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LIBRARY
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^
OUTLINES
OF
ENTOMOLOGY.
PREPARED FOR THE USE OF FARMERS AND HORTICULTURISTS.
AT THE BEQUEST OF THE SECRETAKY OP THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE AND
THE STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETT OF MISSOURI.
BY MARY Ef MURTFELDT.
KIRKWOOD, MISSOURI.
JEFFERSON CITY, MO.:
TRIBUNE PRINTING COMPANY, STATB PRINTERS AND BINDERS,
1891.
Copyrighted by M. £. Aiurtfeldt.
1891.
O
PREFACE.
lu preparing the following pages, as an introduction to the science
of Entomology, the primary object has been to supply a need of the
farmer and horticulturist. For while the ravages of noxious insects
have an indirect effect upon the prosperity and convenience of every
one, it is to the agriculturist more directly that their absence or preva-
lence brings financial success or failure. It is true that there are
already almost innumerable publications, many of them of great value,
on the subject of economic entomology, as well as those of more strictly
scientific importance, all of which are accessible to any inquirer ; but
it is undeniable that a lack of some general knowledge of the life
histories of insects, and an unfamiliarity with many of the terms used
in description, deprive those for whom they are prepared of a large
share of ihe benefit they might derive from them.
I do not ignore the fact that this want has been realized by many of
our most distinguished entomologists, and that several text-books have
been prepared to meet it; but the objective to these is, that the authors
have gone into the subject too thoroughly, have dwelt upon points of
structure that the business man has neither time nor skill to trace out,
have discussed phenomena that are chiefly interesting to the philoso-
pher, and which make the study seem too abstruse.
The following pages are an attempt at something more elementary,
remembering that there are those who have yet to learn the difference
between a beetle and a bug, or between a moth and a butterfly ; to whom
the transformations of insects offer a puzzle which they cannot solve,
and who are completely daunted and discouraged by a half-dozen suc-
cessive technical terms. This little introduction aims to help the be-
ginner over some of the first difficulties he is liable to encumber in
taking up the subject systematically, and the author hopes it will be
the means of attracting him to the study of the more exact and com-
prehensive treatises of Dr. Packard, Prof. Comstock and others.
Incomplete and simple as this work is, it is hoped, however, that
the definitions are sufficiently explicit to enable the student to place all
200424
II PRBPAOB.
the more common iDsects in their proper order, and in most cases to
find the family with which they correspond in structure and habit. So
far as possible, throughout the work technical terms and scientific
names have been subordinated to popular ones, although for the sake of
precision and to accustom the reader to their use, the former are nearly
always given. While the illustrations are not so numerous as could
be wished, the objects themselves are so easily obtained that the
reader can supply the deficiency from the pages of nature, and it is
most earnestly recommended that he will in all cases try to do so.
Insects need no especial preparation for study, except to kill them with
the fumes of chloroform or by immersion in alcohol or gasoline. But*
terflies and moths and the two-winged fiies cannot be placed in fluids
without injury, but all the other sorts are unharmed by the process.
A hand lens, a bit of cork and a few needles and pins are all the appli>
ances needed for a study of the superficial structure of the large or
medium-sized species with which it is best to begin.
If the writer shall succeed in introducing this delightful branch of
natural history to even a few of those who are surrounded by the beau-
ful and interesting objects discussed, and if in these pages the victim
of insect depredations obtains a few hints concerning the vulnerable
stages in the lives of his tiny but collectively potent foes, the work will
not have been done in vain.
In conclusion, I must acknowledge my great indebtedness to the
works of Dr. 0. V. Riley, U. S. Entomologist, Dr. A, S. Packard, whose
" Guide" and Entomology for Beginners " are so admirably adapted to
th^ use of those desiring a thorough knowledge of the structure of in-
sect forms, and to Prof. Oomstock's more technical and elaborate " Intro-
duction,"
Among other authors from whose works I have obtained much as-
sistance are Professors Fernald, Cook, French, Osborne, the Rev. Dr»
McOook, Messrs. Howard, Henshaw and Saunders.
The illustrations used are mostly from electrotypes purchased from
Dr. 0. V. Riley, and from drawings done by Mr. Joseph Bridgham, of
Providence, R. I., who also supervised the heliotyping of the same»
Fig. 32 was engraved by the Gast Bank Note Lithographing company
of St. Louis, and Fig. 44 is from an electrotype presented by the Rural
World.
Maey E. Muetfeldt.
Kirkwood, Missouri.
^CSi^****
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF IN8E0T8.
Illustrated hy electrotypes from drawings by Prof, C V. Riley ^ Washington^ D. C.y and ssinc
process tDork done under the atipervision of Mr, Joseph Bridgham, of Pro videnee, R, I,
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION.
What iB an insect ? This does not seem like a question difficult ta
answer, and yet how few either of grown persons or children would be
able to define an insect otherwise than as '* some sort of a bug." Now
it is true that aM bugs, properly so called, are insects^ but it by no
means follows that all insects are hugs. On the contrary, genuine bugs-
form but a small proportion of the fluttering, buzzing, crawling myriads
to which the term is generally applied.
Insects are among the most familiar of natural objects. They are
met with in all climates and situations, and in greater or less numbers-
at all seasons of the year. They claim our attention in a thousand
different ways. We admire the beauty of form and color in some, and
shrink from the grotesque ugliness of others. Many species injure
and annoy us personally or damage or destroy our property, while on
the other hand a few, like the honey-bee, the silk-worm and the cochi*
neal insect, produce some of our choicest luxuries. Is it not well then
for us to endeavor to learn something of the structure, habits and dif-
ferences of a class of animals with which we unavoidably have so much
to do ?
How few people realize that there are as wide differences between
insects and some of the animals that are usually classed with them —
for example, spiders, millepeds and earth-worms — as there are between
cows and chickens and serpents ; and there are far greater distinctions
between butterflies and beetles and grasshoppers than exist between
4 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
horses, cows and sheep. This may seem strange to one who has given
the subject no attention, bat a little careful observation will convince
him of its truth.
It is impossible to obtain a definite idea of the structure of insects,,
and their place in the scale of being, without comparing them critically
with other kinds of animals and noting the points in which they differ^
To obtain this knowledge without the aid of books would involve a
wide field of observation and a great deal of labor in systematizing
the information gained. Therefore, to aid and direct the observations
of the student, we will glance hastily over the outlines of the classifi-
cation of the animal kingdom as arranged by the great French natural-
ist, Ouvier, after whom it is called the "Ouvierian system." According
to this system all the animals, on or in the earth, monstrous or minute,
are arranged in the four following Sub-kingdoms :
I. Backbone animals (Sub-kingdom Yebtebba), such as have an
internal bony frame termed a skeleton^ the axis of which is a spina)
column composed of a number of peculiar joints called vertebrcB. Ex-
amples — Man, Birds, Fishes and Reptiles.
II. RiNaBD or Aeticulatb animals (Sub-kingdom A^btioulata)^
having an external tough or homy framework composed of rings or
articulations enclosing the muscles and other soft tissues. Examples —
Insects, Spiders, Millepeds, Crabs.
III. MoLLUSES (Sub-kingdom Mollusoa), soft-bodied animala
usually enclosed in shells. Examples — Snails, Slugs, Oysters.
lY. Stab or Eadiate animals (Sub-kingdom Eadiata). These
are formed somewhat upon the plan of a star or asterisk, with all the
members branching out from a common center. Examples — Star-fish^
Sea Urchin, Goral animal. This division includes mostly marine ani-
mals.
Each of these Sub-kingdoms is divided into several very distinct
classes. Passing over the classes of Backbone animals, we will con-
fine our attention to the Aeticulata, in which insects, although by no
means the largest representatives, occupy, on account of their more
specialized structure, the highest rank. The classes of Aeticulata
are five in number, viz. : * Insects finsectaj, Thousand-legged worms
or Millepeds (MyriapodaJ, Spiders (ArachnidaJ, Lobsters and Crabs
(Crustacea), and True Worms (Annelida),
* According to Cavier, whose plans will answer onr present purpose.
OUTLINES OP KNTOMOLOGY.
FoT convenience this classification may be tabulated thas :
r Vertebra.
Artlcuiata.
Animal EiDgdom. •
MoUuBca.
^Radiata.
•i
InBecta.
Myriapoda.
Aracbnida.
Crastacea.
Annelida.
In proceeding to separate true insects from the other members of
their snb-kingdom, the most obvious distinction is that they alone
among articulates ever possess wings. There are, however, some in-
jects, mostly of the worst repute, such as fleas, bed-bugs, lice and a
few others, that never acquire wings. We have, therefore, to seek in
some other organ, or set of organs, a characteristic by which we can
•distinguish any insect from other articulates, and one which will, if
possible, have a peculiar development in each of the classes. Such a
distinction is found in the number of the legs. Thus insects, in their
perfect or adult state, always have six legs, neither more nor less —
:although in some butterflies the front pair of legs, not being used, are
of diminished size, and are tucked up out of the way. Millepeds, as
the name denotes, have numerous legs, from thirty to four hundred ;
spiders and mites have eight legs ; crustaceans from ten to fourteen legs,
while the true worms have no legs at all in any stage of their existence.
We have, therefore, only to count the legs of an articulate animal to
:find out in which of the preceding classes it belongs.*
The term "insect," which is derived from two Latin words, in and
-seco — cut into — ^in reference to the ring-jointed or insected body, was,
by some of the earlier writers on natural history, applied to the entire
;group of the articulates, and the various classes were distinguished as
*^ six-legged insects," " eight-legged insects," ** many-legged insects,"
and so forth. But as the structure of these animals was more thor-
oughly studied, they were found to be more widely separated than was
at first supposed. The term " insect " was restricted to the six-legged
«la8s, and other names, more suitable, applied to the remaining classes.
Insects are further distinguished from other articulates in having the
external framework composed apparently of thirteen or fourteen rings
or joints, which are separated into three regions, the first joint forming
the head, the succeeding three the thorax, and the remaining nine or
ten the abdomen and its appendages.
In the millepeds the number of rings varies from ten to two hun-
dredj and the head alone is distinct from the abdomen. In the spiders
the joints are so closely consolidated that two only can be perceived,
the first forming the combined head and thorax (oephalo thorax) and
the second the abdomen. In the crustaceans the number of joints is
^Except in the case of the young of gome Mites, which also have only Bix legs.
6 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
*
Tariable, and in some species the division is into three regions, as ii^
insects, while others bear some resemblance to spiders in the arrange-
ment of the joints. In the framework of the worms we find nnmerons^
joints, but no distinct head, thorax or hind body.
Another and very interesting peculiarity of insects is found in
their transformations or metamorphoses. Insect life begins with an
embryo contained in an egg. From this egg hatches the first active
form, which is called a larva (plural larvcB)^ the term signifying a masJcy
because the true form of the insect is considered to be mashed or con-
cealed at this stage of life. All caterpillars, grubs and maggots are
larvsB. When the larva is full grown it changes, in most cases, to a
very different object, and is then termed a pupa (plural jjwpce), from ar
word meaning a doll or mummy^ in reference to its quiescence and the
swathed or bandaged appearance of its members. From the pupa in>
due time emerges the perfect insect or imago (plural imagines)^ which is
the final form and the one in which it possesses wings, unless it be-
longs to the few wingless species. '
The chief office of the perfect insect is to develop and lay the
eggs from which another generation of lai'vsB will hatch, and, in the
case of some species, to provide food for their young.
To britly recapitulate, in answer to our opening question: An
insect is an articulate animal having the external skeleton composed of
a number of rings or joints, which are separated into three groups to
form a distinct head, thorax and abdomen. It has six legs, and, in its^
perfect state, has two or four wings, and is further characterized by^
changes of form and habit called metamorphoses.
The science which treats of the structure, habits and classification^
of insects is called Untomology, a term composed of two Greek words^
which signify a " discourse on insects.''
Economic Untomology has for its object the investigation of the-
habits of injurious insects, with a view to the better preservation of
our persons and property from their attacks. It also includes experi-
ments with such species as are or may prove to be valuable for their
products or properties, and endeavors to ascertain which are indirectly^
useful to man on account of their parasitic and cannibalistic habits.
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
OHAPTEE II.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OP INSECTS.
In our introductory chapter were
noted some of the diflferences between
insects and vertebrate animals, and also
between insects and other articulates.
Now in order to comprehend these dis-
tinctions still more clearly, and to under-
stand how the various parts and organs
are modified to produce the almost
innumerable diverse forms, it becomes
necessary to examine the general strac-
ture still more critically.
The external crust or skeleton of an Ichnenman lly^Op«|m^acn*r^^ L.)
insect forms a many-jointed tube in which, as has already been men-
tioned, are enclosed and protected all the softer vital parts, such as-
the muscles, nerves, the air and blood vessels^ etc. The most common
form of this tube is more or less cylindrical, bat in some insects it is
shortened and flattened so that the outline is oblong, oval or nearly
circular. This body-wall is composed of fourteen ring-like sections or
segm^^nts which are more or less closely connected. Of these joints
the first, forming the head,* is most distinct. The three joints forming^
the thorax have the appearance of being firmly soldered together, and
it is often difficult to trace the divisions. In the abdominal region, on
the contrary, the rings are loosely connected by a flexible and elastic
membrane, which allows them to move freely in any direction. Two-
or three of the terminal joints of the abdomen are changed from their
original shape to form and support stings, piercers, forceps, and the
like, so that we are seldom able to distinguish more than six or seven
distinct rings in this part of the body.
It must not be supposed that the fourteen joints are the only divi-
sions of the insect skeleton. If this were the case we should never have
occasion to admire the grace of the butterfly's flight or the surprising^
agrility of various beetles and bugs. The fact is that each joint, although
it may appear like a simple ring, is composed of from six to nine vari--
ously shaped pieces, each piece, however closely fitted to the others^
being capable of independent motion by the muscles within. Otherwise
an insect would never be able to move a wing or leg or other organ.
* Dr. Packard considers the head as composed of four Joints.
9 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
separately. On the thorax of man^ smooth, hard-shelled insects, like
wasps and beetles, we can readily trace the divisions of each joint by
means of fine impressed lines.
The insect crust varies greatly in textnre and thickness. In some
insects, and especially in many larvae, it is very thin, easily bent and
easily broken ; in others it is hard and brittle like shell, or dense and
impenetrable like metal. Examples of the shelly textnre are found in
Ihe pupsB — termed chrysalides — of butterflies and moths, while the
metal-like covering may be seen in the cases of the beautiful Brazilian
beetles, often used by jewelers in the place of gems, which are so
hard that they can only be pierced by a drill.
The majority of insects have the head separated, from the thorax
:and the thorax from the abdomen by deep incisions, or the contraction
of the connecting joints. This will be understood by a glance at the
illustration at the head of this chapter, or better still by examining the
body of a bee, a butterfly or a fly.
The back or upper surface of the body of an insect is termed the
dorsum or dorsal surface, or tergum^ the sides the pleurites or lateral
surfaces, while the under side is the venter or ventral surface. The top
of the thorax is sometimes further distinguished as the notum^ the
binder side, or breast, being correspondingly termed the sternum.
In exact scientific description a number of other terms are used
to indicate the various divisions of a segment, or to refer to precise
localities on the body, but these are not necessary to a general appre-
hension of the structure, and would only confuse and discourage a
beginner.
Fig 2.
CHAPTER III.
THE HEAD AND ITS APPEN DAGOES.
As with the higher animals, the head of an insect
is more especially the sensorial region, because it
•contains the organs of sight, touch, taste, smell, and
possibly in some species, of hearing also. The sense
of feeling is not, of course, confined to the append-
ages used by the insect for touching objects — which
in this sense correspond to the human hand — but ex-
tends over the entire surface of the body. cifntf ^''eplS^S^S;;T
Certain localities on the head are frequently re- Jf^i*;',^'"^""^^''"^*^^**^
ferred to in descriptions of insects. The more important of these are :
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY. 9
the Oceiputy which is the back upper part (Fig. 2, a J ; the epicraniunij
the front upper part (Fig. 2, bj, and the Olypeus, which occupies the
space between the epicranium and the mouth. The top of the head is
Also sometimes called the Vertex^ the front, the face or Frons; the
«ide8, the cheeks or Oence, The manner in which these parts are devel-
oped varies greatly in different insects.
