900, the Philippine Commission has extended to the
people of the Philippine Islands complete autonomy
in the matter of municipal government, and partial
autonomy in the matter of provincial government.
By actual experience the qualified electors of the
Philippine Islands are learning the science of self-
government. The policy of the late President Mc-
Kinley has been sincerely adopted and followed by
President Roosevelt ; and the aim of the Commission
in accordance with his instructions, gradually to ex-
tend self-government to the people of the islands, was
A MODEL PROCLAMATION, 233
approved and adopted by the Congress of the United
States at its last session, in the so-called Philippine
Act, by which provision was made for the election
of a popular Philippine assembly within two years
after the taking of a comprehensive census of the
Philippine Islands. The taking of the census is in-
dispensable to the calling of a general election for
this popular assembly. Xo other object besides the
collection of the necessary data for determining the
social and industrial conditions of the people, as the
basis of intelligent legislative action, is involved in
the taking of this census. By the terms of the census
law, passed by the Philippine Commission, it will be
seen that the census is to be largely in the hands and
under the control of the Filipinos. The taking of
the census will therefore form a test of the capacity
of the Filipinos to discharge a most important func-
tion of government. The information secured by the
census will form the basis upon which capital will be
invested in the islands and the material prosperity of
the people brought about. The census, therefore, is
to be taken solely for the benefit of the Filipino peo-
ple, and if they desire to have a larger voice in their
own government wdthin the near future, if they de-
sire to demonstrate to the world a growing capacity
for self-government, and if they would aid the in-
vestment of capital and the improvement of their
material condition they should lend their unanimous
support to the successful taking of the census."
234 THE PHILIPPINES.
The same proclamation appointed March 2, 1903,
as ' 'census clay/' and upon that date the work began
simultaneously in every part of the Archipelago.
AMEKICAN CEIs^SUS METHODS FOLLOWED.
It had been determined, in dealing with the Chris-
tain, or civilized peoples, to adopt the American
method of census taking, which is the most compre-
hensive extant, and much more efficient than any
method which had ever been applied to an Oriental
people. Its operation required, in addition to the
Bureau force, a specially appointed corps of super-
visors, special agents, special enumerators, and enu-
merators with sufficient intelligence to collect the de-
sired statistics. It also required the division of the
country into supervisors' districts, having clearly-
defined geographical limits, and these into equally
well-defined enumerators' districts. Here the first
and a very serious obstacle was encountered in the
lack of provincial or municipal maps. This difficulty
was overcome by requiring the presidents of munici-
palities to return diagrams of their respective town-
ships showing the relative location and the approxi-
mate distance of each harrio from the main barrio or
seat of municipal government and, if possible, the
area of the municipality. Under the authority to col-
lect ^'such other information" as mis'ht be deemed
necessary the Commission decided to add to the data
specified by Congress the statistics of schools, agri-
NOVEL EXPERIENCE OF CENSUS AGENTS, 235
culture, manufactures, railroads, fishing, mining, tele-
graph, express transportation, insurance, and bank-
ing, so that the extent of inquiry of this census
of the Philippines was almost as wide as that of the
Twelfth Census of the United States.
The governors of provinces and the presidents and
councilmen of municipalities were employed as far
as possible. Amongst the Moros and other wild
tribes of Mindanao it was thought advisable, to employ
officers of the army. The total number of persons en-
gaged in taking the Census w^as 7,627, of whom 118
were Americans, 7,642 native men and 40 native
women, 1 Japanese and 6 Chinese. The work every-
where progressed smoothly. Three enumerators were
attacked by ladrones, but, with this exception, there
was no opposition to the census, and the fact may be
accepted as significant of the attitude of the masses
toward the American Government as represented by
the Commission.
NOVEL EXPERIENCE OF CENSUS AGENTS.
The experience of many of the census agents was
interesting and instructive, especially in dealing with
the wild tribes. The Supervisor of ^ueva Vizcaya
said: ''The Igorots are very slow to move, and do not
count beyond ten ; after that it is so many tens up to
one hundred, and beyond one hundred is an incom-
prehensible figure to them which they never enter
into. The system adopted by me was to send enumer-
236 THE PHILIPPINES.
ators some days ahead to advise the Igorots of what
we wanted, and get them to count their houses, people,
and domestic animals, and measure by a sample stick
given them the land owned and cultivated by each
family. They counted the animals and people by
making notches on rattan sticks and bringing one
bundle to represent the men, one bundle for the
women, one for the chickens, pigs and so on, together
with the ];iame of the settlement."
Major Kennon in the Iligan district found the
Moros anything but communicative. He stated that
^^a considerable amount of diplomacy was necessary
in order to overcome their suspicions. One of the
sultans of the district refused absolutely to give any
information whatever. I reasoned with him in every
way, but could get nothing from him — not even his
objections. At last I told him that we were not ob-
taining the data for the purpose of putting a tax
on his people. At this he opened up somewhat ; and
when I spoke of the customs of the people and of the
intention of the Americans to leave all minor ques-
tions of that character to the people, it seemed that
I had found the basis of his objections. He bright-
ened up at once and said he had feared that we wanted
to make them dress like white f ollvS and Filipinos ;
that we wanted to make them wear shoes and hats
and to cut off their hair. Reassured on this point, he
readily gave all the information desired.''
Another report from a Moro district says: ^'The
GREAT SCOPE OF THE CENSUS. 237
Moro has some excellent qualities, but appreciation of
the value of time is certainly not one of them. The
asking of the most necessary questions, or the obtain-
ing answers to them, would frequently take up a
full hour of our time at one Moro's house.
Again, some of the necessary questions the Moros
wouldn't answer at all ; for instance, no Moro will
tell his own name under any circumstances." This
difficulty was possibly overcome by asking each man
the name of his neighbor.
GKEAT SCOPE OF THE CENSUS.
The results of the census are contained in four
large volumes aggregating about 2,500 pages.* It
brought to light a great deal of new information of a
valuable nature and corrected many errors and mis-
conceptions. In addition to the statistical tables and
analytical text, the publication includes a number of
pertinent articles, mostly contributed by natives, the
whole making a complete and accurate presentation of
the islands and their inhabitants. Some of the facts
strikingly brought out by the census are as follows:
The Spanish estimate of the number of Moros was
far in excess of the actual figure, and the number of
Chinese in the islands has been greatly exaggerated.
The census gives a total of 41,000 for the latter.
Practically all the people are engaged in agriculture
of some form, but the area under cultivation is
♦ Census of the Philippine Islands. Washington, 1905.
238 THE PHILIPPINES.
small compared to the whole. Applying the standard
of ability to speak, read, and write Spanish, but 1.6
per cent, of the civilized population may be consid-
ered educated. The statistics support the statement
that the climate of the Philippine Islands is salubri-
ous and healthful, and the reports of the Surgeon-
General of the Army point to the same conclusion.
Conspicuous facts are the entire absence of hospitals,
except in a few large cities ; the existence of but twelve
public libraries, with 4,019 volumes, the great pre-
ponderance of churches, the small number of news-
papers, and the comparatively small number of pau-
pers and criminals. The data concerning insurance,
banks, telegraph lines, and express, show the need
rather than the existence of these forms of indus-
try. The same may be said of roads and railways.
On the other hand, great improvements, expected and
in prospect, are shown in the facilities for water trans-
portation. The schedule relating to mechanical in-
dustries exhibits the limited extent of manufactures
and the excellent opportunities for investment in that
direction. The report makes it very apparent that
the great need of the Philippines now is moral,
material, and industrial improvement commensurate
with their political condition.
COMMERCE.
VI.
COMMERCE.
Traffic with Mexico — Early Commercial Enterprises — The
Colony Opened to the Trade of the World — A Review of
Philippine Commerce^-The Import Trade — The Export
Trade — Manila Hemp — The Sugar Industry — Tobacco
— Copra — Coffee — The Transportation Problem.
It will be remembered that the conquest and coloni-
zation of the Philippine Islands were effected from
Mexico, and the islands continued to be a sort of
dependency of the older possession. Regular com-
munication was established between the two countries
by means of State galleons which made a voyage to
and fro once a year. The service was established in
1611 and maintained until 1815. The State Nao
carried from one to four million dollars worth of
specie and merchandise and transported officials and
despatches. For a long period it was the only stated
means of communication between the colony and the
mother country. The vessels were squat, tub-like
four-deckers, with great elevation fore and aft. They
carried cannon and men-at-arms.
Until about the middle of the nineteenth century
the Philippines had no distinctive currency, and in
the early days there was no coin of any kind in the
islands. Taxes were paid in kind and stored in
16 ( 241 )
242 THE PHILIPPINES.
Manila to await the periodical calls of tlie Chinese
traders, with whom they were bartered; The Chinese
wares and manufactures thns acquired were shipped
to Mexico for sale on account of the Royal Treasury.
In return a certain sum of money, termed the Real
SituadOj or Royal Allowance, was yearly furnished
to the Insular Government for the maintenance of
the administration. Theoretically these transactions
balanced, but as a matter of fact there was always a
deficit in the revenues, which could not have been
made up without the subsidy.
TKAFFIC WITH MEXICO.
The available space in the vessel, after the royal
shipment had been accommodated, was placed at the
disposal of a close corporation of merchants called
the Consulado. The value of their annual shipments
was at first limited to $250,000, the return for which
could not legally exceed $500,000 in cash, being one
hundred per cent, profit, the amount realized for
many years on these ventures. The value of the
merchandise that might be shipped in this manner
was increased from time to time, ultimately reach-
ing $750,000. It always remained nominally under
regulation, but the restrictions upon it were con-
stantly evaded. The commerce of the islands was
for two centuries limited to this traffic with Mexico.
The merchants were permitted to engage in trade to
the extent of buying such productions of China,
TRAFFIC WITH MEXICO. 243
India, and Persia, as might be brought to the Philip-
pines, and transhipping them to 'New Spain. These,
and the produce of the Archipelago, were the only
kinds of merchandise in which they might deal, and
they were only allow^ed to acquire foreign goods from
traders who brought them to the islands.
Thus the Naos de Acapulco were not only the sole
channel for the trade of the Archipelago, but also the
sole source of money for the use of the Government
and the people. It followed that any derangement
of the regular sailings caused serious injury to the
Colony. Shipwreck and tempest not infrequently
disposed of the galleons and many of them fell prizes
to Spain's naval enemies, the English and Dutch, en-
tailing heavy losses upon the Royal Treasury and the
private shippers, besides depriving the Philippines
of their necessary supplies of coin. The voyages of
the galleons were sometimes interrupted for two or
three years at a time, and it happened once that five
years elapsed between the departure of one nao and
the arrival of the next. The consequent dearth of
currency caused great misery. Early in the eight-
eenth century the merchants of southern Spain com-
plained that their trade to Mexico was seriously im-
paired by the imports to that country from the
Philippines of Chinese fabrics. As a consequence of
their urgent representations to the King restrictions
were placed upon the trade of the islands to the great
detriment of their merchants. The operation of these
244 THE PHILIPPINES.
impediments and the expulsion of the non-Christian
Chinese in 1755 caused a marked decline in the com-
merce of the Archipelago. At this period the only
exports of native produce were sugar, cacao, wax,
and sapanwood.
EARLY COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES.
Following the banishment of the Chinese an at-
tempt was made by the Spanish merchants to con-
centrate the entire trade of the islands in their own
hands. An official order closed the shop of every
Chinaman, and a company was formed with the inten-
tion of monopolizing the trade in the produce of the
Philippines and the staple imports. The project
looked promising, but it met with failure, owing
chiefly to the inability of the Spaniards to secure
from the Chinese traders as favorable terms as the
latter had made with their countrymen.
About the same time a commercial corporation
named the '^Compania Guipuzcoana de Caracas'' was
created by Royal charter wdth certain privileges.
The company enjoyed a practical monopoly of the
trade between the Philippines and ISTew Spain which
was still carried on through the medium of the State
galleons. This venture was not a success, and the
charter was surrendered in 1753.
A much more pretentious undertaking was the
*'Real Compania de Filipinas/' This company was
authorized by Royal charter dated March the 10th,
EARLY COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES. 245
1785, with a paid-up capital of $8,000,000, in 32,000
shares of $250 each. King Charles the Third sub-
scribed for 4,000 shares ; 3,000 shares were reserved
for residents of Manila, and the remainder was taken
up in the Peninsula.
The new company avoided the inter-colonial trade
and devoted itself to the development of commerce
between the islands and Europe and Asia. It was
the first time that such a traffic had been attempted,
or, indeed, permitted, and, considering the extremely
favorable conditions of its inception, the enterprise
should have had different results.
By the terms of its charter the ''Real Compania de
FiUpinas" enjoyed the exclusive privilege of trade
between the Philippines and the mother country, ex-
cepting such as passed between Manila and Acapulco,
and it was allowed to import the produce of the
islands free of duty. The company was further pro-
tected by a prohibition against foreign vessels carry-
ing goods from Europe to the Archipelago.
All restrictions against the importation to Spain of
the productions of China, India, and Japan, were
abrogated in favor of the company. The pre-exist-
ing prohibition against direct traffic with China, and
India, was removed to permit the Manila merchants
and the company's ships to call at Chinese ports.
The company had the privilege of acquiring for-
eign-built vessels within two years of the date of its
incorporation and of entering them under the Spanish
flag free of fees.
246 THE PHILIPPINES.
The company could enter, duty free, all material
needed for fitting out its ships and all supplies for
their use.
In consideration of its charter and special conces-
sions the company undertook to support and develop
Philippine agriculture, and to expend, with this oh-
ject, four per cent, of its net profits.
Despite its extraordinary advantages this great
trading corporation v^as never prosperous. The op-
portunities for ^^graft" afforded by a concern of its
magnitude were great, and of course were not neg-
lected. Influence was exerted to secure lucrative
and important positions for incapables, and general
extravagance characterized the management. The
system of making advances to irresponsible cultiva-
tors, which has become a fixed feature of agricultural
methods in the Philippines, was instituted by the
Real Compania and proved to be one of the chief fac-
tors in its failure. Lacking the right to enforce labor,
it is difficult to see how the company could have con-
trived any very considerable development of the coun-
try, otherwise than by making loans as an inducement
to the extension of cultivation. Vast sums were
expended in this direction, for a considerable propor-
tion of which little or no return was received.
The exclusive conditions under which the company
operated tended to make smuggling a highly lucrative
occupation, and the contraband traffic, which before
the introduction of steamships was very difficult to
OPENED TO THE TRADE OF THE WORLD. 247
suppress, seriously impaired the profits of the Real
Compania. In 1825 the company's affairs were at
so low an ebb as to seriously threaten a collapse. For
the time this was averted by increasing the capital
in the amount of $12,500,000. This could not, how-
ever, correct the inherent weaknesses of the enter-
prise, and in 1830 it was found necessary to revoke
the charter of the ''Eeal Compania de Filipinas/'
THE COLONY OPENED TO THE TRADE OF THE WORLD.
ISTotAvithstanding its disastrous ending the Real
Compania had not lived in vain. Although the
defunct corporation had lost the money of its share-
holders its operations resulted in the iTtmost benefit
to the islands. It gave a great impetus to agricul-
ture and commerce, and was a potent factor in the
prosperity of the Archipelago, which distinctly dates
its commencement from this period. It also led the
way to the removal of the crippling restrictions
under which the trade of the Philippines had stag-
gered up to this time.
In the year 1834 the port of Manila was thrown
open to the trade of the world, marking an epoch in
the history of the Philippines.
The Spanish authorities have always displayed a
suspicious reluctance to admit foreign merchants
-to the country, and up to the last many officials
entertained the opinion that the presence of aliens
was prejudicial to the interests of the Colony. Pre-
vious to the opening of that port, permission to estab-
248 THE PHILIPPINES.
lish a mercantile house in Manila was seldom secured,
and never without great difficulty, by outsiders. In
1844 a Royal decree was issued excluding foreigners
from the interior, and as late as 1857 an attempt
was made to enforce old laws against the establish-
ment of foreigners in the Archipelago. Yet it is to
foreign capital and enterprise that the commerce of
the Philippines owes its permanent foundation, and
the majority of the Spanish and native merchants
found the beginnings of their business in the same
sources. There was no Spanish capital in the islands,
nor, after the failure of the Real Compania de
Filipinos, any prospect of its coming there from
Spain.
Foreign trade was hampered by burdensome regu-
lations. The import duties on merchandise carried
by foreign ships were double those imposed on goods
brought by Spanish vessels. The tonnage charges on
foreign ships laden with cargoes were double those
on such ships in ballast, and if one of the latter landed
but a small parcel the extra rate was exacted. These
ridiculous port charges were abolished in 1869.
The commerce of the islands from its commence-
ment until 1834 was centered in Manila, where the
only custom house was located. After that year other
ports of entry were created.
The currency of the islands has always been in a
disorganized condition and subject to the fluctuations
incident to a silver basis. The banking facilities were
NASCENT PERIOD OF COMMERCE. 249
inadequate, and are not yet fully equal, to the require-
ments of business.
OPENED TO THE TRADE OF THE WORLD.
Under the Spaniards no attempt was made to de-
velop manufactures, with the single exception of
cigars, and the lack of cheap and convenient land
transportation militated against such development.
The entire export trade of the islands depended upon
the raw produce of the soil and the forest, which will
always be the chief sources of wealth, although there
is no doubt that the mechanical and mining industries
will in time take a prominent place in the economy
of the country. The first half of the nineteenth cen-
tury was the nascent period of Philippine commerce.
Its germination during two centuries had been a slow
process checked by hampering regulations and cum-
bering conditions. Several circumstances acted at
about the same time to relieve the trade of the most
serious of these impediments and to give it a strong
impetus. The most important of these favorable con-
ditions were the operations of the "Real Compania de
Filipinas'' the cessation of restriction of export to
the State galleons, the removal of the prohibition
against direct trading with China ; the abolition of
the nao service ; the independence of Mexico and the
consequent establishment of direct traffic between
the Philippines and Spain ; and, most effective of all,
the opening of Manila to the free commerce of the
world.
250 THE PHILIPPINES.
A REVIEW OF PHILIPPINE COMMERCE.
Fifty years ago the Philippines were hardly kno^\Ti
in the commercial centres of Europe, and its produce
was not a factor in mercantile calculations. During
the last half century, and especially since the opening
of the Suez Canal in 1870, the trade of the islands
has made great strides, and whilst still in its infancy,
has given reliable indications of the possibility of im-
mense development in the future. A review^ of
the commerce of the Philippines during the past fifty
years is rendered somewhat difficult by the incomplete-
ness of the Spanish records and the impossibility of
tracing shipments to their ultimate source and des-
tination through Hongkong, which is a free tran-
shipment port and clearing-house for Oriental traffic.
Following 1855, for several years these shipments
seem to have been credited to China ; then for another
period of years to the ^'British Possessions'' ; and
* The following is a summary of the "Historical review
and analysis of trade under Spanish and American occupa-
tion" contained in the Monthly Summary of Commerce of
the Philippine Islands, December, 1904, prepared by the
Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, D. C. The series
of monthly summaries issued by the Bureau includes a de-
tailed report of the trade of the Philippines, supplemented
by instructive articles pertinent to the subject. It is a highly
valuable publication to the merchant, or shipper, whose
business relations in any way involve the trade, or indus-
tries, of the Archipelago.
PHILIPPINE COMMERCE. 251
finally, during the last six years of Spanish occupa-
tion, they again figure as Chinese trade.
A noticeable fact is that the exports have averaged
in excess of the imports until recent years. In 1855
the export trade amounted to six millions and the
import to five and, with occasional exception and
variation in the proportions, this general condition
obtained up to the termination of Spanish sovereignty.
During this period the trade of the islands reached
high water mark in 1880 and remained about station-
ary for the remaining fifteen years.
The prevailing balance of trade has been entirely
subverted under the American administration. Both
imports and exports have increased greatly, the
former being nearly doubled. In the past five years
the apparently adverse balance was : Two millions in^
1900 ; five and a half millions in 1901 ; nearly five
millions in 1902 ; one and a half millions in 1903 ;
less than half a million in 1901 ; and a practical equi-
librium was reached in 1905. Whilst the balance of
trade is generally an indication of the prosperity,
or otherwise, of a nation whose industrial economy is
established, it is not a safe criterion in the case of
an undeveloped country in a process of reformation.
That the industrial energies of the people of the Phil-
ippines have been greatly stimulated contemporary
with American occupation, in spite of insurrectionary
disorders and misfortunes beyond human control, is
evidenced by the large increase in exports. These,
252 THE PHILIPPINES.
during the last five recorded years of Spanish rule,
averaged a scant twenty millions of dollars and can
not be assumed to have increased appreciably during
the years following, in view of the fact that they
had remained virtually stationary at this average
since 1880. Yet in the American quinquennial
period 1900-1904 these average exports of twenty
millions became about twenty-seven and a half mil-
lions, and testify to the stimulated productiveness and
increased purchasing power of the islands.
The explanation of the recent reversal of the bal-
ance of trade is not far to seek. During the five-year
period in question the scale of wages throughout the
islands has largely increased and is said to average
double what it was a decade ago. This, in connection
with the enhanced prosperity denoted by the export
figures, would naturally imply an increase in the pur-
chasing power and inclinations of the masses. The
presence of the army has been an important factor
in producing the result in question. At the time of
the heaviest import balances, there were from fifty to
seventy thousand American soldiers in the Archi-
pelago, whose pay for the most part was expended
upon articles of foreign manufacture. Another
potent factor in the exceptional imports is to be
found in the item of ordinary supplies for a govern-
ment conducted upon a much more liberal scale as re-
gards public works and improvements than was its
predecessor. A large proportion of these imports
THE IMPORT TRADE. 253
were in the nature of permanent investments, and in
an analysis carried to ultimate conclusions would be
properly placed to the credit account.
It is not probable that the heavy relative credits in
favor of exports in former years will again prevail,
nor is it desirable that they should. A smaller bal-
ance, with larger investments of export proceeds in
permanent improvements to increase production and
raise the standard of living in the islands would
make a more creditable showing than the large bal-
ances of the closing years of Spanish rule, which
seem to have utterly disappeared without conferring
any permanent benefit upon the country. Europe
and Asia have been the chief sources of import, in
approximately equal values, with America figuring
almost insiffnificantlv until 1900. It is a remarkable
coincidence that the opening of the Suez Canal, which
would naturally have been calculated to expand Euro-
pean shipments, marks a decided increase in the Ori-
ental traffic, which, from that time, gained a lead
over Europe and maintained it for many years. The
present Oriental trade averages about thirteen mil-
lions of the thirty million total; Europe contributes
about twelve millions and the United States prac-
tically the balance.
THE IMPORT TRADE.
Of the European countries, the United Kingdom
and Spain have been responsible for the bulk of the
254 THE PHILIPPINES.
inward sliipments. The former has heen by far the
most regular importer to the Philippines during the
fifty years. In the pre-Suez period half the imports
of the islands was due to her. The opening of the
Canal brought no apparent increase to the British
trade, but it is possible that some portion of her ship-
ments may be lost to sight in the Hongkong credits.
The record as applied to Great Britain is strikingly
uniform, showing a steady, but moderate, increase.
In the pre-Suez period the United Kingdom receives
credit for an average of four millions in a total of
seven and a half, and in the term from 1880 to 1904
her shipments have remained in the neighborhood of
five millions annually, although the aggregate im-
ports have quadrupled in the meantime.
The imports of Spain, whilst second in the Euro-
pean list, rarely amounted to one million prior to
1885. From that date they began to show a material
increase, and under the protection of the tariff of
1891 her shipments grcAV to five millions, and ex-
ceeded those of the United Kingdom in 1894. Dur-
ing the period of American administration the im-
ports of Spain have dropped back to an average of
about two millions.
The import trade of Germany with the Philippines
has shown a gradual growth, from small beginnings,
during the half century, but seldom reached a value
of one million dollars previous to 1900. Since that
date, however, the annual average of German ship-
ments has exceeded one and three-quarter millions.
The Busy PasKt.
Looking towards the city from the lighthouse at the
entrance to the river. Only vessels of light draft, such
as the int^r-island schooners, can come up to these
wharves,
l>om Stereoarraph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood. New ^"ork.
THE IMPORT TRADE. 255
The figures for France have averaged in excess of
two millions for the past five years, although they
were comparatively insignificant in former times.
The American import trade with the islands, for-
merly of little consequence, has leaped into a leading
place in recent years. In 1900 it amounted to two
millions, and in 1904 to more than five millions,
exceeding that of all other countries with the excep-
tion of the French Indies, whence the rice shipments
are very heavy.
The chief items of Philippine import come under
the general headings of clothing, food-stuffs, and
manufactures of steel and iron. In the period from
1900-1904 these three classes of goods represent
ahout two-thirds of the total average imports of
thirty million dollars, and during the decade from
1885 to 1894 the proportion was even greater. In the
latter period fibers and textiles, chiefly cotton and
cotton goods, accoimted for six million dollars ; and
in the American period for rather more. Since 1900
food-stuffs have taken the lead in the items of foreign
purchases. This preponderance has been due to large
importations of rice, the staple food of the natives.
Rice was also the largest item in food imports during
the Spanish decade under comparison, but not to sueli
an extent as at present. The agricultural depression
which is a natural sequence of war, the ravages of rin-
derpest, and other factors, account for this condition.
Although it seems true that the Philippines ought
256 THE PHILIPPINES.
to produce a larger proportion of the staple article
of food of its population, the fact of importing a con-
siderable quantity is not necessarily an indication of
unfavorable economic conditions. It is quite possible
that many Filipino laborers can apply themselves to
other branches of agriculture with greater profit than
they would derive from growing rice, a low-priced
product. In any case, with the present high scale
of wages and the primitive methods of culture em-
ployed in the islands, it is more economical to buy
the cheap production of Asm than to raise the grain.
Unless a more scientific system of cultivation is soon
inaugurated, the rice industry of the Philippines is
in danger of extinction.*
An important fact, as indicative of development
and improvement, is the large increase in recent years
of the imports of iron and steel. In the compara-
tive periods the average value of this class of ship-
ments rose from eight hundred thousand dollars to
in excess of two millions. Kearly half of this total
is of American origin.
The United States has a practical monopoly of
*The cost of labor in the Chinese rice fields is about half
as much as the cost of similar labor in the Philippines,
but the adoption of economical methods would more than
offset the difference. A Filipino will cultivate one hectare,
yielding 1,500 pounds of paddy, at a cost for his labor of
$20 gold and board per annum. A Louisiana field hand re-
ceives $200 a year and board, but he produces IGO.OOO pounds
of rice. He receives ten times as much as the Filiphio and,
with the aid of scientific appliances, does one hundred times
as much work.
THE EXPORT TRADE. 257
the flour imports, and the same may be said of raw
cotton.
There are still extensive fields of the trade of the
islands into which the American shipper has not yet
entered, or only tentatively, but the groAvth of ship-
ments of manufactures from the United States to
the Philippines is distinctly gratifying in view of
the fact that it has been achieved in open competi-
tion. The imports from Spain in 1894 were but
slightly greater than those of America ten years later,
although the former were the culmination of relations
extending over a long period and fostered by ad-
vantages over competitors. On the other hand, Amer-
ican enterprise has, in a comparatively short space
of time, borne equal fruit in a new field where it
has not enjoyed any tariff favors and has had to make
its way in the face of the established trade of other
countries. What has already been accomplished gives
promise of an enormous extension of trade with this
market after 1909, when the lapse of the restrictions
imposed by the Treaty of Paris will permit of a re-
adjustment of commercial relations with particular
view to the mutual advantage of the two countries.
THE EXPORT TEADE.
The export trade of the Philippines has hitherto
depended almost solely upon its agricultural products.
Neither the rich mineral resources of the islands nor
their facilities for cultivating the mechanical indus-
tries have ever been encouraged.
17
258 THE PHILIPPINES.
During the past fifty years the exports have been
made up practically of hemp, sugar, tobacco, coffee,
and copra, with the first two maintaining the leading
places. In pre-Suez days these two articles, in nearly
equal quantities, represented more than half of the
total exports, which averaged ten millions. From the
opening of the Canal until 1885 the sugar trade
enjoyed its greatest prosperity, and the exports for
this period of fifteen years averaged nine millions
to five millions for hemp, in a total average export of
a little short of twenty millions. Thereafter sugar
continues to decline under the pressure of beet com-
petition, whilst hemp makes a steady increase, favored
by the natural monopolistic conditions of the indus-
try. In the American period sugar has fallen into a
minor place, with an average of barely three mil-
lions, in a total of twenty-seven and a half millions
of exports and hemp has reached eighteen millions,
being two-thirds of the total.
Tobacco has been generally the chief of the lesser
exports with an average value of about two millions
during the fifty year period. Coffee, which has
virtually disappeared from the list of exports, reached
its highest figure in 1889, with nearly two million dol-
lars. Copra is the youngest, and one of the most
promising, of the export articles of the Philippines.
The development of the copra trade is of recent years,
and during the American period it has passed tobacco
in the value of its shipments and is closely approach-
MANILA HEMP. 259
ing sugar. Many of the products of the Archipelago,
which are at present not represented in the list of
exports, or only by unimportant shipments, are likely
in the future to become considerable factors in its
trade.
MANILA HEMP.
Manila hemp occupies a unique place amongst the
products of the Philippines. The demand for it was
long since established on account of a combination of
peculiar qualities to which no other fiber can lay
claim. It has been a staple article of commerce for
a century, and although numerous attempts to raise
it in foreign countries have been made, its native
land remains the exclusive source of its supply.
Another exceptional feature of the hemp industry
is the essentially primitive character of the cultiva-
tion of the plant and the method of extracting the
fiber.
Maguey fiber has been an active rival of Manila
hemp in many fields, but its chief advantage lies in
a lower price, and so long as the quality of the latter
is maintained at a high grade it need not fear com-
petition.
Under these conditions of a natural monopoly in an
exceptionally valuable commodity, produced from the
abundance of nature, with the most rudimentary out-
lay of labor and capital, it might be inferred that the
hemp exports of the islands would show a uniformitv
260 THE PHILIPPINES.
free from the vicissitudes of industries exposed to
severe competition and dependent upon the invest-
ment of large capital and the exercise of skilled labor.
Such an inference is borne out by the figures.
Fifty years ago the hemp exports did not amount
to twenty thousand tons. At the present time the
outgo is six times as large, and the tables show that
it has been attained by a constant and steady growth.
The irregularities marked by exceptional figures are
no doubt due to local and transitory conditions en-
tirely independent of market influences. The great
falling off in 1890, for instance, is accounted for by
an exceptionally dry season.
At the end of the fifties exports of hemp had in-
creased to twenty-five thousand tons yearly, and they
fluctuate around that figure for the following ten
years. The opening of the Suez Canal, and the ex-
tensive introduction to agriculture of automatic bind-
ers, gave impetus to the demand for the fiber. The
upward trend of the trade continued until the last
years of the Spanish regime. During American oc-
cupation there was, as might have been expected, some
falling off, owing to the generally disorganized con-
dition of labor and industry, but the slightness of the
declines is remarkable, and is doubtless to be ex-
plained by the nature of the industry and the com-
parative ease with which it could be pursued even
in times of disturbance. A reaction, however, sets
in with 1901, and since then a new record average
MANILA HEMP. 261
has been made with one hundred and twenty-five
thousand tons. The outlook for this, the leading ex-
port of the islands, is decidedly promising. It still
enjoys its exclusive position in the market, the Philip-
pines continues to be the only country that can pro-
duce it, and there is every reason to depend upon a
constantly increasing demand. As has been inti-
mated, there is but one danger threatening the pros-
perity of this trade, and that lies in a deterioration
of the quality of the finished fiber, such as results
from carelessness in the process of extraction. This
detrimental factor has operated to the injury of the
industry in the past, and in 1894 the merchants of
Manila were obliged to take concerted action to check
it. A recurrence of the same thing in recent years
seems to demand drastic measures to preserve the
place which Manila hemp holds in the markets of
the world and in the trade of the Philippines and to
prevent the impairment of its reputation and the pos-
sibility of its sinking to the level of inferior fibers.*
The act of March the 8th, 1902, which gave the
American importer the benefit of the export duty,
put an end to an anomalous condition in the trade.
* The interests of this and other Philippine industries
would be served by a system of governmental inspection of
exports such as exists in some of the Australian govern-
ments. At a time when the islands are seeking new markets,
it is of the utmost importance that careless or conscienceless
exporters should be prevented from bringing their products
into disrepute.
262 THE PHILIPPINES.
Previous to this time the American manufacturer had
derived his supplies of the fiber largely from Great
Britain, incurring the cost of transhipment and the
profit of the middleman. This feature of the Manila
hemp trade is of long standing, its inception probably
dating from the opening of the Suez Canal. In 1885
America made considerable purchases of the fiber in
the British market; in 1892 nearly half of the im-
ports of that article to the United States came from
Great Britain, and as late as 1901 America received
the greater proportion of its supply from the same
source. At present these indirect imports are in-
considerable, and may be expected to cease altogether
within the next few years.
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY.
The sugar industry in the Philippines presents a
sorry spectacle of decay, with little encouragement to
hope for future revival. With no other distinction
in the markets of the world than the discrediting one
of general inferiority in quality, Philippine sugar
has sufi'ered terribly in the losing struggle of cane
sugar throughout the world during the past twenty-
five years. Adverse local conditions have combined
with market influences to bring about a serious state
of decadence in the industry.
In earlier times, when the cane of tropical countries
had no competitor, and when wasteful methods of ex-
traction were universal, the Philippine product found
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 263
a readj market at profitable prices. The killing com-
petition with European bounty-fed sugars was not
met in the Philippines by any improvement in the
primitive process of production, and the industry
sank, as it must have done under any but conditions
of the greatest economy in extraction. The very pros-
perous period of the Philippine sugar trade was
between 1855 and 1870, when high prices ruled, but
the response to this stimulus was only moderate, prob-
ably on account of the great distance of the country
from the points of demand. The opening of the Suez
Canal mitigated this disadvantage, and the exports
immediately showed a marked increase. In the fif-
teen years preceding the opening of the Canal the
exports had ranged from forty to fifty thousand tons.
From the late sixties to the early eighties sugar ship-
ments had quadrupled, with prices fairly constant at
about three cents a pound, and this may be deemed
the golden era of the Philippine sugar industry.
Meanwhile, the destructive competition with the
beet product had already commenced. Germany Avas
nearly doubling her output of beet sugar annually.
Prices began to fall immediately after 1880, culmin-
ating in the sugar crisis of 1885. The three succeed-
ing years were a time of the greatest depression in
the industry, when production at the ruling prices
was unprofitable. A reaction followed and prices and
exports fluctuated throughout the remaining years of
Spanish rule, but never again reached the figures that
264 THE PHILIPPINES.
prevailed previous to 1880. The annual trade dur-
ing these last years approximated an average of two
hundred thousand tons.
We have summarized the experience of the in-
dustry in three consecutive stages of its existence: a
period of highly profitable prices, but small exports,
in pre-Suez days ; a period of fair prices, great ac-
tivity and rapid growth, under the stimulus of access
to the world's markets not yet surfeited by over-
production; and a period of low prices for fifteen
years with a nominal increase in exports, during
which the industry finds it yearly more difiicult,
with its primitive methods and low-grade product, to
hold its ow^i. In the keen competition that has dis-
turbed the sugar industries of the world since 1885,
the beet product has not only had the advantage of
fostering bounties, but also of scientific inventions,
tending to greater economy of production. In a less
degree, as might be expected of an industry in the
hands of Oriental people, sugar cane has also been
the subject of improved methods, but in this respect
the Philippines have lagged behind all other tropical
countries. The old stone-mill, with its extraction
of only forty per cent, of the weight of the cane in
juice, and the ancient open kettle, with its low-grade
product, are still the predominant features of the in-
dustry. That the Philippine sugar trade, with its anti-
quated methods, escaped extinction during the period
of stress following 1885, is explainable mainly upon
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 265
the ground that cheapness of labor made a small
margin of profit still possible. The afflictions —
war, pestilence, and famine — that have visited the
islands in the years immediately following 1896 were
more than sufficient to cause the collapse of the totter-
ing industry. During American occupation the ex-
ports of sugar have not amounted in any year to one
hundred thousand tons, and we must go back thirty
years in the history of the industry to find an anal-
agous period of small production.
There seems to be no doubt that under scientific
conditions of production, Philippine sugar could com-
pete successfully with the beet and cane products of
other countries. It is demonstrable that the adoption
of modern economic methods of extraction Avould
double the value of the output, thus enabling the pro-
ducer to meet the increased rate of wages and secure
a satisfactory profit at present prices. But nothing
short of a complete reorganization of the industry
upon an up-to-date basis can reinstate the sugar trade
of the islands.
The most important customers of the Philippines
for sugar, as well as for hemp, have been the United
States and the United Kingdom. For many years
following 1855 Australia was a large purchaser, but
with the extension of production in that country its
receipts of Philippine sugar gradually fell off and
ultimately ceased. In 1890 the imports of the United
States suddenly dropped from one hundred and thirty
266 THE PHILIPPINES.
thousand tons in the previous year to forty thousand,
and half the former figures are more than the ship-
ment of any subsequent year.
The cause of this sudden dispansion was the ]\[c-
Kinley Act, which placed sugar upon the free list
and put a bounty upon the domestic article. As a
consequence the American importer was able to pur-
chase in all markets upon equal terms, whereas he
had previously been taxed according to quality. The
immediate effect was that the low-grade product of
the Philippines, which had enjoyed the quasi-protec-
tion of a comparatively low import duty, lost its best
market and the American trade was transferred to
the Dutch East Indies, with their superior output.
Coincident with the withdrawal of American custom,
exports to the United Kingdom increased, but after
a few years this trade diminished and has now vir-
tually died away. This is accounted for by the con-
stantly increasing British consumption of the beet
product, which has represented ninety per cent, of
her sugar imports in recent years.
With the disappearance of the two customers upon
whom his trade depended, the Philippine producer
has been forced to look for a new market, and this he
appears to have found nearer home. It is said that
the taste for sugar among Oriental people has shown
a marked development during recent years. Be that
as it may, there seems to be no doubt that the im-
ports of that article by China and Japan in the past
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 267
decade have increased to a surprising extent. Previ-
ous to the American occupation China was only a
spasmodic purchaser of Philippine sugar, and con-
siderable shipments to Japan have been made only
since 1890. From 1885, the exports to Hongkong
have been constant at about thirty-five thousand tons
a year. There is reason to believe that most of these
shipments have been in transit to China. Thus the
Philippine sugar trade has since 1885 been gradually
shifting its field from Great Britain and the United
States to China and Japan. The grade of the article
is better suited to the latter markets and there is
ground for the belief that the trade in the new direc-
tions may be held and extended.
A hopeful feature of the cane sugar industry was
created by the Brussels Convention, which, by remov-
ing the advantages derived from the European bounty
system, has placed the beet product upon a basis
of equal competition with cane. Despite his cruder
methods, the tropical producer, with cheaper labor,
can meet the beet manufacturer in a fair field with-
out favor. It is true that the labor market in the
Philippines has undergone a change in recent years
which enhances the cost of the output, but this disad-
vantage can be offset by improvements in the process
of production.
• The great need of the industry at present, as it was
in Spanish times, is capital. Producers are stagger-
ing under heavy indebtedness at exorbitant rates of
268 THE PHILIPPINES.
interest and the prospect of effecting the reorganiza-
tion absolutely necessary to put the industry upon a
paying basis, is remote without outside assistance.
The basic requirement of the situation is further
tariff concessions to Philippine sugar by the United
States. This would afford it an assured profit in
the world market, encourage the capitalist, restore the
confidence of the money-lender, and make it possible
for the planter to pay higher wages, install improved
machinery, and introduce a system of economic pro-
duction.
Aside from the American producer, who appears
to be quite unnecessarily fearful of the impairment
of his interests, this plan has met with general ap-
proval. How long the representatives of a favored
trust, with powerful influence in Congress, may be
successfully able to oppose this, one of the most press-
ing needs of the Philippines, it is impossible to sur-
mise.^ That the proposed legislative action could not
create a competition harmful to themselves seems to
be a fair deduction from the fact that the United
♦ The influence of this same sugar clique may be traced in
the miserly land act passed by Congress, which still re-
tains its original form despite the urgent recommendations
of the Commission for more reasonable concessions. Under
the plea of safeguarding nearly seventy millions of acres of
public demesne from falling into the hands of speculators,
the limit of land that may be acquired by an individual, or
corporation, is set at less than the quantity necessary to
establish a profitahle sugar plantation.
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 269
States at present consumes annually six times as
much sugar as the Archipelago exported in its best
year and about twenty times the amount of its output
in recent times. It is reasonable to suppose that the
tariff advantages in question would not have the effect
of transferring the entire Philippine production to
America, but that the trade with the Orient would
be maintained at better prices, and, with every rea-
sonable allowance for the extension of the industry
under the more profitable conditions, it is difiicult to
conceive of the Philippines producing an amount of
sugar equal to the present American consumption of
the foreign product, which in 1904 exceeded seventy
million dollars worth.
Many criticisms have been made of the Spanish
policy in the islands, and especially of that policy
which operated to discourage their industrial develop-
ment and the growth of manufactures that would mili-
tate in any way against those of the mother country.
In the face of these export figures in American times,
and the above-mentioned opposition to relief, the ques-
tion arises whether, in view of its oft-admitted re-
sponsibility for the welfare of the islands, the Gov-
ernment of the United States is justified in sacrificing
vital interests of the whole Philippine people at the
behest of a small but powerful clique of domestic
sugar producers. On the one side is a Trust enrich-
ing a few millionaires with generous profits ; on the
other a country struggling for industrial advancement
270 THE PHILIPPINES.
in which the revival of this once prosperous industry
would be a god-send to tens of thousands. This is
one of the many Philippine affairs on which Con-
gressional rhetoric is wasted. What is wanted is
prompt and conscientious Congressional legislation.
TOBACCO.
For one hundred years from 1781 tobacco was a
government monopoly in the Philippines. Every
means was employed to stimulate production without
consideration for the producer. The monopoly owed
its inception to the chronic deficiency in the Insular
revenues and soon became an important fiscal asset.
In 1785 the revenue from this source amounted to
thirty-nine thousand dollars ; in 1844 it had increased
to two and a half millions, and at the time of its
abolition in 1882 the proceeds of the tobacco sales
were sufiicient to meet half the expenses of adminis-
tration.
The official figures of tobacco exports are too irregu-
lar to afford reliable data of the annual production
and trade conditions. The output was stored in the
government warehouses and released in response to
market movements, or the exigencies of the govern-
ment, creating wide fluctuations in exports from
year to year. Spain has always been the largest
taker of the product. The United Kingdom was the
only other purchaser of the Philippine leaf down to
1873, and her consignments seem to have been inter-
Cleaning Abaca.
A description of the process is given in the chapter
on " Agriculture." A fortune awaits the man who
shall invent a satisfactory substitute for the crude con-
trivance shown in the illustratimi.
Photo by Worcester.
TOBACCO. 271
mittent and irregular in quantity. From the last
named year shipments began to take the direction of
the British East Indies and China. The exports of
manufactured tobacco have for a long period of years
averaged about one million dollars in value. The
distribution in this case has been much wider than
in that of leaf. Spain, Avhere the Regie system was
in vogue, took a very small quantity of the Philip-
pine cigars. The British East Indies has been the
largest consumer during the monopoly period, and in
the closing years of its existence received practically
the entire export. In the years immediately suc-
ceeding 1855 China imported heavily, but the trade
declined rapidly and expired before 1875. The
United Kingdom and Australia also took considerable
quantities for a long period.
In 1882 the monopoly was abolished with a re-
sultant economic disturbance during the following
few years of a transitory period preceding free pro-
duction and trade.
In 1885 the leaf exports showed an increase to
nearly thirteen million pounds, and in 1892, the best
year since the monopoly, amounted to twenty-six and
three-quarter millions. During the American rule
the figures have shown a slight decline, Avith an aver-
age of about twenty millions of pounds in recent
years. In the past decade Austria-Hungary has be-
come an important factor in the leaf tobacco trade of
the Philippines. In 1900 she purchased, through her
272 THE PHILIPPINES.
state monopoly, four and a half million pounds, and
in succeeding years between two and four millions,
but in 1904 tlie exports to that country were short of
one and one-third millions. As might have been an-
ticipated, the United States, aside from a few experi-
mental shipments, has not been able to use the Philip-
pine product.*
There has not been much change in the distribu-
tion, or quantity, of the exports of manufactured
tobacco since monopoly days. This must not be
accepted as an indication that production has been
at a stationary figure. On the contrary, there seems
to have been a great increase in domestic consump-
tion under free conditions. The cigar and cigarette
have come into general use among the islanders, and
it is estimated that six-sevenths of the population
smoke, and consume more than half of the total out-
put of the weed. If such is the case, the stationary
exports are quite consistent with enormous increases
in manufactured tobacco.
Coincident with the establishment of free produc-
tion and the removal of supervision, a deterioration
in the quality of the leaf began and has continued
* There is reason to believe that, even though Philippine
tobacco be admitted free to the United States, great diffi-
culty will be exi)erienced in finding an extensive market
amongst American consumers, who are accustomed to quali-
ties in their tobacco very different from those exhibited
by the Philippine leaf. This, however, is an argument for
the removal of the duty rather than otherwise.
COPRA. 273
with a consequent falling off in price, which has had
a depressing effect upon the industry. Unfortunately
for any hope of improvement in this respect the cul-
tivation of the leaf is carried on almost entirely by
small producers.
COPBA.
Copra is the latest of any Philippine industries to
be developed to considerable extent. The facilities for
the extension of the industry are practically unlim-
ited and it gives great promise of future prosperity.
Although the cocoanut has always been an im-
portant factor in the domestic economy of tropical
people it is only within recent years that copra has
had a commercial value. During the Spanish regime
shipments of copra to meet the limited demand of the
confectioner and soap-maker doubtless went to swell
the export figures of ^^coacoanuts," but it is not until
the American period that the article figures promi-
nently in the trade of the islands. The increased de-
mand is due to new processes of converting copra
derivatives into food products, a business in which
the manufactures of Marseilles have become consum-
ers of enormous quantities of the dried meat of the
cocoanut.