The principal appendages or organs of the head are the Mouth, the
JSyes and the Antennce. ^
The mouth presents a variety of forms, being adapted in different
insects to the kind of food upon which they subsist, and also to the
various ofiftces, besides those of mastication or suction, which are per-
formed by it.
All the variations in structure, however seemingly diverse, are
made upon two plans, viz.: jaios for biting and beaks or tubes for
fiucking.
The mouth of a biting insect consists of six dis-
tinct parts, collectively called Trophi. These parts
are the lips — upper and under— and two pairs of
strong, horny organs which form, the jaws and move
from side to side and not up and down like the jaws
of the higher animals. The upper lip is called the
Labrum (Fig. 3, c), and the under lip (not shown in
the illustration), the Labium. These parts are sub-
ftons; b, epistoma;' c\ ject to great chaugcs in shape, and seldom bear much
labram; d, eyes: e, man-
dibles; /, maxiii»; </, resemblance to the lips of Vertebrates. The upper
maxillary palpi; A. labial ^ '^'^
palpi; i, antennae. qj> principal jaws are termed Mandibles (Fig. 3, eej.
They are strong and sharply toothed, and are the chief instruments for
seizing and tearing the food.
The lower jaws (Fig. S^ffJ are called the Maxillce (sing, maxilla),
aiud are usually more slender and flexible than the mandibles and ter-
minate in a point.
Besides these six principal mouth parts, most insects have from
4>ne to three^ generally two pairs of slender-jointed organs, called Palpi
(^mg, palpus) or mouth-feelers. One pair is attached to the lower jaws,
and are termed the maxillary palpi (Fig. 3, g), the other pair, connected
with the lower lip, are the labial palpi (Fig. 3, h). Their ofiftce seems to
be to aid in the selection of food and to brush impurities from the face
and antennae.
The sucking or haustellate insects have the same number of mouth
parts, but they are developed on an entirely different plan. In some
species, such as the true Bugs, most of the parts are united to form a
stiff, jointed beak, with which the leaves of plants or the skins of ani-
10 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
mals are pnnctared and the juices or blood extracted. In others, like
the Batteiflies and Moths, the combined parts form a long, flexible
tube, usually called a tongue^ through which the nectar of flowers and
similar fluids may be drawn. In others still, the lower lip and the
maxillsB together form a sort of tongue for collecting sweets, while the
mandibles are not altered. Bees and Wasps have this kind of month.
The organs of vision are situated upon the epicranium in front or
near the top of the head.
They consist of a pair of prominent compound eyes (see Figs. 2
and 3, ddj, composed of a great number of six-sided lenses. In shape
these compound eyes are round, oblong or reniform (kidney-shaped).
In addition to these, many insects are provided with three small single
eyes, called ocelli (sing, ocellus), situated upon or near the apex of the
head, in a triangle, as shown in Fig. 2, c.
All these eyes are fixed in their sockets, but protrude so much
that some of the lenses face in each direction, and the insect has no
need to turn its eyes to obtain warning of approaching danger, or in
its search for food. It has been suggested that the compound eye»
serve the ordinary purposes of vision, while the ocelli are used upon
objects that are near and minute ; but this is mere conjecture. Some of
the best observers and most careful investigators assert that with all the
provision that has apparently been made for sight in insects their vision
would seem to be very imperfect, especially for objects at a distance.
Black and brown are the colors most commonly seen in the eyes of
insects, but many species have eyes that gleam with the tints and bril-
liancy of jewels, and add not a little to the beauty of the species.
The most striking appendages of the head of an insect are the
Feelers or Antennce (sing, antenna J. These are many-jointed organs in
which the sense of touch is thought chiefly to reside. Many experiments
go to show that they are also the organs of smell. They are of a great
variety of forms, a few of which are represented in Fig. 4. The differ-
ent shapes are distinguished as Jcnobbed, capitate^ laminate, pectinate^
JUiformj etc. They are usually attached a little below and between
the eyes, as shown in figures 2 and 3.
A knowledge of the form and position of the antennae is very im-
portant in the classification of insects, especially in such orders as the
Coleoptera (beetles).
All the functions of the antennae are probably not yet known ; but
it has been ascertained that besides serving the purposes already men-
tioned, they are also indispensable in guiding the flight of all winged
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
11
Prg4.
ADtennae of Inseots, adapted from
trathoTB. 1 and S, lamellate ant. of
l)eetle; 2, capitate ant. of beetle; 4,
pectinate ant. of beetle: 6 and 6, fllifoTm
ant. of beetle; 7, bTlBtle tipped ant. of
-fly; 8, knobbed ant. of butterfly; 9,
feathered ant . of motb .
species, and are, to a large extent, the in-
straments of communication between in-
dividnals of the same kind, as among ants,
and no doubt aid the perception of in-
sects in many ways that are beyond our
comprehension.
The sense of hearing in insects is not
considered to be as generally developed
as in the higher animals. Yet unques-
tionably many insects do hear, although
the special organs of this sense have been
located in comparatively few species.
Such ears as have been discovered are
not found on the head, but on the front
legs and at the base of the abdomen.
These will be more particularly described
in a succeeding chapter.
CHAPTER lY.
THE THOBAX AND ABDOMEN.
The three segments immediately back of the head constitute the
Thorax or chest of an insect. This division of the body is very com-
pact and usually somewhat globular, or barrel-shaped. Each of the seg-
ments or joints composing it has received a special name; the anterior
one — next the head — is termed the Frothorax; the middle one, the
MesothoraXj and the third or posterior one the Metathorax. Each of
*
these divisions, though apparently entire, is in reality, as has already
been observed, made up of several irregularly shaped pieces, which are
connected in such a way as to afford free play to the strong muscles
within.
The appendages of the thorax are the wings and legs. The wings
of insects are their most conspicuous members, upon which the beauty
and, in a great measure, the safety and enjoyment of most species de-
pend.
In their adult and perfect state nearly all insecj;s possess these
organs, the only exceptions being the members of a few small groups,
such as fleas, bed-bugs, lice, some of the ants, and the females of a few
moths and beetles.
12 OtTTLINBS OF BNTOMOI.OGT.
Iq tbeir geoeral strncture the wings of ineects sbow a number of
very diatinct plane or types, which have been made the basis for the
8f Btem of classification commonly adopted.
The wings are attached to the mesotborax and metathorax, and
where present are always foar in nnmber, except In the order of the
two-winged flies {DipteraJ^ where only the upper pwr are folly devel-
oped, the lower pair being represented by little hammer-like organs,
called BaUere» or Poisers.
Wings are composed of membrane, more
^y' Kg 5. or less transparent, stretched over a frame-
work of horny tubes, termed veins or
nerves. The number and arrangement of
these tnbes constitute the Venation or Neu-
ration of the wings, to which frequent refer-
ence is made in descriptions of insects.
There are usaally f^om three to five princi-
pal veioB in each wing. These branch and
intersect very differently in the types of
different families. The spaces between the
veins are called cells, which are also named
and numbered in regular order.*
The first or upper wings are variously
designated as the Anteriorg, the Superiors
_, 1 and II, upper »nd under wings ^'^ ^^^ Primaries, while to the lower or un-
otwaip^VdsptMill^MiJSoM^"^'^"''' der pair are applied the opposite terms of
Posteriors or Seeondaries. Many of the best writers ase the simple
terms of /ore and hind wings.
These organs exhibit an almost endless variety of outline, texture
and ornamentation. The wings gf butterflies and moths, for example,
are broad and of rather frail texture, and are covered with minute
scales and hairs of rich and varied colors. The upper wings of beetles
* The outline and vetoatlon of the wlngB of lDBeoti> are made great use of In claeal-
ncstton, and for the convenience of any that may be ioter^Bted, I append the terioB
applied to margtns, veins and cells ae follows ; On the wing of an tneecl the upper
edge, from wbere It Is joined to the body to the moet distant point, Is the coata or
eoataledffe. The extreme point is the apex. (In the flgute A,JuBtabove b*.) The
outer edge extends from the apex to the inner angle at d*. and the inner edge from
this point to the insertion of the wing. The velne are the costal vein, just below
a; b, eub-costal vein ; d, median vein ; i', i', b'. b* and b^, Hub-coBtal velnlets; rf',
d^, d' end d*, median velnlets; e, Internal vein;/, diecal cell. The otber cells bear
the names of the veins which enclose them and are numbered from the costal vein.
Id, B a Is the costal vein ; 1,2,3, costal cells;4, e, 6, sub-costal cells; 7, 8,9, median
cells; 10,11, 12, Rub-median cells; 13, Internal celt. The veins and cells in the under
wings correspond to the principal ones in the upper.
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
13
are comparatively small, being modified into simple sheaths, often of
metallic hardness and Inster, beneath which the longer and broader
membraneons lower wings are compactly folded,||^xcept daring flight*
In the majority of other inserts the wings are translucent or transpar-
ent, more closely veined, and not clothed with scales or hairs. The
other organs of locomotion are the legs. In fully developed insects.
these are invariably six in number. Some of our most conspicuous but-
terflies, it is true, seem to have but four, but the absence of the front
pair is only apparent, and close examination will reveal them folded
close against the breast and perfectly formed, though small and use-
less. The legs of insects are modified in many ways to adapt them for
running, leaping, burrowing and swimming, according to the habit of
the species. Each leg consists of six parts : a IsiTge flattened joint
called the coxa, which is attached to the body ; this is succeeded by a.
joint which is very variable in form, usually small, but in some speciea
large, and having the appearance of an ornamental appendage, and ia
termed the trocanter (plural trocantersj; next to this is a long and
often very stout thigh or femur {pluTBl femora J, succeeded by the shank
or tibia (plural tibcej, to which is attached the foot or tarsus (plural
tarsi J, consisting of from two to five small joints, and in many species-
terminating in a pair of sharp claws, sometimes with a pad-like cush»
ion, termed a pulvilluSj between them.
The abdomen in insects is composed
often remaining segments. In most
species, however, the hindermost
rings are modified into the apparatus^
for reproduction and are drawn more
or less within the body, so that only
from five to seven joints can be clear-
ly distinguished. It is in this part of
the body that the form of the typi-
cal ring can be traced with greater
accuracy than in any other region, as
Legs, original and adapted; >i, leg of preda- ^^^ gegmcuts are not apparently con-
ceons beetle ; a, coxa; 6, trochanter; c, femnr; » Err ^
d, tibia; e, tarsna; /. tareal claws; g, tibial solid ate d aS in the thoraX, but are
spiur; B, leg of bee, clothed with hair for col- , , , , ,, *± t ^ sau ^i^-
le^ng^uen, c, front leg of mole cricket. «- held together quite looBcly With elas-
ted for bnrrowing in the earth: a^femnr; &,tibia; ^^^ membrane.
e, tarsns; D, leg of watsr beetle adapted to
swl aiming.
Along each side of the body is a row of more or less conspicuous
orifices. These are the openings through which the insect breathes,
and are termed stomata or stigmata or spiracles. They conduct to air-
tubes, to which more particular reference will be made in a succeeding
Rg6.
14 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOaY.
•
chapter. There are nine or ten, sometimeB eleven pairs of them, two
on the thorax and the others on the abdomen.
The only appen^f^ges of the abdomen are the organs of reproduc-
tion^ which, in some species, as the bee and the wasp, are connected
with those of defense, in the form of Mngs. They consist, externally,
of various sorts of forceps or claspers in the male, and of «atr«, augers,
-swords, and more commonly, piercers and stings in the female. All of
these instruments are very ingenious in their construction and admi-
rably adopted to the work for which they are designed. They will be
•described in detail when the species to which they pertain are under
•consideration.
CHAPTER Y.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.
Wie internal structure of insects consists of the Muscular, Nervous
4ind Circulatory systems, together with the organs of Respiration, Nutri-
Hon and Secretion.
The examination of these parts is a work of great difficulty, owing
to their extreme delicacy and minuteness. Much of it requires a high
power of microscope and the skill of a hand experienced in dissecting ;
<5on8equently the descriptions — as with the characters of external struc-
ture—cannot be easily verified by the observations of the tyro. Only
:a brief account, therefore, will be attempted in this chapter.
The Muscular system lies just within the external crust, or body-
wall, to which it is closely attached. Its use is to hold the segments
;and their various appendages in place, and to move them according to
the pleasure or necessity of the insect. It consists of a great number
of distinct fibers, not gathered into bundles like those of higher animals,
but spread out in thin layers over the parts requiring their action. In
their arrangement the muscles correspond to the jointed structure of
the body. Each segment has muscles that stretch from its fj*ont edge
to the front edge of the one succeeding it, and others that in like man-
ner connect the hinder edges. There are also bands of muscular fibers
passing around the body and others still that extend obliquely from one
joint to another. The muscles of insects are a pale yellow color and
of a soft, jelly-like consistence. But, although so delicate in texture,
their contractile power is surprising. Thus, many insects, of which
the flea is a good example, are enabled to leap more than one hundred
OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOar. 15
times their own height, or to sue tain, without injury, weights several
liundred times that of their own. The lofty and long-continued flights
of some species, the capacities of others for runjaing, burrowing, bor-
ing into hard substances, and for carrying or dragging heavy burdens,
all attest the wonderful strength and elasticity of their muscles.
The Nervous system consists of two delicate cords which extend
longitudinally, the one above the other, along the ventral side of the
body. Insects have no brain, properly so called, but the lower or
•external cord has a series of swellings or nerve knots called ganglia^
varying in number from two to ten, from which nerve fibers are dis-
tributed in various directions. The ganglion in the head is, in many
species, larger than the others, but does not differ from them in any
other particular. Kext to that the ganglia of the thorax are most
•developed, especially in perfect insects, since from them the supply of
nerve-force for the vings and legs must be derived. The upper or
internal cord is a simple thread without nerve knots or branches. It
lies very close to but scarcely in contact with the ganglionic cord. We
find in this nearly equal distribution of nerve force the reason why
many insects can live for a considerable time after a part of the body
has been crushed or severed, and why the separated parts seem to be
^ike endowed with vitality.
The Circulatory system of insects is as yet but imperfectly under-
«tood. The blood is cold and colorless, or with a slight yellowish tint.
It does not flow through tubes corresponding to our arteries and veins,
but seems to bathe the other tissues without being confined to special
•channels. There is, however, a long, narrow membranous sac, situated
near the upper surface of the body, which forms a sort of hearty the
pulsations of which can be distinctly seen in many thin-skinned insects,
•especially in larvsB. This tube is called the dorsal vessel, and is divided
into several chambers by valves which permit the blood to pass only in
a forward direction. The blood enters the dorsal vessel through open-
ings in its sides, and, flowing toward the head, is expelled through a
large artery called the aorta^ from whence its course can no longer be
traced. In its progress it is aerified by contact with the air vessels
and mixed with chyle from the stomach, and is thus prepared to nour-
ish the organism. It is scant in quantity compared with the blood of
vertebrates, and the circulation seems to be slow.
Respiration or breathing in insects is performed, not through a
single trachea or air-pipe communicating with a pair of lungs, as in
most of the higher animals, but through a series of delicate tubes which
<livide and subdivide so as to permeate all parts of the body. The
openings to these tubes are in most insects on the sides of the seg-
E— 2
16 OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOGY.
mentfi, and are termed the spiracles or stigmata. They vary in number
from two in some water insects to eleven, usnally nine, pairs, and are often
quite conspicuous, especially in larvsB. In their perfect state insects
breathe mainly through the first four or five pairs of orifices, and conse-
quently most species may be easily suffocated and killed by a sharp
pinch or continued pressure on the thorax. Many insects have large
vesicles connected with the trachea which they inflate when about to
fly, thus lessening their specific gravity and enabling them to continue
long on the wing with less muscular exertion than would otherwise be
necessary. The breathing organs of aquatic insects are termed branehia.
They are analogous to the gills of fishes and present many very sin-
gular forms.
The organs of Nutrition are few in number and simple in structure
They consist principally of the mouth, already described, by which the
food is seized and masticated, and, internally, of a large, long tube in
which digestion takes place. This tube is the alimentary canal, and
occupies a central position in the body of the insect. In the more
lowly species it is simply a straight duct or sac extending the whole
length of the body ; but in the highly organized forms it is contracted
at intervals so as to form several chambers, each of which has a dis-
tinct function. It terminates in a convolution of minute tubes that are
supposed to represent the liver and the small intestines of higher ani-
mals. The sesophagus or gullet opens into the first chamber or cavity
of the central canal, which is analogous to the crop. This in turn com-
municates with a smaller cavity, which is ridged internally or covered
with hard, tooth-like points, and performs the office of a gizzard, from
which the food passes into the largest alimentary division, representing-
the true stomach. In the latter are secreted the gastric and pan-
creatic fluids, which, mingling with the comminuted food, prepare it to
nourish the system. The digestive powers of insects are enormous in
proportion to their size, many species of herbivorous larvae being-
capable of digesting more than twice their own weight of leaves in the
course of a day.
The organs of secretion, aside from those that elaborate the fluids
necessary to digestion, consist mainly of the salivary^ odoriferous and
poison glands. The salivary glands, so called, are greatly developed in
such insects as the silk-worm, and the bee and wasp. They consist of
two tubes, running parallel to the anterior portion of the alimentary
canal. In the silk-worm and other larvsB of the same family these
glands secrete the gum which, when drawn out through a little pointed
tube beneath the mouth, becomes the beautiful and valuable fiber
known as bilk.
OUTUHES OP ENTOMOLOay. 17
The salivary fluid ie nsed by the bee and trasp to moiatea aad
cement the particles of sap and wood from which the brood and honey
cellB are made.
The odorifeFons organs are of varioas constraction, and are located
in some species in one part of the body, and in others in another. They
are designed in some cases as a means of attraction between the sexes ;
in others to repel the attacks of their enemies.
The poison glands are sitnated sometimes in the month, bnt more
frequently at the tip of the abdomen. The poison is of the nalnre of
au acid,and is injected into wonnds made by the jaws or by the piercer
or sting. Its nse is to ward off or revenge the attacks of foes and to
paralyze or kill the prey required by the insect for its own food or as
food for its young.
CHAPTER VI.
TBANSPOBMATION OF INSECTS.
TranBroRnatlonB or ■ lepldopteiona li
— •migera), after Kfley; r
egg, magnlfled ! c.laivie; d,pnpa; e/. Imago or mott
The transformationi OT metamorphogeg of insects have been already
alladedto as one of their most peculiar and interesting characteristics.
These are certain changes of form and habit by which the life of every
insect, aft«r hatching, ia divided into three more or less distinct periods
or stages.
Transformation may be either complete or partial. It is complete when
the appearance and general habit of the insect is so different at each
stage of its existence, that only experience enables us to recognize the
various forms as pertaining to the same individnal ; and partial when
the Insect retains essentially the same form and habit during life, its
18 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
successive stages of development being marked only by the acquisition
of certain organs and appendages.
The most familiar example of complete transformation is afforded
by an insect which in its first active state is a sluggish, worm-like cater-
pillar, feeding voraciously on herbage, and changing in due time to tl\e
inactive, casket-like chrysalis, which bears as little resemblance to the
larv8B that preceded it as to the imago that shall ultimately escape from
it, viz., the broad-winged, bright-hued butterfly, instinct with graceful
activity, as it hovers over the flowers from which it sips is sole nourish-
ment, a dainty draught of nectar. Examples of partial transformation
are found in such insects as grasshoppers, locusts, true bugs, etc.
The life of an insect begins with the embryo contained in an egg.
Instinct guides the parent insect in the placing of her eggs, so that her
progeny, as soon as hatched, find tbemselve surrounded with the kind
of food they require. The eggs of insects are of various forms — ^round,
oval, conical or disk-like. They are deposited singly or in clusters ;
sometimes openly exposed on the surfaces of leaves or stems, some-
times concealed with the utmost ingenuity. Those of many species are
beautifully colored or elegantly sculptured. The eggs of some small
insects which produce but few are proportionately large, while on the
other hand many large insects lay very minute eggs, but make up in
number what is lacking in size.
The insect in hatching &om the egg enters on its larval stage of
existence. This is the form in which all actual growth takes place, and
in which, as a consequence, the insect requires most food. It may, in
succeeding stages of development, assume different forms and acquire
additional members, but it never really increases in bulk.
The larvae of the various kinds of insects differ so much in appear-
ance, and in many other respects, that it is difi&cult to give a list of
characters that are common to all. The typical form is more or less
worm-like : i. «., cylindrical and elongate ; but the variations from this
type are exceedingly numerous, even among insects whose transforma-
tions are complete; while those that undergo only partial transforma-
tion do not conform to it at all.
In the majority of larvsB the thorax and abdomen are not distinct,
except that the first mentioned region is often provided with the rudi-
ments of legs. The latter are of a shelly texture, small and pointed at
the extremity, with three or four joints. They are six in number, and
are termed the trtie or thoracic legs, to distinguish them from the fleshy
disks called false legs or prolegs^ which in many species support the
hinder part of the body.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 19
Many larvae, such as those of bees, flies and some species of beetle s,
have neither legs nor prologs — their movements, in consequence of
this lack, being much restricted.
In their habits larvae are either active or inactive. The former —
including by far the larger proportion of the young of insects — are
capable of sufficient exertion to enable them to provide for their own
necessities.
Inactive or sedentary larvae, on the contrary, are hatched in cells
or chambers, which they never leave, and subsist upon food previously
stored for their use, or, as in the case of bees and iants, they are the
objects of constant attention from the mature insects.
In the course of their growth all larvae molt or shed their skins
several times. This singular process becomes necessary at intervals,
because the external covering will only admit of stretching to a limited
extent. A new skin is constantly forming under the outer one, and
when the latter becomes too tight it is — after some preliminary fasting
and other preparation — ruptured and cast oif, and the larvae appears in
a new and for a time, more elastic dress. The usual number of molts
is four or five. A few insects of the lower orders molt but twice, while
others, especially certain aquatic species and others whose larval life
is long, molt from ten to twenty times. Sedentary larvae shed their
skins in shreds and by degrees.
The length of larval life varies with the different species. Many
complete their growth in a very short time, often within a week, while
some continue to grow from one to several years. The average length
of larval life among herbivorous insects is about four weeks.
When the limit of growth is reached the larva ceases to feed, and,
guided by instinct, prepares for its first transformation. Inactive larvae
spin a slight web around their delicate bodies, and some kinds are
sealed up in their cells by the mature insects.
Active larvae take various measures to secure themselves from ob-
servation and injury during the time when they shall be powerless to
escape from or defend themselves against their enemies. Some creep
into crevices of stones or bark, or hide ingeniously among crumpled
leaves. A large proportion burrow into the earth; others spin for
their protection thick, silken or parchment-like cocoons, while some
require nothing more than a retired nook in which to suspend them-
selves by slender but strong cables of silk. After a longer or shorter
rest in their various retreats, the larval skins are cast off for the last
time, and each insect appears in a new and entirely different form and
is termed a pupa.
20 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
In tbe pnpa state most insects are quiescent and apparently life-
less, and while it continues are incapable of taking food or performing
any of the active fanctions of life. Papae that are enclosed in cocoons
or cells are termed folliculate. A pupa destined to give forth a butter-
fly is designated a ohrysaliSj from a Greek word meaning golden, in
reference to the gilded ornamentation of many chrysalides.
There are two forms of quiescent pupse, the ohteeted and the
coardate. In the first mentioned form the legs, wings and antennae of
the future imago are shown, each enclosed in a separate sheath. The
pupae of bees, wasps, beetles, etc., are obtected. In coarctate pupae a
continuous shell encloses the members as well as the body of the
insect.
The pupae of insects not subject to complete metamorphosis are
active, and do not differ much either in form or habit from the full-
grown larvae, except in the greater development of the rudimentary
wings.
After a certain time, varying with the nature of the insect and with
the season of the year, the second transformation takes place and the
insect issues from the pupa shell in its mature or perfect form.
In this stage of its existence it is, with a few exceptions, charac-
terized by the possession of fully developed wings. It has also large,
compound eyes, conspicuous antennae and various other organs which
did not appear in its preceding forms. The head, thorax and abdomen
are now well-defined regions, and the sexes can usually be distinguished
with ease. In most species the females are larger than the males, and
the latter, besides being more slender in body, are often more gaily
colored and have the antennae longer or more ornamental than those of
the female.
The abdomen of the female is furnished with an ingenious instru-
ment called an ovipositor^ through which the eggs are conducted to
such situations as will be most favorable to the future larvae. It serves
not only to place the eggs, but is used by many insects to drill holes or
saw slits or otherwise prepare suitable receptacles for them. In such
species the ovipositor is usually a very conspicuous appendage. In
others it is, when not in use, drawn entirely within the body.
As previously remarked, after insects have acquired their wings
they never grow. Thus the idea that little flies or gnats develop into
" house-flies " or " blue-bottles," as some people suppose, or that little
beetles or bugs or butterflies ever grow to be large beetles or bugs or
butterflies, is seen to be entirely erroneous.
Since perfect insects do not grow, it follows that they require but
little food ; some are incapable of taking even a sip of dew or nectar.
OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOaY. 21
Others, like the butterfly and wasp, have a very different diet from that
upon which they subsisted as larvsB. Some species, however, such as
locusts, leaf-eating beetles, etc., retain their voracious propensities
throughout life.
Hyper-metamorphosis, which attends the development of a few
species of parasitic beetles and some flies of the Ephemera family, is
the assumption of more than the usual number of forms in the process
of growth. The transformations of such species are not invariably
from a lower to a higher organization, but some of the intermediate
49tAges are often of a retrograde character. This anomalous mode of
development will be illastrated in succeeding chapters in connection
with the history of the Blister beetles, Bee parasites and Nerve-winged
flies.
Such is an outline of the history, continually repeated, of all insect
life ; but the number of species is so vast, and their forms and habits
«o different, that the careful observer finds an inflnite*variety of detail
which gives continual novelty and interest to the subject.
OnTLinSS OP BKIOMOLOaT.
Illubtbations of the Seven Peikcipal Oedebs of Imsbots.
'r
'/^
Wood-boring Wasp, Oidei I.
Ocdei III. Syrianw fly, Order IT.
Loonsl, Order Tl.
rdern. Bng. Order T.
Ant-Llon, Order VII.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 23-
OHAPTBE VII.
CLASSIFICATION AND NAMES OF INSECTS.
Having in preceding chapters considered the characters by which?
insects are distinguished from all other animals, we shall now proceed
to notice those by which they may be distinguished from each other.
As a preliminary to such observation it will be a good plan for the
student to collect for an hour or two in various situations — field, wood
and water-courses — all the insects that he can find. When these are-
examined he will perceive at a glance that they are not all alike — that
they differ in form, size, color, and in many points of structure. He-
may then proceed to assort them, placing together those that appear
to be exactly alike. The next step will be to compare the different
lots, when it will be found that several of these closely resemble one-
or more of the other lots, and such may be arranged side by side^
Still other combinations may be made with these compound groups ,.
until finaUy the entire collection will be embraced in a few comprehen-
sive assemblages. These groups may be considered to represent 8pe-^
oie8. Genera, Families and Orders.
Classification consists in a systematic arrangement of specimens^
according to their place in each division, thus showing their near and
their remote relationships. By means of it we are enabled to consider
a multitude of organic forms under a few general heads.
A Species comprises all individuals that are supposed to have had
a common parentage, and are exactly alike in all essential points of
structure and habit.
A Oenvs ( plural genera) is an assemblage of species that are not
the same in all particulars, but have more points of resemblance than*
of difference.
The characters upon which genera are based are different in the-
different families of insects, and even concerning insects in the same
family the opinions of entomologists differ as to what constitutes a^
character of generic value.
A Family includes all the genera that have in common a few impor-
tant peculiarities of form and habit.
A Tribe is an assemblage of families whose relationship, though)
remote, is inferred from the similar structure of a few organs.
An Order includes all these groups and is founded upon agreement
in general structure and mode of development.
24 OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOaY,
With iDBects, as with all other organic beings, the species is the
root of classification — the only gi'oap defined by nature. All other
associations of forms, though based upon natural affinities, have been
devised by man, and, being in a sense artificial, are liable to rearrange-
ment, restriction or extension whenever new discoveries, or the adop-
tion of new theories of classification, make such changes seem desirable.
In classifying insects we first group them according to their gen-
•eral structure : i. «., arrange them in their proper Order, Tribe, Family
etc., which is ordinarily quite easy, after which we proceed to look up
the more difficult matters of genus and species.
The first step, then, is to determine in which Order a given speci-
men belongs. This can usually be decided without difficulty by an
examination of the wingSy for in the system of classification most gen-
•erally adopted, the Orders — seven in number — are mainly founded upon
the character of these conspicuous and important organs, and the
names of these Orders are Greek compounds of which the termination
j^t&ra means wings^ while the prefix describes the Mnd of wing.
There is some difference of opinion among writers as to the rela-
tive rank of the Orders, but the following arrangement seems most in
harmony with the development of the insects included in each Order,
And has the sanction of a majority ot the best authorities :
I. B YMENOPTERA (membrane' wings), bees, waeps, ants, etc.
II. COLEOPTEKA (Bheath-winge), beetles.
III. LEPIDOPTERA (scale-wiDgs), butterflies and moths.
IV. DiPTERA (two wings), house-flies, mosquitoes, gnats, etc.
Y. HEMiPTERA (half-wings), true bugs, deadafl, plant lice, etc.
YE. ORTHOPTERA (straight- wings), firrasshoppers, katy-dlds, crickets, etc.
YII . NEUROPTER A (nerve-wings), dragon-t) les, lace- wing flies, etc
Two of these orders, COLEOPTBRA and DlPTERA, were defined
^according to the type of wing, by the Greek philosopher Aristotle,
more than three hundred years before the Ohristian era. Thus it will
be seen that entomology is one of the most ancient of the natural
sciences, although for many centuries it made little or no true progress.
Adopting the idea of Aristotle, Linnaeus (or Linne), a Swedish nat-
uralist, and the most celebrated one of the eighteenth century, pro-
posed five additional orders. In his system, however, the ORTHOP-
TERA were included with the HEM.IPTERA, and the seventh order
APTERA was devised to contain all insects which, in their perfect state,
lacked wings. But as it was long since discovered that wingless spe-
<AeB and wingless females exist in each of the orders, from which it
would be extremely inconvenient to separate them, the order aptbra
. was dropped and its number made good by a very necessary separa-
tion of the ORTHOPTERA from the HEMIPTERA.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 25
Eecent authors have maltiplied and rearranged the orders of in-
6ect^ on various other plans, founded in many cases on very obvious
natural distinctions, but the arrangement here presented forms a very
good basis for subdivision, and meets with continued favor from a
majority of our naturalists.
In science the name of every animal and plant is a double one:
Pirst, the name of the genus to which it belongs, called the generic
name ; and second, the name of the species which it represents, called
the specific name. These scientific names are usually derived from the
Oreek and Latin or have their terminations from those languages.
The names of tribes often refer to the style of that particular organ
in which all the species included in them agree. The names of families
s,Te usually adapted from that of the leading genus. The generic name
may refer to some prominent characteristic of the typical species, or
may be entirely fanciful. It is always a proper noun and should be
written with a capital.
The specific name is sometimes from some attribute of the species,
or from the plant or other substance on which it feeds, sometimes from
a resemblance it bears to some other object, and not infrequently from
the name of the discoverer or some person whom the describer wishes
to compliment. It is either an adjective or a noun in the possessive
case, and is now seldom written with a capital, not even when it is de-
rived from the name of a person.