The exports of copra in 1900-1904 average in
excess of two and a half million dollars annually.
In 1900 they exceeded three millions, and fell to half
that amount in the following year, due to insur ree-
ls
274 THE PHILIPPINES.
tionary disorders in the districts whence the chief
supply is derived. In 1903 the figures approached
four millions, to decline again in 1904 to nearly half
as much as a result of exceptionally unfavorable cli-
matic conditions. More than two-thirds of these ship-
ments were made to France.
The copra industry is particularly suited to the con-
ditions which prevail in the Philippines, and a bright
future seems to be in store for it.
COFFEE.
The coffee exports of the Philippines ceased years
ago to play an important part in the trade of the
islands.
In 1855 about one million and a quarter pounds
of the bean were shipped, and the exports increased
steadily until they reached their maximum, with
sixteen million pounds, in 1884. In 1889 the ship-
ments exceeded thirteen and a half millions, but in
that year the plantations were visited by an insect
pest followed by a leaf blight with ruinously destruc-
tive effects. Prom that time the output declined pre-
cipitously, and at present is insignificant in amount.
It has been claimed for Philippine coffee that it is
equal to the product of Java, but the best prices ob-
tained for it have not sustained this estimate. The
chief consumers of the Philippine article have been
Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States,
together with a considerable China-Hongkong trade
hard to trace to the points of consumption.
COFFEE. 275
The revival of the industry has been mooted, with
a suggested American import duty on coffee in con-
nection with free trade for the Philippine article.
The plan has in its favor the past record of pros-
perity enjoyed by the industry and the known suit-
ability of soil and climate to the production. On the
other hand are serious adverse considerations. A cof-
fee plantation requires large outlays of capital and
ten or twelve years of waiting for the maturity of
the trees. In the meantime there is the ever-present
danger of a recurrence of the disaster which overtook
the plantations fifteen years ago. When scientific
safeguards against such calamities have been pro-
vided, as they probably will be ere long, the generous
profits in coffee culture will doubtless attract all the
necessary capital, but in the meantime the Philippines
offer better and less hazardous fields for the invest-
ment of money.*
♦ Nothing could have been more wisely conceived for the
benefit of the Philippines than the visit of the members of
Congress under the guidance of Secretary Taft. At the time
of writing the party is still in the islands, but the effects
of their experience and some idea of its probable results,
may be gathered from the following press report (August
16, 1905) : "A majority of the members of Congress have
been convinced that Philippine products ought to be ad-
mitted free of duty at our ports. Mr. Hill, of Connecticut,
will no longer oppose a removal of the duty on tobacco and
"cigars, and Mr. Shirley, who represents a tobacco-growing
district in Kentucky, agrees with him. Opposition to the
free admission of sugar and other products has also been
276 THE PHILIPPINES.
The chief industrial need of the Philippines is a
cheap and expeditious means of inland transportation.
The projected railway system will supply this require-
ment and with its inception a rapid development of
the resources of the Archipelago may be looked for.
THE TRANSPOBTATION PROBLEM.
The Insular Government has been authorized to
accept bids for the construction of 1,233 miles of
railroad in the islands. Bidders must be citizens or
corporations of the United States or the Philippines.
The roads will be exempt from taxation, but must
pay to the Government one-half of one per cent, of
the gross earnings during the first thirty years, and
one and one-half per cent, for fifty years thereafter.
The Government will guarantee interest at the rate
of four per cent, for thirty years on first mortgage
bonds covering nearly the entire cost of construction
and equipment.*
There are in operation two roads in the islands.
That owned by the Compania de la Tranvias de Fili-
pinas runs from the section of Tondo, in Manila, to
overcome by the statements of insular producers, who have
been questioned by the ^ isitors at several meetings held
for this purpose. Mr. Grosvenor, of Ohio, says that at the
coming session of Congress a bill providing for the free
admission of all Philippine products will be introduced and
supported by Mr. Payne, the chairman of the Ways and
Means Committee."
* The routes of the proposed railroads are given in a
later chapter.
THE TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM. 277
Malabon, in the province of Rizal, a distance of 4.35
miles. The other running from Manila to Dagupan,
in the province of Pangasinan, a distance of 121.79
miles, is under the control of the Manila and Dagupan
Railway Company, Limited. The former is confined
exclusively to passenger traffic. During the year 1902
it carried 562,089 passengers, and its income was
$53,965 Mexican.* The cost of operation was
$33,034 Mex., leaving a gross profit of $20,931 Mex.
The value of the entire property, including land,
roadbed, rolling stock, and buildings is $115,800
Mex., indicating a very low grade of construction
and equipment. The Dagupan-Manila Railway was
opened in 1894, and although it has suffered losses
from destruction of property during the subsequent
disturbances, it is a promising enterprise with a
growing traffic. The gross income of the company
during 1902 was $1,238,235, and the gross expendi-
tures $864,532, leaving a gross profit of $373,703
on a capitalization of $12,300,000. During the same
year, 1,104,372 passengers were carried over an ag-
gregate of 23,591,024 miles, affording a gross revenue
of $683,206 ; a total of 165,760 tons of freight was
carried an aggregate distance of 9,706,855 miles,
and from this traffic was derived a gross revenue of
$397,699. The business of the road has increased
, considerably since American occupation.
*The exchange value of the Mexican dollar is fifty cents
United States currency.
278 THE PHILIPPINES.
The Manila-Dagupan road has been authorized to
construct two additional lines — one from Bigaa, a sta-
tion on the existing line in the province of Bulacan,
to Cabanatuan, in the province of Nueva Ecija;
and the other from a point on the existing line about
a mile north of the Manila terminus to Antipolo, in
Hizal province. These two branches will aggregate
65.87 miles. The act granting the franchises for
these roads requires the completion of the former be-
fore the close of the year 1905, and the latter not
later than March, 1906. An electric road is in
process of construction from the municipality of
Pozorubio, in the province of Pangasinan, to Baguio,
in the province of Benguet, a distance of twenty-seven
miles. The report of the officer in charge of the
work states that the road "will open up the most
promising mining district in the Philippines, as the
mines of Benguet yield copper and gold. Limestone
cliffs furnish a fine quality of lime. Coal is found in
the Bued river canyon. Hot sulphur and mineral
springs abound. The mountains are covered with
timber, and are crowned with forests of pine. Many
of the fruits and vegetables of the Temperate Zone
are successfully cultivated in Benguet." Although
not precisely relevant to a review of commercial and
industrial conditions, it may be stated in passing that
at Baguio will be established a sanatarium for invalid
soldiers and civilians, and it will become the summer
seat of the Government, in other words, the Simla
of the Philippines.
THE TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM. 279
One of the first works undertaken by tlie Gov-
ernment upon the establishment of peace, indeed
it had been inaugurated under the military ad-
ministration, was the improvement of the high-
way system of the islands. There is no means of
ascertaining precisely how much, but several millions
have been expended by the central and provincial gov-
ernments in this direction, and it is proposed to con-
tinue the work until every province is amply supplied
with good roads and bridges. It is a tremendous task
in a country which has been conspicuous for the
paucity of these ordinary avenues of communication
and one in wdiich the rains are so destructive. What
are termed insular roads, that is, those running from
one side to another of an island, or those connecting
provinces, will be the sole charge af the Insular Gov-
ernment. Roads which lie entirely w^ithin one prov-
ince and are of local benefit primarily will be con-
structed and repaired by the provincial board, for
which purpose a tax of one-eighth of one per cent,
on assessable land is levied. Where the necessity has
existed the Insular Government has loaned money to
the provinces in a large aggregate amount.
The facilities for ocean traffic between Manila and
foreign ports have been quite equal to the requirements
and have responded readily to increased demands of
recent years. In addition to the army transports, the
vessels of fourteen steamship companies make period-
ical calls at Manila on regular schedules. This service
280 THE PHILIPPINES.
is supplemented by a number of tramp steamers and
a few sailing ships. A noticeable feature of the
shipping trade is the scarcity of American bottoms;
in fact, the flag of the United States is rarely seen
afloat in Manila Harbor. In the year 1902 two
hundred and fifty steamships visited Manila, and of
this total but fourteen were of American register,
whilst of seventeen sailing vessels twelve flew the
American colors.
The open ports of the islands are Manila, Luzon;
Iloilo, Panay; Cebu, Cebu; Jolo, Sulu; Zamboanga,
Mindanao; Appari, Cagayan, Luzon.
An extensive interisland commerce has been car-
ried on since the opening of the islands to foreign
trade in 1834, and it is constantly increasing. This
has been noticeably so since the extension of the ex-
port trade during the American administration.
There were in 1902 engaged in this coastwise trade
1,469 sailing vessels and 175 steamers of fifteen tons
register and over. There are a number of smaller
craft navigating the waters of the Archipelago which
can hardly be considered factors in its commerce, al-
though engaged in petty local trafiic.
During American occupation the number of ports
and subports available for interisland traffic has been
increased from 63 to 196. The Insular Government
has neglected no means to encourage and foster the
maritime traffic of the Archipelago.
Manila has been in the past one of the least invit-
THE TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM. 281
ing ports of call in the East for merchant vessels
because of the extraordinary difficulty and expense of
handling cargoes, and consequently freight charges
to this point have been excessive. The rates were
as much from Hongkong to Manila as from Hongkong
to San Francisco, although the distance in one case
is ten times as great as in the other. As ocean ves-
sels could not approach nearer than two miles to the
shore at Manila, lighters Avere necessarily employed
in loading and unloading. The harbor, with its one
hundred and twenty miles of coast line, w^as subject
to almost the full force of storms, and during the mon-
soon season ships not infrequently lay eight or ten
days, incurring heavy demurrage, w^hilst awaiting
an opportunity to discharge or take on freight.
The Insular Government has projected extensive
improvements which include the construction of an
effective breakwater, and an ample system of docks,
with a deep water approach. The work is being rap-
idly pushed toward a conclusion, and in the near
future these and other facilities will make Manila
the most accessible and convenient port in the Orient.
This is only one of several factors which must make
for a great expansion of the trade of the Philippines
in the next decade.*
* Tables showing the export and import trade of the Archi-
pelago for the past fifty years are incorporated in the
Appendix.
AGRICULTURE.
VII.
AGRICULTURE.*
Musa Textalis: Manila Hemp — Conditions of Culture —
Method of Extraction — Expenses and Profits Involved in
Hemp Cultivation — Maguey Fiber — Cotton Fiber — Cane
Sugar — Tobacco — Not a Promising Channel for Capital —
A Proposed Remedy for Present Depression — The Cocoa-
nut Palm and its Derivatives — Copra and Cocoanut Oil —
Possibilities of the Industry Under Improved Methods
— Estimated Expense and Profit in Cocoanut Plantation.
The chief source of wealth in the Philippines
since the Spanish conquest has been its agricultural
products, and so they will probably continue to be.
The soil of the islands consists mainly of decomposed
volcanic rock, enriched by decayed organic matter.
It is extremely fertile, readily yielding generous crops
of tropical and subtropical growths. The range of
vegetable products is very wide. About three hun-
dred fiber plants of either commercial or domestic
value are found in the Archipelago, and the variety of
food producing plants is great. Tropical fruit trees
yield abundantly with little or no aid, while corn,
grain, potatoes and other vegetables bounteously re-
pay cultivation. There are a number of plants from
* Money values in this and succeeding chapters have all
been reduced to their approximate equivalents in United
States currency.
(285)
286 THE PHILIPPINES.
which gums, dyes, oil and medicinal extracts may be
derived.
The chief products of the soil are hemp, sugar,
tobacco, copra and rice, and of these the first named
is of foremost commercial importance.
MUSA TEXTALIS MANILA HEMP.
The musa textalis is a member of the banana family,
and is hardly distinguishable from the plant that
yields the edible banana. It is locally known as
ahaca. The term ''Manila hemp'' is a misnomer, but
is thoroughly established in the trade. As a matter
of fact, true hemp is a bast fiber, whereas ahaca is a
structural fiber. The musa textalis is found only in
its natural habitat, the Philippine Islands. Unsuc-
cessful efforts, extending over the greater part of a
century, have been made to cultivate the plant in
different parts of the world, and it is a safe con-
clusion that it cannot be made to produce a com-
mercial fiber elsewhere than in the Archipelago.
There, however, it grows wild and under cultivation
in several of the islands. The province of Albay, in
Luzon, including the dependent island of Catandu-
anes, is the principal abaca district of the Philippines.
Large quantities are also produced in the adjacent
provinces of Ambos Camarines and Sorsogon. Other
productive sections in Luzon are La Laguna and
Cavite and, to a less extent, Bataan and Batangas
provinces. The output is large from the islands of
CONDITIONS OF CULTURE. 287
Leyte, Samar, Marinduque, Masbate, Eomblon,
Panay, and Bohol. Considerable quantities of ahaca
are also produced in the northern and southeastern
portions of Mindanao.
The fiber has undoubtedly been used by the natives
for centuries, but it is only within the past sixty years
or so that its remarkable tensile strength, lightness,
length, and durability have become known and ap-
preciated by the commercial world. Previous to 1825
the production was small and practically none w^as ex-
ported. With the development of the foreign mar-
ket the fields of the petty cultivator gave place to
extensive plantations, but the primitive methods of
the producers have undergone little if any improve-
ment.
The industry is capable of great expansion, for
only a fraction of the large areas suitable to the
growth of the plant have been brought under culti-
vation.
CONDITIONS OF CULTURE.
For the successful culture of the musa textalis fer-
tile land, subject to a liberal rainfall, in a climate of
high humidity, is necessary. The drainage must be
good, for the plant will not thrive in swampy soil.
It should be sheltered from excess of wind or sun.
Abaca is easy to raise, requires little tending, and
is peculiarly free from liability to accidents. It is
not subject to drought ; its low stature and environ-
288 THE PHILIPPINES.
ment protect it from the effect of hurricanes ; its
station upon hilly slopes safeguards it from inunda-
tions; fire cannot make headway against its juicy
leaves and moist stem ; and it is practically exempt
from the attacks of predatory insects.
"No scientific effort has been made to develop, by
cultivation, the desirable qualities of the plant and
the possibilities in this direction are promising, for
almost every valuable vegetable growth, w4iich has
been the subject of intelligent investigation and ex-
periment, has proved to be susceptible of more or less
improvement.
A plantation is started from seed or suckers. In"
the former case maturity is reached in about three
years; in the latter six months earlier. After this
stage, har\^esting is practically continuous. The
plants are set out in rows, from two to three yards
apart each way, with a certain amount of herbage
left between, to prevent washing away of the soiL
Trees are left standing in the field, or are planted, in
order to furnish the requisite shade and to break
the force of high winds. The trees selected for this
purpose should have small leaves, that they may not
create a dense shadow, and deep feeding roots that
will not rob the young plants. The best time for
planting is during the rainy months of May-July
and September-ISTovember. In August, January,
February, and December, the heat of the sun is
sufiiciently strong to injure, and perhaps kill, the
METHOD OF EXTRACTION. 289
shoots. During growth, and after maturity, the plan-
tation needs little attention beyond rough weeding.
After cutting, the crop renews itself by means of
the suckers which are thrown off by the roots of the
original plant
METHOD OF EXTRACTION.
Harvesting is most expeditiously effected by the
employment of gangs of three laborers. One cuts
the stalk even wdth the ground and strips it. The
second, who is usually a woman, splits the leaf-
sheaths into sections, tw^o or three inches wide, dis-
carding the inner portions which have an undue pro-
portion of pulp. These strips are then subjected to
a crude mechanical process by means of which the
fiber is extracted. The machine employed consists
of a long block of wood, elevated upon legs. In the
center of the block a knife blade is attached and
arranged so as to work in unison with the action of
a spring above it, or a treadle below. The spring
exerts a constant upward pressure upon the handle of
the knife and so depresses the blade, whilst pressure
upon the foot-lever counteracts this effect. The strips
of leaf-sheath are drawn by hand over the block and
beneath the blade, whilst the operator regulates, or
releases, the pressure of the latter by means of the
lever. This process separates the moist pulp from
the fiber. It may be repeated several times with
the effect of producing a finer, and consequently more
19
290 THE PHILIPPINES.
valuable, fiber, with, however, a corresponding dimi-
nution in weight. The best fiber is produced by using
a blade with a smooth edge, but, as serrated knives
render the operation easier, they are commonly used
at the expense of quality in the output. When the
process is not thorough a considerable portion of the
juicy pulp is retained. This discolors the fiber and
reduces its strength, but it also increases the weight,
which is an important consideration to the laborer.
This is a feature of the industry that calls for cor-
rection. Perhaps the remedy lies in the invention of
a machine which will dispense with the present man-
ual process and turn out a uniform quality of fiber.
There have been many futile attempts to devise such
a mechanical contrivance, but it should not be too
difficult an achievement for American ingenuity.
The present method of extraction is said to waste
from twenty to thirty per cent, of good quality fiber.
Portability is no less necessary than economy in a
hemp machine. The stalks of the plants are very
heavy and within a few hours of being cut up the
leaf -sheaths must be subjected to the knife, so that it
is found more economical to transport the apparatus
than the material. As the work is done on very
rough ground and generally upon mountain sides, a
machine, to be practicable, must be light enough to
be easily carried by two men.*
* "The honor of having practically solved the question
seems to have fallen to a young American engineer,
METHOD OF EXTRACTION. 291
After extraction, the fiber is exposed to the sun
for a few hours and, when sufficiently dried, is loosely
packed in bundles and carried to the nearest market,
of which there are several in each hemp district. The
principal grades recognized are '^current," ^'second,"
and ^'colored/' with several gradations in these classi-
fications.
The ^^beneficiary" system of labor is in vogue in
the hemp districts. Under this system the planter
assigns to each native cultivator a section of ground
on which to raise and tend plants and at intervals to
extract the fiber. One-half of the produce represents
the operator's pay for his labor, and at the time that
he makes delivery to the planter he receives the cur-
rent local value of his share. This system appears
to have been sufficiently profitable to the capitalist,
but it has serious drawbacks. Under it the planter
cannot exercise sufficient control over his property
Robert Edward Lindsay. Doubtless the machine invented by Mr.
Lindsay will undergo many improvements ; but in its pres-
ent form it is reported as being capable of turning out sixty
pounds of first-class white hemp of uniform quality, every
hour by the labor of two men. Under the existing system
an average hemp worker can strip about forty-four pounds
of fibre in a day." Brigadier-General W. H. Carter, U. S. A.,
in The North American Rcvicic, May, 1905.
A similar claim has been made for several machines
which appeared to offer a solution to the complicated prob-
lem, but it has always transpired, upon test, that some
essential requirement was lacking in the device, or else that
its operation was less economical than hand labor.
292 THE PHILIPPINES.
and its produce. He cannot prevent the cutting of
immature plants and carelessness in extracting the
fiber. When a native cultivator is in urgent need of
a few dollars he will often sacrifice unready plants
and rush the process of extraction, with the result
of injuring the plantation and putting an unneces-
sarily low-grade article upon the market. However,
when all is said, hemp cultivation on a large scale is,
with the possible exception of cocoanut culture, the
most profitable and least risky field for the invest-
ment of capital offered by the Philippines to-day.
EXPENSES A]ND PROFITS INVOLVED IN HEMP
CULTIVATION.
Foreman gives some figures relating to outlay and
income in hemp cultivation which may be of interest.
Perhaps it is unnecessary to make any allowance for
the increased cost of labor, because in an industry
of the monopolistic character of abaca prices can
always be adjusted to cover enhancement in cost of
production.
The labor of plant-setting in Albay Province may
be calculated at $1.50 per 1,000 plants; the cost of
shoots at from 25 cents to 50 cents per 100. Fre-
quently, however, the capitalist will contract for the
laying out of a plantation, on the basis of $5 for 100
live plants, to be counted at the time of full growth,
instead of paying for shoots and labor. In case this
HEMP CULTIVATION. 293
is done it is customary to make advances to the
contractor.
The following is, subject to the qualification made
above, a conservative statement of the investment,
profit, expenses, etc., of operating a plantation in
Albay, but as the figures are based upon those of a
plantation of half the size it may be assumed that a
corporation or individual with the capital and facili-
ties for operating upon this, or a larger, scale would
produce fiber at less cost and consequently at greater
profit.
Plantation of 1,000 pisosones, or 3,472 acres, of
land over two years planted with shoots and therefore
ready to cut within one year from date of purchase.
'No ploughing needed ; no fallow land. Each pisoson
(3.472 acres) producing per annum 10 piculs of
ahaca (equivalent por acre 3.60 cwts., yielding from
3,472 acres 624.50 tons), or a total output of 10,000
piculs, making 5,000 bales, in the assumed propor-
tion of 80 per cent. Corrierite, 10 per cent Segunda,
10 per cent. Colorado:
Invested Capital.
1,000 pisosones of land at $50 per pisoson $50,000.00
Store for 1,000 piculs of ahaca, with ample space. 3,000.00
Bale press and shed for pressing 200 bales per day 2,500.00
Plot of land for store and sun-drying ground 700.00
4 horses and two vehicles 300.00
• Unrecoverable advances to 200 men at say $5 each 1,000.00
Total invested capital $57,500.00
294 THE PHILIPPINES.
Working Expenses.
Salaries : Manager $1,800.00
2 European bookkeepers at $750 each 1,500.00
4 Native storekeepers at $15 and $10 per
month GOO.OO
8 Plantation overseers at $10 per month 9G0.00
4 Native messengers at $4 per month 192.00
Labor: for pressing 5,000 bales at 9% cents; plus
2 mats per bale at 87i^ cents per 100 ; and 14
split rattans per bale at SlVo cents per 1,000 .... 4G8.75
Waste in store of hemp mats, rattan, etc 1G3.50
Stolen by laborers, say 200.00
Maintenance, or depreciation, of press-value at 8
per cent, per annum 200.00
Fire insurance on Store, Bale, Press, and Shed, at
2 per cent, on $5,500 110.00
Keep of four horses per annum 9G.00
Manager's traveling expenses about the province.. 200.00
Taxes of various kinds 1,000.00
Office expenses, telegrams, postage, stationery, etc.. 150.00
Freight to Manila at 12% cents per picul 1,250.00
Loading at 2^2 cents per bale 125.00
Insurance at Manila at i/4 per cent, on $32,200
(Manila selling value plus, say 15 per cent.) .. 159.00
Manila broker's commission including landing, dis-
charging, etc., at 2 per cent, on sale value 541.25
Manila storage at 1% cents per bale, per month,
say, for half a month 37.50
Total working expenses $9,753^00
Returns.
Sale: Half of the above output of 10,000 picnls be-
longs to the planter ; the other half is purchased
from the laborer ; therefore : 5,000 piculs sold
thus:
A Rope Walk.
The famous '' Manila " rope is thus made from
abaca on the outskirts of the capital, like most other
industries, by a laborious old-time process.
From Stereograivh Copyrigfht, by Underwood & Underwood. New York.
HEMP CULTIVATION. 295
4,000 plculs (Corriente) at $4.25; 500 piculs
(Segunda) at $3,871/2 ; 500 piculs (Colorada)
at $3,121/2 $20,750.00
Gain in price on 5,000 piculs, laborers' share
bought at 75 cents per piciil under Manila
market price 3,750.00
Manila firms pay 50 cents per bale for pressing . . 2,500.o0
Total receipts $27,000.00
Outcome.
Sale in Manila $27,000.00
Deduct working expenses 9,753.00
Net profit (25 per cent, on total capital)* ..$17,247.00
In addition to the enormous quantity of liemp
tliat is exported annually, a large amount is consumed
in domestic manufactures, especially of cloth. The
most extensively used of these fabrics is known as
sinamay, a product entirely of hemp fiber. Jusi
cloth is made from a mixture of fine hemp and pine-
apple-leaf fiber, sometimes with an admixture of silk.
A very beautiful diaphanous material called lupis is
manufactured in small quantities from a special
* Thirty per cent, net is generally accepted as the stand-
ard profit in hemp cultivation. American methods of organ-
ization will doubtless work extensive economies in this and
other industries. Before long we shall see the planter,
exporter, importer, and possibly carrier, combined in one
corporation.
296 THE PHILIPPINES.
quality of hemp, which is miich finer and more diffi-
cult to extract than the commercial grades.
MAGUEY FIBER.
Maguey is the name applied to the fiber of the
agave americana, or centnry plant. The aggregate
of fibers produced by the agave family is a large item
in the world's output of fibers. In 1891 about eighty
thousand tons of raw maguey fiber, valued at nine
million dollars, entered the United States alone.
The agave americana is cultivated on several of the
Philippine Islands, but not nearly to the extent that
it might be with profit. In 1901 the exports of
maguey amounted to less than nine hundred tons,
valued at about one hundred dollars a ton. In sub-
sequent years these figures have increased consider-
ably, and although the trade is still very small, the in-
dustry exhibits a tendency to expand. There is a
ready market for the fiber at profitable prices. It
is used extensively in Europe and the countries of
both ^orth and South America in the manufacture
of ship's ropes and cables, in the making of ropes for
mines, for lines, nets, weavings for hammocks, etc.
With increased production, the Philippines should
be able to compete with Central America in the
trade, and there is every reason to believe that desir-
able markets for this fiber might be opened up in
some of the Oriental countries.
A number of machines have for several years been
COTTON FIBER. 297
used extensively in Mexico, Central America and the
West Indies for the extraction of sisal fiber from
agave sisalana. This plant, though producing a
coarser fiber than agave americana, is so nearly like
it in the size and texture of the leaves that no doubt
some of these machines could be adapted to the ex-
traction of maguey. The present method is by ma-
ceration, followed by rubbing and scraping. The
essential principle of the machines, which clean one
hundred thousand leaves and upwards a day, is that
the pulpy substance is scraped from them without
their being fermented, or macerated, thus saving con-
siderable time and labor.
COTTON FIBEK.
Cotton is grown in various parts of the Archipelago,
but not in sufficient quantities to create an export
trade. The most productive district is Ilocos I^orte.
At one time a long staple fiber was extensively cul-
tivated in the province. A good quality of cloth was
made from it and exported in considerable quantities.
At the instigation of the Government this trade was
neglected in favor of tobacco, and subsequent efforts
to revive the industry have met with only partial suc-
cess. Cotton spinning and weaving is at present car-
ried on in Ilocos, solely with a view to meeting local
demands. The fabric is produced from home-made
looms of the roughest description, the weavers being
women.
298 'iHfi PHILIPPINES.
It is impossible to ascertain to what extent local
produce enters into the domestic consumption of cot-
ton fiber, but one hundred tons would probably be a
high estimate, and that is an insignificant figure
beside the amount imported.
There are localities in the Philippines suitable to
the growth of cotton, and the general conditions are
favorable to its cultivation, so that the industry may
be expected in time to develop, at least to the extent
of supplying a much greater proportion of the domes-
tic demand.
In several provinces of the Philippines the pine-
apple is grown for the exceptionally fine fiber which
is derived from the leaves. The fabrics called ''pina*
and 'Wengue' are used in large quantities in the
islands and are becoming popular in both Europe and
America. The current prices of the fabrics range
from twenty-five to seventy-five cents a yard, and a
ton of the fiber brings about $150 in the London,
market. Pineapple fiber has several highly commend-
able qualities, but as about twenty thousand leaves
must be handled to produce fifty pounds of it, the in-
dustry is not likely to assume commercial importance
until extraction can be effected by the more economical
agency of machinery.
CANE SUGAR.
After thirty years of prosperity, the sugar indus-
try of the Philippines fell upon evil days, and since
CANE SUGAR. 299
1896 it has been engaged in a bitter struggle for its
very existence. When one considers the accumulated
misfortunes of the planters during recent years, it is
to wonder that any of them have had heart to sustain
the conflict and to wish them heartily the better luck
that they deserve. First came the killing competition
of the beet product, followed by continual fluctuations
in the price of cane sugar; then war, rinderpest,
cholera, famine, and locusts. Under this weight of
disasters the industry w^as crushed out in many sec-
tions, and in 1901 the entire crop of the Archipelago
amounted to only two million piculs,* of which three-
quarters was produced in Xegros Occidental.
The needs of the industry are threefold: (1) Ad-
mission of the product to the United States free;
(2) investment of capital; (3) establishment of the
most improved methods of production. The first is
the all-essential factor, and a realization of it Avould
be followed by the other desiderata in the natural
course of things. Under present conditions the
planter's profit barely pays interest upon capital in
Negros where the process of manufacture is more eco-
nomical than elsewhere.
Sugar production requires a greater outlay for its
successful prosecution than any other agricultural
enterprise available in the Philippines. In order
to, start a hacienda, land must be purchased, and one
hundred acres would be a small plantation. This,
*A picul equals 137i/l> pounds.
300 THE PHILIPPINES.
in ISTegros, would cost from $35 to $70, according to
whether it was cleared or not, and would yield from
200 to 300 tons of cane. It would be necessary to
erect buildings and install machinery; to purchase
draft animals and implements ; and to make advances
to laborers. The initial expenses of establishing a
one-hundred-acre plantation would probably be about
$25,000, aside from the working capital, which would
be nearly half as much. Wages have doubled, and
the price of everything that enters into the manufac-
ture of sugar has increased in recent years so that,
whilst the cost of producing a picul of sugar was about
$1.50 ten years ago, it is now twice as much.
In [N^egros, European mills are in operation almost
exclusively, but there is not such a thing as the
modern refining plant in the islands. Elsewhere than
in l^egros the antiquated cattle mill is the rule. The
process, too, in I^egros is superior to that in general
use, giving a much greater percentage of extraction
than the average of other sections.
In the northern provinces the sugar plantations are
worked upon the sistema de inquilinos, that is, the
tenant, or ^'beneficiary," system. In the Visayas
the plan of day labor prevails, and this might be
the better arrangement but for the fact that the prac-
tice of making advances is inseparable from it. In
order to secure the required field hands the planter
is often obliged to pay several weeks wages before a
stroke of work is done, and the greatest caution is
TOBACCO. 301
necessary to avoid heavy losses. On large estates it is
often found advisable to employ subdivisional man-
agers who are allowed an interest in the enterprise.
Students of conditions in the Philippines and econ-
omists who have investigated the sugar situation all
arrive at the same conclusion, which is, that the salva-
tion of the industry depends upon relief legislation,
and that failing such aid the export trade is in serious
danger of extinction.^ The planters do not look for
a large export to the States, but free or preferential
entry of their product here would insure better prices
for it in the Oriental markets.
TOBACCO.
All the commercial tobacco of the Philippines is
grown in northern Luzon, and the best of it in the
provinces of Cagayan and Isabela. A considerable
quantity of leaf is raised in the Visayas, but it is of
a poor quality, quite unfit for any but the local
market.
The Cagayanes have not yet learned to appreciate
fertilizers, and so they prefer the bottom-lands to
* There is promise of legislation favorable to the Philip-
pines by Congress early in 1906. It is probable that all the
Insular products will be placed upon the free list, with the
exception of sugar and tobacco, upon which 25 per cent, of
the present impost will be retained. Secretary Taft has
under serious consideration the establishment in Manila of
a bank on the plan of the Egyptian Agricultural Bank.
Such an institution would solve many problems and give
new life to agricultural enterprise.
302 THE PHILIPPINES.
higher ground for growing tobacco, although fields in
the former are frequently inundated to the injury
or destruction of the crops. Seed beds are prepared
between July and JSTovember, according to whether
the plants are to be set in high or low land ; and trans-
planting takes place from six weeks to two months
after sowing. The beds should be carefully irrigated
and protected against excessive heat and rain by
means of portable bamboo shelters, but this is rarely
done, except upon plantations which are conducted by
Europeans. In the days of the monopoly the native
was compelled to take these and other measures for
the benefit of the plant, but now, according to the
Governor of Cagayan, ^'he simply sows the seed and
leaves the rest to Providence.''
The ordinary methods of ploughing, planting, hill-
ing, and topping are folloAved more or less carefully,
according to the energy or intelligence of the indi-
vidual cultivator. The tobacco w^orm is the bane of
the planter here as elsewhere. The family of the
farmer are out from daybreak until 8 or 9 o'clock
fighting the pest and again from sunset until dark,
or perhaps later if the moon serves. The more care-
ful growers, and the hired laborers of the larger
plantations carry on the work by night with torches.
The worms originate from a small white night moth
which lays its eggs upon the leaf. It is possible that
a remedy might be found in the strong acetyline
lights which have been effectively used in India to
lure locusts and destructive beetles to their death.
TOBACCO. 303
If the process of planting is haphazard, that of cur-
ing is much more so with the generality of cultivators.
Hardly ten per cent, of them use curing sheds. The
majority expose the leaf to the sun until it loses its
green color and then hang it in the house until drying
is completed. AVliere a shed is used it is usually
nothing more than a nipa roof on posts. Sometimes
movable walls of bamboo mat are added. In
monopoly days the Government erected large curing
sheds at different points and, in addition, required
each planter to build a small one at his own expense.
^ After drying, the leaves are piled to allow fermenta-
tion to take place. They are then sorted by Avomen
and made up into hands of ten leaves each. Ten
hands are rolled into a bundle and tied together.
Forty of these bundles go to a bale, which, therefore,
contains four thousand leaves. Five grades are recog-
nized by buyers, but the classification is somcAvhat
elastic, especially when the demand is good. The leaves
of the first class should be forty-five centimeters in
length, and clean and sound; those of the second
class thirty-nine, and of equal quality to the former;
those of the third are also first quality leaves, twenty-
six centimeters in length ; the fourth class are defec-
tive leaves, twenty-four centimeters long; and the fifth
class somewhat shorter and of the same character as
the fourth. If a bundle of first class length con-
tarns six, or more, low-grade leaves it is put in the
second class; if the number of impaired leaves ex-
ceeds twelve, it goes to the third class; and if they
exceed twenty, to the fourth.
304 THE PHILIPPINES.
The buyers put the leaf through a final process of
fermentation to improve the color, and re-sort them
with the object of attaining a higher classification
than that upon which they were bought; they are
then repacked in bales of three quintals (about 300
pounds) each and carried to Aparri, whence they are
shipped to Manila.
IS^OT A PROMISING CHANNEL FOR CAPITAL.
Hon. G. Gonzaga, Governor of Cagayan, who is in-
terested in the business, gives some figures on cost and
returns which would apply to a plantation run with
hired labor. The estimate is based on one hectare
(2.471 acres) of land, and it may be supposed that an
operation upon the scale of one hundred hectares
would show some economy over these figures, but prob-
ably not much, with the same methods. One hectare
of low land is valued at $100 at least, and of high land
at $50.
Labor and animals would be required for plough-
ing the seed bed and the field ; for tending the former
and transplanting the shoots. Four men would be
needed for forty days in caring for the plants during
growth, hilling, and topping, and removing worms.
I^ext, there would be the work of cutting and trans-
ferring the leaves to the drying shed. After that, sort-
ing, fermenting, and baling.
Mr. Gonzaga's estimate of the cost of this labor is
say $75 gold, and he concludes that the operation
CHANNEL FOR CAPITAL. 305
on the present basis of production would result in a
loss of about $8.80.
The Governor admits, however, that very much
better returns are possible. Like capitalists in other
agricultural industries he complains of the unaccus-
tomed increase in the price of labor, to w4iich there
has hardly been time for adjustment. It is rarely,
he says, that a hectare produces fifty bales. On the
best lands the plant only yields an average of fifteen
leaves, which would give thirty-seven bales and twenty
hands. He adds, however, that if the tobacco is cul-
tivated as it should be it is an easy matter to secure
fifty bales — three bales of the first class, five of the
second, eight of the third, ten of the fourth superior,
nineteen of the fourth current, and five of the fifth.
On this basis the output would be:
Income.
Proceeds from tobacco leaves from one hectare of
land:
3 bales, first class $21.38
5 bales, second class 22.50
8 bales, tbird class 16.00
10 bales, fourth class, sui^erior 10.00
19 bales, fourth class, current 14.25
5 bales, fifth class 1-25
Total receipts 85.33
This is only about lll/o per cent, return on the
working capital, and makes no allowance for interest
20
306 THE PHILIPPINES.
on the money sunk in land, buildings, and draft ani-
mals, which would amount to about $350 per hectare.
In the crop of 1903 the proportion of the different
classes of tobacco produced in the province of Caga-
yan was as follows :
First class, 1.2 per cent., or, in a crop of 50 bales,
0 bales, 24 hands.
Second, 3.1 per cent., or, in a crop of 50 bales, 1
bale, 22 hands.
Third, 6.5 per cent., or, in a crop of 50 bales, 3
bales, 10 hands.
Fourth, superior, 11.7 per cent., or, in a crop of 50
bales, 5 bales, 34 hands.
Fourth, ordinary, 31.1 per cent., or, in a crop of
50 bales, 15 bales, 22 hands.
Fifth, 46.4 per cent., or, in a crop of 50 bales, 23
bales, 8 hands.
The figures do not seem to invite the investment of
capital in the direct cultivation of tobacco in the
Philippines. In 1883, the year after the abolition
of the monopoly, a company was formed in Spain
styled ''Compania General de Tabacos de Filipinas/'
with a capital of $15,000,000 gold, for the purpose of
growing and dealing in tobacco. It established large
plantations and factories and entered into extensive
operations, including the manipulation of other pro-
duce. The venture was a failure, but the result mav
be attributed in large measure to bad management and
lack of experience of local trade conditions.
PRESENT DEPRESSION. 307
The estimates of expense in the foregoing cal-
culations do not apply to the small native culti-
vator, in whose hands the greater part of the in-
dustry rests at present. He secures free labor al-
most entirely. The whole family is impressed into
service, and each grower helps others in the vicinity.
When the time for ploughing arrives five or six neigh-
bors come, with their implements and carahao, and
afterwards their women folk and children aid in the
transplanting, and the work is done in a few days.
This labor is paid for in kind. After transplanting,
the cultivator leaves the care of the field to his wife
and children, who also cut the leaves and attend to
the curing and sorting. Of course, such a method
must give crude results, but it is highly economical,
and the native tobacco farmer considers the receipts
from his patch clear profit. He takes no account of
money invested in land, or animals, nor ever thinks
of forming a sinking fund for emergencies. If he
has a good year he spends the proceeds ; if a bad one
follows he has recourse to the Chinese, or Filipino,
leaf traders for a loan, at fifty per cent, interest,
payable from the next crop. If the succeeding crop
fails to meet expectations he becomes more deeply in-
volved and in all probability ultimately loses his land.
A PKOPOSED REMEDY^ FOR PRESENT DEPRESSION.
The tobacco industry, like almost every other, has
suffered from the series of calamities, which have be-
308 THE PHILIPPINES.
fallen the Philippines in recent years, and the present
situation is one of critical depression. Mr. Gonzaga
suggests a remedy which would involve the introduc-
tion of capital in what might be a profitable field,
if the operations were in the hands of thoroughly ex-
perienced men. The Governor's idea is the establish-
ment of what he calls an ''agricultural bank," but
which would necessarily develop into a trading com-
pany with a very wdde scope. The company would
''lend money to the farmers on mortgage at a mod-
erate rate of interest, say six or eight per cent. The
bank could engage in the tobacco industry, both as a
means to assure payment of its credits as well as to
improve the price of the article, and destroy the
monopoly of the commercial companies. For this
purpose the bank should have agents and branches in
the markets of Europe and America for the exporta-
tion of tobacco and for the importation of rice"^ and
other articles needed by the inhabitants of the prov-
ince. In order to supply the lack of work animals,
and to provide against droughts, the bank could en-
gage in the work of irrigating the fieldsf to be used
ill the cultivation of tobacco and cereals ; of bringing
* Doubtless Governor Gonzaga intends to intimate that
agencies for the exportation of rice could be established in
Asia. American rice cannot be imported to the Archipelago
with profit, although it may be after the opening of the
Panama Canal.
t The niggardly terms of the Philippine Land Act are
expanded somewhat in favor of irrigation companies.
PRESENT DEPRESSION. 309
in plows and portable irrigation pumps, and of work-
ing the fields for a small compensation in money or
crops."* There is no doubt that the completion of
the railroad through the tobacco district will make
for a return of prosperity to the industry.
Opinions differ widely as to the quality of the
Philippine product, and this may be largely due to
the fluctuations of the quality since the cessation of
the monopoly. Many experts maintain that the best
Philippine tobacco is excelled only by the Havana
leaf for cigars, and those who become accustomed to
the soft flavor of the Manila cheroot are apt to prefer
it to anything else. The author of the ''Soverane
Herbert says: ''After Cuba, the Philippines are the
smoker's paradise. The tobacco is second only to
that of the Pearl of the Antilles, and all the people
smoke. Contrary to the usual Eastern custom, limi-
tations are set upon smoking by children. The Fili-
pinos do not allow children under ten years of age to
smoke. The lady of the house lays in a stock of
tobacco as regularly as an English housekeeper gets
in her coal. The people make their own cigars, as
smokers at home roll their own cigarettes (hence the
form of Manila cheroots), and boys and girls twist
their cigars as deftly as a hardened English cigarette-
smoker. It is a common sight in Manila to see father
*Tlie suggestion is met to some extent by Secretary Taft's
proposed agricultural bank,
t The Soverane Herbe. W. A. Penn, New York, 1901.
310 THE PHILIPPINES.
and mother sauntering along, each smoking a cigar
and followed by their children, also happily puffing
the divine herb. The Negritos of Luzon smoke in a
curious fashion, holding the lighted end of the cigar
in their mouth. Some Anglo-Indians also practice
this method, by which it is claimed smoking is more
enjoyable and the secretion of nicotine avoided.
With a little practice all danger of burning the mouth
is overcome."
THE COCOANUT PALM AI^D ITS DERIVATIVES.
The cocoanut palm is the most useful of all tropical
growths. It enters largely into the domestic economy
of all Oriental people, and its products are adapted
to a great variety of purposes. The nut yields a
nutritious food and the milk a healthful beverage.
From the sap a spirituous liquor is distilled. The
fiber answers many purposes, and the trunk is cut into
lumber, whilst the leaves serve for thatch. x\side
from these and other utilities, valuable commercial
products are derived from the tree. The most im-
portant of the latter are copra, cocoanut oil and coir.
The cocoanut grows throughout the Archipelago, and
there are extensive areas particularly well adapted
to its cultivation. The site of a plantation should
be well-watered, alluvial, or sedementary, ground.
Seed nuts are used, after they have sprouted, and are
set in soil that has been ploughed and manured.
The nuts, or shoots, should be planted in straight rows
Fakmin(^ in the i'mUPPlNES.
The illustration shows the primitive wooden plough
with which the ground is rouglily hroken and the
indispensahle carahao. who is guided hy a string attached
to his nose.
From StereoRraph Copyright, by Underwood &- l'n<lerwood. New York.
COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. 311
about nine meters apart, allowing about one hundred
and twenty-five trees to the hectare. The trees will
begin to bear fruit in the seventh year, and w^ill reach
maturity in the fifteenth year. The earlier crops are
gathered with extension cutters, or from ladders.
TOien the tree has become hard, shoulders may be cut
in it for climbing.
COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL.
In the chapter on Commerce mention is made of
the infant trade in copra and its rapid expansion.
Copra is the dried meat of the nut, from which is
derived the oil. It is now extensively used in the
preparation of such dietetic compounds as "vegeta-
line," ^'cocoline," and other '^butters," which are
free from the objections attaching to animal margarin,
and have a much higher fusion point than dairy but-
ter, a very desirable quality in the tropics. The
manufacture of these vegetable compounds is extend-
ing rapidly, creating a constantly increasing demand
for the raw material. One of four, or five, large
factories in Marseilles had an average output of
twenty-five tons a month in 1900, and is now turn-
ing out upwards of seventy thousand tons a year.
Cocoanut oil is not at present an article of export
from the Philippines, but the local consumption is
very large. At least one light is kept burning all
night in every Filipino house in the country, and
cocoanut oil is used for the purpose. It is made in
312 THE PHILIPPINES.
thousands of homes by a rude process which answers
the requirements. Cocoannt oil is also the street
luminant in out-of-the-way barrios. It enters largely
into the culinary processes of the natives, and is used
for medicinal purposes and by the women as a hair
dressing. Students of the industrial economy of
the Philippines have frequently urged that the oil
should be exported instead of the copra. Under pres-
ent conditions the larger part of the profit in the
trade accrues to the manufacturer at the expense of
the growler. There are several difficulties in the way
of adopting the suggested reform, which would only
be feasible in the case of a corporation carrying on
the industry upon a fairly large scale. The copra
buyers, of course, raise every obstacle to endeavors
to ship oil, and are said to have contrived to influence
discriminatory freight rates against it. The most
important factor in the question, however, is pre-
sented by the problem of finding a market for the.
press-cake, which is a valuable by-product of the
manufacture. This cake, which is the residue of
the copra after the oil has been expressed, is used
in Europe as a cattle food, and brings such good
prices that the copra buyer can afford to pay the
full value of the copra, on the basis of its yield of
oil, with confidence that the resultant press-cake will
pay incidental costs and leave a generous profit to the
manufacturer. There is no demand for the press-
cake in the islands.
POSSIBILITIES OF THE INDUSTRY. 313
In this, as in other Philippine industries, the
process followed is crude and behind that of other
Oriental countries, where machinery is employed with
economical results. Taking a nut in his hands, the
operator sharply strikes it upon a spearhead which
is fixed in the ground, and thus removes the husk. An
average man will husk one thousand nuts in a day in
this manner, but twice as many, and even more, are
sometimes handled by particularly dexterous work-
men. Another man splits the nuts in half with a
stroke of a holo. The fragments are then laid in the
sun for a few hours, when the flesh is easily removed.
Sun dr^dng for a day follows, after which the meat is
exposed upon a bamboo griddle to the heat of a slow
fire, composed of the shells and husks. After being
broken into smaller pieces the product is ready to be
shipped as marketable copra.
POSSIBILITIES OF THE INDUSTRY UNDER IMPROVED
METHODS.
Modern plants, as operated in India and other coun-
tries, employ machinery to husk the nut, crush the
shell, to remove and winnow the fiber; to rasp and
macerate the meat and to compress the residue. In
the Philippines no account is taken of the husks,
shell, or fiber, although they are valuable by-products,
the last in particular being extensively used for coir
matting, ship's cables, the covering of electric
cables, etc.