It often happens that the same species is described by two or more
authors, and although the name first published is considered to be the
correct one, it is not always easy to discover which this is. To prevent
confusion, therefi^re, as well as to give each author credit for his work,
it is customary to add after the name of the insect that of the author
who bestowed it, thus : Dynastes tityrus of Llnnseus, or Papilio asterias,
Oramer. The names of the authors are commonly abbreviated as
Linn, for Linnseus, Cram, for Oramer, Fabr. for Fabricius, etc.
Besides their scientific names, many insects have common or
popular names. For instance, in this country we have the ** Bed Ad-
miral" butterfly, the " DeviPs riding horse,'' the "May beetle or June
bug,'' the " Chinch bug," the " Weevil," and many others. Some of
these names are known and correctly applied everywhere ; others are
very local, and in other sections of the country people would not
know to what insect they pertained.
Another advantage in the use of the scientific name is that it is
perfectly intelligible to educated people in all countries, and, when
given in accordance with established rules, there is seldom any question
OOTLINBB OF BNTOMOLOay.
as to the species ilesif^Dated. Whenever, therefore, exactoesa is re-
qaired, the scieDtiflo oame should scoompaay the popular one, and ia
these cases it is enclosed in parenthesis. For example : The Goldea
Xortoise beetles COasiida auriokaleea, Fabr).
OHAPTEB VIII.
Order I. HYMESOPTERi.
in (.8,1
Bald-feoed Hornet (THpsmacuhi/ii;,
tfter Blley.
This Order includes the Bees, Wasps, Ants, Icbnenmon flies and
other four- winged parasites, Gall flies. Saw flies, and a few Wood borers.
These are not by any means the largest or most conspicuona of insects^
but they occupy the higheet rank on account of their perfection of form
and the remarkable intelligence which many of them display. The three
leading groups have from time immemorial attracted the attention of
man by their interesting social relations, their industry, their mechani-
cal skill, and their tender care for their young — in these respects dia-
playing a wonderful analogy to the tnuts and enterprises of the hnman
race.
Another reason for giving this Order precedence is that among
its members we find the most complete metamorphosis — the larvie
being far more helpless and dependent on the personal care or the
most painstaking prevision of the mature insects than is the case of
the yonng of other Orders. In this, also, there is an interesting cor-
respondence to man, who in infancy is utterly incapable of taking care
of himself, far more so than any of the lower animals.
The frame of hymenopteroas insects is, in most of the apecies^
very hard and compact, especially on the thorax. The surface is, ia
some, smooth and polished, and often brilliantly colored ; in others it ia
densely clothed with short hairs, giving it a resemblance to plush or
velvet.
The head ia comparatively large, and is attached, vertically, to
the thorax by a short, slender neck, upon which it can be freely turned
in any direction. The month is provided with apparatus for both bit^
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 27
iD^ and sucking, but the upper jaws (mandibles), though large and
sharply toothed, are but little used in mastication, but serve instead as
toolb, of which very skillful and effective use is made in various me-
chanical enterprises. The lower jaws (maxillse) and lower lips (labii) are
^eatly changed from the typical form, to adapt them for taking up liquid
nonrishment, upon which the perfect insects mainly subsist. The com-
pound eyes coTcr a considerable portion of the head, and are either
round, oblong or kidney-shaped (reniform). Upon the top of the head
three small simple eyes (ocelli) can in most species be plainly seen. The
cantennsB are short and stout or long and slender (filiform), or flail-shaped :
-i. e.j bent in the middle and thickened more or less toward the tips.
The first joint of the thorax (the pro-thorax) is very narrow and
on top crowded down almost or quite out of sight ; but the second
.and third joints (the meso-thorax and meta-thorax) are large, and to-
gether form a compact and nearly globular division of the body. The
legs vary considerably in form in the different groups, but are usually
long and rather slender, and terminate in five-jointed feet (tarsi). The
wings are composed of glassy or mica-like membrane, supported by a
few strong veins. In a majority of the species they are quite narrow,
the under pair being smaller than the upper, and during flight are
attached to the latter by the row of minute hooks which may be seen
•on their upper (costal) edges, which catch into a ridge made for that
purpose on the lower (inner) margin of the upper pair. In a great
number of species of Hymenoptera the abdomen swells out in the mid-
-dle, tapering to a point at the posterior end, and in the opposite
•direction to a slender joint, of greater or less length, called the pedicel
•or petiole^ by which it is attached to the thorax. From six to eight
rings or segments only can be distinguished in the abdomen. Each of
these appears to be composed of two plates, an upper and a lower (a
dorsal and a ventral), the former overlapping the latter on the sides.
The tip of the abdomen of the female is always modified into an ovi-
positor. If this organ is connected with a poison gland and drawn
within the body when not in use, it is called a sting; but if it is a con-
spicuous appendage and not capable of emitting poison, it is termed a
piercer.
[Figs. 10 and 11,] The larvsB of the higher Hymenoptera are,
for the most part, soft, fleshy, footless grubs,
confined during the whole of the growing pe-
riod to the cells of wax, paper or mud in which
they are hatched. Some species subsist upon
food stored in their cells at the time the eggs
from which they hatch are laid ; others require
LarTa:sndpnpa';ofwaBp. coustaut feeding and care from the mature in-
28 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY,
sects that have them in charge. The larvae of some of the lower fami-
lies in the Order are more independent. The mother insect having-
placed her eggs npon the leaves or in the wood on which her instinct
teaches her her young will thrive, the latter are, npon hatching, able
to provide for themselves.
When full grown most of these larvsB spin a thin, oblong, silken
cocoon, within which, after a short rest, they change to papse. The-
pupse are quiescent and of the obtected form, each leg, wing and an-
tenna being enclosed in its own sheath, which fits it as neatly as a glove
finger fits a finger of the human hand.
All the members are closely applied to the body and remain immov-
able until the time of the second transformation. As a rule, eight or
ten days only are passed in the papa state. Then the membranous
covering splits on the top of the thorax, the head, legs and embryo
wings are drawn out of their coverings, and the insect gnaws open the
end of its cocoon and lifts the covering to its cell — unless the latter
is opened for it by one of the mature "worker'' insects — and after a pe-
riod of hardening and general preparation, varying from an hour or
two to one or two days, it lifts itself by its strong new wings and sails
away into the sunshine. The Hymenoptera are mostly diurnal insects,,
and are seldom seen upon the wing, except during warm, pleasant
weather. The primary division of the Order, founded upon peculiari-
ties of structure and habit, is into two sections :
1. Stinging Jn^eeto (A o TJ L E A T a), comprising the Bees, Wasps-
and Ants.
^. Piercing Insects (Tebebbantia), comprising several fomi-
lies of Parasitic Flies, Gall-fiies, Saw-fiies and Wood-borers. In the
first section the sexes are distinguished by a difference in the number
of the joints of the antennaB and the abdomen — the antennae of the
males having thirteen }omt% and the abdomen seven apparent segments^
while the antennsB of the females have but twelve joints and the abdomen
only stx distinguishable segments. All the females belonging in this
section have the ovipositor (the organ by which the eggs are placed)
connected with two poison glands ; and whenever this instrument is
used as a weapon^ a minute portibn of the acrid fiuid is forced into the
wound made by its point and causes a burning and stinging pain.
This poison is used by certain wasps to paralyze other insects and
spiders which they collect and store in cells as food for their young»
In this case it does not Icill^ but produces in the victims a state of help-
less torpor in which they continue until devoured by the wasp larv».
OUTLINES OP BHTOMOLOGT. 29-
The stinging Hymenoptera are separated into foar very diatinct
tribes :
Ist. Bees (Anthophila — flower-lovers),
2d. True Wasps (DxpUptera — doable-vings).
3d. Wood and Sand Wasps fFossoreg — diggers).
4th. Ants f ffeterogyna— -different females).
Each of these tribes ioclndeB several families, the pecaliarities of
wliich will be noticed in succeeding chapters. The Piercing insects
composing the second division of the Order are distinguished chiefly
by the absence of the poison gland. In the higher fomilies the form of
the body and the venation of the wings are much like those of bees-
aad wasps, the most obvious difference being the more lengthened ab-
domen and the exeerted and often conspicaoas ovipositor. The mor&
lowly forms of the I^eroing species have the abdomen joined to the
thorax by a wide base instead of a slender pedicel, the wings are more-
uet-veined, and in their immature stages they approach certain groaps-
of the Lepidoptera. The section is subdivided into two comprehen-
sive tribes:
1st. Fonr-winged Parasites fEntomophaga — insect-eaters).
2d. Saw-flies and Wood-borers (Pkytopkaga^planteaterB).
The Plant-eaters include almost all the insects in the Order that
are seriously injurious. All the others are either beneficial — some of
them in a very high degree — or neutral in their relations to man.
CHAPTER IX.
Order HYMENOPTERA. Section AcuLBATA.
Bees (AnthopkilaJ,
Boney B«e.
The Bees are very apppropriately termed the " Flower-lovers," sinoft
they are, in all stages of their lives, wholly dependent upon the floral pro-
daets, nectar and poUeo, for their food. And in the economy of nature
this dependence is, to a great extent, mutual ; for while the Bees are seek-
ing sustenance for themselves and their young from flower to flower,
they are at the same time unconsciously assisting the latter to produce
good seed as a result of cross fertilization, the pollen from the stamens
of one plant or blossom being carried by them to the pistils of another.
■30 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOSY.
Thns we see that while Bees coald not live without flowers, many
flowering planta would soon cease to exist but for the agency of Bees
in assisting them to a vigorous development.
It is said there are over two thonsand species of beesjthe mfuority
of which are small-sized and plainly-colored insects. They are distin-
grtisbed from other Hymenoptera by the structnre of the month and
legs, which are pecnliarly adapted for collecting and conveying nectar
and pollen. The month of the Honey Bee, for example, is qnite differ-
ing, u.] ent from that of other biting insects. To the naked
eye it appears like a handle of flat, pointed bristles,
bnt when examined ander the microscope these take
the forms represented in Fig. 13. The oater jaws
are large and strong, adapted for nse as tools, snch
as scissors, knives, trowels, and so forth. The inner or
lower jaws {maxillae), of which there are two pairs,
^ consifat of long, ' slender jointed blades, whieh are
nsed for piercing and probing, while the under lip
( labinm ) is prolonged into a sort of hairy tongae,
HeadotBee. very flexible, with which the nectar of flowers ia
lapped np, and with the aid of the maxillse drawn back and deposited
in the " honey crop " or proveTiculut where, by some mysterioas chemi-
cal process, the crnde nectar is transformed into the delicioas enbstance
known as honey. Snch proportion of it as is required by the insect
for food passes onward Ihroagh the digestive tabes, while the sorplas
is regurgitated into cells and stored for food for itself or the yoang of
which it has the care.
When not in use, all these lengthened month parts are drawn close
-together and bent under the chin.
The modification of the legs, especially of the hinder pair, is to
adapt them to the work of gathering and carrying pollen. The shank
<tibia) is broad and somewhat hollowed out on the inner surface, and
has a rim of stjff hairs, thus forming a sort of basket in which the
pollen is piled when it has been gathered by the feet, the basal joints
of which are enlarged and otherwise especially adapted for the pur-
pose, and when also it has been brushed by the front and middle legs
from other parts of the hairy body on which it has accamulated in the
repeated divings of the insect into the cup of flowers.
The sting is a slender tube formed of three blades, which may be
protruded from the abdomen, the tip of which has a needle-like point
and in some species is barbed. It serves not only as an ovipositor, but
at the will of the insect, as a weapon, in the latter case conveying into
the wound made by it a minute portion of an acrid fluid— the pediceled
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 31
abdomen enabling the insect to thrast its sting with considerable force.
The poison is of an acid nature and may be neutralized with an alkali.
An important secretion of many bees is the product known as wax.
This is an exudation from the under surface of the abdomen, which
Prof. Oook describes as ^^a solid unctuous substance and is, as shown
by its chemical composition, a &t-like material. • • • It is formed by
the secreting membrane, and there are four '^ wax pockets " on each
side."
[Fig. u] ^^^ front legs of honey bees are provided with
an ingenious contrivance for dressing the antennsB.
It is a movable spur at the end of the thigh which
closes over a notch in the base of the tibia, the
antennae being drawn through the aperture thus
formed. Several other functions for this contrivance
have been suggested.
In consideration of a difference in the length of
the mouth parts, the bees are separated into two
fiunilies :
Apid.£ — ^long-tongued bees ; and
Front Leg of Honey Bee- ANDBENID JE— Short-tOUgued bCCS.
They are further distinguished, according to their relations with
each other, as Social^ Solitary and Parasitic or Cuckoo bees.
In this country there are but two genera of social bees, namely,
the genus Apis^ which contains but one species — melificaj the well-
known Hive or Honey bee, and the genus Bombus^ containing about
fifty species of the almost equally well-known Humble or Bumble bees.
All social bees, as well as other insects of the same habit, live to-
gether in larger or smaller communities, and have a regular system of
government and labor — a sort of ideal communism — ^in which no indi-
vidual is independent, but each performs certain duties for the common
good. Among the bees each colony contains three sorts of individuals :
one or more perfect females, or queens^ which are the mothers of the
swarm ; a considerable number of males or drones^ only permitted or
developed in the hive or nest at certain seasons, and a great number of
smaller, imperfect females, most appropriately termed "tror/cer*," since
upon them devolve ail the labors of the colony.
The typical species of this group is the Hive bee, celebrated from
time immemorial in sacred as well as classic literature, for the delicious
and useful products of its industry, honey and wax ; for its intelligence
and mechanical skill, and its various peculiar developments and adapta-
tions. Although an introduced species, it is now thoroughly natural-
E— 3
33 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
ized in this country, and is often found wild in forests, where it inhabits
hollow trees. It is said, however, that it never occurs &r from the
habitations of men, which foct caused the Indians, in earlier times, to
call it the ^^ white man's fly.'' It may be considered, indeed, like the
silk- worm, a thoroughly domesticated insect; and though so £ftmiliar to
us, the study of its habits has never lost its £ascination nor its reward
in the discovery of some remarkable attribute or power.
The form of the worker bee, with its compact, hairy body, its
strong wings, its large but widely separated eyes, its long proboscis,
and its sharp sting — which has the peculiarity of being barbed, and of
causing the death of its user by its loss, if thrust too vigorously into
the skin of the offender — ^is familiar to every one who has ever walked
tn field or garden. The queen bee is less frequently seen, even by the
careful observer, although, where glass hives are used, she can occasional-
ly be noticed in her promenades among the brood cells. She has a much
longer body than the worker, and her proboscis and the pollen baskets
on the hinder tibiae are not so well developed. But one perfect queen
mother is permitted in a hive at one time, and when the colony grows
too large for its quarters, the mature queen goes with the migrating
swarm, and her place and office in the hive is assumed by one of the
young queens, of which, in the swarming season, there are always a
number at the point of development At this season, too, the males or
drones are found in the hive in greatest numbers. These are stouter
bodied than the worker bees, and have the mouth parts and legs less per-
fectly developed, while the eyes are larger and almost meet at the top of J
the head. They are hatched from unimpregnated eggs laid by an occa-
sional fertile worker, or by an unmated queen, or, most remarkable of all,
by a fertile queen, when she chooses to allow an egg to pass through the
oviduct without contact with the sperm cells stored, after pairing, in her
spermathioa. In view of this we learn that the queen bee possesses a
power not shared, so far as known, by any other animal, viz.: that of con-
trolling the sex of her offspring at will. The queen cells are more than
twice the size of those built for the rearing of workers, and are placed
here and there on the edges of the brood comb and at right angles to
the worker cells. The egg and embryo are of the same nature as those
designed to produce workers, and the queens or perfect females result
from their more spacious cells and the more nitrogenized food called
"royal jelly" on which they are fed. The average life of the queen is
from two to three years, and instances are on record of her attaining
the age of five years. During the ordinary period of life she lays be-
tween one and two millions of eggs. The life of the worker seldom
exceeds eight or nine months and that of the drone two or three.