314 THE PHILIPPINES.
W. S. Lvon, of the Philippine Bureau of Agri-
culture, has expressed the opinion that '^notwithstand-
ing the cheapness of labor, it is only by employing a
mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hy-
draulic-crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and
with facilities to convert the residue to feeding
or other uses, that one may hopefully enter the field
of oil manufacture in these islands in competition
with copra-buyers/' He goes on to show the saving
in the fiber item alone under such conditions. Esti-
mating sixteen quintals of spinning fiber and five
quintals of bristle fiber from every ten thousand
husks, rating the cost of manufacture at half the
selling price, and adding 20 per cent, to cover freight
and commission, Ave have at $80 gold per ton, selling
price, a balance of $55.63 per hectare. Deduct $7,
the cost of fertilizers to compensate for the removal
of ten thousand husks from the soil, and we have a
net profit of about $50 per hectare.
With the outlay of about $2,000 in machinery
and powder, the output of a grove of four thousand
trees could be scientifically handled and the enhanced
profit might be expected to pay for the plant in one
year.
Mr. Lyon thinks that the "present conditions pre-
sent especially flattering attractions to cocoanut grow-
ers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a
scale of some magnitude. The present production
of copra (estimated at 278,000 inculs in 1902) is
IM PROVED METHODS. 315
assurance of a supply sufficient to warrant the erec-
tion of a high-class modern plant for the manufacture
of the ultimate (the 'butter') products of the nut.''
The prospects of such an enterprise would be in-
creased by the certainty of a local market in the Phil-
ippines for most of the output. The average value
of the best grades of copra in the Marseilles market
is $54 gold per English ton. The jobbing prices
January 3, 1903, of the refined products were, for
each ton of copra :
Butter fats $90.00
Residual soap oils 21.00
Press cake 5.20
$116.20
The difference represents the profit per ton, less
the cost of manufacture. The profitable operation
of such a plant would call for a plantation at least
300 acres in extent.
There is no agricultural enterprise afforded by the
Philippines in which the returns are greater or more
assured than the cultivation of the cocoanut. The
process is simple and the crop is practically guaran-
teed. The tree is subject to comparatively few dis-
eases or accidents, its enemies are neither numerous
nor difficult to circumvent. The demand for the
product is continually enlarging, and such changes as
are likely to occur in the trade features of the industry
will probably be in favor of the planter.
316 THE PHILIPPINES.
ESTIMATED EXPEXSE AND PROFIT IN COCOANUT
PLANTATION".
The following estimate of outlay and profit is based
upon the conditions in the district of La Laguna and
Tayabas, where the nearest approach to systematic
culture prevails. It may be accepted as a guide to
prospective planters, although the figures for different
districts vary and sometimes those for the different
localities in the same district. The calculation, like
all others in these chapters, is on the basis of United
States currency.
The cocoanut lands of the provinces in question
are of three grades, valued at about $25, $12.50 and
$5 per unimproved hectare for the first, second and
third class, respectively.
Formerly it was the practice to plant trees about
^\G thousand to the hectare, w^hereas, at present, it is
customary to place three thousand five hundred at
the most in that area. It is, however, more conven-
ient to use the former units of computation.
Plantations of twenty hectares, or larger, are gen-
erally laid out and worked upon the tenant, or ''bene-
ficiary," system. The planter apportions the estate
between five tenants, each of whom plants the trees
upon the section assigned to him. The title to half
the trees thus planted remains in the tenant until he
has been paid for them at the rate of twenty-five cents
apiece at the end of a stipulated period, generally
seven years. After that time the full ownership of
COCOANUT PLANTATION. 317
I
the plantation is vested in the proprietor of the land.
The owner of the land furnishes the seed, implements,
and animals, necessary for the work; the tenant pre-
pares the land, plants the seed and tends the grove
imtil the trees come into bearing. In the meanwhile,
the latter may grow crops in the spaces between plant-
rows, using the landowner's animals without charge.
With the beginning of the fruitful stage of the enter-
prise a new agreement is made. If the nuts are to
be sold in a fresh state one-fifth of the crop goes to
the tenant as remuneration for harvesting it. If
copra is produced, the tenant receives one-third of
the output. In both cases transj^ortation is effected
at the expense of the proprietor.
The plan of operating a plantation with hired labor
is quite unknown to the industry, but, with plenty of
draft animals and labor-saving farm implements, it
could be operated profitably. Under such conditions
one man could look after eight hectares and do it more
efiiciently than he now tends half that area.
Omitting labor, then the outlay upon twenty liec-
tares of first-class land planted wdth five thousand
trees will be as follows:
20 hectares of land at $25 $500
5 carabao at $50 250
5,000 seeds at $10 per thousand 50
Interest at 10 per cent, on investment for seven years. 500
Taxes at three-eighths of 1 per cent 15
Purchase of 2,500 trees at 25 cents G25
Total investment $2,000
318 THE PHILIPPINES.
The first crop will be han^ested in the seventh year,
after which the production will increase slowly, but
steadily, for seven more years, when the full maturity
of the plants is reached. The average yield of the elev-
enth year, which is fifty nuts per tree, may be taken
as a fair basis for the calculation of annual income
during the eight years preceding full growth. Thus,
a grove of five thousand trees will afford a crop of two
hundred and fifty thousand nuts. If these are sold
at the current local price of $10 per thousand, and
deducting the one-fifth shares of the tenants, the pro-
prietor will derive from his plantation an annual
income of $2,000 on an investment of an equal
amount. In the fifteenth year and thereafter each
tree will give six harvests a year of fifteen nuts, or
an annual total of ninety, thus bringing the yearly
output of the plantation up to four hundred and fifty
thousand nuts, having a gross value of $4,500.
These returns are only enjoyed from the best lands.
Trees in lands of the second class will ffive an aver-
age of sixty nuts per annum, whilst uplands of the
third grade will not yield more than half that
quantity.
It is not possible to make so close a calculation
upon the results of copra production, because the
yield of meat per one thousand nuts varies greatly
with the locality and conditions of growth and the
methods employed in the manufacture. In the
provinces under consideration, however, four piculs
COCOANUT PLANTATION. 319
(a piciil is equivalent to 1371/2 pounds) per one thou-
sand nuts is a conservative estimate.
Upon this basis twenty hectares of first class land
will yield one thousand eight hundred piculs, having
a present local value of $4 per picul. Deduct the
tenants' one-third shares from the total receipts of
$7,200, and we have a gross income of $4,800 for
the planter.
The cost of transportation must come out of these
returns before net profit can be determined. At
present all copra is brought down to the coast on pack
animals, and in some instances the expense of car-
riage amounts to as much as one-fourth the price of
the manufactured article. However, this is an item
that will be reduced with the extension of the system
of roads and minimized shortly for the districts that
may be fortunate enough to be tapped by the railroad.
AGRICULTURE.
(continued.)
21
VIII.
AGRICULTURE.
( CONTINUED. )
Method of Coffee Culture — The Promise of Benguet Coffee —
Rice — Cacao Cultivation and its Possibilities — Detailed
Statement of a Cacao Plantation — Estimate of Expenses
and Income of Sixteen Hectares of Cacao — Minor Prod-
ucts, Indigo, Maize, Zacate, Teosinte — Bamboo and Nipa
Palm — The Primitive Methods of Philippine Agriculture
— The Filipino Considered as a Laborer — The Field for
Americans in the Islands.
Coffee appears to have been introduced to the Archi-
pelago by the Spanish missionaries. Its systematic
cultivation was commenced in the early part of the
last century. In the eighties it had attained a promi-
nent place in the exports of the Philippines, but since
1889 the output has gradually fallen off until at
present it is merely nominal. The greater part of the
production was in the provinces of Batangas, Cavite,
and Tayabas, whilst a considerable quantity of an
inferior grade came from Mindanao. In the hoped-
for revival of the industry it is more than possible
that Benguet will be the center of production, both
as regards quality and quantity.
The most prominent planter in Batangas was Don
Jose Luz, whose influence and example gave a great
impetus to the growing of the berry. We are in-
debted to the account of his son, Hon. Simeon Luz,
.- .. : _._. ......... (323)
324 THE PHILIPPINES.
the present Governor of Batangas, for most of the
following details of coffee culture in the Lipa district.
METHOD OF COFFEE CULTURE.
As a preparation to the establishment of a planta-
tion the seed of the madre de cacao is sown at regu-
lar intervals. After a year the young trees have
reached a sufficient height to afford the requisite shade
for the coffee plants, which are set out in the inter-
vening spaces. From time to time the protecting
trees are pruned and some of them removed in order
to regulate the shade. Many careless cultivators shirk
this precaution with a consequent deterioration of the
product. The neglect has two questionable advan-
tages ; the trouble of checking the trees is avoided
and the growth of weeds in the dense shade is less
than it otherwise would be.
Six years usually elapse before the profits from a
plantation offset the cost of caring for it for one
year, but Mr. Luz expresses the opinion that '^by
adopting modern methods the time of fruition may
be advanced one or two years.'' According to the
methods in vogue, a plantation of average fertility
will, with good care, yield from twelve to twenty
piculs per hectare. The cost of laying out one hec-
tare in madre de cacao and coffee, including material
and labor, wdll amount to about $30.
The plant gives three crops — between August and
September, in October, and in November, but per-
METHOD OF COFFEE CULTURE. 325
haps this should be considered as one continuous har-
vest. The berry is picked by hand, but, as the high-
est branches of the tree cannot be reached, the har-
vester draws them down with a hook and so holds
them with his foot whilst gathering the fruit. Of
course this method, unless followed wdth the utmost
care, works injury to the plantation. Unfortunately
the coffee-picker receives his remuneration in the
form of one-fifth of the produce he handles, and the
inducement is to secure as great a weight of berries
as possible without regard to the damage inflicted in
the process.
The usual method of drying is to pile the berries
for twenty-four hours whilst they ferment, and then
to spread them in a cement enclosure, called a hilaran,
until they have become hard enough to resist the ac-
tion of the pestle which is used in cleaning. This is
one of the features of the industry that need reform-
ing. It is both tedious and w^asteful. The berries
sometimes lie for thirty to fifty days before they
become hard enough and are apt to rot in the mean-
while.
The cost of airing, sifting, and sorting one picul
of coffee is about fifty cents. The cost of weeding
and caring for a plantation varies with the degree
of culture devoted to it. A fair average is perhaps
$5 a year per hectare. The crop should run from
twelve to twenty piculs of berries per hectare, but, as
a matter of fact, the actual figures are more generally
326 THE PHILIPPINES.
from six to ten. This is due to shiftlessness, as ex-
hibited in failure to reduce the shade, inefficient weed-
ing, etc.
The prices secured in the Manila market for Batan-
gas coffee in 1S99 ranged from $12.50 to $17.50 per
picul.
It is significant of the unscientific and haphazard
methods that characterize all the industries of the
Philippines that the worms which destroyed the coffee
trees in 1889 had been known to the planters since
the inception of coffee culture and had done more or
less damage every year. To quote Mr. Luz, ''this
damage w^as so small, however, that no one bothered
about seeking a remedy for an evil that he did not
believe could cause a complete destruction of all cof-
fee plantations. But in 1889, to the great surprise
and fear of all, it was observed that all the planta-
tions of the province were attacked. That year saw
the total loss of the crop and the death of almost
all the coffee plants throughout the territory which
Lipa comprises."
After this achievement the worms disappeared and
two years later new branches sprang from the denuded
trunks. The budding hopes of the planters were
quickly shattered, however, for simultaneously Avith
the revivification of their trees the blight appeared
upon the leaves. Thoroughly discouraged and de-
spairing of a revival of the industry, the OAvners of
coffee lands put them under the plough and planted
THE PROMISE OF BENGUET COFFEE. 327
sugar, rice, and corn. Hardly one hectare in a thou-
sand of the former plantations remains in coffee.
THE PKOMISE OF BENGUET COFFEE.
The natural conditions in Benguet are admirably
adapted to the successful growth of the plant; the
product is of an exceptional quality, comparing favor-
ably with Mocha and Java in the opinion of experts ;
the blight has never appeared in the province; the
demand for the Benguet berry, at highly profitable
figures, is greatly in excess of the supply, and is
likely to remain so for many years ; and the climate
is a delightful one for Europeans and Americans.
In the words of Governor Pack, ''the only obstacle
in the way of making coffee cultivation a most profit-
able industry is the difiiculty of obtaining suitable
labor. The question of labor will depend entirely
upon the individual. The cost of labor for hacienda,
or ranch, purposes will average from five to ten cents
gold a day, depending upon the kind of labor required
and the age and sex of the laborer. As these coffee
plantations now in the province have been planted
and cared for mostly by the women, and at odd
moments when they were not otherwise occupied,
it is impossible to estimate the cost of making or
caring for a coffee plantation, but it is usually esti-
mated by growers who are so far civilized as to
figure on profit and loss, that the coffee trees after
an average of five years should net the owner twenty-
328 THE PHILIPPINES.
^ve cents gold eacli year. These trees may be planted
six feet apart. This coffee sells in the market at
Benguet to-day at from $6 to $7.50 gold a cavan*
which should weigh about sixty-seven pounds."
It would appear that, with coffee at $12 per picul
in Manila, the grower under present methods would
make a profit of about sixteen per cent, on the capital
invested. Allowance must, however, be made for
bad years and twenty per cent, is probably a fair
deduction to cover that contingency. But it is gen-
erally conceded that under an improved system of pro-
duction the crop might be augmented at least one-
fifth without material increase of outlay. The price
of labor does not affect the calculation greatly, since
a large part of the work is done on the share plan.
In any case the recent enhancement in wages should
be more than offset by the reduction in transporta-
tion cost which will follow the opening of the railroad.
The Insular Bureau of Agriculture is conducting ex-
periments with a special kind of coffee in Lipa, and
it is confidently believed that the result will be to re-
instate the industry which w^as formerly the chief
source of wealth of this once prosperous district.
Planters are also looking to this Bureau for the dis-
covery of preventive measures against the inroads of
worms and blight. Meanwhile Benguet seems to offer
the likeliest field for the production of the berry.
* This would give approximately from $12 to $15 a picul
of 1371/2 pounds.
THE PROMISE OF BENGUET COFFEE. 829
Coffee was introduced to the Province of Benguet in
1875, and, after experiments, was found to thrive
on the plateaus at an altitude of four or five thousand
feet. In 1881 the Spanish governor ordered all the
natives of the province to engage in the cultivation of
the plant. This met with the active opposition of the
Igorots, who destroyed the plantations in Daklan
and undid the work of years. It happened about this
time that the natives of Kabayan were under an Igo-
rot chief of enlightened ideas and great influence over
his people. This young chief visited Manila and
other places in an investigation of the coffee indus-
try, and, reaching the conclusion that it would afford
a profitable field for the labor of his subjects, induced
them to plant extensively. In a few years this tribe
excited the envy of its neighbors by its comparative
wealth, derived from the new enterprise. The Igorots
of Daklan have endeavored to retrieve their former
opportunity by planting coffee trees, and in a few
years the district should produce large crops.
Governor W. F. Pack, of Benguet, estimates the
yield of a plant six years old at ''three pounds of
good coffee" per year, but this is surely an over-
sanguine expectation. In Peru, where coffee is gTown
at the same elevation as at Benguet and under some-
what similar climatic conditions, the average annual
crop is one pound per tree, whilst in the Philippines
ten ounces is a high average. If we assume that the
Governor's figures were intended to refer to the green
330 THE PHILIPPINES.
berry and allow for the fifty per cent, difference in
weight between it and the dried bean, we have an esti-
mate too high to accept without explanation.
The product of the Benguet highlands is of excel-
lent quality and has always found a ready market.
The entire output has heretofore been taken by the
Tahacalera Company and shipped to Spain, where it
always has commanded fancy prices. These have
doubtless in a measure been due to the limited supply
and will probably decline somewhat with increased
production. The Insular Government is doing all in
its power to foster and encourage the industry amongst
the natives of the province.
The price paid by the Tahacalera Company for
Benguet coffee on the plantation, is equivalent to
$12 to $15 per picuh but $1 per picul should be
added for cost of carriage to Manila, when we
have figures which compare well with the high quo-
tations for Batangas coffee in Manila during 1899.
It is almost certain that a company, or individual,
operating upon a fairly large scale and selling in
the open market would secure much higher values for
its product, which would presumably be of a superior
grade. These greater returns, and the practice of
certain economies possible in the production, would
permit of the payment of higher wages, and since Ben-
guet will be connected by rail with Manila and the
intervening provinces before these lines are in print,
the solution of the labor problem should not be dif-
ficult to find in the importation of field-hands.
RICE. 331
Rice, the staple article of food of the natives of
the Philippines, as it is of most Oriental people, is
grown more or less in every province of the Archi-
pelago. It was the earliest agricultural industry of
the Islands, and rice culture is to-day the occupation
in which the Filipino finds the greatest pleasure and
that in which he acquits himself most creditably.
For many years rice was an important article of
export, but since 1876 it has been imported in large
quantities, and particularly so in the period of Amer-
ican occupation. The large increase in purchases of
foreign rice during recent years has been due mainly
to the rinderpest, which carried off thousands of
carabao, upon which the cultivators depended for the
preparation of their fields. In many provinces —
probably in most — the abandonment of rice has re-
sulted in positive gain, for the natives have gen-
erally turned their ground to better account by put-
ting it into higher-priced produce.
There are several species of the grain raised in the
Philippines, but they come under tAvo general heads,
namely, macan. or lowland rice, and paga, or upland
rice. The former is a much finer quality in which the
white grain predominates, whilst paga always contains
a large proportion of red grain. Macan returns on an
average eighty cavans in the crop for one of seed,
and will sometimes run as high as one hundred to
one, but paga seed seldom produces more than forty
grains. On the other hand, more than one crop is
332 THE PHILIPPINES.
rarely harvested from the lowlands, whilst upland
fields generally give three. The seed beds for low-
land rice are thoroughly mashed with the plough
under four or five inches of water and thickly sown
broadcast. When the shoots have reached a height
of from ten to fifteen inches they are pulled up by
the roots and transplanted.
The paddy-field is treated in the same manner as
the seed bed, and the soil is worked up with a har-
row under water until it forms a muddy mass. In
order to accomplish this result artificial irrigation
must sometimes be resorted to. The land is kept
flooded until inflorescence develops ; it is then allowed
to dry.
The upland field is prepared by several ploughings
and harrowings during the early rains. The seed is
then sown directly upon it. In some localities sow-
ing is effected by dropping three or four grains into
each of a number of small holes which are made with
a bamboo instrument. About one picul of unhulled
rice is needed to sow a hectare of land of either
character.
Lowland rice is sown in May at the commencement
of the rainy season, and harvested about four months
later. It is cut with sickles, bundled, and allowed
to lie in the field until dry.
The process of separating the grain from the straw
is carried out in various ways. Some small culti-
vators use flails ; others resort to their feet. The grain
RICE. 333
is then pounded in a wooden mortar and finally sifted
through shallow baskets. There are, however, a num-
ber of threshing mills in Luzon which charge from
twelve to fourteen cents per cavan for cleaning rice.
The principal rice producing sections in the Archi-
pelago are Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga,
Tarlac (northern portion), Zambales (southern part),
Bulacan, Cavite, La Laguna, Batangas, Camarines
Sur (the chief district of southern Luzon), the
Visayan Islands, Capiz (Island of Panay), and 'Ne-
gros. Pangasinan contains the best rice lands in the
north. The macan of this province returns eighty
cavans of grain for one of seed ; in the uplands the
return is from forty to sixty grains.
The finest rice farm in the Archipelago is at
Imus, famous as the headquarters of the insurgents
in Cavite during 1896. It contains eighteen thousand
hectares, of which upwards of thirteen thousand are
under rice cultivation. One third of this area is
choice land that yields one hundred cavans of rice to
one of seed ; another third yields seventy-five, and
the remainder fifty to one. The balance of the estate
is upland, which could be made to produce in the
ratio of perhaps forty to one. In the same province
there are notable plantations at San Francisco de
Malabon and at Santa Ciiiz de Malabon.
- In some provinces the land is prepared under con-
tract at the rate of $1.50 per hectare, and for harvest-
ing $3 and one cavan of seed per hectare are allowed.
334 THE PHILIPPINES.
Or, the cutting may be contracted for at the rate of
from 25 cents to 37% cents per thousand bundles, of
which the former yield two, and the latter,four cliupas.
The cost and returns of rice culture vary greatly
with differing conditions. The Cavite farms to which
reference has been made net about thirty per cent,
per annum on the capital engaged. They are, how-
ever, worked under exceptionally favorable condi-
tions. Nevertheless, it is quite probable that with
ample capital, modern machinery, and railroad facil-
ities, such as will soon be available, a large operation
might produce as good, or even better, results.
CACAO CULTIVATIOjST AND ITS POSSIBILITIES.
Cacao is found widespread throughout the Archi-
pelago but only in a few localities is it raised at all
extensively. The intelligent cultivation of the plant is
a highly profitable occupation where the yield is of
excellent quality and the demand for it at present
considerably in excess of the supply. All the choco-
late produced from the Philippine cacao seed is con-
sumed in the islands and falls short of the domestic
requirements. Should the industry expand, as it
ought tOj until there is a surplus for exportation, the
product will find a ready market in the United States
and elsewhere, for it is admitted by manufacturers to
be first class, if not quite equal to the very best.
Many sections of the Archipelago are perfectly
adapted to the cultivation of the plant, and with im-
CACAO CULTIVATION. 335
proved methods the present large profits and superior
quality of the product may both be enhanced.
The prime essential to the successful growth of the
cacao plant is a suitable climate; physical environ-
ment is of next importance, and character of soil the
least consideration. Cacao thrives in the atmosphere
of a Turkish bath, and it should be planted in small
valleys free from draught and sheltered from the
prevailing wind by high hills or mountains. Planta-
tions set in forest clearings enjoy the best possible con-
ditions, it being understood, of course, that the heavy
forest remains standing around the field. The land
is cleared of everything but necessary shade trees,
and worked to as great a depth as possible. Drainage
ditches are dug before planting takes place. It is
the general custom to set the fruiting banana for
temporary shelter, but in districts where ahaca will
grow it may be substituted with profit. The tem-
porary shade is maintained until the fourth or fifth
year, when it is grubbed out, the stalks and roots
being left upon the ground, to which they furnish a
useful fertilizer, rich in nitrogen. There are two
varieties of cacao in general cultivation in the Archi-
pelago— the criollo and the forastero. The former
has the better flavor, is less bitter, and is more easily
cured; qualities which combine to give it a higher
commercial value. On the other hand, forastero has
the advantage in point of yield, vigor, freedom from
disease, and compatibility to environment. In gen-
336 THE PHILIPPINES.
eral, then, the preference should be given to the latter,
but in certain districts of Mindanao, where conditions
perfectly favorable to its cultivation prevail, criollo
may be raised with greater profit.
Planting is done '^at stake,'' or from the nursery.
The former method, which consists in depositing seed
directly in the field, is very hazardous on account of
the presence of numerous predatory insects and ver-
min. A careful planter will always resort to seed-
lings, w^hich may be kept under close care and control
until ready for transplanting. The seeds are planted
singly in small pots, or bamboo tubes, the receptacles
being set in a free, light soil. The shoots are care-
fully watered and shaded for from three to six
months, wdien they will be ready for setting out.
The cacao plant grows to a height of from ten to
twelve feet, and bears its crop of heavy pods directly
from the trunk and main branches. Its five-inch
fruit depends from stems none too strong and is
easily torn off by a high Avind. The wood of the tree
is of a very soft and spongy character, and offers only
the slightest resistance to borers, so that it is neces-
sary to be extremely careful to avoid injury to the
bark. This makes pruning a delicate operation. The
most abundant crop is generally secured at the com-
mencement of the dry season, and the fruit continues
to ripen during two months. The pods should be
gathered by hand, or with the aid of extension cut-
ters. ISTever should a laborer be allowed to climb a
A CACAO PLANTATION. 337
tree. The fruit is thrown upon the grouiid in he'ips
and opened within twenty-four hours. Two jars of
water are provided for the cleaners, who sort and
grade the seeds as they are removed from the pulp.
Large, ripe, and unimpaired seeds go into one jar;
small, imperfect and immature seeds into the other.
Thus they are allowed to stand for a day, after
which they are washed in fresh water, dried in the
sun for two or three days, and they are ready for the
manufacturer. Simple as the process is, it results
in an excellent quality of product which finds a
ready market at unusually high prices. Under these
circumstances it is doubtful whether the attempt to
improve the grade by fermentation with its at-
tendant risk is advisable.
Few crops make so little drain upon the soil as
cacao does. Trees commonly bear continuously for
twenty years and more without the aid of any fer-
tilizer, but the use of it would, no doubt, be advan-
tageous both as to quantity and quality of yield.
DETAILE1» STATEMENT OF A CACAO PLANTATION.
The following estimate of the expenses and profit
involved in cacao cultivation, carefully compiled by
Mr. W. S. Lyon, of the Insular Bureau of Agri-
culture, might, perhaps, need some revision to con-
form to the present conditions of the labor market and
other economic changes of the past two or three years.
22
333 THE PHILIPPINES.
It is, however, substantially correct, and may be ac-
cepted as a reliable guide by prospective planters.
The size of farm, sixteen hectares, is based upon
the amount of land prescribed by Act of Congress as
the limit of a single public land entry. The cost of
procuring such a tract cannot be determined, but it
would undoubtedly be low. The price of the product
is calculated at forty-eight cents per kilo, which is the
current figure for the best grade of cacao in the open
market. The yield per tree is fixed at two catties,
a conservative estimate for a tree with little or no
cultivation. The prices for unskilled labor are given
at one-fourth advance over the w^ages of faiTn hands
in the Yisayas, but probably a further increase of
twenty-five per cent, would be necessary in order to ar-
rive at the present cost of labor in many localities.
~Eo allowance is made for management, on the as-
sumption that the owner would supervise the prop-
erty.
EXPENSES AND INCOME.
Charges to capital account are given for the sec-
ond, third and fourth years, but no current expenses
are given, for the proposition contemplates sufiicient
receipts from side crops to defray the expenses of
the operation until the cacao trees begin to bear.
EXPENSES AND INCOME OF CACAO. 339
ESTIMATE or EXPENSES AND INCOME OF SIXTEEN
HECTARES OF CACAO.
FIRST YEAR.
Capital account :
Clearing average brush and timber land,
at $15 per hectare $340.00
Four carahao, plows, barrows, cultivators,
carts, etc 550.00
Breaking and preparing land, at $5 per
hectare 80.00
Opening main drainage canals, at $6 per
hectare 96.00
Tool house and store-room 200.00
Purchase and planting 10,000 ahaca shoots,
at 2 cents each 200.00
Seed purchase, rearing, and planting 12,000
cacao trees, at 3 cents each 300.00
Contingent and incidental 174.00
$2,000.00
SECOND YEAR.
Interest on investment $200.00
Depreciation on tools, buildings, and ani-
mals (20 per cent, of cost) 150.00
$350.00
THIRD YEAR.
Interest on investment $200.00
Depreciation as above 150.00
$350.00
FOURTH YEAR.
Interest on investment $200.00
Depreciation as above 150.00
Building of drying house and sweat boxes,
- capacity 20,000 kilos 450.00
$800.00
Total capital invested $3,500.00
240 THE PHILIPPINES.
FIFTH YEAB.
Income account :
From 11,G80 cacao trees, 300 grams cacao
each, 3,500 kilos at 48 cents $1,080.00
Expense account :
Fixed interest and depreciation charges on
investment of $3,500 $350.00
Taxes 1^2 per cent, on a one-third valua-
tion basis of $250 per hectare GO.OO
Cultivating, pruning, etc., at $5.50 per
hectare 88.00
Fertilizing, at $6 per hectare 96.00
Harvesting, curing, packing, 3,500 kilos
cacao, at 10 cents per kilo 350.00
Contingent 86.00
$1,030.00
Credit balance $650.00
SIXTH YEAR.
Income account:
From 11,680 cacao trees, at 500 grams
cacao each, equals 5,840 kilos at 48 cents $2,808.20
Expense account :
Fixed interest and depreciation charges as
above $350.00
Taxes as above 60.00
Cultivating, etc., as above 88.00
Fertilizing, at $8 per hectare 128.00
Harvesting, etc., 5,840 kilos cacao, at 10
cents per kilo 584.00
Contingent 93.20
$1,303.20
Credit balance $1,500.00
EXPENSES AND INCOME OF CACAO. 341
SEVENTH YEAR.
Income account :
From 11,680 cacao trees, at 750 grams
cacao each, equals 8,700 kilos, at 48 cents $4,204,80
Expense account :
Fixed interest charges as above $350.00
Taxes as above GO.OO
Cultivating, etc., as above 88.00
Fertilizing, at $10 per hectare 160.00
Harvest, etc., of 8,760 kilos, at 10 cents
per kilo 876.00
Contingent 170.80
$1,704.80
Credit balance $2,500.00
EIGHTH YEAR.
Income account:
From 11,680 trees, at 1 kilo each, at 48
cents $5,606.00
Expense account :
Fixed interest charges as above $350.00
Taxes as above 60.00
Cultivation, etc., as above 88.00
Fertilizing, at $12.50 per hectare 200.00
Harvest, etc., 11,680 kilos, at 10 cents per
kilo 1,168.00
Contingent 240.00
$2,106.00
Credit balance $3,500.00
NINTH YEAR.
Income account :
From 11,680 trees, at 2 catties (1.25 kilo),
equals 14,600 kilos each, at 48 cents . . . $7,008.00
342 THE PHILIPPINES.
Expense account :
Fixed interest and depreciation charges as
above $350.00
Taxes, at 1^2 P^i' cent, on a one-third valu-
tion of $500 per hectare 120.00
Cultivation, etc., as above 88.00
Fertilizing, at $15 per hectare 240.00
Harvesting, etc., 14,000 kilos, at 10 cents
per kilo 1,4G0.00
Contingent 250.00
$2,508.00
Credit balance $4,500.00
>In the tenth year there should be no increase in
taxes, or fertilizers, and a slight increase in yield,
sufficient to bring the net profits of the estate to the
approximate amount of $5,000. This would equal
a dividend of rather more than $312 per hectare y or
about $126 per acre.
These tables further show original capitalization
account cost of nearly $90 per acre, and from the
ninth year annual operating expenses of somewhat
more than $60 per acre. It should be stated, how-
ever, that the operating expenses are based upon a
systematic and scientific management of the estate,
while the returns, or income, are based upon the
revenue from trees that are at the disadvantage of
being without any culture whatever, and whilst it is
improbable that either the original cost per acre,
or the cost of operation, can be materially reduced,
it is tolerably certain that the yield may be increased
EXPENSES AND INCOME OF CACAO. 343
considerably beyond two catties per tree. In the
Cameroons, and in French Congo, trees are stated on
indisputable authority to yield in excess of four
pounds, or over three catties. In the Carolines the
trees are said to give five and six pounds, and it is
claimed that single plants in Mindanao have borne as
much as ten pounds of seed.
As Mr. Lyon remarks, "the difference between good
returns and enormous profits arising from cacao grow-
ing in the Philippines will be determined by the
amount of knowledge, experience, and energy that
the planter is capable of bringing to bear upon the
culture in question."
Whilst the foregoing estimate has taken no account
of manager's salary, it would be indispensable to suc-
cess that an individual or corporation investing money
in the industry w^ithout knowledge of its details should
secure the most experienced management possible
without sparing expense. The cultivation of cacao is
a very harzardous enterprise, and although recent in-
vestigations have revealed much that will facilitate
the culture in the future and reduce the dangers, it
would be no more than prudent to calculate upon,
say, one bad year in five, or, in other words, to dis-
count the calculated profits twenty per cent.
The enemies of cacao are numerous, and include
worms, bugs, monkeys, and parrots. Drought may
destroy young plants, or at least prevent a crop,
and a hurricane, when the trees are laden, will strip
344 THE PHILIPPINES.
tliem of fruit. For these reasons sorae persons rec-
ommend cacao only as a side crop and not as a
dependence, and it would be a sheer gamble for any
one to put all his capital into a cacao plantation. The
prospective returns, however, are so extremely large
in this industry and the eventual profits so certain,
that it offers a splendid investment for capital sup-
ported by an ample resen^e. For instance, $5,000
put into cacao, with another $5,000 to reinforce it if
necessary, would insure the success of the venture.
If $750, or $1,500 local currency, were paid to a good
manager there would be a small deficit during the
first three or four years perhaps, although the pres-
ence of such a man might be expected to enhance the
receipts from the shade abaca; but in any case such
an outlay would be in the nature of ultimate economy.
MINOR PRODUCTS^ INDIGO^ MAIZE^ ZACATE^ TEOSINTE.
Indigo was at one time exported in considerable
quantities (in 1892 to the value of over $150,000)
from the Ilocos provinces and is still produced in that
section, but now only for the home consumption. The
loss of the market for indigo is attributed to the
extended use of dyes derived from coal tar, that is
to say aniline dyes, and to the gross adulterations to
which the Philippine product was subjected by the
Chinese jobbers, w^ho, by-the-way, have created a
bad name for Philippine gutta percha in the same
manner. Twenty-five years ago the product of Ilocos
MINOR PRODUCTS 345
Sur fetched as miicli as 120 pesos per quintal in the
open market; to-day 30 'pesos is a fair price for it.
This great falling off is due mainly to the manipula-
tion referred to above. There is still an extensive
market for vegetable indigo, and it is believed that
with proper cultivation and honest treatment the Phil-
ippine product would command very much higher
ligures. Indigo can be subjected to a high grade of
cultivation at a cost of $40 to $50 per hectare of land
Avhich, under such conditions, should yield at least
four quintals of good quality dye stuff. This at, say
$25 per quintal, would yield a fair profit.
Indian corn is quite generally cultivated through
the Archipelago, and in a few districts is the staple
food of the natives, but they invariably prefer rice
when they can get it. Maize is chiefly used as a cat-
tle food, and for this purpose the entire plant — stalk,
leaves and grain — is utilized. In good land maize
seed will yield two-hundred fold and give three crops
in a year.
Zacate, which is forage grass of several varieties,
is profitably groAvn in the vicinity of likely markets.
Farmers are enabled to gather five, and even six,
crops in the year, for which, especially in Manila,
good prices are obtained. The grass is not cured, but
made up into small bundles and sold for consumption
in the green state.
Teosinte is a very valuable annual grass which has
recently been introduced to the Philippines, where its
346 THE PHILIPPINES.
adaptability has been satisfactorily demonstrated. It
grows as high as twelve feet and from sixty to seventy
stems are produced from a single seed. In the south-
ern portion of the United States it has been found
to yield crops of from twenty to fifty tons per acre.
BAMBOO AND NIPA PALM.
Several species of bamboo grow luxuriantly through-
out the Archipelago. This plant is an important fac-
tor in the domestic economy of all Oriental people.
The Filipinos put it to many useful purposes, the
principal being the constmction of houses, the frame-
works of which are as a rule made of this material.
The entire edifice is strongly constructed of vegetable
products and without the employment of a nail. The
bamboos are firmly bound together with hejuco, or
rattan, and the roof is formed of a cog on or nipa
thatch. The floors are usually of bamboo and the
same material is used for doors, window, shutters,,
and the rest.
Bamboo is converted to the greatest number and
variety of purposes ; indeed, there appears to be no
species of domestic utility or industrial occupation, in
which it does not play an important part.
The variety called Cauayang totoo sometimes at-
tains a height of more that twelve meters and a
diameter of more than twenty centimeters.
Nipa, or sasa, is a very useful palm of fern-like ap-
pearance, that grows in marshy localities. It reaches
PRIMITIVE METHODS OF AGRICULTURE. 347
a height of four meters and throws off clusters of long
leaves which are used, wherever they are obtainable,
for the roofs of buildings. From the sap, nipa wine,
or vino, is distilled, and large quantities of it are con-
sumed by the natives as a beverage. Extensive groves
of nipa are cultivated for the purpose of securing the
liquor, for which there is an unlimited demand.
THE PRIMITIVE METHODS OF PHILIPPINE
AGRICULTURE.
In general, the methods of agriculture followed in
the Philippine Islands are antiquated, and often
haphazard. The implements used are of the rudest
description, and no more than a moderate degree of
energy and intelligence is brought to bear upon the
work. Perhaps the Filipino obtains better compara-
tive results from his paddy-field than from any other
branch of agricultural industry, but even in that, his
favorite and oldest occupation, he falls far short of the
maximum possibilities. It may be said of all the
agricultural pursuits of the islands that with modern
methods and appliances much greater areas could be
cultivated with improvement in the grade of crops
at no more expenditure of labor than is now applied to
restricted operations.
The ancient wooden plough that was introduced
.from China centuries ago is still in general, in fact
almost universal, use. It is drawn by a leisurely
carabao, and does little more than scratch the ground.
348 THE PHILIPPINES
A wooden harrow, also attached to the inevitable
carahao, may supplement the superficial action of
the plough. The subsequent cultivation of the grow-
ing crop is very meagre and often hardly enough to
insure a harvest. Fortunately ISTature in these islands
needs little wooing to bestow her favors bounteously.*
Since the American occupation, attempts have been
made to induce the native farmers to adopt the use
of modern implements and machinery, but up to the
present the result has not been encouraging. Of
course the difficulty lies in breaking away from old-
established custom and is a perfectly natural one.
Most modern field machinery is made to be drawn
by horses. The native cultivator is apt to think that
anything which is beyond the capacity of his ponder-
ous carahao must need steam for a motive power.
The pony — there are no horses — of the Archipelago
is a husky little beast that should make an excellent
draft animal, and, if the demand for it in that
capacity arose, no doubt it would easily be met. A
place must always be found for the carahao in the
agricultural economy of an Oriental country, but it
would be well if the Filipino farmer could be pur-
suaded that the useful quadruped is not all in all.
The Guia Oficial de Filipinas gives a true and
concise description of this remarkable animal. ''The
carahao, or water buffalo, is the most notable quad-
ruped found by the Spaniards when they came to
occupy these islands. There are few animals which
THE FILIPINO AS A LABORER. 349
are as ugly, and there are also few which are more
useful in agricultural labors, and which can better
resist the enervating climate of the Philippines. Its
color is black or brown, the hair is very scarce, the
horns large, arched, and rough, and the head is com-
paratively small. Its strength is enormous. It easily
swims the wildest rivers and can haul very heavy
loads, although its progress is slow and its movements
awkward. It likes humidity and to roll in the mud.
The hide and horns of the carahao are of great com-
mercial value. The carahao begins to work after it is
five or six years old. It lives to about thirty years.''
T[IE FILIPINO CONSIDERED AS A LABOKER.
In considering the Filipino as an agriculturist we
are prone to judge him by American standards which
is altogether unfair. As a matter of fact he does
more work than a casual observer is likely to sus-
pect. Like the ryot of India, the Filipino is in his
field at early dawn and puts in three or four hours
before the heat becomes intense. When the shadow^s
begin to lengthen with the decline of day he returns
to his crops and toils for three or four other hours.
When one considers the heat and humidity of the
Philippine climate it must be admitted that six or
eight hours a day is a considerable tax on a rice-fed
man of indifferent physique. At any rate, it com-
pares creditably with the practice of the peasantry of
India and China, who are not subject to a similarly
350 THE PHILIPPINES.
enervating climate. In fact, there would not be room
to cavil at the daily effort of the Filipino if it were
sustained for six days a week throughout the year, but,
as in most Roman Catholic countries, fiestas and holy
days heavily discount the work days of a year.
The impression that the Filipino has no backbone
should have been removed by the agricultural achieve-
ments of recent years in the face of a succession of
heart-breaking calamities. The Insular Government
did all that was possible to mitigate conditions, but
the brunt of the struggle had necessarily to be borne
by the peasant. When one considers that in 1902
nearly half the carahao, upon which the farmers de-
pend, died, it is really difficult to understand how the
crops of the succeeding year were produced. It is
quite probable that under similar circumstances the
Hindu ryot would have lain down in despair and sur-
rendered his country to famine for a succession of
years.
The wholesale condemnation of the Filipino day
laborer is equally unjust. Under the superintendence
of those who understand him he renders good service,
and American contractors and Government officials
who have had extensive opportunities for observation,
express themselves as well satisfied with the native
laborer. The average Filipino earns his wage, but
it is too much to expect him to rival the American
day laborer.
The sistima inquilino, in its several forms which
Threshing Rice.
Where threshing mills are B&t within convenient
distance the grain is trampled out by carabao or ponies.
This picture was taken at the Government Rice Farm.
Murcia, a pueblo of Negros Occidental.
FIELD FOR AMERICANS IN THE ISLANDS. 351
are variously termed ''tenant/' ''share," or "bene-
ficiary" system, may be an outgrowth of the early
system of encomiendas. It prevails in one form
or another in almost all the agricultural indus-
tries, and the fact of its long continuance under the
Spaniards, who knew the natives perfectly, would
indicate that it is best adapted to the labor conditions
of the Archipelago. It has serious drawbacks which,
however, it may be possible to minimize without radi-
cal change. As a question of public policy the
sistima inquilino, which encourages the attachment
of the peasant to the soil, is more desirable than agri-
cultural day labor, which tends to create a shifting
population.
THE FIELD FOR AMEEICANS IN THE ISLANDS.
There has been no intention in the foregoing ac-
count of Philippine agricultural opportunities to create
the impression that the country is an El Dorado, offer-
ing w^ealth for the asking without risk or effort. It
is true, however, that few portions of the world have
such extensive undeveloped resources as the Philip-
pine Archipelago, and perhaps none affords a more
promising iield for the investment of capital in mod-
erate sums. In the countries of South America and
Asia a large outlay is generally necessary to the suc-
cess of industrial operations, and the question is often
complicated by uncertain political conditions and un-
stable laws. In the Philippines there are innumer-
352 THE PHILIPPINES.
able cliaiinels in which ten or twenty thousand dol-
lars may be safely invested with large profits. Most
of the openings in question demand skilled direction.
This may be readily hired, or the needful experience
may be acquired in the majority of cases without great
difficulty by the investor during a preliminary resi-
dence. There are in the islands many planters whose
properties could be doubled and trebled in value
by the introduction of modern methods and machin-
ery, and amongst these, profitable investments on a
partnership basis should not be difficult to find.
It cannot be too emphaticall}^ stated that there
is no place in the Philippines for the man without
capital, unless he has some useful trade for the exer-
cise of which there is an unquestionable scope. In
either case the prospective colonist should have a
definite idea as to the future direction of his efforts
before leaving America. In this connection it may
be well to state that the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
Washington, D. C, has published a mass of useful
information on the subject which is available to the
public. Furthermore, Colonel Edwards and his sub-
ordinates are ever ready to afford every assistance
possible to enquirers.
There can be no doubt that the islands afford ex-
cellent fields for corporate enterprise upon a large
scale. There are several branches of mechanical,
mining, and agricultural industry that are well worth
investigation by some of our large concerns. The
FIELD FOR AMERICANS IN THE ISLANDS. 353
Insular Government is constantly engaged in exten-
sive public works which involve profitable contracts.
American firms should not be deterred by the presence
of established foreign houses and their representa-
tives. The Philippines are in a process of trans-
formation. New conditions and fresh opportunities
are constantly arising. Peace and order prevail, and
a rapid recovery from the adverse circumstances of
recent years may be expected.
There is every indication that the recent visit of
Secretary Taf t and the Congressmen who accompanied
him to the islands, will bear immediate fruit in legis-
lation designed to expedite agricultural and mineral
development. Duties will be removed from Philip-
pine imports to the United States. The restrictions
that have militated against the investment of capital
by individuals and corporations w^ill be abated. What
President Roosevelt in a recent public speech char-
acterized as ''the unfortunate measures which have
seriously, in some respects vitally, hampered the de-
velopment of the Philippine Islands" will undoubt-
edly be repealed. With the expected action of Con-
gress and the inception of the railroad system the
islands should enter, in 1906, upon an era of great
prosperity.
23
PUBLIC LANDS, TIMBER,
MINERALS, ETC.
IX.
PUBLIC LANDS, TIMBER, MINERALS, ETC.
Area Under Cultivation — Forest Lands of the Archipelago
Some Varieties of Commercial Timber — Official and Pri-
vate Tests of Philippine Timber — Scientific Survey by
the Insular Forestry Bureau — Wasteful Methods of
Native Lumbering — Cost of Lumber Operation Under the
Present System— Possibilities of the Lumber Industry-
Forestry Regulations— Gutta Percha— The Future of the
Gutta Percha Trade — Rubber May be a Latent Source of
Wealth— Cattle-Raising an Inviting Field for Capital-
Luzon Has the Finest Grass Country in the World-
Ready Markets for Philippine Cattle— Mineral Wealth-
Gold has Been Mined for Centuries— Iron and Coal Exist
in Abundance.
Pending the completion of the Government survey
of the Archipelago, figures applying to the larger areas
must necessarily be based upon estimates, which,
however, have generally been made carefully and
doubtless are approximately correct. The Spaniards
had no exact knowledge of the area of the islands,
nor even of their number. The Schurman Commis-
sion in an endeavor to ascertain the extent of the
public domain had recourse to Spanish documents
and ''general information gathered from various
sources, particularly from natives acquainted with
the provinces." The conclusion arrived at was that
the public lands equaled half the area of the Archi-
pelago.
( 357 )
358 THE PHILIPPINES.
The Taft Commission, after more extensive re-
search, reported (1900) as follows : ''The total amount
of land in the Philippine Islands is approximately
29,694,500 hectares, or 73,345,415 acres. Of this
amount it is estimated that about 2,000,000 hectares,
or about 4,940,000 acres, are o^\Tied by individuals,
leaving in public lands 27,694,500 hectares, or 68,-
405,415 acres. The land has not been sun^eyed, and
this is mere estimate. Of the public lands there is
about twice or three times as much forest land as
there is waste land.''
The Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands in his
report (1903) states: ''Assuming the correctness of
my estimates of 73,000,000 acres for the total area
of the islands, that would leave 61,000,000 acres of
land belonging to the public domain.
"The Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands estimates
the forest lands on the public domain at about 40,000,-
000 acres. This would leave an area of 21,000^000
acres of land not forested, the most of which is agri-
cultural in character and which will be subject to
disposal under the law permitting leasing, selling and
homesteading."
The latest estimates are those of the Census, cal-
culated by Mr. George R. Putnam, of the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These give the
total area at 73,615,374, and the public domain at
66,628,118.
AREA UNDER CULTIVATION. 359
Of the total area of the Archipelago only about
5,000,000 acres, or 9.5 per cent., of the whole is arable
land, distributed very irregularly through the prov-
inces. La Laguna has the largest proportion with
53.1 per cent. ; Pampanga and Sorsogon each have in
excess of 45 per cent; Ilocos Sur, Batangas, Iloilo,
Bulacan, La Union, Cebu, Cavite, Tarlac, Albay,
Capiz and Kegros Occidental follow in the order
named with agricultural lands aggregating from 21
to 38 per cent, of their total extent. In no other
province is the proportion as great as 20 per cent., and
in several, inchiding Lepanto-Bontoc and Benguet of
Luzon, it is less than 1 per cent.
Of the total area of agricultural land 45.9 is under
cultivation. In the matter of ratio of cultivated to
total farm land the provinces and comandancias do
not preserve the above order by any means. Ilocos
Sur is first with 84.2 per cent, of its available soil in
tilth. Jolo, which in the former classification is last
of forty-eight territorial divisions with less than one-
tenth of one per cent, of its land arable, is second in
the percentage of it under cultivation ; Antique, Mas-
bate, Albay, Ilocos Norte, La Union, Pangasinan,
Kizal, Bulacan, Zamboanga, Manila City, Nueva Viz-
caya, Sorsogon and Pampanga follow, all with more
than 60 per cent.
All Oriental people are gregarious as a result of
temperament and the exigencies of life in the East.
In the Philippines this tendency to congregate has
360 THE PHILIPPINES.
been encouraged from the earliest times by the need
of mutual protection against such common enemies
as the aborigines, and other Avild tribes, the More
pirates, and ladrones. Consequently we find the in-
habitants everywhere settled in small communities
with no inclination to extend beyond the limits of
actual necessity. Generally the holdings are very
small. ^Nearly one-half of them are less than one
hectare in size, whilst twenty per cent, are less than
one acre. One of these little patches which would
hardly support a cow in the United States will in the
Philippines, with its prolific soil, contribute the main
subsistence of a family. They will live upon it,
and from it derive three or four different crops in
the course of the year.
The average size of all farms in the Archipelago,
including the small holdings referred to above, is only
8.57 acres, whilst in the United States it is accord-
ing to the last census 146.6, a ratio of seventeen to
one.
There are upwards of 800,000 persons engaged
more or less extensively in agriculture in the islands.
Of this number 99.8 are full-blooded Filipinos of
the Christian tribes. Of the remainder 778 are
^'whites," that is, Americans and Europeans ; 308
are half-castes of Spanish or Chinese origin, and
959 are pure Chinese. By far the largest proportion
of farmers own the land they cultivate ; some pay rent
in cash and others in kind or with labor. There
FOREST LANDS OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 361
has always been a great deal of nncertainty about
titles in the Philippines, bnt the difficulties on this
score have been comparatively few owing to the great
amount of surplus land. In 1894 the Spanish Min-
ister for the Colonies reported to the Queen of Spain
that there were about 200,000 squatters on the pub-
lic lands subject to eviction by the State, but it is
believed by officials of the Insular Government that
at present there are at least double that number.
FOEEST LANDS OF THE ARCHIPELAGO.
Captain George P. Ahem, U. S. A., reported
(1902) that ''in the total of forty odd million acres
of woodland w^e find at the very least twenty million
acres of virgin forest. We find virgin forests in the
provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, and
in that part of Tayabas formerly known as Principe
and Infanta ; in fact, the entire coast of Luzon south
of Antimonan is a virgin forest. The above-men-
tioned forests in Luzon will aggregate an area of at
least 3,000,000 acres. The foregoing is a conserva-
tive estimate, and any change made later Avill doubt-
less be to increase the estimate instead of reducing it.
There is much merchantable timber left in the prov-
inces of Tayabas, Camarines, parts of Bulacan and
Bataan.
- ''The islands of Mindoro and Paragua, each con-
taining an area of more than 2,000,000 acres, are
covered with a dense stand of virgin timber.
362 THE PHILIPPINES.
^'MindanaOj with an area of 23,000,000 acres, con-
tains more than 10,000,000 acres of virgin forest.
Samar and Leyte — ^both large islands — are heavily
timbered." In these areas average stands are found
to run to seven thousand cubic feet per acre in trees
v^ith a diameter of over twenty inches, and some
acres reach ten thousand cubic feet. It is character-
istic of the Philippine forest that the species grow
scatteringiy ; few pure stands of a single species are
found anywhere.
Many of the varieties of native timber are of the
highest value and are in great demand, whilst among
the many other kinds which are little known some
may discover unsuspected utilities upon investigation
and test.
SOME VAEIETIES OF COMMERCIAL TIMBER.
Tindalo, a dark red wood, is found in many of the
islands. It is suitable to all kinds of construction,
and on account of its durability and susceptibility to
a high polish is wudely used in the East for fine
cabinet work.
Ipil is abundant in the Archipelago. With age
it assumes a purple-black color resembling ebony. It
is practically impervious to decay, pieces which have
been in use a century showing no signs of deteriora-
tion. It has a reputation for durability in the
ground and where it is in contact with cement and
mortar and is well adapted to use for railway sleepers.
There is a large demand for it in China.
COMMERCIAL TIMBER. 363
Narra is called '^the mahogany of the Philippines."
It seasons well and admits of a high degree of polish.
It is used in cabinet work, being the material from
which nearly all the furniture of Manila is made, but
is a first class wood for general purposes. It is classed
in the London market with Padouk or Burmese rose-
wood, and is similar timber to the redwood of the
Andaman Islands. Being impervious to the attacks
of white ants, it is especially valuable in the East.
There is a white species of narra which has all the
qualities of the red variety.
Molave is found in most of the islands. The wood
is white. It has many excellent qualities. The tree
produces timber from 11 to 22 feet long and from 12
to 24 inches square. It resists sea-worm, white ants
and other borers and is therefore valuable for many
kinds of works where an extra durable material is
required. It can not be surpassed for railroad sleep-
ers, being practically everlasting. This wood has
been identified with what, as ^^'New Zealand teak,''
has long been known commercially and highly prized
for its endurance under water.
Apitong is a greyish wood which grows abundantly
in various parts of the Archipelago. Large quantities
of the timber have been shipped to China, where it
is in constant demand for the framework of houses
and for ship's planking.
Yacal is found in Luzon, Mindoro, and Panay. It
grows to a height of from 12 to 20 meters. The wood
364 THE PHILIPPINES.
is used in the construction of buildings and in cabinet
work. It is of a darkish yellow color, has a fine and
solid texture, breaks with long splinters, and is proof
against the onslaughts of white ants.
Guijo is widely distributed throughout the Archi-
pelago. It is a light red wood with undulating fiber,
strong and flexible and with well-defined pores. It
is used in ordinary and in naval construction, and
largely for carriage wheels and shafts in Manila.
In Hongkong it is the material for wharves, for decks,
for flooring, and for other purposes where a tough
and elastic wood is required.
Lauan is found all over the islands. It is a reddish
white wood of loose and filaceous texture with dis-
tinctly marked pores. It is extensively used in naval
construction, and the natives often employ it as a
covering or sheathing for hardwood floors. It can
be turned to the same general uses as our pine, poplar,
and other soft woods, and has the advantage over them
of resisting white ants. The foregoing are only a
few of many woods of commercial importance which
are to be found in the vast forests of the Philippines.
OFFICIAL AND PRIVATE TESTS OF PHILIPPINE
TIMBER.
Captain Ahem says, '^several hundred varieties
of native woods are received in the Manila market
during the year. Spanish engineers tested and de-
scribed only some seventy varieties, so that we have
TESTS OF PHILIPPINE TIMBER. 365
many species in the market to-day that are not popular
owing to the lack of reliable information concerning
their strength, durability and suitability for construc-
tion purposes. Where strength and durability are
especially desired there are no finer construction
woods in the world to-day than molave, ipil, and
yacal."
Two of the bridges over the Pasig were laid with
molave blocks ten years ago, and although it has been
subjected to the heaviest traffic of the city, the pave-
ment is practically as sound as ever.
The Pullman Palace Car Company imported forty-
eight logs of various Philippine hardwoods by way
of experiment, and their superintendent declared that
they were the best woods that ever entered their
works, but the cost, due to heavy freight rates and
crude methods of lumbering, prohibited their use at
present. However, the islands have no need to look
to the United States for a market; the demand at
home and in the Orient for Philippine lumber is cer-
tain to exceed the supply for years to come.
Several varieties of ebony for which there is a con-
stant demand in Europe and America are found in
the Archipelago. A lumberman who has been in the
Philippines for twenty-five yea^-s gave the following
testimony before the Peace Commission in 1899:
^'They have in the Philippines a wood that is better
than ebony; it is called alintatao. It is best fitted
for furniture, but may be used for anything you have
366 THE PHILIPPINES.
a mind to turn it to. It is a lasting wood. . .
I would recommend alintatao and narra as the finest
woods for furniture." From careful tests made by
the Insular Forestry Bureau and comparison with re-
sults obtained by the United States Agricultural De-
partment, the following table has been compiled.
Some of the Philippine group show remarkable
strength. Apulag-amo subjected to the ^'compression
endwise'^ strain exhibited a resistance of 15,110
pounds per square inch ; the stress of elastic limit
equaled 17,620 pounds per square inch, and the
strength at rupture equaled 19,700 pounds per square
inch.
Philippine Woods American Woods
Apulag-amo 15,110 Pignut hickory 10,900
Betis 11,270 Mocliernut hickory . . 10,100
Dungon 10,370 Butternut hickory . . . 9,600
Molave 10,400 Pecan hickory 9,100
Calamansapay 10,370 Cuban pine 9,080
Dilang butiqui 9,780 White oak 8,500
Bitanhol 9,670 Texan oak 8,100
Ibil 9,000 Green ash 8,000
Tindalo 8,800 Water oak 7,800
Supa 7,230 White ash 7,200
Tucan calao 7,170 Long leaf pine 7,930
SCIENTIFIC SURVEY BY THE INSULAR FORESTRY
BUREAU.
The Insular Bureau of Forestiy is pushing the
work of examining and surveying the* public forest
lands as rapidly as is consistent with thoroughness
and the force at its disposal. The surveys afford
SCIENTIFIC SURVEY. 367
much useful information regarding the stands and
varieties of timber, their peculiarities of growth,
character of the soil and rock formation. In addi-
tion there will be notes on logging, methods and cost
of logging, labor, means of transportation, character
of roads and streams, as well as a topographical map
on which will be shown the location of the valuation
surveys, thus enabling anyone to see at a glance the
amount and value of timber available and the possi-
bilities of bringing it to market. The investigation
will extend all over the islands as trained men capa-
ble of managing such work are secured from the
United States. This system of detailed survey has
been in operation for four years, and a considerable
extent of territory has been covered.
It may be well to state that no exploration of the
Philippine forests has ever been attempted before
upon a similar scale, and that no scientific examina-
tion of the stand of timber has ever been made. The
only reliable information available on the subject is
that which has been secured by the Insular Forestry
Bureau and the experts employed by the Philippine
Commission at various times to make special reports.
The statements of casual observers are apt to be
misleading. Foreman sums up the difficulties of
lumbering in the islands very fairly, and concludes
that 'Svith sufficient capital, a handsome profit is
to be realized in this line of business.'^ Sawyer, in
his delightfully breezy but somewhat dogmatic style,
368 THE PHILIPPINES.
disposes of the Philippine forests in a few para-
graphs designed to demonstrate that they are not
worth the w^orking. He tells us that ''the greatest
nonsense is talked about the value of the Philippine
forests, but in fact it is only in the fever-stricken
island of Mindoro and in certain parts of Palawan
and Mindanao that any large and valuable trees can
be found. . . . In Luzon all the large trees of
valuable timber have long ago been cut.""^ These
and most of the other similar assertions contained in
Sawyer's chapter on ''Porestal" are contradicted by
established fact.
The following matter relating to the Philippine
forests is, in the main, derived from the official re-
port of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, and
where quotation marks appear they indicate literal
extracts from that document.
For the most part, the forest territory is well sup-
plied with streams sufficiently large for driving logs.
In some cases they may require a little clearing. The
native operations are conducted upon the simplest
and easiest lines without regard to ultimate results.
* For refutation of these statements see the report of the
Chief of the Forestry Bureau ; the preliminary report on
working plan of Bataan Province by Forester R. C. Bryant ;
and the report of Mr. John Orr, manager of the Philippine
Lumber and Development Company. AU of the foregoing
are contained in the Report of the Philippine Commission,
Part I, 1902.
NATIVE LUMBERING. 369
The water courses and the carabao are the only means
of transportation from the stand. In the former case
bamboo rafts are often needed to give buoyancy to
the dense hardwoods and in the latter the haul must
be adjusted to the limited capacity of the beast. As
a consequence the native seldom gets out the largest
treeSj and if he touches them, usually cuts at a waste-
ful height, sometimes twelve or fourteen feet from
the ground. Such a thing as a cross-cut saw is un-
known in the Philippine forest. All the felling and
other work is done with a long, narrow, single-
bitted axe, and in order to minimize the labor the
chopper often burns the tree partially through. The
enormous waste involved in such crude methods may
easily be imagined. It is estimated that of the
amount of marketable timber cut, no more than
thirty-five per cent, is got out.
WASTEFUL METHODS OF ]^ATIVE LUMBERn^G.
A fact mentioned by Captain Ahern striki-ngly
illustrates the haphazard nature of the industry as
carried on at present. It appears that there is in
the vicinity of Manila a fine tract of timber land
which has been protected up to the present by the
presence of a slight obstruction in a stream that an
American company would have removed in a few
days and at a nominal expense.
The average haul to tidcAvater is short, and ''a com-
bination of a short line of railway with the wire cable
24
370 THE PHILIPPINES.
system of logging would be ideal for a country with
the topography that these islands present.'' In some
localities skidding for short distances with carabao
might be necessary in combination with the plant in
question.
Under the present system the licensee usually con-
tracts with the loggers to deliver on the beach certain
species of hewn timber. The loggers pick out the
likeliest trees for their purpose, chop and bum them
down, cut off such logs as their carabao can draw and
leave a remainder of from forty to sixty per cent.
to decay upon the ground. As a consequence of this
method of logging the forests on many of the islands
have been culled to a distance of two or three miles
from the coast and in the vicinity of the larger to\\Tis.
The Philippine Lumber and Development Company
have found that three miles on a straight line or five
miles following the winding of a valley are the ex-
treme limits of profitable lumbering with the carahao.
Successful operations on any scale of magnitude will
depend to a great extent upon the employment of this
animal in only an auxiliary capacity. Carahao are
now scarce and cost from seventy-five to one hundred
dollars. Although strong, they are not hardy beasts.
They need to be watered several times a day, which,
aside from the inconvenience and waste of time often
entailed, renders their employment upon high moun-
tain slopes, where much of the best timber is to be
had, practically impossible.
COST OF LUMBER OPERATIONS. 371
l^early all the timber that is shipped to Manila
is squared in the forest, and is usually from 12 to 24
inches wide at the top and as long as the carabao
will haul. This limitation leads to a great deal of
the clear length being left in the woods to rot. Spe-
cial efforts are, however, made to get out extra lengths
for use in shipbuilding. The logs of dungon, betis,
and guijo will sometimes measure from 50 to 60 feet;
those of batitinan, mangachapuy, and palo-maria from
19 to 32 feet. Lanan, the tree from which hancas
are chiefly fashioned, is occasionally cut the entire
clear length, and gives a boat from 32 to 65 feet long
and from 24 to 48 inches wide. Lauan, and more
especially apitong, furnish boards with a top diameter
of 12 inches and from 82 to 98 feet long. Molave
timbers are seldom over 16 to 32 feet long and 16 to
32 inches square. However, there is a demand for
the crooked, tough and durable branches of molave
and dancalan for purposes of ship construction.
Calantas is used mainly for cigar boxes, but also to
a limited extent for interior finishing. It yields logs
of 65 feet and occasionally as long as 98 feet.
COST OF LUMBER OPERATION UNDER THE PRESENT
SYSTEM.
The Philippine Lumber and Development Com-
pany pays the following scale of wages: Choppers
and hewers, 35 cents per day, without board; trails
builders, skidders, and drivers, 25 cents per day,
372 THE PHILIPPINES.
without board ; hire of carabao, 50 cents and 75 cents
per day. For sawing the hewed timber into boards
by hand they pay the following prices per square foot :
Cuartos.*
Dnngon and betis 4
Molave, dancalan and acle 3
Guijo and mangachapuy 2
Apitong and lauan 1
The cost of logs laid down on the beach varies from
3 to 15 cents per cubic foot; the average for logs of
superior woods is less than 10 cents. Modern facili-
ties would greatly reduce these figures. The trans-
portation charges per cubic foot for logs delivered in
Manila are: From Masbate, 20 cents; from Tayabas^
15 to 17% cents; from Subig (by raft), 2% cents.
Lumber companies using their own vessels would
reduce the cost of transportation to about one-third of
these rates.
The following table of quotations for logs and
boards in Manila is a fair criterion of average prices,
but the tendency is constantly upward as the demand
increases without any appreciable expansion of the
local supply :
Molave, in log, per c. f., 371/2 cents; sawed, per
c. f., 80 cents ; M. B. M., $75.00.
Narra, in log, per c. f ., 41% cents ; sawed, per c. f.,
831/2 cents; M. B. M., $82.50.
♦ Cuarto equals about one-third of a cent.
LUMBER INDUSTRY. 373
Ipil, in log, per c. f., 34 cents ; sawed, per c. f., 74
cents; M. B. M., $62.50.
Giiijo, in log, per c. f., 22 cents; sawed, per c. f.,
65 cents; M. B. M., $40.00.
Supa, in log, per c. f., 21 cents; sawed, per c. f.,
64 cents; M. B. M., $45.00.
Lauan, in log, per c. f., 13 cents; sawed, per c. f.,
27 cents; M. B. M., $19.00.
Tanguile, in log, per c. f., 16 cents ; sawed, per c. f.,
50 cents; U. S. C. M., $25.00.
Apitong, in log, per c. f., I6I/2 cents; sawed, per
c, f., 31 cents; U. S. C. M., $25.00.
POSSIBILITIES OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY.
The Chief of the Forestry Bureau states that ''there
is a demand in Manila, in fact all through the Orient,
for construction timber ; the demand will continue as
many important public works are in contemplation in
the Philippines, many private enterprises will make
demands, thousands of houses must be built, and
when the present condition of these islands and the
vast amount of work to be done are considered it
would be difficult to foretell when the present high
prices of lumber will materially lessen. . . . The
United States market is not considered in this
proposition. The Philippines market will be strong
for many years. The Chinese market is always
strong and always will be, for all of lowland China is
without timber. The Philippine construction timber
374 THE PHILIPPINES.
is considered by many engineers in China the best tim-
ber to be had in the Orient. Strong as has been the
Chinese market for timber in the past, the future
promises even better, as there are indications that
foreign enterprise and capital are securing conces-
sions which will weaken that vast Empire.
''There are very few lumber companies here prop-
erly equipped to handle large logs ; it will take com-
panies contemplating such work many months to estab-
lish themselves, to secure labor, and transportation to
deliver their first cargo; and if such companies are
not prepared to furnish master mechanics, expert gang
bosses, in fact all the skilled labor required, with a
full stock of the best supply material, it would be
hazardous to attempt to remove the large logs which
must be cut and brought to market if these forest
tracts are exploited properly.''
At this time the Philippines are not exporting one-
fiftieth of the lumber for which a profitable market
could be found under scientific and economical meth-
ods of production, w^hilst each year large quantities
of pine and redwood enter the country from Ore-
gon and California. A corporation with, say, $2,000,-
000 capital operating logging roads, saw-mills and a
fleet of sailing vessels, including barges for inter-
island transportation, would surely return handsome
dividends to its stockholders. The profits would per-
mit such vessels to return in ballast, but as a matter
of fact cargoes from Hongkong are always obtain-
FORESTRY REGULATIONS. 375
able, and schooners delivering at the Pacific ports
of the United States might carry back American
soft woods. The need of the trade for specially-built
lumber vessels is pronounced. It is often necessary
to cut up logs at the port of clearance in order to
load them upon ships of limited hold capacity. Under
present conditions the establishment of a market in
the United States for the valuable hardwoods of the
Philippines is impossible, but a company running
vessels direct to Seattle or San Francisco could, with-
out doubt, open up such a market, and create an active
demand amongst manufacturers of high-grade fur-
niture and finishings. By jobbing its product in this
country the company would save all the profits from
the forest to the factory.
Considering the facility with which operations
might be instituted, the known superiority of the
product, the certainty of markets, and the high prices
obtainable, lumbering offers the best field for the
heavy investment of capital in the Philippines.
FORESTRY REGULATIONS.
Corporations giving evidence of their ability and
intention to operate upon a scale of considerable mag-
nitude may secure from the Forestry Bureau licenses
for a period not to exceed twenty years. The area
within which the company may work will be specif-
ically defined and the trees to be cut will be indicated
by a government forester. This official will measure
376 THE PHILIPPINES.
the timber felled and assess the charges. Market-
able timber is classified in four groups, and the ter-
ritories in two divisions. The tariff is regulated
primarily by the character of the timber, modified,
however, by the locality in which the operation is
conducted. For instance, the tax upon a tree of the
first group felled in Mindanao would not be as great
as that upon a similar tree cut in a locality, say
Bataan, more accessible to the Manila market. It
is easy to conceive t^at a company operating its
own vessels might derive an enhanced advantage from
this arrangement. The government charge will prob-
ably average about six per cent, of the selling price.
Several companies are now negotiating to secure
tracts of land large enough to justify the installation
of modern plants, and it is likely that within the
next few years the output of Philippine lumber will
be very much increased.
During 1903 upwards of five million cubic feet of
lumber was marketed, of which 4,740,738 cubic feet,
valued at about $175,000, came from the public for-
ests. In the same year 87,000 board feet of native
lumber were exported. On the other hand there were
imported 113,483 cubic feet of lumber on commercial
liners, as well as 6,841,207 board feet and 4,746 foot
tons for the use of the Government. The imported
lumber was laid down in Manila at from $37.50 to
$48.50 for Oregon pine and at from $45 to $55 for
redwood per thousand board feet.
GUTTA PERCHA. 377
Gutta Percha is one of the important products of
the Philippine forests. Elsewhere the tree is found
only in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and
the small islands lying between them. Tawi Tawi
and Southern Mindanao are the sources of the Philip-
pine product. The gum is secured by a ruinous
method which, unless it is checked, must ultimately
result in extinguishing the already inadequate sup-
ply. The practice of the native gatherers in all
gutta percha regions is much the same. The tree is
cut down and the bark ringed so that the milk flows
from it at several points. The outflow is caught in
cocoanut shells, and a tree yields at the utmost two
pounds, which is about ten per cent, of its capacity.
The output of the Philippine forests is handled ex-
clusively by Chinese traders, who make enormous
profits in the business. The prices paid to the Moros
range from ten to fifteen pesos per picul, and pay-
ment is frequently made in cloth and other commodi-
ties. The Chinaman's standard picul in buying, a fic-
titious measure created by himself, is 1621/2 pounds,
whilst he markets the product at the Chinese picul of
133% pounds. Singapore is the central depot for gut-
ta percha. Practically all of the production is shipped
there, and thence distributed. In the past fifty years
upwards of 300,000,000 pounds of the material have
been received at Singapore. A w^riter in ^'Opportuni-
ties in the Philippines" suggests that these figures
afford some clue to the number of trees which have
378 THE PHILIPPINES.
been destroyed in that time, calculating on a basis of
two pounds to the tree, and allowing ten per cent, for
wastage. The result of such a computation, however,
would fall very short of indicating the actual extent
of the destruction.
The Insular Government has under consideration
several plans for putting a stop to present methods
in the industry, and it is likely that the production
of gutta percha in the Philippines will become a semi-
monopoly of the Government. Unless something of
this sort is done the trees w^ill disappear from the
Archipelago in the course of twenty years, if we
may judge by the number which have been removed
during the ten or less years that the industry has been
in existence.
THE GUTTA PEECHA TRADE.
The chief, almost the sole, use to which gutta percha
is put is in covering electric submarine and land
cables. It is practically impervious to the action of
water and so admirably adapted to these purposes for
which no satisfactory substitute has been found.
During the past decade the price and demand for the
material have greatly increased wdth very little re-
sponse in the supply, however. The quotation for
the different varieties have trebled in that time.
In recent years extensive scientific experiments
have been made in the direction of the cultivation
of the tree and the extraction of the latex. It is
FUTURE OF THE GUTTA PERCHA TRADE. 379
found that the leaf yields a good grade of gutta percha
which on test has proved to provide a satisfactory
insulating material.
The fviture of the industry in the Philippines must
depend upon planting and strict Government regula-
tion. It would seem that a gutta percha monopoly
conducted somewhat upon the lines of the opium
monopoly of the Indian Government would produce
the best results with the greatest benefit to all con-
cerned. It would probably provide a congenial and
certainly a profitable occupation for a large portion
of the population of southern Mindanao and the Sulu
Archipelago and could hardly fail to be a powerful
factor in reducing them to orderly industry. Such
an arrangement would also work toward a solution of
the dato problem. The dato might be usefully em-
ployed as a sort of supervisor in his district as the
zamindar is in the Indian opium village. The Ben-
gal system includes advances to the cultivator, which
are deducted from the payment for his produce when
he brings it in. iVnd this would necessarily be a
feature of a governmental system of cultivating gutta
percha in the Philippines. The Indian ryot may cul-
tivate opium or not, as he chooses, but if he does so
the Government undertakes to buy his produce at
stated figures, whilst it places certain restrictions
upon the methods of grovi:h and extraction. In
short, the Indian opium system appears to afford an
•admirable model for the Insular Government in the
establishment of a state monopoly in gutta percha.
380 THE PHILIPPINES.
Rubber trees and vines are found in almost all
tropical countries, but marketing the product gen-
erally presents so many difficulties that the industry
is profitably pursued in few parts of the world. The
demand for rubber is permanent at good prices and
the supply in recent years has never satisfied the
market. The uses of the material are constantly
extending and nothing can be found to take its place.
RUBBER MAY BE A LATENT SOURCE OF WEALTH.
The Philippines do not at present afford a field
for the rubber industry, although the plant grows
luxuriantly in the southern islands. The Forestry
Bureau, fully alive to the importance of gTitta percha
and rubber, is making experiments and investigations
which should lead to the scientific and profitable cul-
tivation of both.
Expert opinion favors the belief that rubber plan-
tations in the Philippines under skilled direction, em-
ploying the best methods of extraction, should give
rich returns to investors. This is not, however, an
enterprise to be entered upon without ample knowl-
edge and experience. A considerable amount of cap-
ital is also necessary to success, for although it is
authoritatively stated that the returns would be from
$150 to $200 per acre, the first crop could not be ex-
pected short of six years after planting, and it would
be subject to some danger of destruction or damage.
It would seem that in several of its features rubber
cultivation resembles that of cacao.
CATTLE-RAISING. 381
As a result of the ravages of war and the inroads
of rinderpest, the cattle-raising industry of the Philip-
pines has become extinct during the past few years.
Ten years ago large herds of cattle and horses were
to be seen everywhere, and especially in northern
Luzon. In 1902 Mr. Elmer Merrill reported to the
Insular Bureau of Agriculture: ^'From enquiries
made along the route I learned that the cattle indus-
try w^as at one time quite prominent in ISTueva Viz-
caya, and especially so in Isabela, but due to the
insurrection and recent ravages of rinderpest the
herds have been much depleted or entirely exter-
minated. In Xueva Vizcaya I saw only about twelve
head of cattle, but they were in magnificent condition.
In Isabela I saw but two herds — one of about twelve
head and one of about twenty-five — and like those
in Nueva Vizcaya, they were in excellent condition."
To-day there is not a herd of considerable size in the
Archipelago. In a less degree, but very seriously,
the number of horses has been reduced by surra and
glanders. In order to relieve the consequent distress
as much as possible the Insular Government imported
large numbers of draft animals from India and
China, but at the best this could only be a tem-
porary measure.
It is questionable if a native even amongst those
who have the money could be induced to re-enter the
industry, so fearful have they become of the dread
rinderpest. But the investigations of the Bureau of
382 THE PHILIPPINES.
Agriculture lead to the belief that immunity from
both rinderpest and surra may be secured by inocula-
tion. However that may be, there are methods by
which cattle raising can be carried on in the islands
with practically no risk of disease and the returns
for years to come would be extremely large.
I.UZON HAS THE FIISTEST GRASS COUNTRY IN THE
WORLD.
Mr. Merrill states, and he is corroborated by sev-
eral observers, that ''most magnificent grazing
grounds exist in eastern Pangasinan, northern ISTueva
Ecija, ISTueva Yizcaya, Isabela, and Cagayan, prob-
ably also in the other provinces, mostly rolling up-
lands in the three former provinces and broad level
prairie lands in the two latter, although so far as
abundance and quality of the grasses are concerned
there is apparently no difference, the same species
growing on the prairies as on the hills. These grasses
consist of . . . fine-stemmed, fine-leaved grasses
which in the United States would be popularly known
as bunch grasses, as they mostly grow in small tufts,
not being true turf-forming grasses, yet there is suf-
ficient abundance of turf-forming or partially turf-
forming grasses so that, notwithstanding the heavy
tropical rains to which this region is subject during
several months of the year, so close is the turf that
absolutely no signs of gullying or washing were ob-
served even on the very steep hillsides,
A Street Scene.
Lower-class natives of the City of Cebu. The prac-
tice of carrying children upon the hip as shown in the
illustration is common to many Oriental peoples.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
..issssami.
PHILIPPINE CATTLE. 383
which shows what may be expected if cattle are
ever introduced here in abundance. . . . The
grazing lands in eastern Pangasinan, northern Kueva
Ecija, and throughout Xueva Vizcaya are character-
ized by their rolling, hilly character, the ravines, and
small valleys, tops of the higher hills, and surround-
ing mountains, being densely forested, while in every
small valley one finds streams of pure, clear water,
it being impossible to travel three or four miles in
any direction without finding good water. Hence it
will be observed that there is an abundance of feed,
water, and shelter, the requisites for an ideal cattle
country ; and especially to be noted here are the
topographical features of the country which in cases
of epidemic of rinderpest are of especial value, as in
these valleys whole herds of cattle can be isolated, and
with a little care and watchfulness, guarded for
months against infection by contact or through the
water supply."
READY MARKETS FOR PHILIPPINE CATTLE.
There are no better grazing grounds than these
in the United States, probably not in the world, and
under the conditions described, cattle might be raised
with little or no risk and of the finest quality. The
districts in question have the advantage of proximity
to the Manila market, whither the herds might easily
be driven upon the hoof. Before long, however, the
railroad will run through a great part of these graz-
ing grounds in E^ueva Vizcaya and Nueva Ecija and
384 THE PHILIPPINES.
the Manila-Dagupan line is already sufficiently near
to those of Pangasinan.
At present all the meat consumed in Manila is
shipped in on the hoof from Singapore or as refrig-
erated meat from Australia and the United States.
The prevailing prices are high, and would yield a
handsome profit to local cattle raisers. It is an in-
dustry that would require comparatively little capital
for its prosecution in the Philippines. The stock
would be mainly the native cattle of India and China,
which thrive in the Archipelago. The trotting bul-
lock of India would appear to be a likely beast for
introduction to the Philippines, and, indeed, he is
employed to a slight extent in Pangasinan.
Another source of profit in this connection is hay.
The districts under consideration would give a heavy
yield per acre of the finest quality, and the character
of the ground is such as to permit of cutting and har-
vesting being done by machinery. At present thou-
ands of tons of hay are imported from the United
States yearly at figures that would give good returns
to the home grower.
A corporation that should raise sufficient cattle to
supply the local demand and run a plant for the
utilization of the by-product would without doubt
realize large returns on its capital.
MINERAL WEALTH.
It is impossible to say anything very definite about
the mineral resources of the Philippines. They have
MINERAL WEALTH. 385
never been thoroughly investigated, and what little
mining has been done was of a desultory and not over-
scientific character. It is an established fact that
rich deposits of various valuable metals and of coal
exist, but with few exceptions the precise extent and
nature of them have not been ascertained. However,
the investigations of the Insular Bureau of Mining
and the discoveries of more than a thousand practical
American miners who are prospecting in the Archi-
pelago will throw a great deal of light upon the sub-
ject in the near future.
From present knowledge it would appear that th*^
most promising fields are in Benguet and Lepanto-
Bontoc. The Reports of the Philippine Commis-
sion (1902-1903) state that ''in the province of Le-
panto at Mancayan and Suyoc there are immense
deposits of gray copper and copper sulphide, and
running through the ore are veins of gold-bearing
quartz which is more or less disintegrated and in
places is extremely rich. This copper ore has been
assayed and the claim is made that it runs on an aver-
age eight per cent, copper, while gold is often present
in considerable quantities. The deposits are so exten-
sive as to seem almost inexhaustible. ... As
early as 1856-57 two concessions were granted to the
Cantabro Philippine Mining Company, and an at-
tempt was made to exploit them and market their
product. Rude methods of mining, ruder methods
of extracting the metal, and still more rude and
26
386 THE PHILIPPINES.
primitive methods of transportation, combined with
lack of sufficient capital and suitable labor, led to the
abandonment of this attempt, and for more than
twenty years the property, which in itself is a
small claim upon the immense ledge above referred
to, has been occupied only to the limited extent re-
quired by the Spanish mining laws to prevent the can-
cellation of the concession. The officer at present in
charge of the Mining Bureau characterizes this deposit
as an 'undoubted bonanza.' The main thing neces-
sary to its exploitation is the opening up of a
short line of communication with the coast.'' And
it may be added, this is probably the chief requi-
site to successful mining in several parts of the
Archipelago.
GOLD HAS BEEN MINED FOR CENTURIES.
Gold is known to exist in various states on several
of the islands, but to what extent it may be worked
with profit is yet to be definitely determined. The
Igorots have carried on placer mining for centuries
and with apparently good returns. They never at-
tempt extraction from rock that fails to exhibit a
considerable quantity of free gold. Modem mining
machinery has never been used in the country, and
its introduction may reveal altogether unsuspected
possibilities. In some localities the conditions are
favorable to hydraulic mining. Prospectors in the
Lepanto-Benguet-Bontoc district, according to the re-
IRON AND COAL. 387
port of the Commission, have located very extensive
deposits of low-grade free-milling ore which will yield
large and certain returns under scientific treatment.
Unless the statements of those who have been work-
ing in this region are utterly false very valuable de-
posits have been located. These men, who are for the
most part experienced miners from our Western
States, have had sufficient faith in their claims to
camp upon them for many weary months whilst w^ait-
ing for the passage of mining regulations that would
establish their rights and permit them to operate.
These desiderata were effected by an act of Congress
dated October 7, 1903, since when several mining
enterprises of importance have been set on foot with
good prospects of success.
IRON AND COAL EXIST IN ABUNDANCE.
There are undoubtedly deposits of high-grade iron
ore in different parts of the Archipelago, but until
the coal measures have been more extensively opened
up iron cannot be profitably worked. Coal* is one of
the pressing requirements of the Philippines. At
present it is imported in large quantities from Aus-
tralia and Japan and costs wholesale in Manila from
$5 to $7 per ton. The production of local coal,
* "The Coal Measures of the Philippines," C. H. Burritt,
Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, D. C. This publica-
tion is recommended to those who are interested in the sub-
ject.
388 THE PHILIPPINES
which could be put upon the market at about half
the price with profit to the miner, would give a great
impetus to all kinds of manufacturing enterprises in
the islands. Lignites are known to exist in Luzon,
the Island of Batan, Mindoro, Masbate, ^N'egros, Cebu,
Mindanao, and other islands. The island of Batan,
which is a dependency of the Province of Albay, has
been described as ^'a solid mass of coal." It is now
in a process of rapid development. Several private
corporations as well as the United States Government
are engaged in mining upon the island. A company
has opened rich deposits upon the east coast and has
constructed an electric railway connecting the mines
with a deep water harbor on Calanaga Bay.
The Chief of the Mining Bureau is of the opinion
that the most important of the mineral resources of
the Philippines is the best grade of lignite of which
there are two varieties — black and brown. The best
coal is free from sulphur, relatively low in ash, and
is found in the Island of Batan, in Bulalacao and
Semarara, southern Mindanao, in Danac and Com-
postela, Cebu; on the Gulf of Sibuguey, in southern
Mindanao ; at Colatrava, Xegros ; and at Bislig, in
eastern Mindanao. It is of the Tertiary age and
similar in most important respects to the products
of Wyoming, Washington, and Japan. Some of the
coal of Abra, Pizal, and eastern Xegros is also be-
lieved to be suitable for use in steamships and sta-
tionary furnaces, but there is some difference of opin-
IRON AND COAL. ^ 389
ion on this score among experts. One of the most
promising fields is that near Bulalacao. There is a
good harbor, which affords anchorage throughout the
year, within four or five miles of the deposits. Some
of the Cebu coal fields enjoy similar advantages. The
black coals can in most cases be mined free from
pyrites ; they are firm enough for transportation ; can
be taken out at reasonable cost, and should therefore
be able to entirely take the place of the imported
article in the home market and supply all the local
demands of steamships.
The Commission reports that '^testimony is unani-
mous to the fact that the Philippine coals do not
clinker, nor do they soil the boiler tubes to any
such extent as do the Japanese and Australian coals.
Some of them have been given practical tests in steam-
ers engaged in the coasting trade of the Archipelago
with very satisfactory results as regards their steam-
making properties."*
Taal \ olcaho.
Thi^ several respects the most extraonlinarv
volcano in the world. It is still active, and in the past
has heen extremelv destructive.
MANILA OLD AND NEW.
X.
MANILA OLD AND NEW.
The Philippines Twenty Years Hence — The Legend of
Mariveles — Cavite — The Pasig — Manila Intramiiros — The
Cathedral — The Old Palace of the Governor-General —
The Fortress of Santiago — Santiago's Ilkistrious Prison-
ers— Old Manila Unsanitary, like most Si)anish Cities
— Bonondo the Business Quarter — Costumes of the Citi-
zens— Various Races in the Metropolis — The Suburban
Residential Sections — Cock-Fighting the National Sport
— The Reformation of Manila — The Commercial Destiny
of Manila — Other Ports will share the Fortunes of the
Capital.
In the olden days the Spaniard went to the Phil-
ip|)ines by way of Mexico, and sailed from Acapulco
for Manila in the State Nao. The cumbersome,
broad-beamed vessel, with its four-storied deck-house
abaft, its polished brass carronada, and its sails set to
the single mast, left port upon its perilous voyage with
great eclat. Perhaps it carried to the insular col-
ony a governor-general in blissful ignorance of the
many troubles in store for him. Without doubt there
were on board more than one frocked member of the
class that was at once the blessing and the bane of
-the Spanish Indies. Xeither friar, nor governor,
could eclipse the splendor of the ship's commander,
who v^ore a gorgeous uniform, drew a princely salary,
[393 ]
394 THE PHILIPPINES.
and carried the title of ''General" with stately dig-
nity. Fortunate the galleon if the blessed Virgin of
Antipolo guarded it with her presence, for nine times
had she crossed the Pacific and never once failed to
bring her charge safely into port.
The nao was freighted with stuffs of Spanish manu-
facture, and its commander's cabin contained a chest
of Mexican dollars amounting to, perhaps, three mil-
lions with which to pay the Real Situado and re-
imburse the Philippine merchants for their ship-
ments.
As the voyage neared its end, a sharp lookout would
be maintained for the British sea-hawks to w^hom
many a fat galleon had fallen prey, and eager eye3
would scan the promontories of the Philippine coast
for beacon warnings of the presence of the dreaded
enemy. And when at length the nao sailed into the
Bay wdtli Spanish sedateness, there was great rejoic-
ing in the Capital. It was a jubilee occasion, and all
Manila gave itself up to festivity. Bells rang from
their towers, bands of music paraded the streets,
buildings were bedecked in bunting, officials came
forth in full uniform, and the people donned holiday
dress. In all the churches a solemn Te Deum was
chanted in thankfulness for the glad event.
THE PHILIPPINES TWEI^TY YEAKS HENCE.
Twenty years hence the American traveler bound
for the Philippines will voyage upon a turbine-driven
THE PHILIPPINES TWENTY YEARS HENCE. 395
ship, one of many vessels converging from all points
of the compass upon the Island of Luzon. He will
land at some bustling port on the Pacific coast, per-
haps in the Gulf of Lagonoy, thereby saving seven or
eight hundred miles in the journey from San Fran-
cisco. The railroad will carry him up to Manila
through a country abounding in the fruits of the
field, past busy towns and flourishing plantations.
Everywhere he Avill perceive the evidences of a peo-
ple awakening to their opportunities and happy in
the beginnings of a vast prosperity. American capi-
tal and American enterprise will ere then have made
their vivifying effects felt in the land ; iron and coal
will have begun their magic work; the steel plough
and the harvester will have largely displaced the
carahao and the holo; the are w^hich now returns a
picul will then yield three.
Manila, the future "Hub of the Orient," will, before
twenty years have passed, be one of the most fre-
quented ports in the East. The City will be the
best lighted, the best paved, the best drained, and the
best governed municipality east of Suez and Panama
— and the promise of all these things is already in
evidence.
To-day one must go to Manila via Yokohama and
Hongkong. The six hundred and thirty miles from
the latter port, across the ever-restless China Sea, are
covered in a small steamer of the coaster type. At
the entrance to the Bay, which might more correctly
396 THE PHILIPPINES.
be termed a giilf, the vessel is still thirty miles from
the City. Upon the left is Mariveles. A signal sta-
tion will soon be established at this point, and here in-
coming ships will be boarded by the customs officers,
so enabling passengers to avoid what has been in
the past a vexatious delay.
THE LEGEND OF MARIVELES.
A romantic legend attaches to Mariveles. Some-
time in the seventeenth century, so the story runs,
there was in one of the convents of Manila a young
Spanish girl whose name, before she assumed the veil,
had been Maria Yelez. The lovely recluse formed a
liaison w^ith a monk and they decided upon a des-
perate plan to leave the islands. Together, the girl
disguised in a friar's frock and cowl, they tied and
reached the village which is now called Mariveles, in
a canoe. Here they designed to lie hidden until the
galleon bound for Mexico passed. In the meantime
the affair had created great excitement in Manila,
where a hue and cry was raised, but without avail,
until a native brought news of the whereabouts of
the fugitives. They were found upon the open shore
in a pitiable condition. The priest, who had been
compelled to battle with the natives for the possession
of his companion, was at the point of extreme ex-
haustion, whilst the girl bordered upon insanity from
fright and exposure. They were carried back to the
City and effectually separated for all time. The
THE PENINSULA OF CAVITE. 397
friar was assigned to a remote parish among wild
tribes and the nun was despatched to a convent in
Mexico.
Passing Corregidor, with its lighthouse and pic-
turesque but harmless fort, the vessel is clear of
the islets that beset the entrance to the Bay of Manila,
which is sufficiently capacious to accommodate all
the navies of the world. The roadstead has been sub-
ject to almost the full force of the monsoons, but
amongst the many improvements in progress is the
construction of an ample breakwater. Four millions
are to be expended upon Manila harbor, which will
have a mean depth of thirty-five feet at low tide. The
system of docks and warehouses when completed will
surpass anything of the kind in Asia or America.
These combined facilities must make the capital of
the Philippines, which, according to La Perouse, oc-
cupies '^tho finest commercial site of any city in the
world,'' the safest and most convenient port in the
Orient.
THE PENINSULA OF CAVITE.
Cavite, on its little ''fish-hook" peninsula, comes
into view before Manila is clearly discernible. The
projecting land upon which Cavite stands forms a
fine harbor that probably decided the selection of the
place for a naval depot. It was off this point that
Montojo's ships went down, or out of action, under
the fire of Dewey's guns.
398 THE PHILIPPINES.
Cavite contains the arsenal, shipyards, dry-docks,
and repair shops of the Government. There are forts
on the peninsula commanding every approach which,
with proper armament, Avill be an important part of
the defenses of the Capital.
Manila lies low, hardly anywhere more than three
or four feet above high water mark, and it has no lofty
buildings, so that it breaks upon the view of the
passenger on shipboard with the suddenness of a
Dutch port. The present accommodation will not
permit of large vessels approaching much nearer than
two miles from shore, and there used to be a great
deal of tiresome delay and difficulty about landing.
Conditions are much mitigated since our people have
had control, and it will not be long before ships tie
up at docks and land their passengers from gang-
planks.
The traveler's immediate destination will doubtless
be Binondo, or one of the residence suburbs, w^hich
he may reach in a launch, or boat, but before pro-
ceeding to a description of modern Manila we will
take a cursory view of the Walled City, symbolical
of an order of things which is fast passing away.
THE PASIG EIVEE.
The river is fairly crowded with boats of all de-
scriptions, light draft steamers and launches, out-
rigged hancas and dugout canoes. More conspicu-
ous than these, and most useful of all, is the cargo
MANILA INTRAMUROS. 399
cascOj with its cylindrical bamboo top. The casco is
at once a freight conveyance and a dwelling. Despite
the utter dissimilarity of appearance, one is reminded
of the old-time canal barges of England. There are
the same signs of permanent occupation. Children
hanging over the guuAvale, mothers preparing food
in the bow and clothing stretched to dry.
These cumbersome, but highly useful craft, are
propelled by poling from a framework footway ex-
tending along each side. As the management of a
casco and the handling of its cargo require the services
of at least two men, the boat generally houses more
than one family. Thousands of these river-folk, in
different parts of the islands are born, live and die
afloat. It is a quite congenial condition, for the
Malay is by heredity a navigator and lover of water,
which predilection extends to its personal application
and seems to be unfailingly innate with these people.
MANILA INTRAMUROS.