»'* •••.♦• • •
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 33
The period of development, from the laying of the egg until the cap-
ping of the cells by the workers, when the larvae are full grown, is said
is said to be eight days. During this time they are regularly fed and
attended by the younger workers, on which devolves the office of nurses.
After the cell is covered the larva spins around, itself a very delicate
cocoon of silk, within which it transforms to pupa. The latter has all
the members and the form of the mature insect, but all in a very soft
state and closely appressed to the body. After a repose of about three
weeks the young bees emerge, but remain in the hive for a few days,
until the wings and other members are sufficiently hardened to be ready
for duty. The hive bee is not torpid during winter, although many of
its activities are suspended. It appropriates large quantities of honey
and generates heat in proportion to the degree of atmospheric cold.
On the other hand, in every hot weather in summer, the bees, by the
vibrations of their wings, are able to cool and ventilate their hives.
Next in popular interest to the Honey bee, although they do not
contribnte directly to our luxuries, are the large, clumsy, noisy Hum-
ble bees. They are the largest insects in their tribe. In color they
are black or black banded with yellow, and the entire body is densely
covered with short, stiff hair. The wings, instead of being transparent,
are of a purplish or smoky hue. The tongue and maxillaB are longer
than those of the Honey bee, but constructed on the same plan, and
the added length enables these insects to extract the nectar from and
thus be the means of cross-fertUizing many flowers — among them the
red clover — in which the sweets are inaccessible to the former species.
The jaws are broad and strong, adapted for digging in the earth. The
nests of the largest species, Bomhus pennsylvanicus, De Oeer, are usu-
ally, if not invariably, made underground, sometimes in little caves
made for the purpose, but often in the deserted burrows of field mice
or similar cavities for the sake of economizing labor. Only the queens
or fertile females live over winter, and in the spring each one of these
founds a separate colony. Her mode of procedure is as follows :
After she has selected and prepared her home, she gathers a quantity
of pollen and honey, which she kneads into a mass, and upon which she
deposits a number of eggs. From these the larvse hatch in a few days
and eat their way into the ball of bee-bread in different directions,
growing, meantime, very rapidly. The rude cells thus formed are from
time to time strengthened and extended with wax by the mother bee,
until the larvae are sealed up for transformation. The first brood are
all workers, and as they mature the queen relinquishes her outside
labors to them, and devotes herself exclusively to increasing the num-
bers of the colony. About the middle of the season drone and queen
34 OUTLINSS OF ENTOMOLOGY.
cells are bailt, and npon the emergence of the occupants the two sexes
take their marriage flight together, after which, apon the approach of
cold weather, the colony disbands, and all except the perfect females
soon perish. The latter seek shelter about buildings, in hqllows of
trees, and possibly some return to the nest and remain dormant through
the winter, reviving when spring returns to repeat the annual process
of founding new colonies and reproducing the species.
The Humble bees are far less skillful and exact in their mechani-
cal efforts than the Honey bee. The cells are oval instead of hexago-
nal, and very irregularly placed, and honey and brood-comb are inter-
mixed without much order. The honey is very swe^t, but somewhat
rank-flavored, and in many persons produces headache, while the wax
is dark, coarse-grained and doughy.
The economy of the Solitary bees, belonging in the family Apid^
is quite different from that of the social species. Each pair, or more
properly each female, builds and provisions a separate nest, which con-
sists of from a half-dozen to a great number of cells. A quantity of
food, prepared mainly from pollen, is stored in each cell, in which a
single egg is also deposited. The cell is then closed and the mother
insect takes no further care for her young.
The most interesting and conspicuous of the Soliary species are
the Carpenter, the Mason, the Upholsterer and the Leaf-cutter bees.
The Carpenter bees (genus XylocopaJ contain a few species which
rival the Humble bee in size, and in many other respects closely re-
semble them. They may, however, be distinguished from the latter at
a glance by the smooth top of the abdomen, which is entirely of a
glossy black. Upon closer examination, the jaws (mandibles) are
found to be very powerful and sharply toothed. The basal joint of the
hind feet is very long and clothed with long stiff hairs, appearing
much like a bottle brush.
These bees bore holes in solid, but not growing, wood, being often
found at work in the cornices of houses and other buildings, in which
they make tunnels a foot or more in length. The entrance, for the
depth of an inch or more, is cut direct across the grain of the wood,
but the tunnel proper is at right angles to this, with the grain of the
wood. In this, numerous cells are partitioned off, the walls being
buUt from the chips or raspings, cemented with a sticky fluid from the
mouth of the little artisan. Beginning at the end farthest from the
entrance, each cell is finished, provided with a quantity of the usual
bee food, and the egg laid, before the partition wall is put up. It fol-
lows that there is a considerable interval of time between the com-
OTJ^TLINBS OF ENTOMOLOGY. 36
pletion of the ArBt and last cells, and whether the first laid eggs are
last to hatch, or whether, upon development, the young bees in the
more remote cells, remain quiet until those nearest the entrance open
open a passage- way, has not been ascertained ; but at all events, they
do not emierge until their younger brothers and sisters have passed out
befdre them.
The Mason bees (genus OsmiaJ are a group of small, handsome
bees of a metallic bluish or green color. They derive their name from
their habit of using clay, or a peculiar mortar which they prepare from
fine gravel, in the construction of their vaiiously shaped cells. These
may often be found plastered against the sides of buildings, upon the
branches of trees, and sometimes even upon leaves, or within oak-galls,
separately, or in small groups. They are rough on the outside but
smooth and polished within. A few species belonging to this genus
are said to excavate tunnels in sofi or decayed wood in which to pro-
tect their cells. Dr. Eiley says of Anthopora sponsa^ an allied species,
that it ** builds mostly in steeply inclined or perpendicular clay-banks,
and, in addition, extends a tube of clay from the entrance. The bur-
row has usually two branches, which decline about an inch from the
surface of the bank, and (in them) six or eight cells are arranged end to
end. By means of saliva the inside of the cell is rendered impervious
to the moisture of the honey and bee-bread stored in it for the young.^'
The Upholsterer bees (genus Oeratina) resemble the Mason bees
in form and color. They build their nests on a plan very similar to that
of the Carpenter bees, but instead of boring into solid wood they se-
lect that which is soft from decay, or confine themselves to the pithy
stems of such shrubs as the elder or blackberry, or the stalks of the
more robust weeds. The walls of the cells are lined and the partitions
made of a delicate silken web — the " upholstery '' from which they
derive their popular name.
The Leaf-cutter or Taylor bees (genua MegachileJ^ also in most
instances excavate the pithy stems of shrubs in which to build their
nests. In other cases they select tough leaves, which they contrive to
roll into cylinders and fasten firmly for the protection of the cells.
Within these tunnels they prepare a number of cells, forming the
partitions and covering the walls with sections of delicate leaves or
of the petals of flowers. One species, M. centuncularia, is a serious
pest to the flower garden, always, with rare good taste, selecting the
most delicately colored of the roses, geraniums and other choice flow-
ers for her curtains and coverlets. This is a rather stout, short-bodied
bee of a dull black color, banded with yellowish gray. The head is
broad and the scissors-like jaws are very strong, and the swiftness
36 OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOaY.
with which they cut out the circnlar pieces of leaf or petal is something
astonishing. The cells are over half an inch in length, nine or ten in a
row, placed end to end. As, in the latitude of St Loais, these bees
may be seen at work from May antil September, there are doubtless
several broods in a season.
Bees belonging in the family Andrenidce are distinguished by hav-
ing the tongae short and rather broad, and the most characteristic
genus fAndrenaJ can be recognized by a lock of long curled hair on
each trocanter. The colors are dark, banded with dull red. This fam-
ily of bees includes a large number of small, prettily colored insects
which make their nests in tunnels excavated horizontally in banks or
perpendicularly in level ground. The tunnels commonly consist of a
straight gallery into which the separate cells open on all sides.
Many species of both Apidce and Andrenidce are sorely annoyed
by Parasitic or Ouckoo bees. These build no nests for themselves,
but when one of them discovers a Carpenter or Mason or other bee at
work, she constantly hovers about the spot, and as fast as the cells are
completed she slips in and deposits her eggs, always choosing her time
when the builder is absent. The larvae from these eggs usually kill the
rightful tenants of the cells, or the latter perish from starvation be-
cause the intruder has devoured the lion's share of the food. A few
of the Cuckoo bees are rather guests than parasites, living very ami-
cably with their hosts, on whose bounty their young are reared. This
is the case especially with those that choose their homes with the so-
cial species. A certain large species of Apaihus is said to live in this
way in the nests of Humble bees, and the mature insects, which are
similar in appearance, are often seen together, harmoniously sipping
nectar from adjoining flowers.
The habits of all wild bees are extremely interesting subjects for
study, and have not by any means been thoroughly investigated.
OUTHStBS OP KNTOMOLOGT.
CHAPTER X.
Order hymknopteka. Section Aouleata.
TRUE WASPS AND DIGQBB WASPS.
IFlg. IB.l
Dlgg(fr-WUp, lUgta tpccUHtu.
The Trne waBpe are termed DiPLOPrERA (donble wings), beeanee
when not flytng tbe upper wings are always lougltadinally folded.
Tbis manner of carrying tbe wings is the most obvions stmctnral
distinction between this groap and the FosBorial or Digging wasps.
In this tribe of insects tbe body wall, or external envelope, is harder,
and, as a rale, smoother, than that of bees, although some species have
parts of the body clothed with a velvety pubescence, Tbe neck is very
short and the bead wide at tbe top, giving a somewhat triangular shape
to the face. The jaws are broad and strong, with sharp teeth, while tbe
inner jaws and tougae, though shorter than those of bees, are not so
flexible, still admit of tbe extraction of nectar fiY>m the more open
flower cups. Both pairs of palpi are well developed, and on each side
of the tongue is a similar supplementary organ called a parragloasa.
The eyes are large and hollowed out in the middle (see Fig 2, pt,
1st), and the ocelli are unasnally prominent. Tbe legs are mostly
smooth and cylindrical, but the shanks are provided with long, thorn-
like spurs, and the joints of the feet are also spiny. The females have
a formidable sting, bat the mates, as with nearly all other insects, are
unarmed.
The larvie are mnch like those of bees, except that they are some-
what larger on tbe anterior «nd. They are reared in cells of paper or
mad, for wasps are incapable of excreting wax, and are fed mainly on
animal food — such as the soft bodies of flies, larvte, bits of fresh meat
and tbe like — few, if any, being fed on tbe honey aud pollen that form
the sole nonrishment of the mature insects.
38 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
Like the bees, this tribe of wasps has its social and its solitary
species.
The best representative of the former is the Bald-faced Hornet
( Vespa maculata, Linn.,) an insect with whose large gray paper nests —
often eight or ten inches in diameter — and whose fierce sting every
school-boy is familiar. The habits of this species are mnch like those
of the Hamble bees. The perfect females, only, hibernate, and when
the spring is well advanced each one forms a few cells, mainly from a
glntinons secretion from the month, but apparently mingled with a
little woody fiber. These are attached by a slender pedicel, with the
opening downward, to a branch of some low tree or similar and secluded
support. The eggs are glued into the cells, and the young larvae, with
heads down, are at first fastened in the same manner, but as they grow
the swelling of the segments next the head serves to keep them in
position.
These first larvae speedily develop into workers and release the
queen from her labors. The tier of cells is added to on all sides, and
over it is built an umbrella-like roof, the materials being mainly fibers
of weather-beaten wood, collected from old fences and unpainted build-
ings. This is masticated and mingled with the fluids from the mouth,
and when thinly spread dries into a strong water-proof paper.
As the season advances and workers increase, successive tiers of
cells are built, attached by strong silken pillars to those above, with gal-
leries between, through which the wasps can easily move when caring
for the young. The outer envelope too is enlarged and brought down
at the sides, and finally made to completely enclose the nest. Late in
summer a brood of perfect males and females is produced, and upon
the approach of cold weather the ingenious little home is deserted, the
mature insects, it is said, first stinging to death any larvae or pupae that
remain, dragging them ruthlessly from their cells and casting them to
the ground.
Some species of the genus Yespa — for example, the smaller and
more brightly colored ** Yellow jackets " — have their homes, like the
Humble bees, underground.
The nests of the species belonging to the genus PoUsies consist of
a single tier of from ten to twenty or thirty cells, built in some shel-
tered situation and without any external enclosing wall. The species
are more slender in form than the hornets, and are mostly of rust-red
or brown colors. From their habit of attaching their clusters of open,
gray paper cells under the cornices or window sills of our dwellings,
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
m
[Fig. 16.]
and from the familiarity with which they enter our rooms, espeeially in
the autumn when the colonies are disbanding, scarcely any one can fail
to have more or less knowledge of their appearance and habits.
The few solita^ species belonging
to the group of " Bouble-wings "
differ more in habit than in struc-
ture from the soeia] species. Ko
so-called "neuters^' or workers
exist among them. Each mother
wasp builds her own series of
cells, storos each with the requi-
site amount of food, carefully
Potter wasp— after Riley. Colors black and yel- ^i^^^^ u^-« ^«^ «« *i.^ ^za^ ^-p mi>^
low; a, clay cdTer to ceU; ft, larVa; c, wasp. plaCCS her egg OU the Side 01 %h«
cell, seals it up and leaves the larva to develop without any material
supervision or care.
Among the most interesting of these is a small species, of a black
color, banded and ornamented with pale yellow, which has a great par-
tiality for building its mud cells (for these solitary species do not make
paper, bat are all masons) in key-holes and crevices indoors. On one
occasion which came under my observation, one of these wasps took
possession of some spools of thread standing on the sill of an open
window, and built her cells in the spindle holes, as figured above. As
fast as one spool was filled another was supplied, and in the course of
three days nine spools, averaging three cells to a spool, had been com-
pleted. The food stored consisted of various small caterpillars, includ-
ing several larvae of the Oodling moth, which had been stung with suf-
ficient severity to produce paralysis but not death.
The cells were scarcely more than half an inch in depth, but into
this small space six or seven or more larv» would be crowded, packed
with a deftness that was impossible of imitation by human fingers. The
wasp larvae developed rapidly, the young wasps appearing in less than
two weeks.
The Digging wasps (tribe Fossobes) contain the largest and most
beautiftil insects in the Order. (See Fig. 16.) Most of the species are
easily distinguished from the True wasps by their spiny legs, their
oval or roundish eyes, and especially by the wings not being folded in
repose. All the species are solitary in their habits, and as a matter of
course only males and perfect females are developed. A few of the
species bore holes in dry or decayed wood, or excavate the stems of
pithy plants, in which to construct their cells, while others, like the
Mud-dauber fPelopwusJ, build a cluster of pipe-like cells plastered
against a beam in some shed or out-building. The great majority, how-
40 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOaY.
ever, burrow into the earth, especially in sandy or gravelly situations,
loosening the soU with their strong jaws and scrabbling it out with
incredible rapidity with their spiny legs.
A separate hole is dag, six or seven or more inches deep, for each
egg, at the bottom of which the latter is laid, after the nest has been
provisioned with one large or several smaller insects or spiders reduced
to torpor by the poisoned lance of the wasp. The shaft is* then filled
up, the earth smoothed over, and even bits of gravel so placed as to
completely obliterate all trace of the excavation.
The Wood wasps (family GBABBONiDiB), which bore into wood, feed
their larv» on plant lice, a great number of these tiny insects being
required to provision a single cell. Species of the genus Ammophila —
easly recognized by the very spiny legs and the long, slender pedicel
gradually widening backward into the rather small abdomen — provide
each nest with but one large caterpillar.
The elegant wasp known as the ^^Handsome Digger" (8tizu% ^peoio-
8U8, Drury), represented in Fig. 15, a very large species of a black color
gaily banded and otherwise marked with yellow, provisions its nest
with harvest flies (Cicadas), making use of the seventeen-year species
when they appear, as well as of the annual '^drummers." A still larger
species fPompilus formoaus, Say J, of a dark blue color, common in the
Southwestern States, is called the '^Tarantula-killer," because it makes
the large and venemous Tarantula, the most formidable of our spiders,
its especial prey. The Digger wasps are a great terror to the insects
upon which they prey, the latter seeming to recognize them instinct-
ively as enemies from which there is no escape. Observers have no-
ticed that even the Tarantula above mentioned, large and savage as it
is, is seized with a violent tremor and appears to lose all courage as
soon as it finds itself pursued by the fierce Pompilus.