Manila is remarkably subject to seismic dis-
turbances, most of which seem to have their center in
the Taal volcano, barely thirty miles distant. On an
average, shocks are felt in the City once a month,
but they are usually very slight, and do no damage.
There have been, however, thirty-three destructive
earthquakes since the Walled City was founded. The
greater proportion (fourteen) of these occurred in
the nineteenth century. June the 3d, 1863, at 3.20
400 THE PHILIPPINES.
p. m., a violent shock threw down the Cathedral, bury-
ing a number of worshipers and demolished twenty-
five other public buildings, besides injuring a much
greater number. In many places the ruins still lie
untouched, save for the vegetation which has over-
grown them. Portions of others afford quarters for
vagrant natives, who share them with bats and
monkeys.
The Spaniards built heavily, and this applies to
their residences as well as public structures. Thirty-
inch walls are common in houses, whilst from ten to
twenty feet of solid masonry are to be found in
churches and fortifications about old Manila.
It is not at all certain that heavy masonry affords
the best protection against earthquakes : at all events,
the largest buildings appear to have suffered most in
these visitations. Good brick and mortar seem to
withstand the shock very well, judging from the fact
that the tall smokestack of the Insular Cold Storage
and Ice Plant passed through an earthquake a few
years ago without showing any mark of injury. As
to residences, light structures, such as prevail in
Japan, should be the least liable to destruction by
these convulsions of the earth, but the Manila builder
is between Scylla and Charybdis : a solid building
will fall to the shock of earthquake, whilst a typhoon
will rip a light one to pieces. It is seldom that
the terranean disturbances overturn the native huts,
but a cyclone will scatter them like chaff.
26
[401]
402 THE PHILIPPINES.
ISTothing in Manila is built over two stories in
height, so that public edifices have not generally an
imposing aspect, l^evertheless, as each story is ex-
tremely high, the buildings, though almost invariably
flat or low-roofed, are far from presenting a squat
appearance. The Cathedral, without towers or up-
per structures, except a stunted dome, gains a certain
beauty from the simplicity of its straight lines and
something of stateliness from its extensive propor-
tions. It is the finest and most ample place of wor-
ship in Manila, but it was erected since 1880, when
an earthquake destroyed the former building, the
ruins of which, incl^iding a partially-demolished bel-
fry tower, with some of the bells still intact in their
original positions, may be seen adjoining the present
Cathedral. The edifice stands upon the site which
has been thus occupied since the Archiepiscopate
was created in 1595, with Domingo Salazar as the
first appointee. Salazar, a grand old man, whose
zeal for the welfare of the Colony was unbounded,
made the long and arduous journey to Spain and
back when he was verging upon his eightieth year
for the purpose of laying the needs of his bishopric
before the King. He died in Manila whilst the
Papal Bull authorizing his investiture as the first
Archbishop was crossing the seas.
The eighteenth century map of Manila gives the
Cathedral first place, and, indeed, it represented
politically and socially the first power of the Colony.
THE CATHEDRAL. 403
At the time of the most direful peril to the Philip-
pines, when Li Ma Hung, the Chinese corsair, came
near to possessing himself of the islands, the aid of
Saint Andrew was particularly invoked, and when
the danger had safely passed he was declared to be
henceforth the patron saint of Manila. In commem-
oration of the happy deliverance the Funcion votive
de San Andres was thereafter celebrated on the 30th
of ^November of every year, when all Manila attended
High Mass at the Cathedral. The ecclesiastical au-
thorities made this the occasion of a ceremony de-
signed to indicate the supremacy of the Church. The
Standard of Spain was spread upon the pavement of
the nave and the Metropolitan walked over it. In
recent years the protests of the Governor-General led
to the abandonment of this practice and instead of
it the flag Avas thrice lowered before the altar.
The Cathedral was the point from Avhich all pro-
cessions started and at which they all ended. Manila
delighted in her numerous holidays and the profes-
sions with which they wound up at night. Along
each side of the street would walk, in single file, men,
women, and children, each bearing a lighted candle,
whilst down the centre would come bands of music
preceding groups of priests, who escorted images of
the Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and the Saints, borne
upon the shoulders of perhaps as many as thirty
men. Some of these images were ablaze with gems
said to be real, and, if so, of enormous value. Such
404 THE PHILIPPINES.
images had an additional guard of soldiers with fixed
bayonets. The course of the parade was marked by
the explosion of bombs and rockets at intervals.
THE OLD PALACE OF THE GOVERNOK-GENERAL.
Upon the western side of the Cathedral square,
which was in some sort the public square of the City,
stands what was the Palace of the Governor-General.
The present Palace, which, like the Cathedral, occu-
pies a site that has been devoted to the same purpose
from the beginning of the City, dates since the earth-
quake of 1863, but the residence of the chief executive
was in the modern portion of Manila for several years
before the Spanish evacuation. The Palace is a large
building, with spacious apartments. It conforms to
the general rule of two stories, with all the reception
and living rooms on the upper floor. A broad stair-
case, flanked on either side by a carved presentment
of the Lion of Castile, gives ascent to a landing,
upon which stands a life-size marble statue of Magel-
lan. Upon the right and left hand of the statue
are lofty entrances to a splendid hall one hundred feet
long and half as wide. With its polished parquetry
floor a more delightful dance-room could not be
imagined, and doubtless it has often been given over
to that favorite amusement of the Spaniards. The
walls are hung with full-size paintings of Spanish
celebrities, recalling many a dark deed and many a
bright achievement. Returning to the landing, a
PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL. 405
stairway upon each side affords ascent to the main
floor. The principal apartment is the Council Cham-
ber, furnished with a large carved table and heavy
chairs bearing the Eoyal Arms. Many a strange and
stormy scene was enacted around this table during
the incessant conflict of Church and State. The win-
dows give upon the square, and it may have been from
a similar vantage point in a former building that
stout old Bustamente watched the approach of the
mob that did him to death.
There are no entire buildings in Manila that can
boast of very great antiquity, the Church of San
Augustine being probably the oldest. The City has
been so often subjected to destructive forces that what
structures escaped one, fell to another. The general
aspect is one of old age due to the common practice
of preserving old styles and employing old material
in reconstruction. In many cases surviving portions
of a former structure have been included in its suc-
cessor. One constantly comes across quaint corners
and curious nooks that have all the appearance of
being many hundred years old, and, of course, there
are bits of architecture here and there that date back
to the sixteenth century. Several of the ecclesiastical
buildings are of the type of mission architecture char-
acteristic of similar Spanish edifices in Mexico and
California. The church of San Juan del Monte,
which antedates most of those in Manila is a striking
example of this type.
406 THE PHILIPPINES.
In the acute angle of the walls, just at the point
where the Eiver merges into the Bay, is the Fortress
of Santiago, which for many years acted as an
efficient watchdog over the sleepy City lying behind
it. More than once it has been the last refuge of
the Spaniards, when enemies have gained within the
walls. In 1574 — but this was before the Walled
City was built — the gallant Salcedo at this point made
his final stand against Li Ma Hung's barbarian band.
Many a victim of injustice and revenge has pined
within the dark, damp, and noisome dungeons of San-
tiago. Its walls have often echoed to the shrieks of
tortured prisoners. Some have found relief in death,
others at the garrote or from the bullets of Spanish
soldiers. In times of disturbance the capacity of
the place has been taxed to the utmost, and men have
been crowded into the cells, literally as cattle are
massed in a freight car, with the result that the weak-
est saved the courts all further consideration of their
cases by dying there and then.
During the Tagalog Rebellion, the dungeons were
always packed full. Into some of them the river
trickled at high tide so that twice a day the unfor-
tunate prisoners stood in water up to their waists. A
fearful tragedy was caused by an officer who, through
inadvertence or design, caused the sole source of
ventilation to be closed. The next day eighty corpses
were removed from the place, but life was cheap and
prison room scarce, and the affair does not appear to
SANTIAGO'S ILLUSTRIOUS PRISONERS. 407
have disturbed the equanimity of the authorities in
the slightest degree.
SAT^TIAGO S ILLUSTRIOUS PRISONERS.
The long roll of prisoners in the Fortress of San-
tiago includes both sexes and the representatives of
all classes and of every rank from the humble fisher-
man to the proud archbishop. I^ot the least sad of
the stories connected with it relate to men of high de-
gree^ for, in the kaleidoscopic changes of political
affairs in the Philippines no man knew where the
morrow might find him.
Jose Torralba, who had served as acting-Governor
for a term of two years, was confined in the Fortress
on a charge of embezzling the public funds. The
investigation and trial moved with the customary
Spanish tardiness, and seventeen years elapsed before
sentence was finally pronounced. It included ban-
ishment, but, as the old man was then verging upon
the grave, he was permitted to remain and beg his
bread in the City over which he had ruled. Torralba
died in 1736 in the Hospitals of San Juan de Dios,
over against the eastern ramparts.
Hurtado de Corcuera, who governed from 1635
to 1644, suffered five years' confinement at the insti-
gation of the ecclesiastics. In the end, however, he
was fortunate enough to regain the royal favor and
to receive the governorship of the Canaries.
'Not so happily did the quarrel of another governor
408 THE PHILIPHNES
with, the Church terminate. Diego Salcedo was seized
by the agents of the Inquisition in the Palace and
thrown into a dungeon in the Fortress, where for
many years he suffered cruel treatment. Death came
as a welcome release on board a galleon which was
bearing him a prisoner to Mexico,
In 1751 Sultan Muhammad Ali Mudin of Sulu,
his brother, sister, and four daughters, together with
about two hundred retainers, who had mistakenly con-
fided in the honor of the Spanish authorities, were
imprisoned in Santiago, and there Prince Asin, the
Sultan's brother, died.
The citadel is the oldest portion of Manila. It is
said that parts of it date from the foundation of
the City. Its walls are enormously thick and, until
recent years, were able to defy the heaviest artillery
that could be brought against them. The old Port
has seen the City swept by cyclones, shaken by earth-
quakes, devoured by fire, sacked by invaders, in the
grip of pestilence, and, finally, in the possession of
a foreign people. Strangest fortune of all, its subter-
ranean dungeons have been condemned to desuetude.
OLD MAKILA. UNSANITARY^ LIKE MOST SPANISH CITIES.
Manila Intramuros is occupied mainly by the old
government buildings and those belonging to the
monastic orders. In the shadows of these, huddle
miserable native hovels in dense disorder. The
streets, laid out at right angles, are wide enough for
OLD MANILA. 409
the requirements of the moderate traffic, but the
sidewalks, overhung by the upper stories of the
houses, are inconveniently narrow.
Old Manila has always been a fearfully unsanitary
place. It has never had any kind of sewerage system.
A description of the private arrangements of resi-
dences is not fit to print. The drainage of houses
passed into the river, the streets, and the moat. The
moat long since became such a sink of fetid refuse
that it was rightfully decided that to disturb it would
be to court an outbreak of pestilence. The American
administration is disposing of this long-standing
menace to health by filling it up and converting it
into flower beds.
The walls of the City, which were erected in the
time of Governor Dasmarinas, are more than two
miles in extent. Along the ramparts are mediaeval
cannon, that long since ceased to be of any value,
save as curiosities. There are eight gates with draw-
bridges and portcullises. Until 1854 the gates were
closed at eleven o'clock every night, when the clumsy
drawbridges were raised.
Manila Intramuros presents the most perfect type
extant of the old-time Walled City. The walls long
ago ceased to serve any useful purpose, whilst they
have deprived the inhabitants of much-needed fresh
air. However, perhaps antiquarian motives should
be sufficiently strong to preserve these old relics of
Spanish sovereignty, which were constructed in 1590
410 THE PHILIPPINES.
upon the site selected by Lopez de Legaspi. There
is the most striking contrast between old and new
Manila. The former suggests a drow^sy and decrepit
grandsire persisting in the garb and habits of his
youth. It has no business, aside from a few retail
shops ; no places of amusement, comparatively few
residences, and nothing of the life and bustle of the
modern City.
BIlSrONDO^ THE BUSINESS QUARTER.
Binondo, which lies on the right bank of the Pasig,
exactly opposite the Walled City, is the business quar-
ter. Here the streets are alive with hurrying vehicles
and more leisurely humanity. The chief business
street is the Escolta, whose shops compare favorably
with those of other Eastern cities. The majority of
owners are Europeans, Americans, or mestizos. The
Chinese shops, which are rarely patronized by the
,white population, are in the Rosario. They are
small, insignificant-looking places, but many of the
proprietors are said to be extremely wealthy.
During the old regime what signs of enterprise
could be seen in Manila were limited to this side of
the river. The Spanish ofiicial, whose stay was uncer-
tain, and seldom extended over more than a few
years, displayed no interest in improvements, and
hardly an ordinary regard for his own comfort. His
sole idea was to accumulate as much money as possi-
ble and to return to the ^'peninsula." The foreign
BINONDO, THE BUSINESS QUARTER. 411
merchants, on the other hand, many of whom have
been in the country for from ten to twenty years,
encourage measures for public benefit and the im-
provement of the City, build for themselves handsome
houses and beautify their surroundings.
Cigar-making is the principal manufacturing in-
dustry of the City. Some of the factories are very
large and employ two thousand and more workers.
There are in Manila twenty thousand cigarmakers,
ninety per cent, of whom are women and girls, and
a large proportion of these mestizas of Chinese
extraction.
The public vehicles are of three classes. The con-
veyance patronized by the whites, and the well-to-do
mestizos is the carruage, on the Victoria pattern and
drawn by two ponies. The quelis is a small, square
box-like vehicle on two wheels with seats inside for
four passengers. It does not require much room,
and has a commendable facility for dodging through
crowded thoroughfares. The caromata is the native
conveyance. It is merely a frame with a low rail
round it and board seats along the sides, but its car-
rying capacity is only limited by its superficial
area. The driver sits upon the forward edge, or
squats inside, with his fares.
Before the American occupation a one-horse tram-
way, with cars of the ''bobtail" variety, was the sole
means of ''rapid" transportation through the most
frequented sections. An up-to-date electric street
412 THE PHILIPPINES.
railway has taken its place and bids fair to put most
of the hack-drivers out of business.
COSTUMES OF THE CITIZENS.
The whites wear the usual costume of the tropics,
consisting of a suit of white duck, or linen, with
jacket buttoning to the throat and a pith helmet or
Terai hat.
Some natives, and many mestizos, dress in a sim-
ilar manner, but their garb in general is limited
to a pair of trousers, often rolled up to the knees, and
a shirt tout expose. A derby hat is a common
addition.
The mestizay and better class of native women,
affect a rather stiff, but not altogether unbecoming, at-
tire. Over a chemise is worn a thin and transparent
camisa, open at the neck and with voluminous sleeves,
flowing loose from the shoulders. Over this a stiff
kerchief is fastened. The skirt is usually colored and
patterned, with a long train. On the street the tapis,
a piece of dark glossy cloth, is wrapped around the
limbs from the waist to the knees. The materials
are more or less expensive, pina being used by those
who can afford it. Upon the feet slippers are worn.
The hair is drawn back from the forehead and knotted
Japanese fashion, or allowed to fall loose. It is
always well kept and generally very long and beau-
tiful.
The native children are almost invariably bare-
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[413]
414 THE PHILIPPINES.
legged and bareheaded, with the occasional exception
of some enterprising urchin who has managed to
acquire the cast-off headgear of a European and
wears it with uncomfortable pride. The boys wear
short white cotton breeches and a shirt of the same
material. The tails of the Filipino shirt are always
left free to the breeze. The girls have long skirts,
knot their hair, and look like their mothers in
miniature.
The Chinaman adheres to the costume of his native
land, but his women — and he may have one or more
native concubines in addition to a wife of his race —
usually adopt the Filipino dress. The Chinaman is
almost invariably a good father to his half-breed
children. They are well taken care of, are initiated
into the father's business, or taught some other, and
both girls and boys, with few exceptions, get along
comfortably in after life.
VARIOUS RACES IN THE METROPOLIS.
By far the majority of Chinese in Manila are
coolies, and it is safe to say that they are the most
hard-working class in the community. The mechan-
ical industries are mainly in the hands of these
remarkably adaptable people, who can apply them-
selves to any work, hoAvever unaccustomed, and do
it remarkably well. It is questionable w^hether any
people in the world can compete with the Mongol
in manual labor, and the Filipino is certainly no
VARIOUS RACES IN THE METROPOLIS. 415
match for him. The Chinaman is capable of working
sixteen hours in the day continuously, and his intelli-
gence is of a higher order than is generally suspected.
But for the repressive measures that have always been
in force in the Philippines the Chinese would have
practically owned the country years ago.
The Spanish half-breeds are a numerous and influ-
ential class. They are the intellectual superiors of
the full-blooded natives, and have the advantage of
them in the matter of education. Many of these
mestizos are well-to-do and some of them wealthy.
When their circumstances will permit they are accus-
tomed to send their sons to college in Europe, where
they almost invariably prove apt pupils.
The mestizos act as middlemen between the plant-
ers and the European representatives of the export
houses, and in this capacity accumulate a great deal
of money. Upon them the larger cultivators depend
for the capital with which to carry on their operations.
The planter ahvays pays an exorbitant rate for his
loans, sometimes as much as fifty per cent.
These half-breeds, like all Eurasians, occupy an
equivocal position in the community. They are con-
stantly striving to disassociate themselves from their
native connections and to secure the consideration
enjoyed by the superior race. Everywhere in the
East the Eurasian displays the same petty traits of
sycophancy, quervilons discontent, disingenuousness,
and inordinate conceit. If this element does not
416 THE PHILIPPINES.
prove troublesome to the American administration it
^yill only be because the recognition accorded to them
is flattering to their self-esteem and because of a
realization that under a native government their lot
would be a less happy one.
THE SUBUIiBA^ EESIDEXTIAL SECTIONS.
The white population live for the most part in
the attractive sections of Ermita and Malate, along
the sea-front, south of the Walled City, and in San
Miguel on the northern bank of the River. The
last-named suburb, which is reached by the Ayala
Bridge, contains several very handsome houses stand-
ing in attractive gardens. The lower of the two
stories of residences is much more solidly constructed
than the upper. All the living rooms are above, the
ground floor being given over to servants' quarters,
store-rooms, and similar purposes. The outer walls,
of the second story are fitted with sliding frames,
in which are set small squares of translucent oyster
shell, the common substitute for glass in Manila.
This arrangement permits of the interior of the house
being thrown wide open to the air in the evening.
Plaster is dispensed with for the same reason that
prohibits the use of glass. The walls are white-
washed and the ceiling is of canvas. Hardwood is
employed for beams, posts, floors, and the rest, and
carpets and upholstery are conspicuous by their
absence.
SUBURBAN RESIDENTIAL SECTIONS. 417
Life in Manila is very much like that in an East
Indian city, Calcutta, for instance. The business of
the day over, the entire white population repairs to
the Luneta, which is to Manila what the Esplanade
is to Calcutta, or the Marina to Madras. Upon an
oval grass promenade the band plays every evening,
whilst carriages circle round in one direction, the
Governor-General and Archbishop only, having been
allowed to drive in the other. Everyone owns a pri-
vate Victoria or barouche, to which two of the country
horses are driven. Many of the turnouts with their
liveried cocheros are quite smart.
There are few public amusements, and those not
of a very high order. There is plenty of good music.
The Filipino has his full share of the universal
Malay taste in this direction, but his talent rarely
rises above mediocre. However, native bands and
orchestras give excellent renderings of marches and
dance music, which generally answer all the demands
of their audiences.
Bull-fights and combats between various ^'wild'^
beasts used to be given, but they were generally
fiascos on account of the lack of combative qualities
displayed by the brutes engaged in them. There is
a jockey club in the City, which holds meetings
twice a year, members only being permitted to ride.
The Philippine ^'pony'' is in reality an undersized
horse, for in no respect, but its height, does it resem-
ble the pony breed. These animals are said to be
27
418 THE PHILIPPINES.
derived from Mexican horses, introduced by the
Spaniards in the sixteenth century. They are good-
looking beasts, remarkably strong, and, Avith training,
capable of developing great speed. It is claimed that
the mile has been done in two minutes and ten sec-
onds on the Santa Mesa race-course by a native pony
carrying one hundred and fifty pounds.
COCK-riGIITIXG THE XATIOXAL SPOET.
The national sport of the Filipinos is cock-fighting.
There are in and about Manila upwards of one hun-
dred buildings containing cockpits, some of them
capable of holding more than five thousand people,
and every barrio in the provinces has its arena.
Aside from the sport, cock-fighting affords a con-
venient medium for gratifying the Filipino passion
for gambling. Every native owns a bird, which he
carries about with him tucked under his arm or
perched upon his shoulder. It is no uncommon
thing for two men meeting, thus provided for a fight,
to squat in the roadway and set their champions at
each other.
This pastime was under government regulation.
Sundays and feast days, and in Manila Thursdays
besides, were the legalized occasions for gallinacean
combats. At these times every native who can com-
mand the price of admission betakes him to the near-
est cockpit, and if he has the wherewithal to make a
wager he is a happy man. The licenses for conduct-
COCK-FIGHTING THE NATIONAL SPORT. 419
iiig cock-figlits produced a considerable revenue to
the Spanish Government, which derived income from
various other forms of gambling. The privilege for
a certain section was put up to the highest bidder,
who had the right to prevent any one else from engag-
ing in the business within the limits of the district
assigned to him.
The building containing the pit is surrounded by a
high wall or fence, forming a courtyard in which
the birds are kept awaiting their turns to fight.
Within, the arena is surrounded by circular tiers of
seats. The o^vners of the contending cocks bring
them into the ring and display them, each armed with
a single long steel spur sharpened to a razor-edge.
Whilst the birds are thus being subjected to the
inspection and criticism of the spectators bookmakers
are circulating about taking bets. Although the in-
dividual wagers seldom exceed a few dollars, large
sums in the aggregate frequently change hands on
the results of these flukey fights.
The contest is usually over in two or three min-
utes, for one or other of the birds is likely to be
quickly killed or disabled, or to turn tail, which is
recognized as the most ignominious defeat. During
the set-to the spectators maintain the utmost silence
save for muttered exclamations at some critical mo-
ment. Their craned necks and tense expression pro-
claim the keen excitement, to which they give vent
in shouts when a decision is announced. As bets
420 THE PHILIPPINES.
are settled immediately after each event and all the
currency is coin, the hubbub at the termination of
a bout is pleasingly toned down by the musical jingle
of money.
Chance seems to be by far the most important
factor in these cock-fights, although that opinion is
not generally entertained by the natives. The fi.rst
blov7, if it happens to fall on the head or neck, is
calculated to place the recipient hors de combat. Of
course a quick and plucky game fowl is likely to beat
an opponent that lacks these qualities, but luck on the
other side may easily bring about a contrary result.
There is no denying that the Filipino loves his game-
cock, but perhaps it is exaggeration to assert, as has
often been done, that it holds the first place in his
affections, and that in case of his dwelling taking fire
he will convey his prized bird to a place of safety be-
fore looking after his wife and children.
THE EEFOEMATIOI^ OF MANILA.
Manila is rapidly undergoing transformation. In-
tramuros defies any great changes in its condition,
and, beyond relieving its unsanitary state, perhaps lit-
tle can be done to it, but the modern City is in course
of complete reformation. The traveler experiences
it before he has cleared the custom house, and evi-
dences of it present themselves at every turn in the
streets.
During 1904 nearly four millions were expended
THE REFORMATION OF MANILA. 421
in local improvements by the Government, not to
mention the large sums invested by corporations in
enterprises of public utility. Twenty-five miles of
streets have been widened and paved, macadamized
roads have been laid to all the suburbs. Thirty-five
miles of electric railroad are in operation, and ten
more will shortly be added. Many handsome public
buildings have been erected, and others are in process
of construction. Amongst these are a number of
model school-houses, the first of the kind to be erected
in the East. A special commission of American
architects visited the Philippines in the Spring of
1905 for the purpose of planning a system of parks,
boulevards, and government edifices which, when
completed, will make Manila one of the most beautiful
cities in the w^orld.^
An extensive system of sewerage, sufiicient for
double the present population of two hundred and
twenty thousand, is now being laid at an expense of
over three million dollars. The accumulated filth
of centuries has been removed, and the streets are
* The Commission, which was composed of Messrs. D. H.
Burnham and Peirce Anderson, also planned the proposed
city of Baguio, in the mountains of Benguet. It is very
much regretted that the drawings of these plans, for which
the writer is indebted to the courtesy of Mr, Burnham, could
not be reproduced without a loss of detail, which would
have marred the effect. The portion of the plan of Manila
showing the improvements on the water front has been
redrawn.
422 THE PHILIPPINES.
now cleaned with daily regularity. The result of
these measures of sanitation is already seen in the
recorded bill of health of Manila which compares
favorably with that of large cities the Avorld over,
and is better than that of large centres on the con-
tinent of Asia. Crematories for the destruction of
garbage are in operation, and the water supply is
being enlarged and improved.
Manila's fire department is the wonder of the
Orient. Even the Japanese, who have for years con-
sidered that they had nothing to learn in their own
quarter of the globe, send their fire officials over to
Manila to study the system. Formerly the City was at
the mercy of a few antiquated hand engines, manned
by natives and captained by an officer without any
experience. The Insular Government secured the
services of Chief Bonner, of Xew York, and fur-
nished him liberally with the most modern equip-
ment. ISTow the alarm of a fire in Manila is responded
to with the snap and vim customary in an American
city.
Manila presents the unique spectacle of white
men working with unimpaired energy in the tropics
to convert a sloth-ridden city into a model for all
the governments of the East.
THE COMMERCIAL DESTINY OF MANILA.
These efforts, tending to promote the health, edu-
cation and material betterment of the people, are not
Primitive Transportation.
The new order of things and the old exist side by
side. In sight of telephone wires, electric lights, and
street-railway tracks the native rides his oarabao on
one of the principal streets of Manila.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & TTndcrwood. New York.
COMMERCIAL DESTINY OF MANILA. 423
inconsistent with the view that in its commercial pos-
sibilities lies the chief importance of the Archipelago.
Indeed, no factor is more surely calculated to further
the humanitarian projects of the administration than
the development of internal industries and the expan-
sion of the trade of the islands. Manila occupies a
commanding position with reference to the traffic of
the mainland of Asia, the Malay Peninsula, and
the islands of Indonesia. With the opening of the
Panama Canal^ the trade route between the Atlantic
ports of America and Oriental points will be entirely
changed and much of the freight which is now borne
from Europe by way of the Suez Canal and the
Cape to the same destinations may be expected to take
the Pacific course, not solely from motives of econ-
omy, but also because the present route through the
Indian Ocean, the Strait of Malacca, and the China
Sea, entails great difficulties and dangers of naviga-
tion at certain seasons of the year. Under such con-
ditions much, if not most, of the collecting and dis-
tributing trade of Hongkong would naturally accrue
to Manila, w^hich would then lie in the main route
of Eurasian traffic.
Within easy reach of the Philippines is more than
half of the people of the globe. China has a popula-
tion of 400,000,000; the East Indies, including the
possessions of Great Britain, France, and Holland,
approximate 350,000,000; Japan has 42,000,000;
Australasia, 5,000,000; Siam, 5,000,000, and the
424 THE PHILIPPINES.
Straits Settlements, 600,000, a total in excess of
800,000,000.
A great number of these people are not at present
within the zones of the world's traffic, but large
areas, formerly remote, are being constantly brought
into trade relations with other countries by the open-
ing up of systems of transportation. This applies
with force to China, whose vast inland territory has
been tapped in various directions by new railroads
during recent years, whilst projects for extensions,
involving several thousand miles, are either on foot,
or under consideration. China is in process of com-
mercial regeneration and her closer relations with
Japan will surely give a great impetus to the devel-
opment of the country.
China was the first customer of the Philippines,
and has always been one of the best. She can already
use more of the products of the Archipelago than she
is receiving, and, with the increase of her necessities,
she will find no more convenient or economical market
in which to buy many of her staple commodities.
Her capacity for the consumption of Philippine lum-
ber will doubtless continue to exceed the ability to
meet it. Her increasing demand for sugar will find
a response from the islands. She will need coal and
Manila hemp as her industries develop and, in a few
years, it is probable that the Philippines will be in
a position to supply her with considerable quantities
of dress-stuffs and yarns. On the other hand, the
[425]
426 THE PHILIPPINES.
population of the Philippine Islands, as they convert
ever-increasing areas of paddy-land to more profit-
able uses, will look to China for greater quantities
of rice.
The commerce, export and import, exclusive of
bullion, of the countries neighboring the Philippines,
exceeds two thousand million dollars a year, about
equally divided between outsend and intake. ]^ext to
Great Britain, the United States already has the
largest part of this commerce.
OTHEE POKTS WILL SHAKE THE FORTUI^ES OF THE
CAPITAL.
The problem confronting the islands is how to de-
velop their resources so as to be able to secure a great
share of this trade. There are ready markets near
at hand, and a constant demand in these markets
for many million dollars worth of raw and manufac-
tured goods that might be produced in the Archi-
pelago under conditions that would enable, its shippers
successfully to meet any competition. There will
never be lack of customers for the produce when it is
put upon the market. The economic principles in-
volved in the situation are so pronouncedly in favor
of the growth of the Philippines into one of the
richest industrial territories in the East that such a
consummation is only a matter of time.
The development of other ports will be coincident
with the commercial expansion of Manila. Iloilo
FORTUNES OF THE CAPITAL. 427
is rapidly rising to the rank of a shipping centre
of the first importance. With the adequate exploita-
tion of the rich Cagayan Valley, Aparri Avill become
a flourishing port. Before many years have passed
some point on the Pacific coast of Luzon will receive
a considerable proportion of the freight from the
eastward and will tranship it to Manila by rail.
LUZON.
A Humble Home.
These nipa huts are exceeding cool and comfortable;
Not a nail is used in their construction and the nearby
forest supplies all the necessary material.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
XI.
LUZON.
Travel by Water in the Philippines — Filipino Hospitality is
Inexhaustible— Home Life of the Tagals— A Filipino
Wedding— The Religious Bond Not Very Strong— The
Simple Life in the Philippines — Tho Inevitable Carabao
^Some of the Characteristics of the Filipino Peasant —
They Have Their Superstitions Like All People — A
Typical Village Fiesta — A Planter's Home — A Never-
Failing Source of Entertainment — The Principal Feature
of the Feast — Native Pantomime Dances — The Moro-
Moro Play.
Travel in the Philippines is quite haphazard as to
its methods, but it has all the charm of variety and
novelty to the native of a western clime. There is no
occasion for time-tables nor for making prearrange-
ments except of the most general character. At each
point the manner of proceeding to the next will be
determined by the conditions of the moment. But,
despite the lack of regular lines of communication
between any but the centres, the difficulty in travel
to even remote parts is not so great as to deter
any healthy man, and the mishaps and adventures
that must always attend journeys in an undeveloped
country are such as to lend zest to the undertaking.
TEAVEL BY WATER IN THE PHILIPPINES.
The physical character of Luzon makes transporta-
tion by water one of the most convenient and ready
(431 )
432 THE PHILIPPINES.
means of getting from place to place, and the absence
of roads, or the badness of them, in some sections
compels the traveler to make a detour by sea, or to
take to the river. In a few instances a coasting
steamer will be available, but more often the native
sailing craft must be resorted to, and the experience
is one that should not be missed. Worcester"^ recites
the incidents of such a voyage, which afforded him
unusual opportunity of learning something of the
vagaries of wind and water in these seas and of
observing the remarkable seamanship of the Malay
navigators.
''At half-past two we got off, with a fresh breeze
blowing from the north. When we were about five
miles out it suddenly veered toward the east, at the
same time increasing in strength until things began
to look ugly. The sky darkened and to the south of
us we could see a mighty waterspout marching
grandly along.
''We had a good, staunch boat, with strong bamboo
outriggers, but the wind was dead abeam and the
sea rising rapidly. Our men handled their craft
with wonderful skill. When she began to keel over
dangerously, instead of reefing sails or changing the
course, they sent one of their number to windward
to sit on the outrigger. As the wind increased in
violence, a second, then a third, and, finally, a
* The Philippine Islands, Dean C. Worcester, New York,
1899.
LUZON. 433
f ourtli man walked out on the centre crosspiece, hold-
ing to the stays of the mainmast. Two of the crew
sat astride the outrigger while the others stood close
to it, keeping the boat on a fairly even keel. We
should have done very well had the wind held steady,
but it began to come in sudden puffs and squalls.
The men watched it closely, running further out as
a squall bore down on us and hurrying in when the
wind slackened ; but with all their remarkable skill
they made an occasional miscalculation, bringing the
outrigger down just in time to cut the top off a wave
and send it flying inboard. The position of the men
who were balancing the boat soon became precarious.
One moment they were six feet above the water and
the next up to their necks in it. We feared they
might be washed away, but they hung on grimly with
their teeth chattering.
^^Our sail was old and rotten, and the strain finally
proved too much for it. There came a sharp report
and it burst through the middle. In five minutes it
was blown to ribbons, and we were drifting at the
mercy of the waves. For some time all hands bailed
for dear life, but the water gained on us steadily, and
it looked as if we were bound to fill and lie disabled
until the outriggers were carried away, when we
should inevitably go to the bottom.
^'Two of the men suddenly stopped bailing and
began to overhaul the cargo. To our amazement they
unearthed a ncAV sail which by chance they had
28
434 THE PHILIPPINES.
undertaken to carry over to a friend. Hotv they man-
aged to rig it I could never see. The boat was pitch-
ing and tossing like a mad thing, and I thought the
man who climbed the mast would be thrown over-
board, if indeed the mast itself did not go with him.
I was too busy to pay much attention to anything but
the bailing, however, for the fuller the boat got the
faster she filled. It was touch-and-go business, and
for a time it seemed as if we should be awash before
they could get the sail up; but they won out at the
finish. We all drew a long breath when at last the
boat began to draw ahead again."
FILIPIl^O HOSPITALITY IS INEXHAUSTIBLE.
Inland, a river boat will sometimes be the most
expeditious mode of conveyance, but most often the
traveler finds the native pony, or cart, best adapted to
his requirements. In the rains many roads are im-
passable except by carabao, and in order to cover
them one may be put to riding that ungainly quad-
ruped, as the natives commonly do.
The tribunal, or town hall, is designed to accommo-
date the wayfarer, but every Filipino who has a roof
over his head and a measure of rice is a prospective
host. The hospitality of the Tagal is unsurpass-
able and inexhaustible. The white man will find a
ready welcome at the house of the capitan, or some
well-to-do planter. In an out-of-the-way hamlet,
where the people are all in modest circumstances, his
HOME LIFE OF THE TAGALS. 435
quarters may be less pretentious and his fare sim-
ple, but the one will be clean and comfortable and
the other the best his peasant entertainer can afford.
He comes without warning and leaves when he
pleases. All that his host has, or can procure for
his comfort or pleasure, are eagerly offered. The
head of the establishment will cheerfully neglect his
own affairs to attend to those of his guest, at whose
service he places all the men, animals and material
on the estate.
HOME LIFE OF THE TAGALS.
The family life of the Tagals, who predominate
in Luzon, is exemplary. The man treats his wife
with respect and kindness, and brings his children up
in a manner that might afford a pattern to many an
American father. They are obedient and civil to
their elders, obliging to strangers, without anticipation
of reward, and willing to do their share of any work
that may be going forward. The women are indus-
trious and perform a great deal of the labor in the
fields and about the house. They prepare the meals,
hull the rice, and work the looms. It may chance
that the household has a helper in the form of a
catipado, that is a young man without means, who,
aspiring to the hand of one of the daughters of the
family, is required, in lieu of dower, to serve his
prospective father-in-law for a period, which may be
as long as two or three years. Thus, courtship among
436 THE PHILIPPINES.
tlie Tagals is not the light and airy matter it is
with us. On the other hand, the arrangement is not
viewed hy the youth in the light of a hardship, for
he is constantly in the company of the young girl,
and is permitted to assist her in the domestic tasks.
During the term of probation the swain is very care-
ful to give satisfaction to the father and to avoid
incurring the- displeasure of any member of the
family, for he is liable to be dismissed otherwise,
and to see another suitor take his place. The prac-
tice gives easy opportunity to a calculating and un-
scrupulous parent to trade on his daughter's charms,
but it appears that such abuse of confidence is not
frequent. The young couple sometimes force a re-
luctant father's hand by anticipating the privilege of
matrimony, but in such case the favored youth never
seeks to avoid a permanent alliance with his
inamorata.
In the tropics puberty is reached at a period
which we consider childhood, and natives of the
Philippines marry early, the bride often being no
more than twelve years old. The marriage ceremony
is the occasion of great display and outlay, the ex-
pense frequently leaving the interested parties in
debt for a year or two. The priest sets the day and
exacts a generous fee, according to his idea of the
means of the contracting families.
As evening approaches a procession of relatives
and friends leaves the house of the bride's father for
A FILIPINO WEDDING. 437
the church, where the usual service is performed. On
leaving the building a plate of coins is presented to
the groom, who takes a handful and gives them to
his wife, thus signifying his bestowal upon her of
his worldly wealth, whatever it may be. This endow-
ment is not, however, reciprocal, for a wife's goods
remain her individual possession, and her husband
cannot in any case inherit them. They accrue to the
children upon the mother's death or, failing issue,
revert to her parents.
The ceremony at the church is followed by a feast
at the residence of the groom's father. This feast,
called the catapusan, or assembly of friends, is always
a sumptuous affair. The relatives of both the yovmg
people are present, and all the notables of the village
are invited. Of course this includes the ciira, who
is the guest of honor, no matter who else may be
there.
Eoast pig is an invariable feature of these ban-
quets, but the table is loaded with everything obtain-
able in the form of viands, including many delicacies
which the good folks can only afford to indulge in
upon such extraordinary occasions. The beverages
are wines and chocolate, sometimes reinforced with
imported beer and European spirits. It goes with-
out saying that cigars and cigarettes are supplied in
abundance, and betel-nut, or huyo, is also provided.
After the feast the padre, who is usually a man of
tact, goes home or takes a nap in some secluded
438 THE PHILIPPINES.
corner, whilst tlie young people dance and give free
vent to their high spirits.
The newly-married couple live with the parents
of one or the other for some time, and perhaps
permanently.
If the contracting families are in easy circum-
stances the preliminaries to a marriage include a
great deal of dickering hetween the respective fathers
on the subject of dowry before the matter can be
satisfactorily arranged.
THE RELIGIOUS BOND NOT VERY STRONG.
These ''children of the country^' are as happy and
contented as any people in the world. They take
life lightly and accept its vicissitudes with admirable
philosophy. They are a nation of Mark Tapleys.
^N'othing can disturb their equanimity seriously or
for long. Even their religion, which appeals to their
natural love of show and superstition, has no deep
hold upon them. As Reclus says, ''the Roman Cath-
olic religion is for them little more than a succes-
sion of festive amusements. Troubling themselves
little about dogma, they display extraordinary zeal
in the celebration of the pompous rites of the Roman
liturgy, and a great part of their existence is thus
passed in the observance of practices not greatly dif-
fering from those of their primitive cult.
"A domestic altar, with the images of the Madonna
and saints, successors of the ancient anitos, occupies
THE RELIGIOUS BOND NOT VERY SITIONG. 439
the place of honor in every household, and the hum-
blest hamlet has its special feast, during which these
sacred images, draped in embroidered silks and
crowTied with chaplets of flowers, are borne at the
head of brilliant processions. The churches, built in
the Spanish ^Jesuit' style, are similarly decorated
with rich hangings, bannerols, and floral festoons,
while every village has its band of musicians, who
accompany the religious ceremonies with a flourish of
trombones and cymbals. Actors also are frequently
engaged to perform the 'mysteries' and to play come-
dies, in w^hich the sacred and profane are strangely
intermingled, the feast days kept in honor of the
saints usually winding up with a grand display of
fireworks.''
INFLTJEH^CE OF THE CTJKA,
Tlie cura, especially if a Spaniard, is the most
influential person in the district, and to him the
"Capitan" applies for advice on all serious occasions.
On him, more than iipon troops, or any other medium,
the Government depended for the submission of the
converted natives. But the increasing relations w^ith
the outer world, the spread of education, the diffusion
of secular literature, the dissemination of the Spanish
language, all tended to bring about a new order of
things, under which the Filipinos, with increased ten-
dency to rise to European standards, were bound to
gain in independence and moral freedom.
440 THE PHILIPPINES.
The wants of the Filipino are few and easily
supplied. That he is satisfied to toil only to the
extent sufficient to meet the requirements of his
simple life is to us, victims of a turgescent material
civilization, a crime. At least the Filipino has the
ethic philosophy of the Stoics on his side. We are
prone to prate about the virtue of labor, but we do
not toil for the pleasure we find in it. Motive is the
impelling power, and it is in the result, or its antici-
pation, that the pleasure lies. Love of labor is not a
natural characteristic of the human, or any other
species of animal, else the author of Genesis was
sadly astray in his picture of the ideal condition of
man and his conclusion that the greatest curse that
could be inflicted upon him was the condemnation to
gain his bread by the sweat of his brow.
THE SIMPLE I.IFE IN THE PHILIPPINES.
The Filipino is much nearer to !N^ature in his
mental and physical condition than ourselves, and
it is absurd to judge him by our standards. Give him
an adequate incentive and he will probably prove
that he can work with the best of us. As a matter of
fact he is very far from being the shiftless loiterer
that has been depicted to us by uncultivated observ-
ers. The discerning visitor to the Philippines, who
has heard so much of the slothful helplessness of
the natives, will be surprised by the evidences of
voluntary industry upon every hand. He will see
THE INEVITABLE CARABAO. 441
men, women, and children working hard and in-
telligently, and with the cheeriness which is never
present in the sluggard. In order to follow the course
of a day's labor he will have to rise with the sun,
and, although he retires from the mid-day heat, he
must follow the villagers into their fields again with
the comparative cool of the evening.
THE INEVITABLE CARABAO.
The carahao is an ever-prominent object in these
scenes. He is indispensable to the peasant farmer,
and even with the introduction of modern methods
would still remain one of the most important factors
in the agricultural economy of the country. He
draws the plough, and drags the cart, and renders
himself useful in many other ways.
The carahao, or water-buffalo, is an amphibious
animal. In his wild state he spends at least half
his time in the water, and in domesticity the inclina-
tion to do so remains, although the opportunity is
curtailed. However, a considerable amount of in-
dulgence in this direction is necessary to his health.
A carahao will stand motionless in the water for
hours, if undisturbed, with just the tip of his nose
protruding. This placid enjoyment is varied by nuz-
zling in the soft bottom for certain tender roots and
grass that appeal to his appetite. In this sub-
aqueous search he can keep his head below the sur-
face for two or three minutes. A mud-bath he must
442 THE PHILIPPINES.
have once a day, and lie will take one as often as
chance favors. He will lie down in the sticky sub-
stance and roll about ponderously until his body is
entirely covered with it. There is a distinct method
in this apparent madness, for [N^ature furnishes the
adult carahao with little more hair than she gives to
the new-born human baby, and the quadruped would
be the easiest of prey to stinging insects but for
the coat of clay with which he makes up for his
natural deficiency.
The carahao is a nondescript beast. He has a head
nearly as slim as that of an antelope, with horns that
lie back along his neck. His trunk is almost as
bulky as that of a hippopotamus and is supported
by disproportionately-slender legs. His appearance
is absurdly stupid, as he solemnly wags his head from
side to side and looks upon the world with the in-
different and inane expression of a Chinese idol. The
carahao is the family pet, and so docile are these
creatures in a domestic state that they learn the
voices of their masters and other members of the
household and come to their call or act in answer
to their command. The children ride upon their
broad backs, often two or three at a time, and guide
them with the string attached to the nose.
The never-absent companion of the carahao in the
field is a small black bird of the martin species, which
perches upon the beast's head and picks from its ears
vermin that gather there. The writer has noticed
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEASANT. 443
this bird-and-beast combination everywhere in the
East that the water-buffalo is found. Following the
animal in his progress through the tilth is usually a
procession of four or five white herons which find an
easily-provided meal in the insects that are turned
up wdth the soil.
It may readily be understood what a terrible af-
fliction was the rinderpest that overtook these useful
animals all over the country and in 1902 killed forty
per cent, of them. In many cases the peasant was
deprived at once of his chief possession and of a
creature for which he entertained a warm affection.
SOME OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FILIPINO
PEASANT.
The Filipino is naturally humane. He almost in-
variably treats lower animals well. The hack-drivers
of Manila would seem to form an exception to this
rule, but it is highly probable that their occasional
harshness toward their horses is mainly due to ignor-
ance of their nature and the consequent lack of
understanding between the two. The native knows
the carahao as the priest knows the written page, but
a similar intimacy between the Filipino and the horso
has never been established, because there has been
no opportunity for it.
. There is little real vice in the composition of the
uncontaminated native, and his faults are of an easily
condonable nature.
444 THE PHILIPPINES.
The Filipino displays in a marked degree that
cardinal virtue, cleanliness, the lack of which is so
often the chief barrier between the Oriental and the
white man. Every barrio has facilities for bathing,
and on feast days, when labor is forbidden by the
Church, the entire community — men, women and
children — disport themselves in the water. There
is no separation of the sexes, but the adults are be-
comingly clad.
'No characteristic of the Tagal is more prominently
evinced than the love of music, which is universal.
Every parish has its brass band, and sometimes, in
addition, an orchestra of stringed instruments. They
furnish the music for church services and give per-
formances wdiich are an endless source of entertain-
ment to the villagers. It is safe to say that a people
who have this taste so strikingly developed must pos-
sess better than average dispositions. In the most
out-of-the-way and unlikely places are heard the
strains of a flute, a violin, or a piano, and the labors
of the field-workers are often lightened by musical
accompaniment. It is a remarkable thing that
amongst so many creditable performers so few attain
to a high degree of ability, but perhaps that is entirely
due to the limited opportunities for education, and
with increased facilities for cultivating their musical
talent the Filipinos may give the world some virtuosi
of renown and produce their Paderewskis and their
Paganinis.
THEY HAVE THEIR SUPERSTITIONS. 445
The Tagal has the Lepcha's love of ]N'atiire in all
her manifestations, and, like the hillman of the
Himalayas, he has a vast knowledge of the habits
and conditions of birds, beasts, and reptiles.
THEY HAVE THEIK SUPERSTITIONS LIKE ALL PEOPLE.
The Tagalogs entertain a number of strange super-
stitions, from which the better educated of their num-
ber are by no means free. Belief in the amulet
called antin-antin is widespread, but the more enlight-
ened find a satisfactory substitute in the scapulary.
A native bent on gambling, or upon his way to the
cock-pit with his bird, will turn back should he
happen to encounter a funeral party. The ''nono"
are the spirits of old persons. AMien a tree is to be
felled, or a piece of virgin ground broken, and on
many other occasions, permission is asked of the
nono. Should this precaution be neglected misfor-
tune will surely ensue. The 'Higbolan^^ is a ghost
which assumes a variety of forms, and sometimes con-
fers a similar gift upon certain favored individuals,
in much the same way as the devil was wont to grant
extraordinary powers to a few of our adventuresome
forefathers. The ''asiian' is particularly dreaded by
women, for its practice is to haunt the dwellings
of the pregnant with sinister intent. The ''jmtianac'*
is. the restless soul of a child that died unbaptized.
It frequents the woods and chirps like a bird. The
'^manqcuculari* is a person possessing the power of
446 THE THILIPPINES.
causing sickness, or death, to one with whom he or
she is displeased. An individual enjoying the repu-
tation of being a mangcuculan is not pursued with
social attentions, but is treated with the utmost defer-
ence by everyone. The "iqm' is a man who has the
power of flying through the air at night, leaving the
lower half of his body at home. He is believed to
live upon a diet of human livers. In his nocturnal
journeys in search of food he alights upon the roofs
of houses and, Avith an endless thread-like tongue,
penetrates the bowels of his victim and causes his
death.
There are many superstitions connected with the
erection of a house. !N"o holes may be dug for posts
unless they be inserted before vespers of the same
day, for the hole is typical of the grave, and if it
were to be left unfilled there would be serious danger
of some member of the family dying before morning.
However, the danger may be averted by inserting
some temporary substitute for the post in the hole.
The first post set has at its base a silver coin, which
will insure the owner of the house always having
money, and so on throughout the details of the work.
Of course there are many curious beliefs connected
with the different agricultural processes. The harvest
of rice must not be gathered unless the moon is in its
first or last stage, and many a native w^ill conform
to this prohibition at the risk of losing his crop. In
order to secure immunity from the ravages of birds
THEY HAVE THEIR SUPERSTITIONS. 447
and insects, the farmer goes into the field at midnight,
preceding the day of planting, and carefully buries
a handful of seed at the foot of a cross which is placed
in the centre of the land. After the rice has been
reaped the owner of the land takes the smallest basket
he possesses and deposits in it a small sheaf of the
grain. This act tends to the success of the final pro-
cesses, but to be efficacious it must be performed when
the tide is at its highest.
Patriotism in the broadest sense cannot be expected
of a man who is utterly ignorant of the w^orld beyond
a radius of a few miles from his native village, and
who has, perhaps, but the vaguest idea of what the
''Philippines" signifies, but the Tagal is strongly at-
tached to the soil and the barrio in which he was bom.
I^owhere are community bonds happier or closer.
The inhabitants of a village ha^e the same churcli
and the same fatherly guide and adviser; they share
their pleasures and their labors ; the misfortunes of
one are those of the others ; a discordant element
rarely disturbs the peaceful round of their lives.
They are seen at their best on the occasion of a fiesta,
and no more true and vivid picture of village life
in the Philippines can be found than the following
quotation from the pen of Ramon Lala, himself a
native :*
* The Philippine Islands, Ramon Reyes Lala, New York,
1899.
448 THE PHILIPPINES.
iN^othing in tlie life of tlie people of the Philippines
is more interesting to the foreigner than the village
feasts ; nothing is more indicative of the character of
the people, Avho are exceedingly fond of ornament and
display. Every village has its own feasts, to which
all the natives in the surrounding district contribute
• — in which all alike take part.
A TYPICAL VILLAGE FIESTA.
These feasts are always of a religious character,
and are encouraged by the clergy, who find them not
only lucrative but also conducive to religious feeling.
Come with me and visit the busy morning scene of a
fiesta in a populous village near the capital. As we
enter the broad roadway, winding with serpentine
folds, among the gleaming bungalows we see every-
where signs of unusual activity ; groups of smilin*:^
natives, dressed in their Sunday best, hurry by chat-
tering gaily. Here comes a long line of carromatas
drawn by wiry ponies, driven by well-to-do planters ;
with the lofty consciousness of worldly prosperity
they sit erect in imperturbable dignity.
We join a passing group and follow them past the
low, airy houses, all decorated now with gorgeous
bunting and gay festoons. Flags and streamers flut-
ter on every housetop ; the whole village presents a
scene of picturesque animation; for the tropical lux-
uriance of the trees and the myriad flowers of gorge-
ous hue form a brilliant background.
A TYPICAL VILLAGE FIESTA. 449
We arrive at the village green and here stands a
motley assemblage constantly reinforced by the
throngs that come in by every path and roadway. An
expression of eager anticipation is on the faces of all
as they gaze in the direction of the little church that
fronts the crowded court. The church is a low, mas-
sive, white building, with large pillars in front that
give it a semi-classic appearance; it forms a curious,
but not uninteresting, contrast to the many-gabled
bungalows. The bells in the campanile begin to toll
slowly and from the midst of the crowd instantly
comes a burst of glorious music. The village band
stationed there renders effectively an operatic air as
the natives slowly enter the church. After all are
seated the priest preaches a short sermon, full of pith
and pertinent suggestion about the saint whom the
day commemorates. The audience is then dismissed
with a benediction ; and to the lively music of some
composer it files leisurely out The natives see noth-
ing incongruous in the introduction of operatic music
into divine worship. They are moved in devotion no
less by the stirring strains of one of Sousa's marches,
or a languorous waltz of Strauss, than by the solemn
Te Deum of the CathoKc ritual. To them all music
is divine.
We stop a few minutes to watch the cura — the
parish priest — as he dispenses blessings to his devout
parishioners, who now crowd round him with every
appearance of reverential affection. Our friend, the
29
450 THE PHILIPPINES.
cura, is a veritable father to his people. As he lis-
tens to the ingenuous confidences of his flock his face
beams with that rare benevolence bom of goodness ;
there is a whisper of domestic sorrow that he needs
must hear; a story of happiness, or a tale of wrong.
For each and all he has a word of kindly affection,
and as he sees us waiting near the entrance he ap-
proaches with outstretched hand and invites us to the
grand procession in the evening.
The people have dispersed and have returned to
their homes. Already the sun is high in the sky,
pouring a deluge of heat upon the landscape. From
the horizon mountain after mountain springs airily
into the heavens, their blue peaks suggesting a place
of perpetual coolness, upon which the eye loves to
linger amid the oppressive blaze of the tropic sun.
A PLAI!q^TER's HOME.
Surrounding the village are forests of majestic
trees of indescribable grandeur and of unparalleled
magnificence. Among these the white houses of the
planters nestle peacefully.
Each house has its own tiny garden, fenced in with
reeds, and forms a miniature paradise, where are
flowers of splendid hue, creepers with purple blos-
soms, red-coral blooms, and trees of palm, mango,
orange, lanzon, santol, and giant bananas whose rich
fruits in great clusters tempt the eye of the beholder.
Here the native is a petty king ; for his o^vn little do-
A PLANTER'S HOME. 451
main for nine months in the year yields sufficient for
his wants. N^ature indeed gives him a golden harvest
for only the reaping.
We have been invited to spend the day with a
well-to-do planter who, at the conclusion of the service,
has sought us out. He lives on the outskirts of the
village, and we are soon with him in his carromata
speeding over the highway.
We approach his home — a typical native dwelling ;
the body of the house is raised about six feet from
the ground, and is mounted on thick pieces of stone.
This allows the air to circulate freely beneath and
prevents the entrance of snakes and insects, and is in
every way conducive to health and comfort. We
mount the wide stairway that connects the house with
the ground and enter upon a broad open piazza fac-
ing the street, called a cahida. The sides of this are
formed of sliding windows composed of small square
panes of mother-of-pearl, opaque to the heat, but
admitting the rays of light. Here we are intro-
duced to the various members of the family, who re-
ceive us kindly and offer sugared dainties and a cigar-
ette. Beyond is a large room with walls of window
and with sliding doors. Here are some chairs and a
table covered with a handsome embroidered cloth.
Upon the walls, which are covered with cloth instead
of plaster, are various bric-a-brac artistically arranged
upon scrolls, while several engravings of religious sub-
jects and one or two family portraits hang between.
452 THE PHILIPPINES.
From the centre of the ceiling hangs a crystal
chandelier with globes of colored glass; a small
oratory, supporting the brazen image of some saint,
stands in the comer. The broad floor-planks, daily
scrubbed and polished with plantain leaves, are as
smooth and clean as a mirror.
Opening from this main room are several smaller
rooms, used as bedrooms. A narrow passageway leads
to the bathroom and to the kitchen — in a separate
building. The design of the whole domicile seems
to aim at cleanliness and coolness — both essentials
of comfort in this hot, moist climate.
The roof is thatched with 7iipa palm and the out-
side walls of bamboo — painted white and striped with
green and blue — are covered with grotesque carvings.
This, with the broad eaves and the wide balconies,
gives the house a most picturesque appearance.
We note with gratification the many signs of family
affection around us. The father, kind and consider-
ate ; the mother, sweet and sympathetic ; the children,
quiet, obedient, and well-behaved — a picture of do-
mestic happiness that is representative rather than
exceptional. After tiiiin, each retires to his own
room to enjoy the siesta; and thus we sleep soundly
through the heavy afternoon hours.
The siesta over, we venture into the village.
Through the streets are hurrying scores of men, nearly
every one with a cock under his arm ; they are going
to the cock-pit. We follow and soon we come to our
destination.
SOURCE OF ENTERTAINMENT. 453
Imagine a large bamboo building with a thatched
roof wherein hundreds of natives have gathered for
what is to them the supreme enjoyment of life.
Around the door are one or two guards in Spanish
uniform ; but everything appears so decorous and or-
derly that is is indeed difficult to realize that we are
in a gigantic gambling den. I^early every native has
with him his fighting-cock, which he loves as devot-
edly as one of his own children and upon which he
has spent much care and attention.
The ''farmer/' often a Chinaman, who has secured
a license from the Government to run a cock-pit,
stands in the middle of the ring, around him a group
of natives, excited and eager.
Two fighting-cocks, each armed with a spur three
or four inches long, are in the hands of their respective
owners. Every eye is riveted upon the respective con-
testants. The farmer, or proprietor, announces that
the contest is about to begin, and from every hand
dollars rain into the ring, each person staking a cer-
tain amount upon his favorite.
This done, all is breathless expectation, and at
the word ''Casada!'* meaning matched, and at
*' Largo P^ — Let go! — the fowls are let loose. The
fight waxes hot and furious ; the two cocks are as
pugnacious as bull-pups. But it is soon over ; for at a
well-directed thrust from the steel spur one of the
contestants lies dead.
The crier now announces the name of the victor.
454 THE PHILIPPINES.
and all the winners come down into the middle of the
ring and pick up their own stakes as well as the
amount won by the wager.
Strangers often remark how unusual it is that
amidst so much confusion and where is apparently
boundless opportunity for cheating there should be so
much honesty and good faith. However, every man
is to be trusted. I have never known but one excep-
tion— he was instantly hacked to pieces with knives.
It is night. Against the sombre gloom of the
heavens gleam millions of stars ; they, too, are a part
of the grand illumination that is to be the climax of
the whole fiesta. Again the village green in front
of the church. It is alive with the happy villagers
decked in all their finery — the men and boys in
airy colored shirts and white trousers, the women and
girls in splendid skirts and brilliant chemisettes.
THE PRINCIPAL FEATURE OF THE FEAST.
All are standing bareheaded ; the band is discours-
ing sweet music, and the people stand entranced.
ISTot a sound is heard till the tune is ended; then on
every hand arises a decorous murmur of delight.
Here comes the cura. He at once proceeds to ar-
range the procession which is the event of the feast
and to which the villagers have been looking forward
with joyous anticipation for many months. Mysteri-
ous groups are issuing from the church; these are
assigned to their respective positions by the father,
Antique Defenses.
A corner of the ramparts of Old Manila with the
Lnneta in the background. It was with these cumber-
some old muzzle-loaders that Augusti proposed to knock
Dewey^s ships to pieces.
From Stereotype Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New
PRINCIPAL FEATURE OF THE FEAST. 455
who in this, as in all else, is the master of cere-
monies. Let us, however, leave the crowd and move
a little way np the street, where before long the pro-
cession is to pass. Over the roadway, from airy
arches gaily-decorated with bunting are suspended
Chinese lanterns. On the gateways to the houses,
on all the fences that line the street, hang little fat
pots whose pale flicker, multiplied a thousand-fold,
produces a romantic effect to which the lights on the
arches and the many-colored illuminated lamps in the
windows add a subdued splendor.
We have not long to wait, for the procession hag
been speedily arranged and is already making its
way up the street, the band at the head playing an
operatic air.
Behind come the happy participants, two by two ;
men and women alternating. All carry torches whose
glow throws over their grave faces a gleam of soft
light that harmonizes well with the nature of the
occasion.
And now comes the spangled image of some old
saint borne aloft on a litter; while a murmur of ap-
plause bursts from the admiring onlookers. From
every house rockets are shot into the heavens, shower-
ing on the dusky night constellations of colored stars.
Thus saint after saint, martyr after martyr, is
majestically borne along till, near the end of the pro-
cession, appears the image of the Virgin herself,
^^decked with jewels bright and with glory crowned."
456 THE PHILIPPINES.
'Now the murmur rises to a shout of devout acclaim ;
the Queen of the festive night, Our Lady, passes on.
Thus through every street Avinds the brilliant pro-
cession under the lighted arches returning finally to
the village court whence it started. Here the priest
pronounces a benediction and with a clash of trium-
phant music the participants are dimissed.
Again we accompany our host back to his hospitable
mansion, where a generous meal has been prepared
for us. We partake heartily of the good things,
roast pig, chicken, many kinds of native fruits, and
rice. At the close cigarettes are passed round —
both men and women smoking — and we soon enter
into conversation while the new arrivals are being
served.
KATIVE PANTOMIME DANCES.
It is our host's grand reception night. A hun-
dred guests have partaken of his bounty and the
verandah and the sitting-room are crowded with
friends and neighbors — invited and uninvited ; all
are equally welcome. Cigars and cigarettes are
passed around, and now the fun begins. A girl —
a wonderfully sweet and pretty creature, with glow-
ing black eyes and long, loose black hair — advances
to the centre of the room and croons a low, plaintive
air, reminiscent of unrequited love. She accom-
panies her music with a wierd dance, impressive
through its very simplicity. Gradually her tones
NATIVE PANTOMIME DANCES. 457
grow louder, and her movements quicker, signifying
all the varying degrees of advance and refusal. Her
supple body glides in a thousand graceful curves,
each eloquent of beauty. Her pale, olive face be-
comes mantled with a rich crimsontide as she lashes
herself into a fury of passion. She feigns anger, and
stamping her pretty feet, now in petulant disdain,
now in a paroxysm of wrath, stands the incarnation
of beautiful rage. It is a picture full of tragic
power, of deep significance. She is approaching the
climax of her passion. Her voice is sharp and shrill
as it trembles with scorn and defiance. Forward and
backward her body sways with a rhythmic swing that
compels the attention of every beholder. Many in
fact accompany her every motion with the sympa-
thetic movement of unconscious imitation ; their faces
mirror the feelings of the dancer.
And now a note of triumph rings out, and the
singer's face glows with an expression of ecstacy;
while bounding forward, her splendid hair trailing in
waves of ebony, she seems transformed — the apothe-
osis of joy. Then, slowly decreasing in volume, her
voice sinks to a low whisper of serene content, and
blushing modestly at the applause, she retires to give
place to others.
Two young men and a girl now come forward and
a scene of desperate rivalry on the part of the men
and of tantalizing coquetry on the part of the maiden
is enacted. This is by means of a series of intricate
458 THE PHILIPPINES.
dance movements, no less striking than original. A
pretty tableau truly, and one not lacking in sentiment
and in spontaneous expression. A foreigner would
believe that these young natives were in terrible
earnest and that they were rehearsing a passion of
the heart. Such, indeed, is often the case, and many a
girl has, through the license of this dance, shown
her preference. Many a youth, too, has seen his hopes
blasted and his rival exalted by a dainty pirouette.
THE MORO-MOKO PLAY.
Dance after dance follows, and it is getting late.
But another entertainment is in store for us, and so
once more we venture forth into the night en route to
the village green.
Here has been erected a large booth, around which
hundreds of natives are standing, in attitudes of pro-
found attention. A moro-moro play is going on.
This is a sort of Philippine miracle-play, in which
kings, and queens, and soldiers, and various per-
sonages with Biblical names, contend together. There
is rivalry, ruin, and despair; there is death, murder,
and awful retribution. It is a tumultuous tragedy,
in which, too, are some subtle and refined elements
and a kind of gross humor, represented by the stage
fool and the lads that take the female parts. There
is, however, no coarseness — not a suggestion of it.
Love and religious persuasion and devotion mark the
greatest number of moro-moro performances, and
THE MORO-MORO PLAY. 459
while some of the plays are fairly good — not judg-
ing from too lofty a standpoint — jet, on the other
hand, it is indeed amusing to note how little in
this line, how thin a texture, pleases the people;
bombast and fury, honeyed accents and unnecessary
vicarious suffering, false and flagrant violations of
dramatic art — all alike are viewed with breathless
interest and applauded or stoically witnessed as the
occasion demands. The entire play is given in the
Tagal language.
The native spectators, indeed, enter into the action
of the play w^th, as it were, a grim earnest, as if all
their mental faculties were judging complex emo-
tions and nice situations. Nothing, indeed, in the
native character is more remarkable than its unvary-
ing decorum. Here the happy crowd has been stand-
ing for three hours agape with delight, drinking in
the rude splendors of tinsel potentates. Here, too,
they would be willing to stand for several hours
longer, but it is nearly midnight and a sudden illumi-
nation on the other side of the square announces that
the time for departure is nearly at hand.
It is seen that the villagers have constructed a
miniature castle now ablaze with fireworks. Vari-
ous designs are traced by the spreading glow, and
scores of rockets shoot into the sky, dropping a shower
of brilliant stars. Ever and anon, at some unusual
display, a murmur of applause rises from the admir-
ing throng. Entranced, they stay until the last
460 THE PHILIPPINES.
rocket has been drowned in the vast ocean of night.
Then all leave as silently as they came, and the vil-
lage square is soon deserted, while the lamps and
lanterns are allowed to burn till their glow is quenched
in the brightness of the morrow's sun.
THE VISAYAS.
A MEi>'J'iZA.
The olfspring of Spanish fathers and native mothers
are the most intellectual and well-to-do class among
the population. Their women are not behind their
Cuban sisters in the qualities oT oraee. refinement and
beauty.
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
XII.
THE VISAYAS.
Characteristics of the Visayans — Iloilo, the Capital of Panay
— Island of Guimaras — Iloilo Province and Its Indus-
tries— The Relapse of Mindoro into Wilderness — The
Sugar Fields of Negros — The Natural Beauties of Samar
— Catbalogan — The Remontados, a Reversion to a Wild
Type — Masbate, a Vast Grazing Ground — Historic Cebu —
The Holy Child of Cebu — Cebu as a Shipping Cen-
tre— Old Landmarks and Historic Sites — The Hardy
Islanders of Bohol — The Island of Siquijor — The Fate
of Delinquent Taxpayers Under Spain — Leyte.
The Visayan Islands are a very important com-
mercial division of the Philippines. Practically all
the sugar exported from the Archipelago and a large
proportion of the hemp is produced in this group.
There are many points of dissimilarity between the
Visayans and the Tagals, and they do not consider
themselves the same people, nor have they any love
for each other. The Yisayan is less intelligent than
the Tagal and has fewer attractive qualities, but
the charge of excessive indolence that is frequently
brought against him appears to have less foundation
than the equally serious one that he is a little too
prone to indulge to excess in strong drink.
CIIARACTEKISTICS OF THE VISAYANS.
'Foreman says: ^'The Visaya native^s cold hospi-
tality is much tempered with avarice or the prospects
(463)
464 THE PHILIPPINES.
of personal gain — quite a contrast to the Tagalog.
On the first visit he might admit yon to his house out
of mere curiosity to know all about you — whence you
came, why you travel, how much you possess, and
where you are going. The basis of his estimation
of a visitor is his worldly means, or if the visitor be
engaged in trade his power to facilitate his host's
schemes would bring him a certain measure of civil-
ity and complaisance. He is fond of and seeks the
patronage of Europeans of position. In manners the
Yisayo is imcouth and brusque and more conceited,
arrogant, self-reliant, ostentatious, and unpolished,
than his northern neighbor. If remonstrated with
for any fault he is quite disposed to an impertinent
retort or sullen defiance.
"The women, too, are less compliant in the South
than in the ^orth, and evince an almost incredible
avarice. They are excessively fond of ornament, and.
at feasts they appear adorned with an amount of
gaudy French jewelry which, compared with their
means, has cost them a lot of money to purchase from
the swarm of Jew peddlers who invade the villages.
"If an European calls on a well-to-do Yisayo, the
women of the family saunter off in one direction and
another to hide themselves in other rooms, unless the
visitor be well known to the family. If met by
chance, perhaps they will return a salutation, perhaps
not. They seldom indulge in a smile before stran-
gers; have no conversation; no tuition beyond music
THE VISAYAS. 465
and the lives of the Saints ; and altogether impress
the traveler with their insipidity of character, which
chimes badly with the air of disdain which they
exhibit.
^^I stayed for some months in an important Visaya
town, in the house of a European who was married
to a native woman, and was much edified by observ-
ing the visitors from the locality. The Senora, who
was somewhat pretentious in her social aspirations
amongst her own class, occasionally came to the tible
to join us at our meals, but more often preferred to
eat on the floor in her own bedroom, where she could
follow her native custom, at her ease, of eating with
her fingers."
In the main, however, the Yisayans are much like
other Filipinos. There is no great difference in
their customs, manner of living, superstitions and
mental habits.
The interior districts of many of the Visayas are
inhabited by monteses, mountain tribes living in vary-
ing conditions of barbarism. As a general thing they
are peaceable and harmless, but they retain a few
ancient customs that are apt to prove a trifle embar-
rassing to a stranger. It is their belief that the spirit
of a person who has died amongst them will not be
happy if allowed to depart in solitude to the un-
known. Consequently, and in order to avoid the ill-
Avill of the deceased, they set out immediately after
he has breathed his last to find a companion for him.
so
466 THE PHILIPPINES.
This practice is, as may easily be imagined, a great
check on sociability, and these people, instead of
forming communities, live in isolated families, each
on the qui vive to prevent another snatching from it
an unwilling traveling companion for some deceased
member.
ILOILO^ THE CAPITAL OF PAX AY.
Iloilo, on the Island of Panay, is the second city
in importance of the Philippines, and is rapidly grow-
ing as a trade centre and a shipping point. Despite
its great commerce, the city was miserably neglected
under the Spanish rule. The streets, subjected to
much heavy traffic, became worse than country roads
and were allowed to remain in that condition. The
sanitary arrangements were abominable and the light-
ing inadequate. The port transacted its enormous
business under almost incredible difficulties. Ocean
vessels could not enter the river and so were obliged
to transfer their freights by means of lighters. Coast-
ing steamers, drawing not more than thirteen feet
of water, could navigate the muddy creek, but when
they reached the city they found not even the most
ordinary accommodations for loading and discharg-
ing cargo. There were no whan^es, no cranes, not
even any regular moorings. Vessels tied up where
they pleased and got their stuff on or off-board as
best they could. Iloilo is entering upon an era of
reform as regards this and other matters.
ISLAND OF GUIMARAS. 467
The port has no light, although the erection of a
lighthouse was commenced twenty years ago and the
money for its completion has been collected by the
officials three or four times over. Ever since the first
stone of the structure was laid the authorities have
mulcted every ship that entered the harbor for light-
house dues.
ISLAND OF GUIMAKAS.
Guimaras, an island about twelve miles square and
distant but one mile from Iloilo, is a very healthy and
picturesque place, enjoying a situation involving com-
mercial possibilities that will be exploited some day.
A few of the European merchants of Iloilo have resi-
dences upon the island.
The fishing industry of Guimaras is quite im-
portant, Iloilo affording a ready and convenient mar-
ket for the take. Very little of the soil of the island
is fertile, and on that hemp, rice, corn, and tobacco
are raised. The cocoanut, however, which will flour-
ish where nothing else may grow, is plentiful, and
therein lies the future wealth of this little spot of
land. The natives do not make a commercial use of
the nut, but extract tuba from the tree which, in the
absence of capital, is perhaps the most profitable pur-
pose to which they could put it. Worcester thus de-
scribes the process of collecting the fluid: ^'Few nuts
were allowed to ripen on the trees near our house.
Many large groves produce no fruit at all. The
468 THE PHILIPPINES.
branches of the blossom-stalk are tied together into a
compact bimdle, their ends are cut off and thrust into
a hollow joint of bamboo, called a homhon. The sap
which flows abundantly from the wounds thus made
is known as tuha and is gathered morning and night.
^Notches are cut in the bark of the trees as they grow
taller and the /w&a-gatherer, who is not encumbered
with much clothing, puts his toes in them and climbs
the stem of a lofty palm as if it were a ladder. All
the palms in a grove are usually planted at one time
and remain of fairly uniform height. In many in-
stances bamboo bridges are built from tree to tree,
so that it is not necessary to climb each one.
"The fi^&a-gatherer carries on his back a large joint
of bamboo in which to put the fresh sap, a swab to
clean the homhon, in which the tuha is caught as it
flows, and a package of bitter red bark reduced to
powder. This powder is thought to improve the
flavor of the drink, often recommended for those who
are recovering from severe illness on account of its
flesh-producing properties. The fermented product
is a mild intoxicant.''
Guimaras would seem to be an ideal spot for the
commercial cultivation of the cocoanut and the pro-
duction of copra or oil. It has a pleasant climate, is
in close proximity to a labor market and a port, and
almost the entire coast of the island is paralleled by a
fine highway, connecting a number of considerable
towns.
ILOILO PROVINCE AND ITS INDUSTRIES. 469
To return to Iloilo ; it is far from being an attrac-
tive place. As has been said, the streets are in the
worst possible condition, especially after rain, but the
visitor, unless he is fortunate enough to enjoy the
use of a private vehicle, must walk, for there are no
hacks. The greatest number of vehicles are bullock-
carts engaged in carrying sugar between the ware-
houses and the river front. The public buildings
were once handsome, and the public square sightly,
but they have been neglected, and no interest seems
to be displayed in anything that is unconnected with
sugar. There are a few tolerably good shops, but
the quarters of the lower class of natives have been
allowed to invade every part of the town.
ILOILO PKOVINCE AND ITS INDUSTRIES.
The province of Iloilo, consisting of the southern
half of Panay, is the most populous in the Archi-
pelago. In former days it exported enormous quan-
tities of sugar, including a large portion of the IS^egros
output, besides a considerable amount of hemp and
other produce. In fact, the shipments of the port ex-
ceeded those of Manila. With the decline of the
sugar industry there has been a falling off of the busi-
ness, but greater attention has been paid to the culti-
vation of tobacco and the output has increased in
quantity and quality for some years past. Visayan
tobacco has such a bad name that it can find a retail
market outside the group only under an alias, and the
470 THE PHILIPPINES.
shipments from Iloilo to the Capital are made up into
the cheaper brands of ''Manihi" cigars, which sell at
the rate of three for a cent, local currency. There
is no good reason why large areas in the Yisayas
should not grow first-class tobacco under improved
methods of cultivation.
In and about Iloilo weaving is a prominent indus-
try and a large trade in textiles of various kinds is
carried on with other islands. The commoner fabrics
are made from cotton and hemp fiber, although some
very fine cloths are often woven from them. How-
ever, it is in the production of the gauzy materials
of pina and silk that the Visayan women excel. The
work is all done upon hand looms, and it is an ex-
tremely slow and tedious process, some of the material
having almost the delicate texture of spider's web.
The finished product in bright, well-harmonized colors
is strikingly beautiful. Piim and jusi fabrics are
admirably adapted for summer wear in the eastern
States of America, and they should come into use with
our ladies. Priced by the yard, the best of these pro-
ductions are rather costly, but judged as one does a
Kashmir shawl, by the amount of time and labor ex-
pended upon it, they are dirt cheap.
The almost squalid aspect of the low-lying city
upon its swamp-site, is somewhat relieved by the en-
vironment. The surrounding country is beautiful in
the extreme. On every side the heavily- wooded land
rises in gradually increasing eminences until it cul-
ILOILO rROYINCE AND ITS INDUSTRIES. 471
minates in loftj mountains in the background.
]^earbj are Jaro and Molo, picturesque little towns
where some of the Iloilo merchants have bungalows.
LOOKOUTS rOE PIEATES.
At Jaro, the Bishop of the diocese has a summer
palace and the village contains a very small, but hand-
some, cathedral. In the vicinity of Iloilo one may see
an old-time watch-tower, such as is commonly found
in or near the Visayan coast towns. These circular
stone buildings, in the form of huge pepper castors,
are reminders of the days when the islands were the
constant scenes of Moro outrages. At such seasons as
were favorable to navigation, a lookout was main-
tained day and night from these vantage points for the
dreaded pirates, and at the first appearance of their
approach the inhabitants of the town or village were
warned to take to the hills. Cattle were driven off,
if possible, and as much portable property as could
be carried was taken along, so that if sufficient time
had been allowed, there would be little left for the
Moros but to fire the houses and set sail again. But
if, as quite often happened, the inhabitants were taken
unawares, then was their fate unhappy in the ex-
treme, for the southern pirates knew no pity on
these expeditions. The village would be sacked and
the pick of the men and women would be carried
into slavery, w^hilst the remainder would be put to the
sword in sheer wanton cruelty.
472 THE PHILIPPINES.
In years gone by Mindoro was one of the most pros-
perous of the islands of the Archipelago. Large areas
were cultivated by the Tagal inhabitants, who not
only raised enough to furnish bountifully their own
needs, but helped to supply the wants of their neigh-
bors. Their extraordinary prosperity and success
were, however, the undoing of the Mindoro islanders,
whose inviting condition aroused the cupidity of the
More pirates. Time and again the island was raided,
its towns laid waste, and its able-bodied men and
young women carried into captivity. At last it be-
gan to be shunned as a place accursed and its fields
of grain reverted to wilderness.
THE KELAPSE OF MIJSTDOEO INTO WII^DEEI^ESS.
Mindoro is now the chief refuge of criminals from
the neighboring islands who, once they gain the moun-
tains of the interior, are able to defy pursuit. These
outlaws, called tuli&anes, were more or less trouble-
some in most of the northern provinces, where they
formed organized bands under recogiiized leaders and
terrorized large districts. Although these men were
criminals of the worst type, many of them with mur-
ders to answer for, the Spaniards made no serious
eiforts to wipe them out. In fact, if the Civil Guard
caught one of these banditti and lodged him in jail
he invariably contrived to bribe his way to liberty
again. So well was this known that some officers
of the provincial constabulary made a practice of
THE SUGAR FIELDS OF NEGROS. 473
disposing of such prisoners before the municipal head-
quarters were reached. This was contrived by giv-
ing the hdisan what appeared to be a good chance to
escape and shooting him in his tracks before he had a
fair start.
THE SUGAR FIELDS OF NEGROS.
The soil of Negros is mainly devoted to sugar cane,
but a good quality of Visayan tobacco is also raised
and cacao of an excellent quality. The sugar crop
of the island is the only one in the Archipelago that
is produced on anything approaching a scientific sys-
tem. This is due to the introduction of foreign capi-
tal. The estates are not large, very few of them hav-
ing a capacity in excess of one thousand tons a year.
Steam and hydraulic machinery is employed on sev-
eral of them, but it is not of the latest pattern, and
the entire process, far in advance as it is of the agri-
cultural methods customary in other parts of the
Archipelago, is capable of considerable improvement.
The great difficulty under which the planter labors
is that of securing sufficient help. High rates of
wages are paid; nevertheless, it frequently happens
that the proprietor of a sugar estate sees his crop
deteriorate because he cannot secure the hands neces-
sary to harvest it. In many districts it is requisite
to import laborers, and in all cases they demand con-
siderable advances before they will enter upon their
work. The best men are apt to leave after they have
saved the trifle which is a competency to them.
474 THE PHILIPPINES.
Worcester relates an incident which strikingly illus-
trates the situation. A planter had a field hand who,
after several years of service, had hecome almost in-
dispensable to his master. One day he unexpectedly
announced his intention of ceasing to work. To the
planter's expostulations the man replied : ^'Senor,
if you were back at your home in Andalusia living
in a house as fine as any in the province ; if your food
and clothing were not only as good as any of your
neighbors could boast, but were all that you yourself
desired ; if you had money enough for all present
and future needs — would you turn your back up to a
sun as hot as this and worl:f" It is needless to add
that the master was at a loss for a rejoinder. The
native has no incentive to w^ork hard and long, and in
the absence of it there is no reasonable ground for
expecting him to do so. AYhether his happiness will
be increased by arousing his ambition is an open ques-
tion, but it is certain that until he aspires to higher
things we must not expect to see him exert himself
beyond the bounds of necessity. It may be that when
he learns that increase in his worldly possessions will
not bring upon him burdensome taxation and heavy
contribution to the Church, he may appreciate some of
the at present unkno^vn advantages of money. It is a
strange economic condition, in which a planter finds
his most desirable laborers amongst men who drink
and gamble, because they will work harder than moral
and sober natives in order to earn money to satisfy
their vicious inclinations.
THE NATURAL BEAUTIES OF SAMAR. 475
As a rule, the sugar planters, many of whom are
Europeans, live comfortably, and some of them lux-
uriously. There are many handsome houses upon
the plantations. They have good furniture., car-
riages, and horses, and are generally within easy
reach of congenial neighbors. In the halcyon days of
sugar, the lot of the sugar planter was the most en-
viable in the islands. He kept open house, stinted
himself and his family in nothing, ran up to Manila
once or tw^ice a year, and sometimes returned to Spain
with a sufficient fortune to enable him to live in ease
for the rest of his life. It is a pleasure to think
that there is hope of something like the old times re-
turning to the planter of Xegros.
THE NATUKAL BEAUTIES OF SAMAR.
Samar has an area about twice as large as that of
Delaware and a population nearly equal to that of
the American State. The island boasts some of the
finest scenery in the Archipelago, but owing to the
difficulties of travel it has not been photographed to
anything like the extent of less attractive sections.
So close does Samar approach to Leyte that at one
point the Strait of San Juanico narrows down to five
hundred yards. Despite the proximity of the main-
lands the passage from one shore to the other is an
extremely difficult one. The Strait is beset w^ith
numerous tiny islets, around which the rapid current
eddies with dangerous effect, precluding the employ-
476 THE PHILIPPINES.
ment of a sailboat and taxing the skill of the canoist
to the utmost. The environment is unspeakably pic-
turesque. The bluffs along the Samar coast are
pitted with low-lying caves in which have been found
skeletons of human beings who were much taller
and larger than any of the present inhabitants of the
Archipelago. These finds have created an ethnologi-
cal puzzle, for there is nothing even in the traditions
of the islanders hinting at any other than the races
with which we are familiar, and the aborigines were
dwarfs. Had there been a temporary settlement of
foreigners here, some additional traces of it should
exist, and if we look for an explanation in ship-
wrecked adventurers it is difficult to account for their
having made sepulchres of these caves. It is an inter-
esting question.
The Basey River empties at this point, passing un-
der a natural arch formed by two limestone rocks
some forty feet in height. In front opens a portal
thirty-five feet high, through which the river may be
seen. In the wall on the left of an oval court thirty-
seven feet above the water is the entrance to a cave
which penetrates about one hundred feet inwards.
Formerly this was a spacious stalactite cavern, but it
is now partially destroyed by the falling in of the
rocks which formed the roof. The place is named
the ''Cuevas de Sojoton/^
Another beautiful spot is w^ithin five miles of the
town of Canaguaion, where the Molo River issues by
CATBALOGAN. 477
a mouth about one hundred yards wide between two
high black rocks, and continues through a series of
falls for a distance of one-third of a mile.
A considerable portion of Samar is cultivated in
hemp, sugar, and other produce, but the greater part
is forest containing the most valuable woods of the
Archipelago. There are few roads, and travel and
traffic are carried on by means of the streams. Every
village, not immediately upon the coast, is situated
upon a Avaterway navigable by native boats ; and
almost all the large amount of produce shipped from
the island finds its way to the ports by boat.
♦
CATBALOGAN.
Catbalogan, the capital, is a little town of not much
more than five thousand inhabitants, and very much
smaller than several other centres. It has, however,
a large trade with Manila in hemp, sugar, and cocoa-
nut. As in every commercial centre, Chinamen are
prominently engaged in business and get the best of
the natives at every turn.
In the vicinity of the town is raised the ''isigud,"
or fruit of San Ignacio, which is known to commerce
as the ''Catbalogan seed." It is claimed that this
vegetable is a specific in cholera and that it never
fails to cure that disease. The Chinese have the great-
est faith in its properties and take the entire output,
which is shipped to China. Whether the efficacy of
the seed has ever been put to scientific test the writer
478 THE PHILIPPINES.
is unable to say, but if half its alleged virtue can be
established it should prove a boon to the inhabitants
of Eastern countries.
THE EEMONTADOS^ A REVERSION TO A WILD TYPE.
The interior of Samar contains many remontados.
These are natives, who having found the ''call of the
wild" irresistible, have forsaken civilization and re-
verted to the primitive condition of their fathers.
They are not, like the tulisanes, criminals, but usually
peaceable, fairly industrious people, who form small
communities and engage in agricultural pursuits.
When Christianized natives return to the mountains
they generally retrograde rapidly, frequently marry-
ing with wild tribes and lapsing into the latter's con-
dition.
MASBATE^ A VAST GRAZING GROUND.
Masbate is noted for its herds of cattle, horses,
and hogs. Grazing is the chief industry, and up-
wards of one thousand head of cattle are shipped from
the island monthly, the greater number going to
Manila. The trade has thriven since the American
occupation, and is capable of great extension. The
system of communication is much the same as in
Samar, but, if anything, more restricted. There are
no roads worth mentioning, and very few trails. The
animals are brought to port on the hoof and shipped
alive, the refrigerator not yet being a feature of
Philippine traffic.
HISTORIC CEBU. 479
The natives manufacture palm mats tliat are justly
celebrated for their workmanship and the durability
of their colors. They are superior to the Japanese
article and deserve to find a market in America.
HISTOKIC CEBU.
Cebu is, from the historical point of view, one of
the most interesting places in the Archipelago. It
w^as here that the Spaniards made their first settle-
ment. Magellan landed on the 7th of April, 1521,
at the capital of the island, occupying the site upon
which the present town stands. A hut was im-
mediately constructed and consecrated. Mass was
performed in it, and the royal family, with easy in-
difference, submitted to baptism. It is said that Le-
gaspi's expedition erected a church upon the exact
spot where this event took place, and that the building
still stands in its original form, but this is probably
a fanciful claim, although rendered less unlikely by
the fact that Cebu does not appear to be subject to
the severe earthquake shocks that have devastated the
centres of Luzon.
Less than a month after landing, Magellan met
death on the little mangrove-covered coral island of
Mactan, which lies a scant mile and a half off Cebu.
After the loss of its leader the expedition fared badly.
King Llamadar of the island treacherously murdered
a number of their party at a banquet and the re-
mainder shortly afterwards set sail on their long jour-
ney back to Spain.
480 THE PHILIPPINES.
In 1565 . Legaspi arrived at Cebii and despite
opposition contrived to pacify the inhabitants and
hold his ground. A fort and other buildings were
constructed, and in 1670 the place was declared a
city.
THE HOLY CHILD OF CEBU.
It is recorded that a few months after Legaspi
landed one of his soldiers found a wooden image of
the Christ Child on the seashore. The appearance of
the image w^as deemed miraculous, and the Austin
Friars cherished it as a sacred possession. When
the Spaniards took possession of the city they erected
a large bamboo cross. Some years after, a fire swept
through the quarter where the cross stood, but it ap-
peared to be impervious to the flames, and in some
peculiar way its . preservation was attributed to the
image referred to above. The cross is now exhibited in
an Oratory adjacent to the Church of the Holy Child
of Cebu. The first church dedicated to the mystic
image was destroyed by fire, but the deity escaped
injury. It is a black, unlovely-looking thing, some-
what more than a foot high, covered with silver orna-
ments that have been donated by the devout from time
to time. It is exposed to public view at intervals,
when the occasion is one of extreme pomp. Its feast
is held on the 20th of January, when pilgrims from
distant parts of the Archipelago come to worship at
its shrine and obtain absolution for their sins.
CEBU AS A SHIPPING CENTRE. 481
Cebu is a port of considerable importance, with a
population of abont eighteen thousand. For many
years it ranked next to Manila in commercial stand-
ing, brt it has in recent times been overtaken and
passed by Iloilo. Cebu still ships large quantities
of the hemp and sugar produced by the Yisayan group
of islands, but its own share in the production is not
commensurate. It is said that its inhabitants, whilst
docile and well-disposed, are neither energetic nor
enterprising.
The streets of the city are wide and straight, and
it has some handsome buildings, although during the
Rebellion it was bombarded by a Government vessel
with dire effect.
The Episcopal Palace is a fine structure noted for
its interior decorations and some unusually good
paintings. The Bishop's See, which was created in
the sixteenth century, included the whole of the
Visayan Islands. The city was also the headquar-
ters of a Governor, and a General, and, in the old
days, the social life of the place was very different
from what it now is. Here, as elsewhere in the
Visayas, the wholesale business is in the hands of
Europeans, the largest export houses being British.
The retail stores are conducted almost exclusively by
Chinamen, the few exceptions being mestizos. The
full-blooded native has absolutely no chance in com-
petition with these, and indeed, he seldom displays
any ambition for competition. The Chinese shops
31
482 THE PHILIPPINES.
along the Liitao at one time did a good business, and
the mestizo-Chino section of the Parian was a flourish-
ing trading quarter until after the bombardment of
1897.
OLD LANDMAEKS AND HISTORIC SITES.
The picturesque fort named after San Vidal, the
patron of the city, commanded the harbor in the days
gone by and is one of the landmarks of the Archi-
pelago best deserving preservation. There are a Cathe-
dral and several churches, of which that of Santo
ISTino — the Holy Child — is the most noted and, per-
haps, the most attractive. Cebu shares the general
healthfulness of the island, and its surroundings add
to its attraction as a place of residence. KouHd about
is very pretty country, and a range of hills backs the
town. The island has been denuded of most of its
timber, but the soil is extremely fertile and capable
of much more extensive cultivation than it is at pres-
ent put to. The. sugar raised here will compare favor-
ably with the best production of Xegros, and the
Cebu com is superior to that raised in any other part
of the Archipelago. The natives substitute it for rice
extensively, and this is one of the few places in the
Philippines where they have learned to prefer the
former.
Along the coast of the island is found the famous
Eegardera de Cebu, or Yenus flower-basket, the only
one of its genus. The shores are renowned for their
THE HARDY ISLANDERS OF BOHOL. 483
rare shells, which include the much-prized Gloria
Maris. A few years ago many a splendid bargain
was to be made in the villages along the littoral, but
the natives are beginning to understand something of
the values of their finds. Still, Cebu offers a fine
hunting ground for the conchologist.
THE HARDY ISLANDEES OF BOHOL.
The native of Bohol displays a degree of energy
and initiative which is rare amongst the inhabitants
of the Philippines. The first uprising of consequence
occurred in this island in 1622, when the people tired
of the exactions of the State and the tyranny of the
Church. It was put down by troops from Cebu, but
in 1744 similar causes led to another revolt, which
was followed by a condition of practical independence
on the part of the Bohol islanders for a period of
thirty-five years.
The people of Bohol are famous for their courage
and the expert use of their favorite weapon, the lance.
The Moros learned to respect their skill and prowess,
and although the island was near at hand to the
Mindanao strongholds of the pirates, it was visited
by them much less frequently than more distant
points.
:N'o doubt the inhabitants of Bohol owe much to the
disadvantage of their situation. Frequent encounters
with "the Moros and the necessity for constant pre-
paredness developed and fostered military qualities.
484 THE PHILIPPINES.
The soil of the island lacks the responsive character
general in the Philippines, and the Bohol cultivator
v^as early forced to greater activity than, for instance,
his neighbor on the other side of the Sea of Cebu.
However, with careful tillage a very creditable quan-
tity of various vegetable products is raised, sufficient,
in fact, to leave a respectable surplus for export. A
great deal of weaving of a good sort is done in the
towns, a specialty being a peculiar kind of blanket
and a rush mat called ^'ticay/' In fact, they are a
very busy people, and fully desen^ing of the good for-
tune which is likely to overtake them in the near
future, for Bohol has some excellent timber lands,
which, though limited in extent, contain valuable
material, and the conditions are favorable to working
them. These lands, with the coal fields and iron
deposits, are bound to attract enterprise and capital
before long.
THE ISLAND OF SIQUIJOR.
Bohol has a notable dependency in the Island of
Siquijor, which lies to the south. The people tell a
story of its origin that is probably not far from the
truth. They say that one day a dense cloud appeared
over the spot where the island now stands. Out of
the cloud issued thunder and lightning for several
hours, and the next morning there was Siquijor, which
they proceeded to occupy as soon as it had cooled off.
This was, of course, long ago, but the event has lived
in tradition.
DELINQUENT TAXPAYERS. 485
Siquijor enjoys the remarkable distinction of being
the most populous section of its size in the Archi-
pelago ; remarkable because there is absolutely noth-
ing in the condition of the island to explain the fact.