A small black wasp belonging in the genus Tiphia^ common in the
north and west, is distinguished as one of the few insect enemies of
the destructive White grub, its tough, brown, silken cocoons being
frequently turned out by the plow in the spring from meadows and
corn land.
All wasps, whether social or solitary, may be considered among
beneficial species, for although the perfect insects feed only on honey
and pollen, yet in providing for their young they destroy vast numbers
of leaf and fruit-feeding larvae as well as various grasshoppers, cicadas
and flies. In preparing these insects to nourish their young the attend-
ing wasps of the social species thoroughly masticate and partly digest
them before they regurgitate the pulp into the open mouths of the
larvafe. The Solitary species, as we have seen, have a provision for
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOIX>aT. 41
rendering the uuiectfl upon wbicli their young are to feed helpless td
escape or resist, and yet not fatally injured so that they wonld spoil
before being required for food.
CHAPTER XL
Order hymenoptera. Section Aculeata.
ANTS.
[Fig. 17.]
Worker Ant. Fbrmiea.
All the typical ants (composing the tribe Hbtesogyna) are social
insects which rank next to and in some respects exceed the bees in
their manifestations of ingenuity and intelligence*
A colony — ^termed a formicarium — as in the case of other social in-
sects, always contains three and occasionally four distinct forms, males,
females, workers, and sometimes soldiers or some other distinct class.
The males and females at a certain period in their development acquire
wings and aiise from the nest. After sporting together for a time in the
open air the females return to the nest or perhaps originate nevr col-
onies, and divest themselves of their wings, as these appendages in the
retired life they henceforth lead, would be not only useless but cumber-
some. The male ants, which are much smaller than the females, hav-
ing once left the nest never return to it, and are usually short-lived.
The workers and soldiers, which are imperfectly developed females,
never acquire wings, and differ from the perfect individuals in having
the joints of the thorax less compactly united, and the basal and some-
times the succeeding joint of the abdomen formed on top, into a sort of
scale or node. The head is generally more or less triangular, the anten-
nae are long and elbowed, and seem to be the organs of communication
42 OUTLINES OF BNTOHOLO0Y.
between tke individuals of a colony. The jaws are strong and sbarply
xM)tched9 except in the slave-making species, in which they become
almost useless as tools.
Some species are armed with a sting, and all secrete a peculiar acid^
called formic aoidj which has very characteristic properties, and pro-
duces a slight burning sensation upon the skin. This acid is attractive
to certain insects which penetrate to the ants' nests to obtain it from
their bodies. It is thought to have medicinal qualities, and in Switzer-
land a highly prized vinegar is made from it by boiling the insects in
water. It is said that the lumbermen in our northern forests, in the
event of a failure of their fruit supply, use these acid insects as a sub-
stitute.
#Ants build their formicaries in various ways, according to their
species. Some erect conical dwellings above ground from mortar of
clay or sand ; others, including a majority of the species, burrow into
the earth; while others still inhabit hollow trees or excavate decayed
stumps and logs. The nests are marvels of mechanical art, containing
store-rooms, nurseries, galleries and other compartments, and are some-
times several stories in height, each story being supported upon pillars^
arches and cross-beams.
Not only are these little creatures skillful artisans, but they seem
to have quite complex social and governmental systems. When about
to make war on a neighboring colony, they sally forth in regular col>
umns, and appear to have a corps of officers who take turns in direct-
ing the movements. Several species of red and yellow ants capture
and enslave variou9 black species. The slaves are obtained by making
war on the " negro ants f and after the victory which ihey gain in a
majority of the battles, they carry off the pup» of the vanquished
colony and rear them in their own nurseries. When the captives are
mature, they do not attempt to escape, but seem entirely willing to
procure food for their owners and to serve them in any capacity re-
quired.
The larvfiB of ants are short, white cylindrical grubs, with small
l^eads which are bent forward. These larvae receive the most assiduous
care from the workers. They are daily carried about to those parts of
the nest where the temperature will best promote their growth. When
the weather is pleasant, they are brought in the morning to the upper
apartments, that they may receive the benefit of the sun's rays, and at
evening they are again removed to the lower chambers where there is
less exposure and more warmth. The food with which they are sup-
plied must first be chewed and submitted to a process of partial diges-
tion by the nurses before it is fed to them, and in all other ways they
are the objects of the tenderest interest and attention.
OUTLINES OB ENTOMOLOGY. 43
In case of an accident to the nest, the safety of the larvae and
pupae seems to be t&e first consideration, and the workers may be seen
running hither and thither in great distress with their delicate white
charges in their jaws, and which they will sacrifice their lives in the
efifort to protect.
Ants feed upon a variety of animal and vegetable substances, and
while very fond of sweets, are not, like bees and wasps, restricted in
their mature state, to a diet of pollen and nectar. Some species are
quite valuable as scavengers, rapidly disposing of carrion.
A very good way of obtaining a perfectly clean skeleton of a bird
or other small animal is to place it near a large ants' nest. Every par-
ticle of flesh will soon be removed in the neatest manner. There are
no species injurious to vegetation north of Florida, but in that Stable a
certain species fSolonopeis Xyloni, McG) is said by Mr. Henry Hubbard
to ^^ seriously injure the orange by gnawing away the bark and causing
an exudation of gum which seems, at certain seasons of the year, to
become one of its principal sources of food supply." In other sections
of the South this species makes reparation for such injuries by its
attacks on the cotton-worm, of which there is no room to doubt that
it kills great numbers.
The Leaf cutters are mainly Mexican and South American species,
and are often very destructive to the foliage of the orange and other
valuable trees. Among these appears the singular form of workers,
distinguiished as ^'soldiers," with enormously large heads and other
peculiar adaptations. These are the protectors of the nest in time of
danger, and take no part in other labors. Dr. McGook has also de-
ecribed most entertainingly the habits of the Agricultural ant, which
clears the ground around its nest, sows it to a sort of grass which it in due
time harvests, storing the seeds in its nest. In Texas and Mexico also
occurs another very interesting species whose habits were investigated
and published by the same gentleman, viz., the Honey ant. In the
fornaicaries of this species, certain workers have the power of secreting
honey from their food. This collects in the abdomen until the latter
becomes enormously enlarged and the insect is incapable of dragging
the heavy weight, and has to be fed by the less distended workers.
This honey is not disgorged into cells, but is taken direct from the
insect by the other inmates of the nest, and when the secretion is
entirely exhausted the creature perishes.
Instead depending on members of their own colony for their
aweets, some of our indigenous species domesticate in their nests cer-
tain root-feeding plant lice ( Aphides J^ which have been called the "ants'
cows," beostfise of the sweet fluid which they yield &om their nectar
tubes when caressed by the ant's antennsd. Indeed, all these nectar-
44 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOaY.
yielding aphids are great favorites with the ants, which take various
measures for their protection, even when they cannot transport them
to their nests.
The great majority of our ants belong in the genus Formiea, These
have no sting, but will sometimes bite severely if they have access to
the tender skin. They have but one node between the pedicel and ab-
domen. Our largest species is Formica
pennsylvanicajWhidh. is black, and three-fifths
of an inch long. It is a wood-borer and may
often be found in hollow trees and decaying
stumps. Formica sanguinea, a medium-sized
red species, is the most common slave,
making ant.
A.nts belonging to the genus Mj^mica
are mostly small, bright-colored species,
with two nodes or scales between the abdo-
men proper and the thorax. One of the
species, Myrmiea moleitaj Say, is the small
^^red ant," often so troublesome to house-
Bed Ant (Mjprmiea), greatly enlarged, keepers.
CHAPTER XII.
Order hymbnoptera- Section Tebebbantia.
PARASITES AND GALL-FLIES.
[Fig. 19.]
Ic^nenmon Fly (after Riley) .
This division of the HYSiENOPTBRA includes both' the species that
are of most service to man, and those that are most directly injurious.
They are grouped in the same section because in all, the ovipositor is
a jpi^ro^r, adapted for penetrating either hard or soft substances. It is
OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOOY. 45
usaaJly a conspicaoas appendage of the abdomen, and is of a variety of
singnlar forms, bat iB not connected with any poison gland, and while
that of some species may inflict a sharp prick, it is in no case a true sting.
Among the Piesoebs are found those species that vary most from
what is considered the type of the Order, many of which, in points of
their general structure, and in the forms of their larvae, seem to be
closely allied to the Lepidoptera.
The Piercers (Teeebbantia) are very conveniently separated
intotwo tribes :
1. Insect eaters (Entomophaga), Parasitic flies, and also Gall-
flies, and a very few other vegetable feeders.
2. Plant eaters (Phytophaga), Saw-flies and Wood-borers. The
first tribe includes a vast number of species, some with bodies, includ-
ing the ovipositor, two inches or more in length, others so minute that
their different parts can only be distinguished with a lens, the office of
all of which seems to be to keep in check those members of its class
which prey upon vegetation, and which, but for them, would multiply
to such an extent as to threaten extinction to many of our most valu-
able food plants.
The Parasitic species may be readily separated into three &milies,
Iohneumonidjb, PBOGTOTBYPiDiB and Ghalgidid^. Some authors
separate various species from these groups, for which they define sev-
eral more families, bat those mentioned include all the more important
species.
Among the members of the first-named &mily may be found some
very large species, a great number that are of medium size — with a
wing expanse of from one-third to one-half inch — and some that are
extremely small. The typical Ichneumon flies have long and rather
slender bodies, usually terminated by an exserted ovipositor, which is
composed of several thread-like stylets, and which varies in length from
three or four inches in Thalessa, to a scarcely noticeable point at the
tip of the abdomen, as in Miorogaster.
The head is somewhat square, the antenn» thread-like and many-
jointed ; both paii'S of palpi are well developed, but the biting organs
are rather small and weak. The thorax is compact, but the different
parts are often outlined by deep grooves. The veining of the wings
is much like that in bees and wasps, but the membrane is more delicate
and transparent. The legs are smooth and cylindrical. These insects
lay their eggs in or upon the bodies of other insects, usually caterpillars,
piercing the skins with their sharply pointed ovipositors. Sometimes
but a single egg is laid ; in other cases the dorsal sur&ce is thickly '
46 OUTLINES OF SNTOMOLOaY.
panetared and a great namber of the little grab-like lafvsB hatch and
barrow bciok and forth in the fetitj tissae of their victim, avoiding at
first its vital parts ; and when it is fatally injured, though perhaps it
i^!f ' ^/l^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^® ^^^ several days, they emerge in an
erect position and cover the back of the cater-
pillar with their small white cocoons attached
Sphinx iarv»w"iih''cocooii8^ ^^ *^® lo^^r ^nd and standing ap like grains of
p«witeB (after Blley). Color, ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ .^^ j^^^ ^g ^^^ ^^^^ SpecieS
weave their cocoons inside the body of their victim. The internal
parasitic larvae are said to breathe throagh branckia similar to those of
water insects, which are situated at one end of the body and communi-
cate with the air tubes of the insect they infest.
The large speeies represented in Fig. 19 is Opihon Macrurum^ Linn.
The abdomen broadens toward the tip and is compressed laterally.
The entire body and wing- veins are of a honey-yellow color. It quite
frequently enters our lighted rooms on summer nights, and if taken
into the hand will administer so sharp a thrust with its ovipositor that
the captor involuntarily releases it. It is parasitic on the large cater-
pillars belonging to the family of our native silk worms.
The Progtbotbypidjs is a family of exceedingly small flies, most
of which are '^ Egg parasites." Their bodies are rather slender and the
wings almost without veins, but in some species are fringed with fine
hairs around the edges. They breed, as a rule, in the eggs of larger
insects, of which they destroy great numbers. The family of the
Ghaloidid^ is also composed mainly of very small species, some of
which also breed in eggs, but usually in the bodies of other insects,
especially in those of Aphides. They are often of beautiful metallic
colors. The antennae are elbowed and have from six to fourteen
joints. A considerable number have the thighs of the hinder legs
very much thickened for jumping. The wings have very few veins and
no enclosed cells. In the male the abdomen is seven-jointed, while in
the female it has only six joints. Except in a very few species the ovi-
positor is entirely withdrawn into the body except when in use. They are
not infrequently parasitic upon other parasites, and, therefore, to be reck'
oned among injurious species. In this group, also, we find the de-
structive " Joint- worm flies" (Isosoma hordii Har, tritici and I. grander
Eiley ), which puncture the stalks of small grain at the joints in de-
positing their eggs, the larvae afterward feeding upon the sap, and
where they are numerous, preventing the growth of the stalk and the
filling of the head. Mr. P. M. Webster of Indiana made the discovery
that many of the females of L grande were wingless. As most of these
insects hibernate in the straw, burning the latter after threshing and
onXLINBS OP ENTOMOLOGY. 47
also bnrning the etnbble ie the best preveDtive of their iucreaee. This
fly differs very slightly id stractare from the parasitic species.
One family inclnded in this group — the Cynipidal — while resem-
bling the Gbalcids very closely in stractare, are vegetable feeders,
caasiug on Oak, Bose and other woody plants, the eingalar froit-Iike
and nut-like growths called " galls." The females differ trom the para-
sitic Chalcidid^ in their larger size, and in the shorter and more
compressed abdomen and ia the notch on the nnder side of the latter.
The antennee, also, are straight and slender, with the joints all equal.
The abnormal plant growth is supposed to be caused by the depo-
sition of a minate quantity of a peculiar fluid, along with the egg, by
the parent fly, the tissue resulting forming a more suitable kind of
food for the larvEc than ordinary wood fiber or leaves. The gall makers
are all more or less injarioas to the plants they attack, but one species
makes a sort of reparation in producing on a Earopean oak the " nut
galls," used in the manufacture of the best ink.
OHAPTEE XIII.
Order HYMENOPTEKA. Section Tbbebban Tl a,
SAW-FLIES AND HOBN TAILS.
NatlTe Cnnant Saw-fly.
The insects of this Order, included among the true Plant-eaters
(Phytophaga), differ very much in all stages of their development from
those described in preceding chapters.
The perfect insects have rather heavy bodies, upon which the three
principal divisions are not so distinct as in be^s, wasps and ichneu-
48 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
mons. The head is broad, connected with the thorax by a very short
neck, and the abdomen is sessile: L e., joins the thorax by a wide base
instead of a slender stalk.
The larvsB are much more independent than those of the higher
families of the Order. They are not confined to cells or chambers, and
the only provision made for them by the parent insect is the insertion
of her eggs in the kind of leaves or wood which her young require for
food. They subsist entirely upon vegetation, and are separated into
two families :
1st. Saw-flies (Tenthbedinid^), and
2d. Horn-tails or Wood-borers (Ueocebid^).
The Saw-flies are easily lecognized by their broad, thin WingB,
which are divided into numerous cells by fine veins or nervures, and
by the soft and yielding integument of the body. The antennae are
usually short and simple, varying in the females in the number of joints.
A few species have these organs knobbed at the tip or toothed or
feathered on one edge. The ovipositor, from the peculiar structure of
which these insects derive their popular name, consists of two saw-
like blades, the sides of which are ridged and the lower edges finely
serrated or notched. The blades are strengthened by a back so grooved
that they can slide back and forth upon it. When not in use they are
protected by a sheath and concealed in an opening on the under side of
the abdomen. With this most ingenious instrument the insect saws
little oblique slits in the cuticle of leaves or in the principal veins, in
which she places her eggs. There are some exceptions to this rule,
found among species that are very proli&c and destructive : e. ^., the
Imported Ourrant-worm, in which the eggs are attached externally to
the veins of the leaf and kept in place by a sticky fluid which is exuded
with them. In such species the ovipositor is found to have lost, in
great measure, its saw-like character. The Saw-flies are slow and heavy
in flight, sluggish in all their motions and easily captured.