The soil is almost barren, and the inhabitants find it
difficult to gain a subsistence from it. The only thing
that appears to grow readily is a fair quality of
tobacco, perhaps the best produced in the Visayas,
where it is all more or less poor. There is not much
of a market for it, however, and it generally passes
into the hands of Chinese traders in exchange for
cotton cloth. The entire island is a coral structure
with a very thin and reluctant layer of soil upon it.
i^Tevertheless, its area of one hundred and twenty-six
square miles contains a population of upwards of
forty thousand. Some of these souls make a precari-
ous living by collecting heche de 77ier and edible birds'
nests, and a considerable number are engaged in the
production of sinamay, a rough hemp fabric which is
used for clothing by the poorer classes.
THE FATE OF DELINQUENT TAXPAYERS UNDER SPAIN.
Worcester spent some time on the island hunting
bird specimens. He says that plenty of men were
willing to work for him at the rate of five cents a
day, and not a few asked only for food in compensa-
tion for their services. Before he left he was wit-
ness of the harsh measures which the Spanish Gov-
ernment habitually dealt out to delinquent com-
munities.
486 THE PHILIPPINES.
''The taxes due from that poverty-stricken town
(Siquijor, the capital of the island) amounted to
some $5,000 per annum. Cholera had recently devas-
tated the island ; the crops had failed, and for several
years it had been utterly impossible for the cahezas lo
get any such sum out of the half-starved inhabitants.
There was a shortage of $7,000, and a commission
had come down from Bohol to try to raise the money.
Tailing in this, they had seized the cabezas, confis-
cated their lands, houses, and cattle, and were about
to deport them because they were guilty of the crime
of not being rich enough to pay other people's debts !
Forty-four men were torn from their homes and
dragged away into exile, while those dependent upon
them were left to shift for themselves as best they
could.
''The officer in charge of the cahezas informed me
that they would have the privilege of working out the
debts of their constituents at the munificent salary of
six cents per day, from which the expense of their
food and clothing would be deducted.'*
LEYTE.
Leyte is one of the most extensively cultivated sec-
tions in the Archipelago. One-half of its area, equal
to two hundred and fifty thousand hectares, is under
cultivation, mostly in hemp, the remainder of the
island being mountains or grazing land. A consid-
erable amount of sugar cane is raised, but Leyte is
A Weaver.
The cloth workers are almost all women and in some
districts, such as Iloilo, their product is an important
item in the commerce. No little skill and infinite
patience is required in the manufacture of the finer fab-
rics — pina and jusi.
From Stereograph Copyright, by llnderwood & Underwood, New York.
^*«''i4 S ir.|l|lf
LEYTE. 487
essentially a hemp district. In 1899 the exports of
the fibre approximated one million piculs. The peo-
ple convert a great deal of the product into fabrics
of native wear and make from it the caho negro, or
black boat cable. Boat-buildiiig is quite an industry
with them. They turn out all kinds of craft — from
the dugout to the hundred-ton schooner. The larger
vessels are constructed at the shipyards of Tacloban,
which employ hundreds of workmen constantly.
These Leyte shipbuilders display no mean degree of
skill, and their product is in demand amongst the
islands of the group.
MINDANAO AND SULU.
XIII.
MINDANAO AND SULU.
The Miihammadan Invasion — The Social Organization of the
Muhammadan Malays — The Present Moro Tribes — Dress
and Manners of the ]\Ioros — The Moro Warrior Presents
a Bizarre Appearance — The Juramentados — Cruelties of
the Datos — The Moro is Not a Model Muhammadan —
The Moro Version of the Story of the Flood — Christ
and Muhammad in Moro Legend — Basilan and the
Yakan Moros — The Strange S\yay of a Foreigner Over
a Moro Communitj^ — The Masterful Rule of Arolas—
Modern Sulu— The Moro is a Man of the Sea— The
Origin of the Pearl — The Mother-of-Pearl Industry of
Sulu.
Opinions differ as to the time and manner of the
occupancy of the southern islands by the Muhamma-
dan Malays. According to Foreman, a former chief
of Borneo, named Tindig, with his followers, took
possession of Sulu Island about the time of the Span-
ish conquest of the Philippines. He appears to have
been a famous warrior, from whom the later Sultans
of Sulu w^ere proud to claim descent.
Tindig had been accompanied by his cousin, Adasa-
olan, who made his first settlement upon the island
of Basilan and later formed an alliance with King
Dimasangcay, of Mindanao, whose daughter he mar-
ried. Dimasangcay, and doubtless his entire fam-
ily, embraced the Muhammadan faith.
(491)
492 THE PHILIPPINES.
Adasaolan's ambition grew with his increasing good
fortune, and he conceived the idea of annexing the
kingdom of his cousin. In this project he had the
support of the Mindanao monarch, and their com-
bined forces made an attack upon Sulu. The expedi-
tion failed, and after the retirement of the invaders
Tindig prepared to retaliate in similar manner.
Some years previously he had established an entente
with the Spaniards, and now he repaired to Manila
to seek their aid against his kinsman, and secured a
promise of assistance. Eelying upon the expected re-
inforcement, but lacking experience of Spanish tardi-
ness, Tindig put his enterprise on foot. In the battle
that ensued the Sulu chieftain was defeated and
slain. After the event the armed boats from Manila
arrived and, finding the issue settled, returned, doubt-
less with a sense of duty done.
THE MUHAMMADAN INVASION.
Sulu remained independent, but Adasaolan made
alliances with the chieftains of Borneo, and there
was soon an influx of Muhammadans to Mindanao
and the Sulu Archipelago.
It has been stated how, at the close of the sixteenth
century, Estevan Rodriguez, under a grant from the
Spanish Government, attempted the conquest of Min-
danao, and how the consequence was like to the dis-
turbance of a hornet's nest. By that time the king-
doms of Mindanao and Sulu were on the most friendly
MUHAMMADAN MALAYS. 493
terms, and their future piratical ventures were fre-
quently conducted in co-operation. Por two hundred
and fifty years every coast of the Colony was ravaged
by the marauders, who even extended their incur-
sions to the Bay of Manila. During this period per-
haps nothing militated more seriously against the de-
velopment of the islands than this incessant scourge,
which the authorities were utterly unable to repress
until after they brought gunboats into play.
The Moors, or Moros, comprise a number of orig-
inally distinct tribes which have since intermingled
and which have always been allied by the common
bond of religion. Traces of Bornean Dyaks, Bayos
of Celebes, and Arabs, are frequently seen. There are
also evidences of crossings with Spaniards and Chi-
nese. In fact, the practice of carrying off women
from the scenes of their widespread depredations and
of cohabiting with them has made the Moros of the
Philippines one of the most mixed of all Eastern
races.
THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE MUHAMMADAN
MALAYS.
^'Their essentially feudal institutions,'^ says Reclus,
^'caused the whole social organization to rest on
piracy. By the side of the sultans were the almost
equally powerful vassals, the datu, each of whom,
with the reservation of homage due to his suzerain,
became proprietor of the land conquered and the
494 THE PHILIPPINES.
wealth plundered by his retainers. The tao marahay,
or good men, that is the free warriors, accompanied
them on their predatory expeditions, while the sacope,
or lack-land class, were reduced to a state of serfdom."
There can be little question that but for the Spanish
occupation, this condition Avould have ultimately ob-
tained throughout the Philippines with a universal
acknowledgment of the Muhammadan religion.
The old feudal tenure is fast relaxing its hold
upon the people, and the Moro nation presents the
problem of a number of petty chiefs who are breaking
away from allegiance to their over-lords, but at the
same time display no disposition to accept a new mas-
ter kindly. Eeferring to the decline of the sultanates,
Dr. Barrow says: ''To-day the Sultan of Mindanao
is an exile from the Eio Grande, with his home at
Dumanquilas Bay. His prestige is gone, he is poor
to the point of destitution, and he w^ill never regain
the position occupied by his predecessors. Such seems
to be the fate of the sultanate among these tribes when-
ever the native poAver meets formidable opposition
and falls, as it invariably must, into the hands of a
weak and dissipated prince. The present sultanate
of Sulu is rapidly approaching the state of weakness
and decay represented by the sultanate of Mindanao,
and, unless supported by the United States Govern-
ment, will not be able much longer to command the
obedience of the Moros of the Sulu Archipelago. The
days of the Moro power are past. For three centuries
THE PRESENT MORO TRIBES. 495
they defied the European and carried war with im-
punity into his territory. For generation after gen-
eration the Spaniard stood purely on the defensive
and sought by treaty and subsidy to win where he
could not conquer.
^'There must have been some barbaric splendor
about these old pirate states when at the height of
their power and daring. To see how they could im-
press Europeans one should read the notable volume
of Captain Forrest, 'A Voyage to New Guinea.' Cap-
tain Forrest visited and formed an alliance with
the Sultan of Maguindanao (Mindanao) in 1776.
There is something almost melancholy about their
decadence. Theirs were the only political achieve-
ments of any consequence ever made by the people of
the Philippines, but their passing, none the less,
marks a gain for civilization."
THE PRESENT MOEO TRIBES.
At the present time the Malanao Moros, or Moros
of the Lake, are the most numerous tribe in Min-
danao. Their stronghold is the district of Lake
Lanao, around which their villages are thickly clus-
tered. They are believed to number not far short
of one hundred thousand.
The Maguindanao Moros, whose name has prac-
tically the same signification as that of the first named
tribe, number about fifty thousand, and are to be
found mainly in the vicinity of Cottabato. This name
496 THE PHILIPPINES.
has long been used to designate the warlike Muham-
madan tribes of the valley of the Rio Grande. They
were almost the first Moros with whom the Spaniards
came in contact and their name passed to the island
itself. Emigrants from this tribe peopled the dis-
tricts of Zamboango and Davao. In the interior of
Zamboango are the Kalibuganes, who are derived from
a mixture with the Subanos.
The Sulu Moros are found mainly in the group of
islands of that name, where they form the dominant
element in the population. AYliere they have emi-
grated, even in small numbers, their strong person-
ality and aggressiveness have had a marked influence.
The Yakan tribe is practically restricted to the in-
terior of the island of Basilan, the coasts being occu-
pied by the Samals.
The Samals are rarely located elsewhere than on
the seashore. They predominate in the Tawi Tawi
group, which w^as the most inaccessible stronghold of
the pirates of whom this tribe was the most active and
furnished by far the greater number. They are scat-
tered throughout the Sulu Archipelago, and there are
numbers of them in the Zamboango district. The
Samals, who represent the latest Moro immigration,
are superior to the other tribes in force and intelli-
gence.
What differences exist between the various tribes
seem to be mainly the marks of varying stages of
removal from savagery, the highest degree being
DRESS AND MANNERS OF THE MORO. 497
represented by the Samals, and the lowest by the
boat-dwelling Bajaus,
DRESS AND MANNERS OF THE MOROS.
Physically the Mores are the superiors of the Fili-
pinos, being taller and more robust; in fact, the Moro
is often stocky and muscular. A peculiarity is the
development of the feet and toes, due to the use to
which they are put in many daily occupations. The
Moro uses his toes as freely and effectively as we do
our fingers, and finds it much more convenient to
pick an object from the ground with them than to
stoop do\\Ti and raise it with his hand. When he
climbs a tree the rope is grasped by the feet, and
when sailing a boat he will take a couple of turns with
the halyard round the big toe. The Moro dress will
distinguish him at once from the native of the north.
The former wears no shirt in or out of his breeches.
Sometimes the dress consists of nothing more than
the sarong, a vokiminous cloth tied around the waist
and falling to the calves of the legs. What may be
termed the national costume consists of a close-fitting,
short jacket, and trousers loose in the seat and very
tight on the legs, reaching to the ankies. These gar-
ments are often as bright and vari-colored as Joseph's
coat, and are ornamented with a great number of
brass buttons. Sometimes straw hats of extraordi-
nary shapes are worn, but the common headgear is the
turban,
32
498 THE PHILIPPINES.
A Moro chief in the full panoply of war is rather a
grotesque object to the unaccustomed eye. Upon his
head is a brass helmet, into which is stuck the largest
and stiffest feather procurable. In order to secure the
headpiece a cloth, perhaps the turban, is lapped
around it and tied under the chin, giving the warrior
the appearance of suffering from a severe attack of
neuralgia. The virile effect of a steel cuirass is
somewhat mitigated by the gaudy feminine skirt
which depends from the waists to the knees.
THE MOEO WAKKIOE PRESENTS A BIZAERE APPEARANCE.
Most Moro men carry a short dagger stuck in the
sarong, or at the breeches belt, but if the individual
is a noble the Tcris takes the place of the former
weapon.
The dress of the women is made up of a bodice
fitting close to the skin and a baggy bifurcated skirt.
The jahul is a long scarf which is thrown over the
head and draped about the body. It may be a modi-
fied survival of the veil worn by Muhammadan women
in Arabia and other countries. ISTeither sex wears
shoes as a rule. The women tie their hair up in all
manner of fantastic knots, while the men leave it
loose. Children generally go naked at home, but
wear the sarong in public.
Like the Filipino, the Moro bathes frequently ; in
fact, he spends a large proportion of his time in the
water when conditions are favorable, but it would
THE JURAMENTADOS. 499
seem to be from love of aquatic exercise rather than
from any desire for cleanliness, for their dwellings
and surroundings are filthy.
The Moro never goes abroad without a weapon of
some sort. The Jcris, or baron g, the arms of warfare,
are the most commonly carried, but sometimes a
spear, or a club not unlike a boomerang, is the sub-
stitute. The haroug is a sword with an oval double-
edged blade, from twelve to eighteen inches long,
graduating to a point. To decapitate a man with one
clean stroke is no great feat for a Moro warrior. The
kins is straight, or wavy, the former being used for
cutting and the latter for thrusting. A weapon is
prized for the number of persons it has killed, and
one that has an established record of a great many
deaths to its credit will bring a high price. Rifles
are very highly prize by the Moros, but, fortunately,
they have always had great difficulty in obtaining
them.
The Moro loves to close with his enemy, and his
weapons are all adapted to hand-to-hand fighting. It
follows that he is a very dangerous opponent if he
gets within arm's length, but against troops furnished
with firearms he has little chance in the open.
THE JURAMENTADOS.
The juramentado occasionally furnishes an exam-
ple of the Moro's capacity for doing execution in a
crowd. The juramentado is a Muhammadan who
600 THE PHILIPPINES.
has taken a religious vow to devote his life to the
extinction of as many Christians as possible. The
pandita works the devotee np to the requisite pitch
of emotional excitement and, perhaps, an extra large
dose of opium puts the finishing touch to his fanatical
frenzy. Assured that if he dies in the act of taking
the life of a Christian all the joys of Paradise will be
his, the juramentado sets out to find as many victims
as opportunity may afford. Sometimes a band of
these devoted murderers act together, and in that
case they are likely to choose some gathering of a
village, such as the celebration of a feast day, for the
occasion of their onslaught. AA^en half a dozen of
them contrive to get into a throng of this kind, which
is very seldom, of course, for they are not permitted
in the Christian towns with their arms, the number
they will slay in a few minutes is almost incredible.
Soldiers cannot put them out of action before they
ha>e done great damage to their ranks. It is told
how five juramentados charged a company of Spanish
troops armed with rifles and killed, or badly wounded,
nineteen of their number before they themselves were
slain.
The Moro believes that he is a very superior being,
and looks upon all other natives with the utmost
disdain. Religious difference may have a great deal
to do with this feeling, but the foundation of it proba-
bly lies in the superior courage of the Muhammadan
tribes. They are densely ignorant, very few of them
CRUELTIES OF THE DATOS. 501
being able to read or write. The knowledge of their
panditas, or priests, is of a rudimentary character and
generally limited to a smattering of the "Kitah," as
they term the Kuran. It is doubtful if one of them
can read it in the original Arabic.
CRUELTIES OF THE DATOS.
The datos, and warrior class, refrained entirely
from anything like labor. The slaves and women did
all the work and supplied all the wants of the master
of the establishment. As a general thing their slaves
do not appear to have fared badly, although the datos
were capable of the worst barbarities on occasion and
treated attempts to escape with the utmost severity.
Dato Uto, a representative of the latter-day Moros,
was notorious for the refinement of the cruelties he
practiced upon his slaves. Those who were caught in
an attempt to escape had the tendons of their legs
cut below the knees so that they could never after
walk except with great difficulty. Others he caused
to be bound naked to trees, where they would be
exposed to the burning rays of the sun by day and the
stings of mosquitoes and other insects at night. Death
within forty-eight hours was the frequent result of
this treatment.
Moros of all classes, from the sultan to the sacope,
are born thieves. They rob whenever opportunity
presents itself and from neighbors or kinsmen as
readily as from strangers, as much apparently for
502 THE PHILIPPINES.
the pleasure derived from the act as from desire for
the object stolen.
THE MOKO IS NOT A MODEL MUHAMMADAN.
The Moro is far from being an orthodox Muham-
madan; indeed the Moslem of civilization would
hardly recognize him as a co-religionist. The Moro
falls very short of living up to the dictates of the
Kuran and frequently violates its stern prohibi-
tion against indulgence in strong dvink. Toward
strangers the Mussalmin of the Philippines have al-
ways displayed the greatest reticence regarding the
particulars of their religious belief, and investigators
generally meet with a flat refusal to impart informa-
tion, or else are put off with a recital of a fanciful
nature. Worcester appears to have been unusually
fortunate in this respect. He contrived to gain the
confidence of the Minister of Justice of the sultanate
of Mindanao, "a very intelligent man, who looked as
if he had white blood in his veins." During a suc-
cession of visits, in which the chief attraction was
^'a microscope and sundry copies of illustrated
papers," this person stated that the Moros believe that
there is but one universe and one God. He is om-
nipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, and his form
is that of our thoughts. The air above us and the
space beneath the earth are inhabited by spirits. Ani-
mals have spirits, but they expire with the death of
the creature, whilst the soul of man lives on forever.
THE MORO RELIGIOUS BELIEF. 503
It enters the body through a hole in the top of the
skull, contrived for that purpose, and leaves it
through the same aperture. During life the soul
permeates the entire body, as is proved by the fact
that the whole structure is sensitive. Some panditas
maintain that after death the soul immediately re-
pairs to the presence of God; others that it goes be-
neath the earth to rest in oblivion until the judgment
day. The soul of a bad man is eventually consigned
to hell, where he suffers torment regulated according
to the character of his misdeeds. The offending mem-
ber of the body is the seat of pain. There is no fire
in hell. ""^^Hiiere would the fuel come from?" In
the course of time the wicked expiate their sins and
are taken into heaven. According to some priests
evil brings its own punishment in mental and physical
suffering upon the earth, and atonement comes before
death.
The purged soul will have the same form as the
body, but will be like ^^gold and diamonds,'^ that is,
glorified. Certain Moro theologists teach that the
souls of the good wait in the air, and those of the bad
in the earth, until the final reckoning at the end of
the world. At that time, all souls will be carried up
by a great wind to the Mount of Calvary, where they
will be confronted by Gabriel, Michael, and the
Weigher, who will place each one in the scales. Souls
heavy with sin will be sent to hell.
504 THE PHILIPPINES.
The Moros know all the prominent characters of
the Old Testament, '^Ibrahim/' ^^JS^o," "Mosa/'
"Daud;' ^'Yakiib," ^^Sulaiman/' and the rest, and
have woven around some of them marvelous tales of
fabulous adventure. Like all people, even the most
primitive, they have their story of the flood.
THE MOEO VERSIOIT OF THE STORY OF THE FLOOD.
When the forty days and nights of rain set in,
Noah and his family went into a box, taking with
them one pair of each sort of bird and beast. People
who neglected the opportunity to join the patriarch
were overtaken by the flood and providentially
changed to forms that had some chance to survive.
Those who took to the hills became monkeys ; those
who made for the water became fish. The Chinaman
was changed to a hornbill. A woman who was eating
the fruit of a seaweed was turned into a fish called
dugong, and her limbs may be seen under its skin
to this day.
Worcester had made several unsuccessful attempts,
in difl^erent parts of the Moro country, to get an ex-
planation of the strong aversion of the people to pork.
One day his friend, the Minister, called in a state of
inebriation and, taken off his guard, made the follow-
ing interesting statement:
CHRIST AND MUHAMMAD IN MORO LEGEND.
^'Jesus Christ, called by the Moros Isa, was a man
like ourselves, but great, and good, and very power-
A MORO LEGEND. 505
f ul. He was not a son of God. The Moros hate and
kill the Christians because they teach that men could
slay a son of God.
''Mohamoud had a grandson and a granddaughter
of whom he was very fond. As he was king of the
world, Christ came to his house to visit him. Mo-
hamoud, jealous of him, told him to prove his power
by divining' what he had in a certain room, where,
in fact, Avere his grandchildren. Christ replied that
he had no wish to prove his power and would not
Mivine' (divinar). Mohamoud then vowed that if
he did not answer correctly he would pay for it with
his life. Christ responded : 'You have two animals in
there different from anything else in the world.'
Mohamoud replied : 'You are wrong, and I will now
kill you.' Christ said : 'Look first and see for your-
self.' Mohamoud opened the door and out rushed
two hogs into which Christ had changed his grand-
children."
Worcester goes on to say : "Moros are forbidden to
tell this story to infidels because it shows that Christ
outwitted their great prophet. When my informant
sobered up and realized what he had done, he hung
around, day after day, beseeching me not to let any
one know what he had told me, from which fact I
inferred that he thought he had told me the truth and
not a fable invented for the occasion."
In their futile attempts to subdue the Moros the
Spaniards established garrisons in the south, but
606 THE PHILIPPINES.
beyond the immediate neighborhood of these posts
the authority of the white man was merely nominal.
The Moros were never compelled to pay taxes, and in
recent years an effort to collect trihuto resulted in the
annihilation of the entire garrison at Sulu.
The earliest Spanish post among the Moros was at
Zamboanga, where the old fort is still a feature of
the town. It proved to be, more on account of the
negligence of the authorities than from the natural
unhealthiness of the climate^ a veritable death-trap.
For many years the casualties, due to disease, repre-
sented eighty per cent, of the force, l^evertheless,
as the service was invested with the character of a
crusade, soldiers embraced it willingly.
BASILAR AND THE YAKAJsT MOEOS.
At the village of Isabel, the capital of Basilan, the
Spaniards had another post, with a military depot
on the neighboring islet called Malamaui.
The Yakan Moros of Basilan had acquired an un-
enviable reputation for disregard of the laws of man,
or God, but towards the close of the Spanish regime
they were held in check under very curious circum-
stances.
Their dato was, and probably is yet, a Visayan, or
Tagal, criminal who had been sent down to the penal
settlement at San Ramon, near Zamboanga, which is
at present the site of a model farm. The convict,
whose name was Pedro Cuevas, planned escape with
STRANGE SWAY OF A FOREIGNER. 507
two of his fellow prisoners. Whilst at work in the
fields one day they overcame their guard, killed the
Spanish officer in charge, and got away, taking a
carbine with them.
They immediately followed the coast to Ayala,
which they reached on the night following the day of
their coup. Here they murdered a Chinese shop-
keeper, plundered his store of what they needed, and,
securing a boat, crossed over to Basilan. On landing,
they proceeded at once to the nearest village and to
the house of the dato, upon whom Pedro called to
come out and fight. Such an invitation was never
declined by a Moro, and the chieftain rolled out of
bed with alacrity and soon emerged from his hut with
lance and shield. The combat was a very unequal
one, for before the Yakan could use his weapon
Pedro shot him dead. The convict then turned his
carbine upon the assembling villagers with such effect
that before daybreak they -were glad to install him in
the place of the fallen dato.
THE STRANGE SWAY OF A FOREIGNER OVER A MORO
COMMUNITY.
Dato Pedro subdued the neighboring villages one
after another and rapidly established a reputation
for bravery and, which was of equal influence with
the Moros, for having a charmed life. In a short
time he had practical control of the entire island. He
maintained his rule with an iron hand and hundreds
508 THE PHILIPPINES.
of stories are told of his despotic practices. The
slightest opposition to his wishes met with immedi-
ate death. One of many similar stories is that a
visitor from Zamboanga happened to admire a horse,
upon which a Moro from a nearby village had just
ridden up to Dato Pedro's house. The chieftain
asked his friend if he would like to have it, and being
answered in the affirmative, without more ado shot
the rider as he sat in the saddle and presented his
mount to the visitor.
Pedro contrived to ingratiate himself with the
Spanish authorities at Isabel, who realized the ad-
vantage of having the unruly inhabitants of the island
held in leash by a man on friendly terms with them-
selves. His crimes against the State were pardoned
and he lived on excellent terms with the resident
governor.
The domination of this remarkable man over an
island full of turbulent Moros was due in a measure
to the fact that he only among them possessed fire-
arms, but probably in a much greater degree to their
belief that he was impervious to harm. The natives
of the Philippines everywhere believe that certain in-
dividuals have charmed lives. Almost all the leaders
of the bands of tulisanes enjoy this distinction. To
attempt to injure such a one is not only useless, but
highly dangerous and foolhardy.
The administration of General Arolas, though free
from acts of barbarity, was characterized bv the un-
THE MASTERFUL RULE OF AROLAS. 509
flinching severity of Pedro, and, as the former was
the only Spaniard who ever succeeded in maintaining
order among the Moros, the methods of these two men
in their respective spheres may afford some hint as
to the most effective means of dealing with the unruly
people of the southern islands.
The Moros called Arolas '^papa," the term denot-
ing, however, not affection, but respect. These people
can understand justice, but they have no appreciation
of kindness, which they invariably construe as a
sign of weakness. They soon learned that Arolas
never indulged in idle talk, or feeble threats. His
promise, whether it entailed good or ill, was sure of
fulfillment. His order disobeyed was inevitably fol-
lowed by punishment. He made little distinction be-
tween Avhite men and brown, dato or slave.
In Arolas' day, Sulu was the cleanest town in the
Colony, and probably the cleanest under Spanish
administration anywhere. The streets were covered
with white sand and regularly swept twice a day, not
that they needed it, but, as the Governor was wont to
declare, ^'if it were not done twice a day soon it
would not be done once a week." A story was cur-
rent that he had issued an order forbidding the trees
to shed their leaves upon his streets. A white man
who threw a cigar stub or a scrap of paper upon the
street was promptly fined and a native thrashed.
510 THE PHILIPPINES.
The wide thoroughfares and ample sidewalks, bor-
dered by cement gutters and lined with shade trees,
are laid out with exact uniformity and at right angles.
Scarcely a trace of the ancient town was left when
the Spaniards, in 1878, took it and cleared the site
preparatory to building the present town, with its
defensive walls of brick, and redoubts and block-
houses.
MODERN SULU.
Sulu was the ancient capital of the Sultans and the
centre of Morodom. After its capture the native
capital was transferred to Maibun on the south coast,
and here the Sultan has his residence to-day.
The houses have an unfamiliar appearance to the
visitor from the northern islands. They are painted
white, or treated with calsomine, and the nipa roof
of the Filipino dwelling is entirely absent. There
are several substantial buildings of stone used for
public purposes and to quarter the troops. For the
accommodation of the Moros who come in on certain
days with produce and merchandise, a large market
has been recently constructed.
Sulu is only a good sized military post with a popu-
lation of a f CAV hundred, only four of w^hom are Moros,
but it is a beautiful little place, enjoying good water
and a salubrious climate.
The anchorage is good and a stone pier runs more
than one hundred yards into the sea, with a light-
A Village Scene.
Like most Oriental women those of the Philippines
can carry heavy burdens upon their heads, and the
practice gives them an upright and graceful carriage. .
From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
THE MORO IS A MAN OF THE SEA. 511
house at the end of it, for Sulu is a port of consid-
erable consequence, having direct communication with
Singapore and Manila, and doing a large interisland
trade. The export business is almost entirely in the
hands of Chinese.
THE MORO IS A MAN OF THE SEA.
The Moro is almost an amphibian and the only-
kind of work to which he takes at all kindly is
connected with the w^ater. Children are at home in
it as soon as they can walk, and swim and dive with
remarkable ease and confidence. The men are the
most expert divers in the world, and can remain
under the surface for several minutes at a time.
They frequently encounter sharks, but are absolutely
fearless and will often plunge in and attack the
creatures with a knife.
The principal industry of the Sulu Archipelago is
the collection of sea-produce, and competent judges
have declared that it is capable of great extension.
Pearls and mother-of-pearl are secured in large
quantities in these waters, where the most perfect con-
ditions exist for the development of the mollusks.
It is said that the area suited to the growth of the
pearl-oyster approximates fifteen thousand square
miles, an extent of bed more than sufficient to supply
the present large demand of the whole world for
mother-of-pearl.
The search for pearls is a very precarious occupa-
512 THE PHILIPPINES.
tion, and the Moro divers consider it merely inci-
dental to the collection of the more certain product.
A tally was kept of five thousand bivalves, and it
was found that they did not yield a single pearl worth
twenty-five dollars. On the other hand, it is said
that an Englishman, a few years since, discovered
a shell devoid of the oyster but holding sixty-five
pearls.
THE ORIGIN OF THE PEARL.
"There have been all sorts of theories advanced as
to the origin of the pearl. One ancient author states
that the oyster rises to receive the raindrops which
are afterwards converted into pearls, and this theory
obtained amongst the natives of the new world at
the time of Columbus, as they thought they were
formed from petrified dewdrops in connection with
sunbeams. . . . The prevailing idea, however,
amongst scientists is that the formation is caused by
an effort on the part of the oyster in which the pearl
is found to rid itself of an irritation caused by the
presence of some foreign body which excites the secre-
tion of nacreous matter, in concentric layers, until
the foreign substance is encysted, much in the same
manner as the human body encysts foreign bodies em-
bedded therein, and renders them comparatively harm-
less. The experience of pearl-fishers lends weight
to thi? theory, because they find that shells irregular
in shape, stunted in growth, bearing excrescences, or
MOTHER-OF-PEARL INDUSTRY. 513
having shell honeycombed by parasites, are the most
likely to yield pearls."
The Sultan of Sulii has always been the owner of
some of the finest pearls in the world, secured from
the waters of his own territory. From time to time,
as funds ran low with the potentate, rare specimens
from his treasury have found their way to London
and Paris.
The Sultan, who died in 1879, was known to pos-
sess a box full of pearls of extraordinary value, but
after his death they disappeared. Subsequently his
son and successor recovered a portion of the stolen
gems, and in 1882 sold a few in order to defray the
expenses of his pilgrimage to Mecca. He must be
at present the possessor of a very fine collection.
THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL INDUSTRY OF SULU.
The hard, silvery, iridescent coat, which adds
greatly to the commercial value, is especially charac-
teristic of the Sulu pearl. The mother-of-pearl, too,
from this region ranks the highest in the market,
bringing as great a price as nine hundred dollars a
ton.
The chief sources of the world's supply of this
ornamental material are Torres Strait, Western Aus-
tralia, and the Sulu Archipelago. Until 1886 Manila
was the chief centre of this trade in the Orient, but
the short-sighted policy of the Colonial Government
forced its transfer to the British port of Singapore.
33
514 THE PHILIPPINES.
The present trade of the United States in this
product is in an abnormal condition. The raw ma-
terial is derived from American territory, but passes
through Singapore into the hands of British im-
porters in London, whence it is shipped to the United
States and worked np in American factories. The
business is one of no small consideration, as is proved
by the fact that the United States has for several
years past consumed more than one million dollars'
worth of the material annually.
VITAL ISSUES.
XIV.
VITAL ISSUES.*
The Inception of American Rule — Police — Education — Ju-
diciary— Personal Rights — The Friar Lands — The Ques-
tion of Independence — "The Philippines for the Filipinos"
— The Popular Assembly — An Unselfish Administration
■ — Taxpaying Capacity — Natural Resources — Trade Rela-
tions with the United States — The Local Business Situa-
tion— The Projected Railroad System — The Labor Question
— Climatic Conditions — The Broader Policy.
President McKinley conceived that tlie war might
be brought to an end if with the rigor of a military
campaign he mingled, as an object lesson, the peaceful
methods of organizing civil government, and so he
sent a civil commission, which, following in the wake
of the army wherever it deemed conditions favorable,
organized municipal and provincial governments on
bases so liberal in the matter of autonomy as to sur-
prise the inhabitants of the islands. The municipal
code gave complete autonomy to the people — that
* The following chapter is composed of literal extracts
from public addresses delivered by the Hon. William H. Taft
during the year 1904, discussing the most important issues
connected with the Philippines.
(517)
518 THE PHILIPPINES.
is, to those eligible to vote, who constitute hardly 15
per cent, of the total population. The organization
of governments began after the second election of
McKinley. Then, too, was formed the Federal party,
a party the main plank of w^hich was peace under
the sovereignty of the United States ; and the second
plank of which expressed hope that, as the people de-
veloped in the course of self-government, the Archi-
pelago might be received, first, as a Territory and
then as a State.
The leading members of the Federal party had
been Americanistas and always sympathized wdth
America in its desire to establish just and well-
ordered government there. They now were able to
unite with them in every town in the islands a great
majority of the respectable people — the educated,
wealthy people — who, overcoming their fear of as-
sassination and intimidation by the guerrillas, came
together in such force as to protect themselves, and
joined in making up municipal and provincial gov-
ernments under the American sovereignty, which are
the foundation of the present general government in
the islands. The provincial government was not en-
tirely autonomous. It was left to the people to elect
the governor. The other provincial officers were ap-
pointed. Certain of them were selected under the
CIVIL-SERVICE LAW. In the central government the
commission of five Americans Avas increased by three
Filipinos, and a civil governor was subsequently ap-
ORDER AND EDUCATION, 519
pointed, who was a member of the commission, but
did not have the veto power. That power resided
in the Secretary of War. All this was done under
President McKinley as Commander-in-Chief, and
was a quasi military government until, by an act
passed in July, 1902, the government which had been
formed was confirmed by Congressional action and its
powers considerably enlarged and extended. By that
act a popular assembly will be elected in 1906, and
will form one branch of the law-making power of the
islands.
The next thing which was done was the suppression
of ladronism. In order to do this it became neces-
sary to create a force of native constabulary in each
province under American officers. I^umbering 6,500,
with the assistance of 3,500 Philippine scouts, the
constabulary in two years after the close of the insur-
rection HAS REDUCED LADRONISM to Icss of a nuisanco
than it ever has been in the history of the islands.
The constabulary has had its defects and its abuses,
but on the whole it has done remarkable work in
policing so many islands occupied by so many mil-
lions of people. The army has been called on onl.y
in three or four instances. The task of suppressing
the ladrones has been done almost wholly by Filipinos.
The next thing which was done was to establish an
educational system, and a thousand American teach-
ers were imported and sent over the islands to teach
the children, and to exercise the beneficent iufiucnce
520 THE PHILIPPINES.
that teachers, as almoners of that which is most val-
uable from the government, are able to exercise among
people who hold in high esteem, education.
There has been considerable criticism of the edu-
cational system in the Philippines, and I do not say
that the system is perfect, but I do say we are accom-
plishing very substantial results. We are teaching the
people English, and the people desire to learn English.
Certain persons who have not been in the islands, or
who were there so short a time as to learn but little,
are quite contemptuous of the attempt on the part of
the Government to teach English. There is no
JUSTIFICATION FOR THEIR SNEERS or Contempt. We
are now teaching only about 10 per cent, of the youth
of the islands of school age, but we are preparing a
very large number of Filipino teachers in English
at normal schools. We send 100 Filipino students a
year to study in America. From these sources we
expect to fill the ranks of the Filipino teachers with
English-speaking Filipinos, so that in less than a
decade we shall be able to offer to every Filipino child
who will study, the means of learning English and
of getting an elementary education, and of studying
in training schools when he is adapted to learn the
trades.
The eagerness with which English is studied by
the Filipino finds its cause in the badge of equality
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS. 621
which the opportunity offered constitutes. Under the
Spanish regime the study of Spanish by the masses
was not favored. I fear that the contempt felt for
our efforts to educate the Filipinos finds its reason in
a desire to get rid of the islands. I agree that such
a system of education as that which we are preparing
is probably inconsistent with a short stay of the
United States in the islands. We cannot teach Fili-
pinos English in a year. We can hardly teach them
English in a generation. We can only teach them
English thoroughly through the children, but we
MUST WAIT UNTIL THE CHILDREN GROW UP and bc-
come men before the adults shall speak English.
Now, it is absolutely essential to the preparation of
the people of the Philippine Islands for any kind of
permanent self-government in which there shall be
the safety brake of a popular, intelligent public opin-
ion, that the 90 per cent, of ignorant people in the
islands should be given a chance to receive an ele-
mentary education, and it is upon this fact that I
found the judgment that if we are in the islands and
expect to discharge our duty to the people of the
islands and prepare them for self-government, we can-
not hope to do so short of a generation or longer.
ISText in order, we have attempted to construct pub-
lic improvements in the islands. Indeed, it comes
first in order, for the first act which was passed was
the appropriation of $1,000,000 from the treasury for
the construction of roads, under the control of the
622 THE PHILIPPINES.
military government. This money was expended as
economically as possible by the military governor,
and I doubt not has done considerable good in the
country. But the effect of the torrential rains upon
the macadamized roads in the tropics is so destructive
that it requires nearly as much to keep a road in re-
pair as it does for its original construction ; -and the
dreadful agricultural depression, due to the death of
nearly all the cattle from rinderpest, and the conse-
quent failure of local taxes due to this depression,
have caused local authorities necessarily to neglect the
repairs.
The Commission has expended two millions and has
contracted to spend two millions more in the con-
STEU'CTioi^ OF PORT WORKS AT Manila^, and about
half a million at Cebu and Iloilo. Mr. Colquhoun
complains that the money for Cebu and Iloilo has
been appropriated but has not yet been expended.
This is true. We have advertised for bids, but when
I left the islands we had not succeeded in inducing
anybody to undertake the w^ork. Since leaving the
islands I understand that a contractor has taken the
work at Cebu. It must be imderstood, even by an
active, enterprising Englishman, that in a country
like the Philippines, where there are not many con-
tractors, there is very little capital, and the former
unsettled conditions do not attract many contractors
from abroad. It is difficult to seciire the doing of
work even if you have the money and will. Millions
Native Police.
A squad of native policemen armed with bolos, and
one of their giiardhonses at Cebn. These men are
Visayans.
From Stereograjih Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York.
THE JUDICIARY. 523
are now being spent in the islands on roads, and if
we can secure the requisite legislation I am sure that
millions more will be spent in the construction of rail-
roads. The truth is, it is much more economical to
construct railroads than it is to construct wagon roads,
and railroads will revolutionize business and society
in the islands.
The third thing which we have done is to establish
a judiciary system. It was proposed that we have
what is called United States Court, in which foreign-
ers and Americans could be heard against the natives,
and that the other courts should be courts for natives
only. We declined to take this view, and created
courts in which both native and American judges sit.
The SUPREME COUET OF THREE FiLIPINO JUDGES and
four American judges will compare favorably with
any supreme court of the States, and the courts of
first instance, numbering now fifteen, in which part
of the judges are native and part American, covering
the entire Archipelago, are doing their work well, and
are bringing to the people an understanding of what
the administration of justice should be. I think there
is no one part of the government in which we may
justly take more pride than in the judiciary, and
while its organization has been surrounded with great
difiiculty because of the necessity of interpreting from
the Spanish language into the English, and from
English into the Spanish, and because of the necessary
ignorance of the Filipino judges of American pro-
524 THE PHILIPPINES.
cedure, and the necessary ignorance of the American
judges of the civil substantive law, nevertheless the
obstacles seem to have been overcome, and the system
works much more smoothly than could have reason-
ably been expected.
We have not disturbed in the slightest the sub-
stantive law of the islands, which is embraced in
civil codes, the chief of which were the civil, the
mortgage, and the commercial codes. We have
adopted a civil code of procedure to take the place
of the Spanish code of procedure, which was so tech-
nical as to enable an acute lawyer to keep his op-
ponent stamping forever in the vestibule of justice.
The criminal code of procedure, adopted by general
order of General Otis, follows the California code.
It is simple, and seems to be effective. The criminal
code itself of Spain, eliminating political offenses and
religious offenses, is quite well adapted to the people,,
and no substantial change has been made therein. A
few crimes have been added to meet the exigencies
of ladronism, and to prevent the press from an abuse
of their privileges. But all these provisions were
WITHIiq^ THE COI^STITUTIOISrAL LIMITATIONS^ which,
by virtue of the instructions of Mr. McKinley to Mr.
Root, and their confirmation by the Congress of the
United States, extended to the people of the islands
all the civil rights included in the Bill of Rights, ex-
cept the right to bear arms and the right to trial by
jury. 'NoWy I have been frequently asked in let-
PERSONAL RIGHTS. 525
ters from suspicious individuals, resident in and about
Boston, whether it is true that all the civil rights are
secured to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands.
Are they not still subject to the surveillance and an-
noyances which they encountered under the Spanish
rule ? With respect to this I should like to say first
that any inhabitant of the Philippine Islands is
entitled to apply to court for the preservation of every
right mentioned in the Bill of Rights, save the right
of trial by jury and the right to bear arms, and
that if he will assert his right it will be secured to
him.
It may be that in the province of Cavite, where
ladronism is so ingrained that it has been necessary
at times to declare martial law and to suspend the
writ of habeas corpus, this is not true. Everywhere
else it is the fact. Xow, the question is asked. Are
not people arrested for exhibiting seditious plays ?
My answer to that is that they have been. In Manila
the exhibition of a play in which the American flag
IS STAMPED UPON and spit upon, and American sol-
diers are represented as being killed, and the Amer-
ican nation as overwhelmed by violence, is an invita-
tion to force and violence against the government by
the ignorant people, and its suppression by arrest of
the instigators is no violation of the Bill of Rights.
The question is asked whether a man may advocate
the independence of the islands by peaceable means
and be free from prosecution and persecution by the
526 THE PHILIPPINES.
Government. My answer is that he may. There is
a party — the l^ationalist party — a plank in whose
platform is the obtaining of independence by peace-
able means. I do not mean to say that where a sus-
pected insurrecto, one suspected of membership in the
physical-force party, is loud in his advocacy of inde-
pendence, that he may not, by the secret service bu-
reau of the police, be subjected to surveillance, but
that is an incident from which even citizenship in
THIS COUNTRY IS NOT FEEE. It sufficcs that he Can-
not be prosecuted or convicted for advocating inde-
pendence by peaceable means.
N^ext we have attempted, as far as we could, to
relieve the political situation in the islands from cer-
tain disturbing factors growing out of their religious
history. Spain took over the islands in 1564, when
she sent Legaspi as military commander of a fleet
of five ships, and five Augustinian friars, inchiding
Urdaneta, to take possession of the islands. With
very little friction she assumed sovereignty over the
whole Archipelago, and it is not too much to say that
the islands were brought under Spain's control and
influence not by force, but by the peaceful exertions
of the Spanish friars of the five orders — the Domini-
cans, Augustinians, Eecoletos, Franciscans, and
Jesuits. The men of these religious orders labored
for three centuries to make Christians of the Fili-
pino people. They taught them the arts of agricul-
ture and gave them other instruction. Until the nine-
THE FRIAR LANDS. 527
teenth century they exercised great control over the
natives by reason of their sincere protection of the
natives' rights.
Before 1800 they received natives into their orders
and permitted the hierarchy to be partly filled by
natives. During the last century, however, there grew
np a feeling of jealousy between the native clergy and
the friars, growing out of their rivalry for rectorships
in parishes throughout the islands. Added to this,
when the Suez Canal was opened hordes of Span-
iards CAME to the islands, offices were greatly in-
creased, taxes became heavier, and the hospitality of
the Filipinos, so freely offered, was abused. The
young and educated Filipino began to have concep-
tions of liberty and a better administration of govern-
ment. The Spanish authorities were glad to use the
friars, who were reactionary in their opinion, as civil
instruments in the detection and prosecution of such
sentiments. Hence it was that the government and
the friars were brought together in opposition to the
Philippine people and a hostility was engendered
which knew no limit against those priests whose pre-
decessors with utmost self-sacrifice and loving devo-
tion to duty had Christianized the islands and pre-
pared their people for a higher civilization. The
spirit of vengeance against the friars was sufficiently
shown in the revolution of 1898, when 40 of their
number were killed by the people and the insurgents
and 300 were imprisoned and subjected to all sorts
528 THE PHILIPPINES.
of indignities and suffering until released by the
American troops. In this state of public feeling it
is not surprising that the ownership of 400,000 of the
BEST ACRES IN THE ISLANDS bj tlic rcligious ordcrs
caused an agrarian revolt among their tenants, and
the question of the collection of their rents, their title
to the land being clear, became a very serious one.
They did not collect any rents from 1896 to 1903.
Courts were then opened and the friars had the right
to resort to them for collection, not only of the rents
just accruing but also for the rents from 1898, A
general attempt to collect such rents must have re-
sulted in judgments. There w^ould have followed the
eviction of some 60,000 people at the instance of the
unpopular religious orders. The situation was criti-
cal. A visit to Rome for consultation upon this ques-
tion seemed wise, and it was undertaken.
A general basis of agreement w^as reached with th«
Vatican, and after a year of negotiation in the
islands a price was fixed upon the lands and the con-
tract of purchase made last December ; the money for
the purchase price has been borrowed and is in the
banks awaiting perfecting of the titles and the sur-
veys necessary for the description of the land. " As an
accompaniment of the purchase of the lands and a re-
sult much to be desired, the number of friars in the
islands has been reduced from something over 1,000
* The "friar lands" have since been transferred to the
United States. — Authob.
THE QUESTION OF INDEPENDENCE. 529
in 1898 to about 246 on the 1st of January, 1904, and
of these 246, 83 are Dominicans who have renounced
any right to go into the parishes, 50 are infirm and
unable to do any work, so that only about 100 are
available, and many of these are engaged in educa-
tional work. The intervention of the Spanish friars,
therefore, ceases to become important, because
there are not enough of them in the 900 parishes to
cause any considerable disturbance. This certainly
removes a great cause of contention and contributes
to the tranquility of the islands.
And now, gentlemen, what of the future ? It has
been strongly urged by a large number of citizens of
high standing that we ought now to promise ultimate
independence to the Filipinos. I beg, respectfully, to
differ from this view. The promise which it is pro-
posed to give is a promise w^hich must be conditioned
on THE FITNESS OF THE FiLiPiNos for self-govcm-
ment. The promise holds up to the people of the
islands for constant discussion as a present issue the
question, "Are we now fitted for self-government ?"
There may be some people in Manila and the islands
who know and are ready to say that the people are
unfitted, but, on the other hand, the Filipinos are not
different from other people, and the great majority
of them would say with emphasis, "We are entirely
fitted for self-government." The moment therefore
that formal promise is made that the Filipinos shall
34
530 THE PHILIPPINES.
have independence when they are fitted for it, it willl
be accepted by them as a promise of independence in
the immediate future.
Dealing with the Filipinos, we must speak with
exact truth. The truth may be unpalatable, but they
will accept it. But w^e must not mislead them. Xow,
if we are right in our plan that we have begim, of
trying to do this people good, of extending to them
civil liberty, of giving them an opportunity for educa-
tion, and of learning the art of self-government and
political control by exercising a part of it, then it is
essential that they should assist, as far as possible, in
the government, and should help it along. The move-
ment, in order to be a success, must needs have the
support of the intelligent and conserv^ative, but if the
issue as to their fitness for self-government is thrust
into politics, and the construction of the promise as
one of the immediate future follows as it certainly
will, then the interest in the present government, even
on the part of the most conservative, must wane, and
the plans for a gradual education of the Filipinos in
self-government must fail. I agree that if all one
wishes to do is to set a government going, to fill its
offices with intelligent Filipinos, and then to abandon
the islands, one may readily fix a time for the purpose,
but that is not my idea of the duty of the United
States^ now that we are in the islands. If it is, our
plan of education is wholly at fault. The moment
that we move out of the islands, if we leave in the
THE QUESTION OF INDEPENDENCE. 531
few years proposed, the American teachers will go,
and the study of English, which has received such
an impetus from their presence, will cease to be
regarded as a benefit, education will fall by the way-
side, and a return will rapidly be made to the condi-
tion which existed under Aguinaldo.
• •••••
ITow, in such a condition of things, when the pres-
ence of the United States in the islands is necessary
to maintain order and sustain a well-ordered govern-
ment, to secure civil rights to the people, and to aliens
with vested interests, it seems to me most unwise
to introduce an issue by a promise of conditional
independence which will wean the people away from
the importance of the present government and invite
them to a discussion of the wisdom of an absolute
change. If the people are fit for self-government,
then I agree that the declaration ought to be made,
and that we ought to turn the islands over. It is a dif-
ference on this point that is the real difference between
the signers of the petition to the conventions for a
promise of independence and those who oppose the
signers. I have heard it said by people who have not
thought much on the subject that they did not see
any great difference between the view of the sign-
ers of the petition for independence and mine.
The difference is fundamental. They are really
in favor of an Aguinaldo government with a gloss of
declarations in favor of liberty and constitutional
532 THE PHILIPPINES.
freedom and the bill of rights, which, I verily believe,
will never have any force whatever. I am in favor
of teaching the people how to govern themselves, and
I cannot assume that such a lesson, so difficult to learn,
can be taught to a people 90 per cent, of whom are
grossly ignorant to-day, without any political experi-
ence whatever, in five years, as some of our opponents
say, or in twenty years, as others suggest.
I regard the learning of English as one of the im-
portant steps in the education of these people, im-
portant in creating a solidarity among the people ami
in enabling the people to understand each other,
important in bringing them into touch with the Anglo-
Saxon world where they shall drink in the principles
of civil liberty. My standpoint is the benefit of the
^Filipino people. To state the matter succinctly, we
have secured to the Filipinos, by what we have done,
civil liberty, and we are gradually extending to therii
political control. What the opponents of our policy
in effect and result are contending for is that we
should turn the islands over to a small minority, Avho
will establish a government in which civil liberty
WILL BE LOST and political control reside with a few.
The standpoint of the signers of the petition and
others who stand with them seems to be that of de-
cently getting rid of a nasty job. I differ with them
first, in thinking that the discharge of the duty which
is imposed upon us is a bad job or that it is going to
involve any such disaster as is prophesied. It is
THE LOGIC OF THE SITUATION. 533
flaid that it will implant the spirit of tyranny and
absolutism in this comitry.
As long as those who exercise authority in the
Philippine Islands are responsible to the eighty mil-
lions of people in this country the spirit of absolutism
is sure to be kept well in abeyance. What it will
develop, on the contrary, is the spirit of altruism, of
a desire to help a poor people who need our help, of
a desire to lift them up and to do it at the expense of
great national effort and sacrifice. Xow, this is said
to be, by those who speak for the petitioners, so
altruistic as to be what they would call ^'sentimental'^
or ''lunar politics." I do not agree. Those who urge
the delivery over of the islands in a few years evi-
dently think it sufficient if we frame a government,
set it w^orking, and let it go. In their anxiety to get
rid of the islands, they put themselves unconsciously
in the attitude of the United States Senator who, in
expressing his earnest desire to get rid of the Philip-
pines, CONSIGNED THEM TO HELL. Their auxicty finds
its reason in the fear that the American people, deriv-
ing advantage from association with the Philippine
Islands of a commercial and financial character, will
never be willing to give up their control over the
islands, how^ever fit the Filipinos may become for self-
government. It is their distrust of the American
people that leads such men into anxiety to get rid of
the Filipino people before the association shall be-
come profitable.
oc
534 THE PHILIPPINES.
Xow, I do not think that this feeling is justified,
because I feel sure that after the Filipino people
become well educated, and we have a decent gov-
ernment there in which the Filipino people take part,
and the Filipino people request independence, the
American people will grant it to them. Why should
we be impatient to leave the islands ? If we may
properly stay five ^ears or twenty years to prepare
the people, what objection on principle can there be
to our staying until our work is thoroughly done ?
If it will take forty or fifty years thoroughly to pre-
pare the people for popular government, is it not wiser
and better for the Filipinos to maintain the present
relation for that time than to allow the people to go
at the end of five years and fall into the habits of
certain so-called republics of revolution, anarchy, and
all sorts of misgovernments ? I do not dwell upon a
danger which will arise if we set going a government
that cannot maintain order and protect vested rights,
but foreign intervention in such a case is most proba-
ble. In such event the amount of self-government
allowed to the Filipinos by an intervening European
government is not likely to strain their capac-
ity, however limited. But it is said that the influ-
ence of governing the Philippines for a long time
upon our Government will be bad. I do not think
that thus far it has had an evil influence.
If it were a spoils government there, I agree that
it might become a stench in the nostrils of everyone.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ISLANDS. 535
but as a matter of fact tlie government has been en-
tirely nonpartisan. Without knowing the politics of
all the judges, and the other appointees of the islands,
I think it only fair to say that there are about as
many Democrats in the government as there are Re-
publicans. A civil-service law, much more stringent
than the national civil-service law, is enforced with
fidelity, and while there is much difficulty in obtain-
ing a suitable personnel for the whole government in
the islands, I think we have been fairly successful in
getting competent agents. ^Miile the criticism of the
anti-imperialists and their attacks upon the policy of
the Government worked great injury in misleading
the Filipinos into a continuance of the war, their
criticism has perhaps unwittingly been of some value
in upholding the standard of the government in
the islands, because it has put that government on
trial from the beginning, and has made every mem-
ber of it strain himself to make it worthy of approval.
A\Tiat the Filipino people need now, first of all,
is material development in the islands, and that the
people of the United States can secure them if the
Philippine government is given the requisite powers.
It is a development that under an independent govern-
ment would come much more slowly (if indeed it
came at all) than it will under the auspices of the
Government of the United States. Capital w^ll feel
greatly more secure under a government which has
the guiding hand and brake of the United States
536 THE PHILIPPINES.
than it would under Agninaldo and his followers.
The cost to the people of getting capital into the coun-
try will be vastly reduced. The permanence of the
improvements and their character will be much bet-
ter for the country under present conditions than
where the uncertainty of a changing government will
treble or quadruple the risk.
Our policy in the Philippines must be ^'The Phil-
ippines for the Filipinos." This duty we have as-
sumed and it is the duty which we shall doubtless dis-
charge. It is fortunate that this policy is also the
best policy , from a selfish standpoint, for thus we
have additional assurance of its being maintained.
The more we develop the islands, the more we teach
the Filipinos the methods of maintaining well-ordered
government, the more tranquility succeeds in the
islands, the better the business, the greater the
products, and the more profitable the association with
those islands in a business way. If we ultimately
take the Philippines in behind the tariff wall, as I
hope and pray we may, and give them the benefit for
their peculiar products of the markets of the United
States, it will have a tendency to develop that
WHOLE coiTNTEY, of iuvitiug the capital of the United
States into the islands, and of creating a trade be-
tween the islands and this country which cannot but
be beneficial to both. I^ow, under these circum-
stances, is it impracticable, is it wild to suppose that
THE POPULAR ASSEMBLY. 537
the people of the islands will understand the benefit
that they derive from such association with the United
States and w^ill prefer to maintain some sort of bond
60 that they may be within the tariff wall and enjoy
the markets, rather than separate themselves and
become independent and lose the valuable business
which our guardianship of them and our obligation
to look after them has brought to them ?
Have we not given an earnest of our real desire to
teach them the science of self-government by provid-
ing that in two years after the census shall be pub-
lished a popular assembly, which shall exercise equal
authority Avith the Commission in a legislative way
in the islands, shall be elected by popular vote ? I do
not look for very encouraging results from the first
or second session of this assembly. I have no doubt
that in the beginning there will be in the assembly ex-
treme and violent partisans of innnediate indepen-
dence and of autonomy and a protectorate and of a
great many other impracticable schemes, some of
which will include attempts to obstruct the govern-
ment. By proposed legislation of various kinds, mem-
bers will seek to accomplish purposes that are incapa-
ble of accomplishment by legislation, but I shall not
be discouraged at this, for that is to be expected of a
people who have had no legislative experience.
Ultimately they will reach the safe and sane con-
clusion that laws which are to be passed are those
which their experience justifies, and that discussion
538 THE PHILIPPINES.
and analysis and calm consideration and self-restraint
are all necessary for successful legislative measures.
It is said that we are giving them this legislature too
soon. I think my friend, Mr. Colquhoun, thinks so.
For my part I think not. The people desire it. It
will be an imperfect but useful medium of communi-
cating their wishes, and it will offer the most valuable
school to the intelligent part of the population in
the science of government. It must be borne in
mind that it is not only the 90 per cent, of ignorant
Filipinos who need to be tutored in the art of self-
government, but the reinaining 10 per cent., even in-
cluding the 1 per cent, of the cultured and educated,
are sadly in need of political education, and they may
find it in the popular assembly and may learn the
difference between theory and practice in carrying
on a just government.
Does it not seem rather unreasonable now to insist
upon promising independence in advance even of the
trial of the test of political capacity in the control of
one legislative chamber ?
But I am asked how capable of self-government
must the people become before we give them an
OPPORTUinTY TO BE INDEPENDENT^ if they will. Is
it to be a perfect government like Plato's Republic ?
If so, it will never come. The government by the
people of the Philippine Islands, like the government
by the people of other countries, will always have
defects. The only standard which can be laid down
THE DUTY OF THE UNITED STATES. 539
is that the common people shall be educated by ele-
mentary education to understand simple principles of
government, and to be capable of forming an intelli-
gent opinion, which shall control their officers while
in office. People among Avhom there is an intelligent
public opinion are capable of self-government. That
is the goal toward which we ought to move in the
Philippine Islands. If we follow out the programme,
which I hope we may, and it wins supporters as it
progresses, Ave may reasonably count on obtaining the
gratitude of the people of the Philippine Islands,
which President McKinley spoke of in his instruc-
tions to Secretary Root, when he said :
^^A HIGH AND SACRED OBLIGATION rCStS UpOU tllC
Government of the United States to give protection
for property and life, civil and religious freedom,
and wise, firm and unselfish guidance in the paths of
peace and prosperity to all the people of the Philip-
pine Islands. I charge this Commission to labor for
the full performance of this obligation, which con-
cerns the honor and conscience of their country, in
the firm hope that through their labors all the inhabi-
tants of the Philippine Islands may come to look
back with gratitude to the day when God gave vic-
tory to American arms at Manila and set their land
under the sovereignty and protection of the people of
the United States."
540 THE PHILIPPINES.
Concerning tlie objection that this is a new busi-
ness for the United States, which will have a demoral-
izing effect upon the nation, I think no one is able
to point out any injury which has thus far resulted to
the people of the United States except the expense
attendant upon the maintenance of law and order in
the islands during the insurrection, and the regret-
table loss of life which occurred. Certainly no one
thus far can show the baleful effects of that dreadful
spirit of greed which the opponents of the policy are
so prone to see in everything done with respect to the
Philippines. I challenge them to point out anything
which has been done to the Philippine Islands,
either immediately under the government there es-
tablished, or by the United States, which savors in
the least of a selfish use of those islands for the
benefit, either of the individuals in the United States
or of the Government itself. The only thing which
can be seriously made the basis of such a charge was
the attempt during the present session of Congress
to put in force the coastwise trading laws for the
benefit of the shipping of the United States in respect
to the trans-oceanic trade between the islands and
the United States, and that by Act of Congress has
now been postponed for two years longer. There has
been a rebate provided of the export duty on hemp
imported directly from the islands to the United
States. This has not affected injuriously the trade of
the islands, because the demand for hemp is so great
TAXPAYING CAPACITY. 541
that the islands have a monopoly in respect to it.
There has unexpectedly been caused by the rebate a
reduction of the income in the islands of about $250,-
000, because the equivalent Avhich was provided as a
counter benefit, to wit, the duties to be collected on
imports from the islands into the United States, has
not equaled the aggregate rebate on the hemp. This,
however, was a miscalculation by the legislators that
was pardonable and can easily be rectified. In every
other respect the legislation which has been enacted
has been in favor of the islands, including a gift
of three millions of dollars for the purpose of re-
lieving distress there. The attitude of those who sup-
port the Government in its policy is altruistic. It is
of one who out of a feeling friendly to the Fili-
pinos would sacrifice much to accomplish the pur-
poses of the Administration there. It is a feeling
wdiich does the nation credit, and a feeling that a
nation of the wealth and poAver that this nation has
may well afford to encourage.
The islands themselves give every indication of fur-
nishing revenue sufficient to carry out the plans Avhich
the United States may properly carry out in the ma-
terial and intellectual development of the country and
its people. The taxpaying capacity of the country
is, of course, determined by that w^hich it produces
for domestic and foreign use. For the last two or
three years the wealth produced in the islands has
542 THE PHILIPPINES.
been seriously impaired and reduced, not only by
the war and the cholera, but also and chiefly by the
loss of draft animals, ninety per cent, of Avhich have
succumbed to the rinderpest. Agriculture has been
dependent upon such animals and the recovery from
this blow must necessarily be slow. Congress appro-
priated three millions of dollars to assist the islands
in restocking plantations, but the enormous difficulties
attending the importation from other coimtries of
cattle which are able to live in the Philippines are
only known to those who have attempted it. I am
glad to say, however, that our scientists in the islands
have discovered a method of preventing a recurrence
and spread of the disease, so that when the plantations
are restocked rinderpest will have ]^o teerors for
THE FARMERS. With normal conditions in agricul-
ture, when the cattle shall have been restored bv
breeding and otherwise to their usual number, the
islands will always be self-supporting, and will, doubt-
less, furnish a surplus of revenue w^ith which to meet
the demands for improvements which present them-
selves in every part of the islands.
The Philippine Archipelago is the only country in
which can be produced Avhat is kno^^m as Manila
hemp, or what is called in the Spanish language
"ahacaf* ... Of the forty-one provinces of
the Philippine Islands, at least fifteen now produce
commercial quantities of hemp. To-day, owing to
the insufficient means of communication and trans-
NATURAL RESOURCES. 543
portation, many fields of hemp are allowed to rot and
are not stripped or used. In many of the provinces
there is wild hemp which is not so good in texture and
which it would be necessary to replace by cultivated
plants w^ere the opportunity offered to put it on the
market. From experiments by our Agricultural Bu-
reau, I have no doubt that the number of provinces in
which hemp could be raised might be doubled. The
DEMAND FOR HEMP IS SO GREAT that while an increase
in its production might reduce the price, the total
product would far exceed in value that which the sta-
tistics now show.
Many parts of the islands arc very rich in cocoa-
nuts. ... In the province of Laguna within the
last two years, since the war was over, there have been
planted more than five times the number of trees
which were there before. There is a constant market
for copra, which is the dried meat of the cocoanut,
and the price is rising. Since the demand for hemp
and cocoanuts has increased so largely planters have
abandoned the raising of rice, preferring to buy their
food out of the profit of the hemp or cocoanut indus-
try. Therefore, for ten or fifteen years it has been
the habit of the islands to import rice, although there
are no islands where rice will grow to better advantage
than in the Philippines. The amount of importation,
however, was comparatively small until the destruc-
tion of the draft cattle, three years ago, which re-
duced the actual amount of rice production in the
544 THE PHILIPPINES.
islands far below Avliat was necessary to feed the peo-
ple, and during the last year about $12,000,000, gold,
had to be expended in importing rice from French
China.
The sugar and tobacco industries in the islands are
CAPABLE OF A CONSIDERABLE INCREASE. The Islaud
of E'egros contains sugar land as rich as any in the
world, and the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and
Union, contain tobacco lands which, next to Cuba,
produce the best tobacco in the world, but the trouble
is that the markets for such sugar and tobacco have
been, by tariffs imposed in various countries, very
much reduced. Should the markets of the United
States be opened to the Philippines, it is certain that
both the sugar and the tobacco industry would become
thriving, and although the total amount of the product
in each would probably not affect the American mar-
ket at all, so extensive is the demand here for both
tobacco and sugar it would mean the difference be-
tween poverty and prosperity in the islands. I know
that the reduction of the tariff for this purpose is
much opposed by the interests w^hich represent beet
sugar and tobacco, but I believe that a great majority
of the people of the United States are in favor of
opening the markets to the Philippine Islands, con-
scious that it will not destroy either the beet sugar or
the tobacco industry of this country, and feeling that
as long as we maintain the association which we now
have with the Philippine Islands, it is our duty to
TRADE RELATIONS. 545
GIVE THEM THE BENEFIT of the markets of the United
States and bring them as close to our people and our
trade as possible. INTothing else will justify the appli-
cation of the coastwise trading laws to the trans-
oceanic trade between the United States and the Phil-
ippine Islands, but if they are invited to partake of
the benefits of the protection theory, they may well be
subjected to the rule that as between the United States
and themselves the products are to be transferred in
American bottoms.
Another immense source of wealth in the islands
is the ALMOST INEXHAUSTIBLE SUPPLY of the most
beautiful woods, of rubber, and of the most valuable
gums. These sources of wealth are hardly developed.
And now what as to the existing trade between
the United States and the Philippines. It is still
quite small, not exceeding five millions in any one
year of merchandise transferred from the United
States to the Philippines, but increasing largely in
the products transferred from the Philippines to the
United States. The latter increase, however, is not a
natural one. It is brought about by Congressional
legislation already mentioned, which confers the bene-
fit of $7.40 a ton rebate from export tax upon all
hemp transported directly from the Philippines to the
United States. The total business done between the
United States and the Philippines is something like
seventeen millions. With the restoration of normal
conditions in the islands, with the construction of
85
546 THE PHILIPPINES.
railways and other material development, then I have
no doubt that this trade between the United States
and the islands would be trebled in the course of five
years.
The conditions with respect to the business of the
United States merchants in the islands to-day are un-
fortunate, and their cause can easily be traced. The
Government of the United States went into the
islands under a distinct promise that it would gov-
ern the Philippines for the benefit of the Filipinos ;
that it would extend self-government to the Fili-
pinos as rapidly as they showed themselves fit for it,
and that as many Filipinos as possible would be used
in the personnel of the Government. This has always
been the attitude of the Government, and never, so
far as I know, has there been a single step of de-
parture from it. It was the attitude declared before
the war of insurrection began, while it was pending,
and at its close, and no resistance on the part of the
natives has varied our position in that regard. This
policy did not meet, as was natural, the ready assent
of all the army or of those persons who were in sym-
pathy with the army. The adventuresome spirits who
followed the army for the purpose of establishing a
business in its wake found that they had all that they
could do to supply the demand made by the army for
American goods, and as American capital came in
driblets or in larger sums it was turned into the busi-
ness of supplying the army with those things which
THE LOCAL BUSINESS. 547
the Government did not supply. Four or ^ve trading
companies were thus organized, embracing substan-
tially all the American enterprise that has appeared
in the islands during the first three or four years
of American occupation, xlmerican merchants thus
situated easily caught the feeling of hostility
and contempt felt by many of the soldiers for the
Filipinos, and were most emphatic in condemning the
policy of the Government in attempting to attract the
Filipinos and make them so far as might be a part
of the new civil order. The American newspapers
which were established readily took the tone of their
advertisers and their subscribers, and hence it is that
the American community in the Philippines to-day is
largely an anti-Filipino community. The 75,000 sol-
diers whose demands for supplies made their busi-
ness so profitable, have now been reduced to 15,000,
and the market which made the American merchants
for a time independent of the Filipinos has now
almost entirely disappeared. The condemnation by
such merchants of the Civil Government continues,
and they do not hesitate to make the Government the
scapegoat for the failure of business to improve. The
fact is that their customers have gone back to the
United States and that their attitude towards the Fili-
pinos is such that the Filipinos are not disposed to
patronize them. This is unfortunate, and there must
conie into the islands a new set of merchants who shall
view the situation from an entirely different stand-
648 THE PHILIPPINES.
point. There are 7,600,000 Filipinos. Of these, the
7,000,000 Christian Filipinos are imitative, anxious
for new ideas, willing to accept them, willing to fol-
low American styles, American sports, American
dress and American customs. A large amount of cot-
ton goods is imported into the islands each year, but
this is nearly all from England and Germany. There
is no reason why these cotton goods should not come
from America, except the fact that there are no
American houses in the islands that have devoted their
ATTENTION TO WINNING FiLIPINO TRADE. I am liot
a business man, but I know enough to assert that it
is not the best way to attract custom from an alien
people to call them names, to make fun of them, and
to decry every effort towards their advancement and
development. In other words, the American mer-
chants in the Philippines have gotten off on the wrong
foot. There should be a radical change.
There are a few projected railroad lines in the
Philippines which it would be possible to induce capi-
tal to build without a guaranty of income, but it is
wiser, it seems to the Commission, to attempt to in-
troduce a general system of railways than to have a
link built here and a link built there and to await
the process of time before trunk lines shall be es-
tablished. For instance, it is quite probable that a
short line of forty or fifty miles would be constructed
without a guaranty in the province of Legaspi, where
is the rich hemp business and where it has been cus-
THE PROJECTED RAILROADS. 5i9
tomarj during the last two or three hemp seasons to
pay forty dollars Mexican a day for a carahao cart ;
so, perhaps, it would be possible to secure the con-
struction of a line without a guaranty from Manila
south to Batangas, though of this I am not certain.
"With the hope, however, of bringing capital in con-
siderable amount to the islands, a bill has been pre-
pared, which has passed the House, authorizing the
Philippine Government to grant fra^s^chises for the
CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAYS witli a guaranty of in-
come of not more than five per cent, on the amount
actually invested for not exceeding thirty years. In
most cases a guaranty of a less percentage w^ould be
sufficient, but my impression is that with respect to
the main trunk line from Aparri to Manila, the diffi-
culties of construction and the delay in securing a
profitable business would probably require an as-
surance of five per cent, dividends. The opposition
of those who oppose the investment of any American
capital in the islands which shall furnish a motive
for a longer association between the two countries
than is absolutely necessary may postpone the passage
of the bill until the next session of Congress.* I shall
deeply regret the delay, bvit I am not discouraged, for
as long as I continue in my present position I expect
* The Commission has been granted authority to malie
the . contracts in question and construction will be com-
menced upon the contemplated railroad sj^stem early in
190C. — Author.
550 THE PHILIPPINES.
to press the legitimate claims of the Philippine
Islands upon a just and generous Government for
such authority in the local government as will permit
a proper development of the material resources of the
islands; and the delay in legislation, which is inci-
dent, not to the opposition of a majority but to the
opposition of a small minority, w^hile it is apt to try
one's patience, ought nevertheless not to discourage.
I come now to the question of labor^ which has
been made the basis for the most discouraging ac-
counts of conditions in the Philippine Islands. The
Pilipino is a tropical laborer. In times past a large
amount of rice has been raised in the islands, a large
amount of tobacco, a large amount of sugar, and a
large amount of hemp, and they all involve, as a ma-
terial part of the cost of their production, the labor
of the natives. The Chinamen, who have been said
by mistaken persons to number a million or a million
and a half in the islands, in fact do not number 100,-
000, and none of them do any agricultural work of
any kind in the Philippine Islands. The Filipino is
naturally an agriculturist. AMien you go through his
village in the middle of the day you will probably see
him lounging about the window or on the seat in front
of his house, and you will ascribe to him the laziest
habits, because you do not know that he has been
up at four o'clock in the morning and has worked
from that time until nine or ten in the fields, and
that he will begin work again at four o'clock and work
THE LABOR QUESTION. 551
for two or three hours until sundown or later. The
American merchant is loud in his denunciation of the
insufficiency of the Filipino laborer. This is because
the PRICE OF LABOR HAS PROBABLY DOUBLED siuCC the
Americans went there, and he has heard the tale of
how cheap labor was before the Spanish regime ended.
He also compared the cost of labor in the Philippine
Islands with that in Hong Kong, and he finds that
is very considerably less all over China. I am not
contending that the labor in the Philippines is as good
as Chinese labor, for that labor is the best in the
world, probably, when economy in wages and effi-
ciency in product are considered, but what I wish to
dispute is that the labor conditions in the Philippines
are hopeless. The city of Manila has under its con-
trol, and in its employment, about 3,000 laborers, and
they are paid all the way from fifty cents Mexican to
$1.25 Mexican, and there is no complaint whatever
on the part of the authorities that their work is not
properly and well done. The Quartermaster's De-
partment of the army has about the same number,
and their reports of the efficiency of Filipino labor
are exceedingly encouraging. We have now employed
really as coolies on the BengTiet Koad in the most
difficult drilling and construction work about 3,000
natives, and while their efficiency is nothing like that
of the American, in the accomplishment of work in
proportion to the pay, they probably get through about
as much. The men who are constructing the harbor
552 THE PHILIPPINES.
works at Manila — The Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf
Company — have employed upwards of 800 to 1,000
Pilipinos in their quarries. At first they found it
very difficult to secure workmen, but now they have
MOKE LABOR THAiq- THEY NEED. They usc about eight
per cent, of white foremen and the rest natives. They
give to the natives houses, furnish a church, a band, a
cock pit and a school. On their fiesta days they give
them vacation. They have less desertions, less absen-
teeism, than with Americans. These experiments
only show that the solution of the labor problem in
the Philippines is teaching the Filipinos how to work.
Sir William Van Home reports that he found much
difficulty originally in the construction of the Cuban
railways because the natives were not acquainted with
how the work should be done, but that by means of
white foremen they were easily taught, and that then
they made good laborers. I feel sure that the same .
thing will prove to be true of the Filipinos.
There is doubtless a great deal of mineral wealth in
the islands, but it will only be available after trans-
portation shall have been introduced. It is not an
island with a bonanza mine in it, though at some dis-
tant day such a vein may be discovered there. There
is CERTAii^LY COAL T^ THE iSLAi^'DS in Considerable
quantities. There is now between the islands a con-
siderable inter-island trade, and there are quite a large
number of ships engaged therein. Without it the
islands could not live ; it is their arterial circulation.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 553
The present system might be much improved by in-
troducing American generous methods of dealing
with the public. About two and a half millions of
capital has been invested in a street railway in
Manila, which will be completed next Thanksgiving
Day.* This will certainly change one of the annoying
and expensive features of Manila life, and will give
to the residents of the city opportunity to cut down
their present expense of living at least twenty-five per
cent. There is no city in the w^orld where there is so
much traveling done in carriages, due to the fact that
people may not walk about safely under the tropical
sun. The presence of a street railway will do away
with the necessity for many of these conveyances, and
the streets will be less used and their condition much
improved.
There is a sufficient continuous fall of water in
STREAMS within practicable distance of Manila to fur-
nish electrical power exceeding fifteen thousand horse
power. With the high price of coal this is an im-
portant aid to manufacturers.
The English houses and the Spanish houses who
have dealt in the export trade in the islands have
earned large profits during the occupancy of the
United States.
It is said that the health of the islands is such as
to preclude Americans from going there. This is not
* It is now operating about thirty-five miles of line in a
highly satisfactory manner. — Author.
554 THE PHILIPPINES.
true. The climate does prevent one from going out
into the sun in the middle of the day, and so prevents
his working in the fields as a laboring man, but it is
entirely possible for one to live in the islands for
years, and if he does not neglect the ordinary rules
of hygiene, to be free from bad health. The province
of Benguet, which is 150 miles from Manila, and
which will soon be reached by a railroad and an elec-
tric road in twelve hours, offers a climate quite like
the summer climate of the Adirondacks or of Canada.
Under the land regulations, which go into force at
the time of the adjournment of Congress, a summer
CAPITAL IS TO BE ESTABLISHED at Baguio, and town
lots in the same place will be offered at public auc-
tion. Americans engaged in business may, at small
cost, buy lots and erect houses and live there as many
months of the year as they choose, except the months
of August and September, which are usually so wet
as to make it unprofitable. During remaining months
of the year the climate is beautiful, the temperature
going down as low as 35 degrees Fahrenheit, and
rarely, if ever, reaching 80 degrees.
It is estimated that not more than five millions of
acres of land are owned by natives in the islands, and
that the remainder, sixty-five millions, is owned by
the Government. This remainder will, under the land
regulations, be opened for settlement and purchase
at the adjournment of the present session of Con-
gress. There is every prospect that the land will be
THE REQUISITE OF PROSPERITY. 555
taken up by both Filipinos and Americans. The
maximum limitation for purchase by a company is
2,500 acres. This limitation is much too low for
the cultivation of sugar, but is sufficiently extensive
for the cultivation of other products. There is a pro-
vision in the law by which irrigation companies may
own stock in land companies, so that probably the lim-
itation may be evaded if private profit requires. The
FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS of COUrSC it
would be dangerous to prophesy with certainty, but
Avith a change in the hygienic conditions that surround
life, due to an effective board of health, with a sup-
ply of pure water from the sinking of driven wells all
over the country, which the pending bill in Congress
will encourage, I feel sure that the population will
rapidly increase.
We hold the Philippines for the benefit of Fili-
pinos and we are not entitled to pass a single act or
approve a single measure that has not that as its chief
purpose. But it so happens, and it fortunately so
happens, that generally everything we do for the
benefit of the Filipinos and the Philippines will only
make their association with the United States more
profitable to the United States. I do not base my
prayer for a continuance of the present policy toward
the Philippine Islands on selfish grounds, but as this
is the Chamber of Commerce, and as it is naturally
interested in the possibilities of commerce in these dis-
tant islands, I have felt justified in referring more
656 THE PHILIPPINES.
than heretofore to the industrial conditions existing
there and the possibility of improvement and the in-
crease of trade between the United States and the
Philippines.
The fikst requisite of prosperity in the Philip-
pine Islands is tranquility, and this should be evi-
denced by a well-ordered government. The Filipinos
must be taught the advantages of such a government,
and they should learn from the government which is
given them the disadvantages that arise to everybody
in the country from political agitation for a change
in the form of government in the immediate future.
Hence it is that I have ventured to oppose with all
the argument that I could bring to bear the petition
to the political conventions asking that independence
be promised to the Filipinos. It is not that I am
opposed to independence in the islands, should the
people of the Philippines desire independence w^hen
they are fitted for it, but it is that the great present
need in the islands is tranquility, the great present
need in the islands is the building up of a permanent,
well-ordered government, the great present need in
the islands is the increase of the saving remnant of
conservative Filipinos whose aid in uplifting and
maintaining the present government on a partly popu-
lar and strictly civil liberty basis, shall be secured. A
promise such as that which is petitioned for cannot
but introduce at once into the politics of the islands
the issue of independence, of present fitness for self-
THE BROADER POLICY. 557
government, and will frighten away from the sup-
port of the present government the conservative ele-
ment which is essential to its success, and yet which
is always timid lest by a change bringing the violent
and the irreconcilable to the front, they shall suffer
by reason of their prominence in aid of the present
government. The promise to give independence helps
no one. Theee is no need of that promise to
secure tranquility because we have tranquility in the
islands. It is certain to be misunderstood as a prom-
ise to be complied with in the present generation, and
if, as is probable, the people shall not be fitted for self-
government in the present or the next generation, then
the failure to give it will be regarded as a breach.
Why not let the politics of the islands take care of
themselves ? Why should the good people who signed
the petition intermeddle with something the effect of
which they are very little able to understand. Why
not take the broader policy, which is that of doing
everything beneficial to the Philippine Islands, of
giving them a full market, of offering them an op-
portunity to have railroads built extensively through
the islands, and of having a tranquility which is essen-
tial to the development of their business and their
prosperity ; why not insist on the spread of the educa-
tional system, of an improvement in the health laws,
and subject everything that is done in the islands to
an examination as to whether it is beneficial to the
Filipino people, and then when all has been done
558 THE PHILIPPINES.
for the Philippines that a government can do, and
they have been elevated and taught the dignity of
labor, the wisdom ol civil liberty and self-restraint in
the political control indispensable to the enjoyment of
civil liberty, when they have learned the principles of
successful popular self-government from a gradually
enlarged experience therein, we can discuss the ques-
tion whether independence is w^hat they desire and
grant it, or whether they prefer the retention of a
closer association with the country Avhich, by its guid-
ance, has unselfishly led them on to better conditions.
INDEX.
INDEX
Abaca, 47, 65.
conditions of culture, 287-
89.
expenses and profits of
cultivation, 292-95, 542,
543,
export trade, 259-62.
habitat, 286.
bemp districts, 286, 287.
method of extraction, 289-
92.
Aborigines, vide Negritos.
Abra, Province of, 33.
Agno River, 30.
Agriculture, 285-345.
abaca, 286-95.
cacao, 334-44.
coffee, 323-30.
copra and cocoanut oil, 311-
19.
cotton, 297, 298.
field for Americans, 351-53.
Filipino laborers, 349-51.
maguey, 296, 297.
minor products, 344-47.
primitive methods, 347-49.
rice, 331-34.
sugar, 298-301.
tobacco, .301-10.
Agusan River, 59.
Albay, Province of, 47, 48,
388
Alcaldes. 182, 183.
Ambos Camarines, Province
of, 45, 46.
American administration, 205-
29.
administration of justice,
213, 214.
autonomy, 517, 518.
bonded ind' btedness, 228,
229.
American admin. — Continued,
census, 230-38.
central government and leg-
islative authority, 205-09.
civil service, 215, 216.
currency, 219, 220.
education, 218, 219, 519-21.
friars, 526-29.
government of Manila, 227,
228.
government positions, 217.
health, 231.
judiciarj^ system, 523, 524.
means of communication,
220, 221.
navigation, 230, 231.
popular assembly, 537.
provincial and municipal
governments, 210-13.
public works, 521-23.
review of, by Secretary
Taft, 517-57.
sources of revenue, 230.
suppression of ladronism,
519.
Apo Volcano, 60, 61.
Audencia, 192-94.
Bajaus, 105.
Bamboo, 246.
Banditti, 472, 473, 519, 525.
Bataan, Province of, 37.
Batangas, Province of, 42, 43.
Bataan, Province of. 42, 43.
Benguet, Province of, 34, 35,
278, 385, 387.
Binondo, 410-12.
Bohol, Island of —
characteristics of natives,
483, 484.
physical features, resources,
etc., 53, 54.
561
562
INDEX.
Bohol, Island of — Continued.
population and area, 18.
Siquijor, 484-86.
uprising in, 1.54, 155.
Bonded indebtedness, 228, 229.
British invasion, 151, 152.
Bulacan, Province of, 39, 40.
Cacao, 334-44.
cultivation, 335-37.
expense and profits, 337-44.
Cagayan, Province of, 32, 33.
River, 30.
Carabao, 348, 349, 441-43.
Cathedral, 402-04.
Cattle-raising, 381-85, 478.
Cavite, 397, 398.
insurrection, 156, 157.
Province of, 412.
Cebu City, 479-82, 522.
Cebu, Island of —
capital, 479-82.
physical features, resources,
etc., 54, 55.
population and area. 18.
proposed railroad, 57.
uprisings in, 483.
Census, 230-38.
Chinese —
conflicts with, 145-47. -^
costume and manner of life,
414, 415.
expulsion of, 147.
immigration, 144.
influence on trade, 147, 148.
invnsion, 96, 97.
Churches, 405.
Civil service system, 115-17.
Climate. 69-71."
Coal, 44. 48. .387-89.
Cock-fighting. 418-20, 453, 454.
Cocoanut oil. 311-13, 468.
Coffee, 67, 274, 275.
culture, 323-26.
in Benguet, 327-30,
Commerce, 224, 241-81,
balance of trade, 253-57.
export trade, 257-75.
internal, 466.
Manila's future, 423-26.
Manila opened to foreign,
247.
map, 425.
Real Compaiiia Filipinas,
244-47.
trade with Mexico, 241-44.
transportation, 276-81.
Copper, 68, 385, 386.
Copra, 66, 273, 274, 313-19,
468,
Costumes, 412, 414.
Cotton fiber, 297, 298.
Cultivation, area of, 358, 359;
vide various products.
Currency system, 219, 220.
Datos, vide Mores.
Dutch attack the Colony, 143,
144.
Early inhabitants. 82-90.
Earthquakes, 28, 29, 399, 400.
Education of the Filipinos,
218, 219, 519-21.
Elcano, Juan Sebastian, the
first circumnavigator of
the world, 122.
Encomenderos, 113, 114, 181,
1S2.
Export trade, 257-75,
Fauna of the Philippines, G3,
64.
Filipinos —
as laborers. .^tq.5t. 550-52.
character of. 90-100.
education, 218, 219.
fitness for self-government.
529-34.
INDEX.
5G3
Filipinos — Continued.
home life, 435-41.
pastimes, 448-60.
peasant character, 443-45.
superstitions, 445-47.
Flora ol" the Philippines, 64-5.
Forests, 3(>1, 362, 366-76.
Forestry regulations, 375-76.
Friars, The —
attempts to Christianize Ja-
pan, 140-42, 149, 150.
conflicts with civil authori-
ties, 132-36, 527.
Important services of, 137-
30.
loss of influence, 139, 140.
purchase of their lands,
221, 222, 528, 529.
rise in power of, 129-32, 526.
Gold, 46, 386, 387.
Governors-general, 180, 181.
Guimaras, Island of, 467-69.
Gutta-percha, 385-87.
Health, 226.
Highways, 187-89, 221, 278,
279, 521-23.
Holy Child of Cebu, 480.
Igorots, 100-04.
I locos Norte, Province of, 33,
34.
Ilocos Sur, Province of. 33, 34.
Iloilo. 466-71, 522.
Import trade, 253-57,
Indigo, 344, .345.
Internal dissensions, 128-36.
Iron, 68, 387.
Isabella, Province of, 32, 33,
.381.
Jolo, vide Sulu.
Judiciary system, 195-200,
213-14, 523, 524.
Juramentados, 499-500.
Katipunan Sociey, 162.
Labor, vide Filipinos.
La Union, Province of, 33, 34.
Laguna de Bombon, vide Lake
Taal.
Laguna, Province of, 40, 41.
Lake Taal, 22, 23.
Legaspi, Miguel Lopez de,
first governor, 123.
subjects the natives, 124,
125.
Lepanto-Bontoc, Province of,
33, 385, 387.
Leyte, Island of —
industries, 486, 487.
physical features, resources,
etc., 53.
population and area, 18.
proposed railroad, 53.
uprising in, 155.
Li Ma Hung invades the Phil-
ippines, 126, 127.
Lumber vide woods, commer-
cial.
Lumber industry, 369-76.
Luzon, Island of —
descripive, 431-60.
mountains, 21.
physical features, 20-2.
population and area, 18.
provincial division of re-
sources, 32-48.
railroad extension, 49.
rivers, 29-31.
Magellan, early career of, l*"*o.
discovers the Philippines,
122.
Maguey fiber, 296, 297.
INIaize. 345.
Malayan migrations, 79-82,
491-98.
564
INDEX.
Manila —
captured by British, 151.
city improvements, 227.
commercial future, 423-27.
description of old and new,
391-422.
harbor improvements, 225.
map of, 401.
map of proposed improve-
ments, 418.
municipal government, 210,
211.
opened to foreign trade, 247.
port improvements, 280,
281.
suburbs, 410-18.
Manila hemp, tide abaca.
Marinduque, Island of —
physical features, resources,
etc., 50.
population and area, 18.
Mariveles, 396, 397.
Masbate, Island of —
cattle industry, 478.
physical features, resources,
etc., 51.
population and area, 18.
Mayon volcano, 28, 29.
Mestizos, 414-16.
Mindanao, Island of —
Basilan, 506-08.
inhabitants, 493-506.
Malay invasion, 491-93.
physical features, resources,
etc., 58-61, 491-.508.
population and area, 18.
Mindoro, Island of —
physical features, resources,
etc., 50.
population and area, 18.
refuge of criminals, 472,
473.
Minerals, 46, 48, 58, 68, 69,
278, 385-89.
Monteses, 465, 466.
Moros —
characteristics and manner
of living, 106-12.
clash with Spaniards, 149.
costumes and customs, 497-
99.
datos, 501.
depredations, 471, 472.
government, 113.
invasion of southern arch-
ipelago, 491-93.
juramentados, 499, 500.
origin, 104.
present tribes, 495-97.
religion and superstitions,
502-05.
social organization, 493-95.
various tribes, 104-06.
Municipal government, 189-92,
210, 211.
Native uprisings, 152-57, 168-
72, 179.
Negritos, 75-8.
Negros. Island of —
physical features, resources,
etc., 55, 56.
population and area, 18.
proposed railroad. 56. .
sugar industry, 473-75.
Nipa, .34(>, .347.
Nueva Ecija, Province of, 38,
39, 381-84.
Nueva Vizcaya, Province of,
33, 381-84.
Pacto de Biac-na-bate, 170,
171.
Palace, 404, 405.
Palawan, vide Paragua.
Pampanga, Province of, 37,
38.
Pampanga River, 30, 31.
Panay, Island of — •
capital, 466-71.
INDEX.
565
Panay, Island of — Continued.
physical features, resources,
etc., 5(>-8..
population and area, 18.
proposed railroad, 57.
Pangasinan, Province of, 35,
3G.
Paragua, Island of —
physical features, etc., 58.
population and area, 18.
Pasig River, 31, 398, 399.
Pearl industry, 511-14.
Philippine Archipelago —
agriculture, 285-345.
climate, 69-71.
commerce, 241-281.
cultivated area, 359, 360.
early history, 119-57.
fauna and flora, 63-5.
forest lands, 3()1, 362.
geographical position of, 17.
inhabitants, 75-116.
islands contained in, 18.
minerals, 68.
physical features, 18-20.
political, social and eco-
nomic conditions reviewed
in addresses of Wm. H.
population, 112-16.
public lands, 358, 359.
rivers, 20.
Taft (q. v.), 515-59.
vegetable products. 65,
Popnlntion, past and present,
112-16.
Ports. 280. 281, 466, 479, 481,
511, 522.
Postal system. 220.
Provincial government, 184-
86, 211. 212.
Public lands, 357, 358, 554,
555.
Railroads. 36. 49, .52. 53, 55,
56, 57, 276-78, 248-50.
Revenue, 225, 541.
Rice, 67, 255, 256.
varieties, 331, 332.
yield, 332-34, 543, 544,
Rio Grande de Mindanao, 59,
60.
Rizal, Jose, 163-68.
Rizal, Province of, 40.
Rubber plant, 380, 381.
Salcedo, Juan, 124-26.
Samals, 79, 80, 82, 104, 106,
496.
Samar, Island of —
capital, 477.
natural beauties, 475-77.
physical features, resources,
etc., 52.
population and area, 18.
remontados, 477.
Santiago fortress, 406-08.
Siquijor, Island of, 484-86.
Sorsogon, Province of, 48, 49.
Spanish administration, 180-
200.
alcaldes, 182, 184.
audencia, 192-94.
encomenderos, 181, 182.
governors-general, 180, 181.
judicial system, 195-200.
municipal officials, 189-92.
provincial governors, 184-86.
Spices, 67.
Sugar, 66, 262, 269, 298-301,
468, 469, 473-75, 482-544,
Sulu Archipelago, vide Sulu
and Tawi Tawi.
Sulu City, .509-11.
Sulu, Island of — •
capital, .509-11.
pearl industry, 511-14.
physical features, resources,
etc., 62.
population and area, 18.
566
INDEX.
Taal volcano, 22, 23.
story of eruption, 24-7.
Taft, Wm. H., Review of po-
litical, social and eco-
nomic conditions of the
Islands, by, 515-59.
Tagal rebellion, 168-72.
Tarlac, Province of, 37.
Tawi Tawi, Islands of —
physical features, resources,
etc., ()2.
population and area, 18.
Tayabas, Province of, 43, 44.
Tea, 68.
Telegraph and telephone sys-
tems, 220, 221.
Teosinte, 345, 346.
Tobacco, 32, 66, 74, 270-72.
as an investment, 305-09.
curing, 303, 304.
method of cultivation, 301,
302.
Visayan, 469, 470, 544,
Treaty of Paris, 176, 177.
Tuba, method of gathering,
467, 468.
Visayan Islands, ride Mas-
bate, Leyte, Saniar, Bo-
hol, Cebu, Negros and
Panay, 463-514.
^banditti, 472, 473.
boat-building, 487.
characteristics of the na-
tives, 4<»3-<>5.
grazing grounds, 478.
Guimaras, 4<)7-69.
historic sites, 479-83.
Iloilo, 466-71.
natural beauties, 475-77.
remontados, 478.
Siquijor, 484-86.
sugar industry, 473-75.
Visavans, characteristics of,
463-65.
Volcanoes, vide Taal, Mayon
and Apo.
Walled City of Manila, 399-
410.
Water-power, 553.
Weaving industries, 470.
Woods, commercial, 65, 362-
6<).
Zacate, 337.
Zambales, Province of, 36, 37.
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