The larvae are called " slugs " and " false caterpillars,'' and are
classed with the most destructive of insect pests. The Imported and
the Native Ourrant-worms, the Eose slug, the Pear slug, the White
Pine and the Larch false caterpillars are some of the most pernicious
species. They are of elongate, worm-like form, with large, roundish,
glossy heads, on some of which are seen a pair of antennae-like pro-
cesses. The thoracic legs are well developed, and the hinder end of
the body is supported upon six to eight pairs of fleshy points or props,
which differ from the pro-legs of genuine caterpillars, not only in their
greater number, but in lacking the little circle of hooks by which the
latter can so firmly attach themselves to any surface. In some of these
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 49
larvae the surfetce is smooth and glossy, in others spiny or mossy or cov-
ered with a slimy exadation, while others excrete a powdery or cottony
substance that gives them a very pecaliar appearance.
Some species, such as the White-pine worm, have the habit of ele-
vating the head and tail when at rest, others keep the body colled when
not feeding, while a few construct leafy cases which they carry about
with them or to which they retire for repose.
A few species are gregarious, feeding in large- companies or spin-
ning large gummy webs in which they cluster in masses. When full
grown many of these larvae drop to the ground and form tough oval
cocoons among the fallen leaves and rubbish, or they burrow into the
earth and enclose themselves in cells thinly lined with silk. Most spe-
cies hibernate in the larva state, without changing to pupae until the
following spring. .
The family of the Horn-tails (UBOOEBiDiB:) contains comparatively
few species. They are mostly large insects with stout cylindrical
bodies, characterized by a long straight horn extending from the
abdomen. In the males this appendage is at the tip, but in the females
it arises from the middle of the underside of the abdomen and consti-
tutes the ovipositor. It is more auger-like than saw-like in its form and
use, and is used for boring into the trunks of trees, especially the elm
and pear, to which the boring larvae are often very destructive.
The wings are narrow but strong, expanding more than two inches,
and in flight making a loud buzzing sound. The length of the body
including the horn is also more than two inches.
The species known as the Pigeon Tremex (Tremex columba^lAvLXi)
is one of the. most injurious. Its multiplication is, however, very
much checked by a large ichneumon fly which runs its long ovipositor
into the auger-holes of the Tremex, leaving in each one an e>gg^ from
which hatches a deadly enemy and devourer of the flrst Horn-tail larva
which it meets.
OUTLINES OF ENTOUOLOOT.
CHAPTER XIV.
Order II. coleoptera.
[Fig. M.]
This Order of iusect« — the Beetles — inclndes a for greater number
of described species — more tbau one bandred tfaoneand — than either
of the other primary gronps. And while among this vast assemblage
we find an almost Infinite variety in size, form, color and the adaptation
of certain organs for certain fanctions, a single glance is sufQcient to
enable us to recognize a member of the Order, except, perhaps, in
the case of a very few rare and annsual forms.
On account of the ease with which specimens may be collected and
preserved, and the accuracy with which the external stractnre may be
defined, these insects have always been favorites with entomologists,
and the student will find them most interesting and convenient subjects
upon which to begin his stadies of insect anatomy.
The popular term " beetle " is said to be derived from an old Eng-
lish word signifying a " biter," and is most appropriate tor this group
of insects in which the organs for biting are so complei: and so perfect.
Beetles are cbiefiy characterized by the peculiar stracture of the
upper wings, which are transformed into a pair of horny or leathery
cases, or sheaths meeting in a straight line down the back, and covering
not only the abdomen, but two joints of the thorax {the mezo and meta
thorax). These are called the elytra (sing, elytron). They are not used
to any extent in Sight— their office appearing to be mainly that of armor
for the protection of the softer parts of the body. The Irue membran-
ous wings, when not in use, are enugly folded beneath them, not only
lengthvrise, in fiin-like plaits, but, by means of a binge or joint in the
supporting veins, a litUe beyond the middle, crosswise as well, so that
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 51
in most species they may be co|ppletely covered. This wing structure
can be most satisfactorily studied in the common May beetle, one of the
species which few people have any repugnance in handling.
The frame-work or body- wall of most beetles is very hard and firm
compared to that of many other insects. This is very necessary to pre*
serve them from the varied dangers incident to their terrestrial habits.
The mouth of beetles is considered as presenting the typical form
of that important organ. The six principal parts, mandibles, maxillae,
labram and labium, described in chapter III, Pt. 1st (m which see Fig. 3),
are always present, together with other appendages of less direct use.
The eyes are usually prominent and of various forms, round, oblong,
kidney-shaped, curved, and in one group of water beetles entirely
divided in the middle, so that there would seem to be two on each
side. The ocelli are not usually present, though a few species have a
single pair, or perhaps only one.
The antennae present a great variety of forms, some of which are
very singular and beautiful, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 4, Pt.
1st. They are mostly eleven-jointed. Only the pro-thorax, which is
usually very wide, is visible on the back, with the exception of a small
wedge-shaped section of the meso-thorax, termed the scutellum. The
abdomen joins the thorax by a wide base, and, in a great majority of
beetles, is almost, if not entirely covered by the wing cases. Many of
the leaf-feeding species and a few of those that are predaceous, fly with
great ease and rapidity, but as a rule, the legs are the principal organs
of locomotion. They are horny and strong, and of various shapes to
adapt them for running, leaping, swimming and other uses. The ap-
parent joints of the feet vary in number from three to five, and the foot
terminates in most cases in a pair of sharp claws.
The larvae of beetles are commonly called " grubs.'' Most of these
are soft, clumsy looking objects, with horny heads and three pairs of
sprawling legs on the thoracic segments. Some species have in addi-
tion a sort of pro-leg at the hinder end of the body, or one or two rows
of tubercles (fleshy points) along the sides, or on the upper or under
surface, by which they are enabled to move with ease in the situations
in which they are found. The larvae of Water-beetles have numerous
oar-like processes along the sides and are capable of swimming very
rapidly.
Besides these forms are others which, living enclosed in the fruit or
wood upon which they feed, have no use for legs of any kind, and conse-
quently do not possess them. Of such are the Gurculios and many
kinds of wood-borers.
52 OUTLIMBS OF BNTOMOLOGT.
ColeopteroaB larvse feed upon aUnpst all kinds of vegetable and
animal substances, from the petals of the most delicate flower to the
most rank smelling carrion, from fruits and nuts to the most pungent
spices to be found at the grocer's or druggist's. A considerable pro-
portion are cannibals, and prey upon members of their own class.
Larvae of such species are usually very active, while the vegetable
feeders are, as a rule, awkward and sluggish in their movements. In
this Order the transformations are complete. The larvsB molt or change
their skins several times, and their growing period varies in length
f^om a few weeks to two or three years. They transform either upon
or beneath the sur&ce of the ground, or upon the leaves or within the
fruit or wood upon which they have fed. The pupsB are obtectedj re-
sembling those of Hymenoptera in having each member encased in a
separate sheath.
In the matter of classification, this Order is so comprehensive, that
it is impossible within the limits of this little work to include any sys-
tem that will, enable the tyro to determine every species of which he
may find an example, except as to the primary divisions. Beyond this
the most that will be attempted will be a definition of such groups as con-
tain conspicuously injurious or conspicuously beneficial species. When
we learn that in North America alone, exclusive of Mexico, we have more
than nine thousand named specied, representing upwards of seventeen
hundred genera and about eighty distinct families, it is evident than
volumes are required for anything like adequate description and
definition.
Following the system of the recognized authorities, the primary
divisions of the Goleoptera are as follows :
Sub-Order I. The True Beetles (0 o l B o p T B B i), in which the
mouth parts are all present and the front of the head is not elongated.
Sub-Order II. The Snout Beetles (R h yn c o p h o b a), in which
the front part of the head is more or less prolonged into a beak, the
labrum not distinguishable and the palpi reduced to minute, jointless
points.
The first of these Sub-Orders is then separated into two sections,
based upon the cori'espondence or lack of correspondence in the num-
ber of tarsal joints.
1st. IsoMBBA (Similar joints) species which, with rare ex-
ceptions, have the same number of joints in all the feet.
2d. Hbtbbombba (Different joints), including species which
have five joints in each of the front and middle feet, and only four
joints in each of the hinder pair.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 53
Beetles belonging in the Isomeba are sab-divided into five
tribes :
I. Abefhaga (carnivorons beetles), Land and Water Tigers, hun-
ters and trappers of other insects for the most part, although a few
species subsist on vegetation. In these the antennad are thread-like^
cylindrical, with the joints distinct.
II. Glayicobnia (Olub-horns), having the antennae thickened
gradually or abruptly toward the tip ; feet with from one to five joints ;
small beetles of various habits.
III. Sebbioobnia (Saw-horns), having the antennse toothed or
serrated (in some few species also enlarged at the tip, much as in the
preceding tribe, but the species in other respects agreeing with the
members of this tribe). This group includes a great number of small
borers,
TV. Lahellioobnia (Leaf-horns), having the knob of the anten-
nae composed of several leaf -like or blade-like parts, which the insect
can unfold or close up at will. This Tribe includes the largest insects
in the Order, most of which feed, often in the perfect as well as the lar-
vae state, upon vegetation, foliage, roots and decayed wood.
Y. Phytofhaga (Plant-eaters), mostly with thread- like antennae,
in some species very long, in others short and slightly thickened to-
ward the tip ; fourth and fifth joints of the feet consolidated, the former
minute. All the species feed on vegetation and many are extremely
destructive.
Neither the Section Hetebomeba nor the Sub-Order E h Y N-
OfiOPHOBA requires division into tribes for convenience of study.
CHAPTER XV.
Order COLEOPTBRA. Tribe I. ADEFHAaA.
CANNIBAL BEETLES.
In this group of beetles we find mainly carnivorous species, many
of which prey especially on insects destructive to vegetation, and on
this account claim recognition as among our best friends. They also
merit consideration by their great beauty of form and color, and by the
grace and agility of their movements. The most important families are
the Tiger-beetles (Oioindelid^), the Caterpillar hunters (Cababid^),
the Water-tigers (Dytisoid^), and the Water- whirligigs (Gybinid^).
The Tiger-beetles received their popular name on account of their
ferocious habits, their swift movements and the stealthy manner in which
their larvae lie in wait for their prey. They are diurnal insects of
64 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
medinm or rather small size (three-fonr^s inch and under in length), of
elegant form and often of brilliant metallic color. Their chosen haants
are sunny path-ways, hard beaten roads and the sandy shores of streams,
lakes and the ocean.
The head of a Tiger-beetle is broader than the thorax. It is pro-
vided with a very complete mouth, of which the most important parts
are the long, sharply-toothed and curved jaws, which cross each other
when closed. The eyes are large, round or somwhat oblong and pro-
truding ; the antennae long and slender, arising from the face just above
the base of the mandibles. The prothorax is nearly square, the scutel-
lum very small, and the wing cases, which are rather narrow, widen
slightly toward the hinder end of the body. The under wings are well
developed, and the insect rises easily into the air for short flights. The
legs are long and slender and the joints of the feet spiny. The dark
metallic color is in some species varegated by dots and zigzag lines of
yellow or cream white. The larvse live in perpendicular holes in the
ground and are extremely ugly in appearance. They have a broad head
and immense jaws, and long sprawling legs. On the middle of the
back is a large double hump, terminating in backward curving hooks,
of which these creatures make use in climbing to the entrance to their
holes and sustaining themselves there while lying in wait for their prey.
Any unlucky insect happening to stray within reach of those terrible
jaws is seized with a grasp from which there is no escape, dragged into
the hole and devoured.
More than sixty species of Oicindelidce are found in the United
States. (See beetle on plate.)
The Ground-beetles or " Caterpillar-hunters " include a great num-
ber of predaceous species, which may occasionally be seen running
over the ground in fields and gardens, but are usually hidden under
stones, boards, fallen leaves and the like during the day. They are
easily distinguished from the Tiger-beetles by the head being narrower
than the prothorax, and the latter somewhat more constricted or taper-
ing toward the base of the wing covers. They are also, with a few
exceptions, of plainer coloring, and the most conspicuous species are
of larger size than is the rule among the Tiger-beetles. One of the
chief structural characters of these beetles is the peculiar eardrop-
shaped trochanter of each of the hinder legs. (See Part 1st, Pig. 6,
A, b.)
They are, as rule, noclurnal in their habits, running out of their
hiding places at nightfall, and exploring field and garden, even climb-
ing trees in the search for their six-legged game, tearing in pieces cater-
pillars and grubs, and even other beetles, wherever found. They are often
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 55
attracted to lamplight, and I h»ve, on several occasions, seen the side-
walks around the electric light posts almost covered with dead and dis-
abled specimens of the beautiful, metallic-green Calosoma scrutator^
Fabr. As they are very swift runners, most species make but little
use of their wings ; indeed, the latter are in some cases entirely unde-
veloped, and the elytra are firmly joined at the suture on the back.
The larvae are elongate, somewhat flattened grubs, having the body
protected on top by horny plates, and in some instances terminated in
a pair of branching spines or forceps-like appendages. They burrow
back and forth just beneath the surface of the earth, and destroy many
of the soft larvae of fruit and leaf-feeding species that have entered the
ground for transformation.
Among the most beneficial species is the Fiery Ground-beetle {Oalo-
soma calidiumj Fabr.), a large and elegant beetle of a black color, with
elytra (wing covers) thickly dotted with shining, impressed, coppery
spots (see Fig. — ). This beetle preys upon cut-worms, and its larvae,
having the same habit, has been called the " Cut-worm lion." Another
smaller species, Lebia grandiSj with a red-brown thorax, and legs and
dark-blue wing covers renders us good service in destroying the larvae
of the Colorado potato-beetle.
One species, a little larger than the above, but clo&ely resembling
it in form and color, is called the Bombardier beetle {Brachinus fumaus)^
as it has the singular power of discharging a volatile and pungent fluid
from the tip of the abdomen, which rises in the air like a little puff
of smoke. It is a means of defense against its enemies.
The Water-tigers are quite common in ponds and sluggish streams.
The beetles are easily recognized by their broad, flat, ovate, pol-
ished bodies, often an inch and€b quarter in length, and by the hairy,
oar-like shape of the hinder legs. When disturbed these beetles dive
•deep under water, carrying with them a bubble of air which sustains
respiration until they again rise to the surface. Their larvae are long
and cylindrical, with a pair of breathing tubes at the posterior end that
<;an be protruded above the surface of the water. The head is armed
with powerful, scissor-like jaws which are kept in almost constant mo-
tion. They are very savage and greedy, feeding upon other aquatic
insects, tadpoles and small fish, in some streams proving very destruc-
tive to the latter. When full grown they crawl upon shore and enclose
themselves in earthen cells within which they change to pupae. The
perfect insects make their way into the water as soon as they emerge.
The " Whirligigs " are another family of preying water-beetles
which, though allied to the Water-tigers, are distinguished from ihem
66 OUTLIHBS OP EHTOMOLOGT.
by tbeir Btnaller size, their roand blae-black bodies, long front legs and
very short swimming legs. The eyes are bilobed, giving tbem the ap-
pearance of two on each side. They nsnally appear in groaps on the
surface of the water, sporting and circling abont in great apparent en-
joyment The larvffi look like myriapods, having a pair of long, spiny
processes OQ each abdominal segment.
CHAPTER XVI.
Order, COLBOPTEBA. Tribes, Claviooehia and Sberioobnia.
OLUB-HOBNBD AND SAW-HOBBBD BEBTLBB.
n
In the first of these Tribes we find a large namber of qaite dis-
tinct families and genera of beetles in which the principal point of
agreement is found in the antennsB, which in most of the species, are
" clubbed," or rather thick and gradnally and slightly enlarged toward
the tip. But even in this character there is some variation — Ipa fasiata.
and the species of Nitidvla, for exampTe, baring antennEe that are dis-
tinctly Tcnohhed at the end.
Among the Clavicorn beetles the number of joints of the feet
ranges from one to five, most species having the same number in the
hind tarsi as in the others.
The representative Families of this subdivision of the Order are
the Burying beetles (Silphid^), the Rove beetles (Staphylinid^),
the Lady-bird beetles (Coccinbllid^), and the Masenm pests and
Carpet beetles (DERMEsriD*;).
The Burying beetles or Sexton beetles are so called from their habit
of first burying the dead bodies of other insects, birds and small ani-
mals Qpon which their larv% feed, before placing their eggs apon them ;
and one is sometimes astonished upon coming across such small car-
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOGY. 57
rion to find it being moved by some unseen force* If trt:en up or
turned over, several species of large beetles that were at work digging
out the e^rth beneath it will be disclosed. Many of the species are
easily collected by means of such unsavory traps.
These beetles differ considerably in size and color, but all have
rather broad, flattened bodies, Ave joints in all the feet, which end in
long claws. The antennao are rather abruptly enlarged at the tips. The
prothorax is expanded into a broad plate used as a shovel in the dig-
ging operations. Necrophorus americantiSy Oliv,, is our largest species,
frequently measuring one and one-fourth inch in length by one-half
inch in breadth. It is of a glossy -black color, with a large red-brown
spot in the middle of the head, the prothorax being almost entirely
of red-brown, and there are two large patches of the same bright color
ou each wing cover. The black antenna^ end in a leafy knob of golden
brown, and the joints of the front feet are covered on the under side
with silky hairs of a' similf^r color. The pointed tip of the abdomen
protrudes about one-fourth inch beyond the squarely cut wing covers*
In the genus Silpka the body is very flat and almost orbicular, the
prothorax being expanded into a wide, thin flange, and is usually of a
brighter color than the broad, roughened wing covers.
The Kove beetles have long, slender, black or dark colored bodies,
with very short, square wing covers which leave more than one-half of
the abdomen unprotected. The head is usually somewhat broader
than the prothorax, the sharply pointed jaws crossed in front, and the
rather small, oval eyes are wide apart. Some species are an inch or
more in length, while others are very minute. Like the preceding
tribe, they are carrion feeders, but prefer the carcasses of the larger
animals, such as dogs and horses.
[Fig. 24.] The Lady-bird beetles include a group of small^
(t^ handsome beetles of an oval or hemispherical form,
^^nffi^. with three-jointed feet and short antennae. The
-^w^ surface is polished and usually ornamented with
round or oval spots of black on a rose-red, brick-
fodJmte^clwe^J^;/^^ red or orange ground, or with red spots on a black
m^. """^ ^""^ ~ •"®' ground. The Lady birds are among the best known
of their order, and deserve to be the popular favorites which they are,
on account of the excellent service which they render in ridding our
gardens and orchards of plant-lice, bark-lice and other small insect
pests. The larvso are ugly, alligator-shaped creatures, generally of a
dull, black color, in some species banded with yellow. Some have the
surface covered with spines, while others are simply ridged and hairy*
58 OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOaY.
Megilla maculata^ one of the most familiar, is about one-fifth of an
inch long, of oval shape and pink color, marked on head, thorax and
wing covers with large, black spots. Hippodamia oonvergens is some-
what larger, of a dull orange color, with very small black dots. Chilo-
corns bivulneris is hemispherical, abont one-sixth inch in diameter, shin-
ing black, with a conspicuous blood-red spot on each wing cover, near
the base. It is an especial enemy of all sorts of bark-lice or scale
insects, and may be found on trees or shrubs infested with the latter.
Vedalia cardinalis^ which resembles the above species in size and
ehape, but is of a bright red color, with four black spots on the wing
covers, is at present the most celebrated member of its group, having
been imported under the instructions of Dr. Eiley, TJ. S. Entomologist,
from Australia into Oalifornia, in 1888, for the purpose of keeping in
check the Fluted scale of the orange (Icerya)^ and having in less than
two years almost exterminated the pest.
About one hundred and forty-five species of Lady-birds are known
in Korth America, all of which, so far as known, are carnivorous, ex-
cept one species ( JEJpilachna borealis), the Northern Lady-bird, which is
a vegetarian and occasionally quite destructive to squash and cucum-
ber vines.
The 'Museum Pests — Dermestes — are «lso mostly small species,
which are not only the special pests of museums, derstroying very
rapidly the contents of entomological and ornithological cabinets when
they have once found entrance to them, but they are very destructive,
also, to furs, woolens, faathers and similar animal products, and some
species even invade the pantry. In these beetles the head and pro-
thorax are short, the latter having grooves for the reception qf the
eleven jointed antennae; the eyes are round and between them is a
single ocellm. The legs are short, with five jointed feet. The larv»
are very active, hairy grubs, some of which have a tuft of bristles at
the tail, and most species shun the light, although the beetles of one or
two kinds have been taken on flowers.
Dermestes lardariusj one of the larger species, black with broad
^ray bands at the base of the wing covers, is sometimes destructive to
dried meats and similar articles of food. D. vulpinus, one-third of an
inch long and entirely dull black, attacks stored hides and manufactured
leather. Anthrenus varius, the worst of the museum pests, is round
oval in form, only about one-tenth inch in length, bright chestnut brown
with the wing covers crossed by three wavy bands of pale gray, be-
tween which are dashes and flecks of black. A, scrophularia, the
^' Buffalo bug," or carpet beetle, is still smaller than the above species,
is black with markings of pale red and white. It was introduced
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 59
some years ago in imported carpets from Europe, and has already be-
come a widely disseminated pest. Among the beetles classified as
Sebbioobnia are found many very beautiful and interesting insects, as
well as some that are exceedingly pernicious. Most of the species
have rather short serrate antennse, are of oblong or elongate oval form,
with five-pointed, or in a few species, four-pointed tarsi. The most
important Families are Spring or snapping beetles ( Elatebid js ), the
saw-horned borers (Bupbestidjb), and the fire-fly and soldier beetles
( Lampybadje ). The spring beetles have the entirely peculiar habit,
if laid upon their backs, of throwing themselves into the air with a
jerk, in most cases coming down in proper position. If held loosely in
the hand, also, they will bend themselves backward and strike again and
again in the effort to obtain their freedom. The power to effect these
motions lies in an ingenious sort of spring in the shape of a strong
pointed projection on the presternum ( the under side of the prothorax),
which by curving the body backward is caught suddenly in a socket
on the mezo sternum, causing an elastic rebound of the whole body.
These beetles are of long, oval, somewhat flattened form, and usually of
dull brown color, though a few species display brighter tints, and the
surface is covered with a fine pubescence. The outer angles of the
very wide prothorax are prolonged into points which curve around
the edge^of the wing covers.
The larvae are k^iown as " Wire- worms," in reference to their long,
hard, slender bodies. Some species rank with injurious insects from
their habit of cutting off the roots of young corn and other vegetation.
On the other hand, several are beneficial, and are known to find their
way into the tunnels of wood-boring larvae and destroy them. The
majority, however, so far as known, breed in decaying wood or the pith
of weeds. A few large species are luminous, and are, at night, objects
of great splendor.
Our largest and most striking American species, the Eye-spotted
Elater or Snapping-beetle (Alaus oculatus, Linn.), varies in length from
one to one and one-half inches. It is of a black color, with the wing
covers longitudinally ridged, and marked with fine lines and flecks of
white, which, being of the nature of scale-like hairs, are liable to rub
off. On the top of the broad pro-thorax are two large velvety black
spots encircled with white, which from their resemblance to eyes are
often mistaken for them.
The Saw-horned borers (Bupbbstidjb), compose a large group of
handsome hard-shelled, compactly formed beetles, all of which have the
antennae, which are rather short, serrate on the inner edge. They are
usually of a pale brown or gray color, with brassy or coppery reflections :
60 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
indeed the entire surface, minutely roughened and indented as it is, ap-
pears like beaten metal. The head is deeply sunken into the thorax,
and the latter widens slightly behind and fits tightly over the base of
the wing covers.
The Buprestians are diurnal insects, flying in the sunshine or
basking iu it while slowly crawling up and down the trunks of trees, in
the bark of which they deposit their eggs. The larvae are wood-borers,
gall-makers or leaf-miners, and are all more or less destructive to forest
and fruit trees and shrubbery. They are characterized by a relatively
enormous expansion of the pro-thoracic joint, from which the remain-
ing two joints of the thorax taper abruptly to the slender, cylindrical
abdominal division. There are no legs, and the enlarged, joint has a
smooth homy plate on both upper and under sides, and is much flat-
tened.
The well-known Flat-headed borer fChysobothras femorata, Pabr.),
«o destructive to many kinds of fruit and shade trees, is the best repre-
sentative of the boring species. The species of Agrilus cause swellings
in the stems of blackberries and raspberries. These beetles are slender
and cylindrical, with dark-blue or black wing covers and copper-colored
thorax, and are about one-fourth of an inch long. The larvae of the
species, included in the genus Braclkys^ mine the leaves of apple and
oak.
The Fire-flies and Soldier beetles are very different in many re-
spects from the preceding group. Their bodies are very soft and the
wing covers thin and flexible. In the " Fire-flies" or " Lightning-bugs"
< genera Photinus and Photurus\ihe head is almost concealed under
the expanded margin of the pro-thorax. The light which they emit is
supposed to be from a phosphorescent substance in the abdomen, and
is given off in flashes at irregular intervals, both during flight and re-
pose. In Photinus pyralis both sexes are winged and luminous. In
PhoturuSy the somewhat smaller and less brilliant species often have
iringless females.
The larvae, which are *' glow-worms," burrow in th eearth, often com-
ing to the surface, and have a fiaint luminosity. They feed on the soft
larvae of other insects and on earth-worms.
The most common species of Soldier-beetle is a slender, clay-yel-
low insect, with a large black spot on the top of the pro-thorax and an
oblong one near the tip of each wing cover. This beetle bears the
rather formidable name of ChauUognathus pennsylvanicus^ De G. The
larvae somewhat resemble those of the lady-birds and like them are of
service to us by feeding on other insects that are injurious to vegeta
tion. The beetles may almost always be found in the autumn upon the
flowers of the Golden-rod and Eupatorium.
OUTLIMSSOF ENTOilOLOGT.
CHAPTEU XVII.
Order COLEOPTERA. Tribe Lamellicohnia.
[Fig. as.)
Spotted Pelidnot*, (PtHdnotapmclala) with lirya tad ptrpx (*rter Riley) .
The Tribe Lamellicohnia te of ^eat extent, and in it we find
mostly large or medium-sized beetles which feed on vegetation, either
fresh or in a state of decay, or on the excrement of the larger animals.
These beetles resemble each other chiefly in the form of the antennsB,
which terminate in a knob or expansion, composed of three — sometimes
more — leaf-like blades, attached by one end and capable of being opened
or closed like the pages of a book, at the will of the insect.
Before taking ap the true Lamellicoms we hnd a small group, eome-
times diatingnished as PbcticoRNta (tooth-horned), in which the anten-
nee are famished at the tips with several stiff projections on one side,
like the teeth to a comb, and are further characterized by being bent
or elbowed in the middle.
In this division the principal Family (Lttcamid^) contains the Stag
beetles or Pinching beetles. In these the head is very broad, the eyes
comparatively small, the shanks (tibiee) notched or epined on the oater
edge, and the feet are all five-jointed. The great pecaliarity, however,
is found in the unusual development of the jaws, which protrude from
the front of tbe head, and are from ODe-fonrth to one-half the length
of the body, armed with spines and tooth-like projections on their inner
edges. The larvEe are large, horny textured grubs, with four or six
sprangling thoracic legs, and are mostly found in rotten stumps or
roots.
62 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
Our largest species, Lucanus elaphua, Fab., occurs most abundantly
in the southern States, but is often taken as far north as St. Louis. This
iS indeed a formidable looking insect. It is very hard and smooth, of
a mahogany-brown color, the body one and one-half inch in length,
and the immense mandibles extending forward three-fourths of an inch
more. It is from the resemblance of these .to the antlers of a deer
that it receives the most appropriate name of " Stag beetle." Lucanus
dama, Hum., is the most common '^ Pinch beetle," and often enters our
rooms on summer evenings to the terror of nervous people, whom it
could not injure, but to whom it might give a severe pinch with its
sharply toothed jaws, which curve inward and are about one-fourth
inch long. The beetle is of the same form and texture, but a little
lighter in color and considerably smaller than the southern Stag beetle*
Another large beetle belonging in this group is the Horned Passalus
{Passalus comutus, Fab.). This is a shining black species of an oblong
form, having the squarish pro-thorax separated on top from the abdomen
by a decided "waist" or constriction. The wing covers are longi-
tudinally grooved. In this species the jaws are not abnormally en-
larged, but on each side of the head is a little pointed horn, and
between them a longer one curving downward over the mouth. This
beetle is usually one and one-fourth inch in length.
The typical Lamellicobnia are, for convenience, separated
into two divisions, in consideration of their different feeding habit
chiefly, viz. : the Excreunentivora^ the larvae of which mostly breed in
manure, and Herhivora^ in which the larvae feed on vegetation, either
growing or dead. In the first division the principal families are the
CopridcB^ Aphodiidce and Trogidoe.
They are all scavengers and rank either as beneficial or innoxious.
The largest species, Copris Carolina, Lim., is a great, squarish, clumsy
creature, nearly an inch long and three-fourths inch wide, that frequently
flies into our lighted rooms at night, and after bumping about against
the walls and ceiling falls to the floor with a thud, generally landing
upon its back, and lying helpless, kicking its legs about wildly in the
effort to tarn over. It is of a black color, somewhat hairy on the under
surface and legs, and the latter have the shanks of the fore legs ex-
panded and notched for use in digging, as is characteristic of all the
Lamellicorns. The female beetle tunnels perpendicularly under the
droppings of cows and horses, and at the bottom of the hole places a
large round ball of manure on which she deposits an egg. The larva,
an unsightly, much-wrinkled grub, very thick in the middle and taper-
ing toward each end, works its way into this compact ball, and beginning
somewhere near the middle, eats toward the surface until it is reduced
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 63
to a mere shell, which serves as a sort of cocoon for the protection of
the papa.
Here also we find the common "Tumble-bug" or "Tumble-dung"
fCanthon IcBvis^ Drury), a much smaller, dark-brown species, usually
seen in pairs rolling a ball of manure about the size of a large marble.
This species affords one of the rare instances in which the male assists
the female in making provision for the young. When a suitable spot
is found, a shaft is sunk four or five inches into the earth, the ball
rolled in, and the female, after pausing long enough to deposit an egg
upon it, begins fiUing up the hole, in which labor her partner assists.
But little pains, however, is taken with this part of the work, and often
the hole is left partly unfilled. A beautiful species, somewhat larger
than the above, has similar habits. This is fPhanasus carnif^, Linn.)
It is of a metallic green color with copper-colored thorax, which in the
male is adorned with a backward curving horn.
The Aphodidjb are all small shining black or black and red
beetles, which sometimes astonish gardeners by the numbers in which
they appear in green-houses and on hot-bed sashes, having bred from
the manure used as a fertilizer.
The family Trogid^ includes but one genus, Trox. The most
common species are small, dingy, black, roundish beetles, often attracted
to the light at night. They are distinguished by the widely dilated
thighs of the front legs and by the deeply ridged and pitted surface of
the thorax and wing covers.
The Leaf-chafers, Herbivorous Lamellicorns, are distinguished from
the manure-beetles by their more slender legs, long sharp claws, and
by the tip of the abdomen projecting slightly beyond the wing covers.
They feed entirely on vegetable matter, and unlike most other insects
in their perfect state, the beetles themselves often do great damage to
flowers and foliage. Many of the larvae live underground, subsisting
on the roots of grasses and other valuable plants ; others are found in
rotten wood or other decaying vegetation. They are fat, white, wrinkled
grubs, with horny heads, long, sprawling legs, and the hinder part of
the body in many species thicker than the remainder, and filled yrith
dark waste matter.
This group has been separated into four families : the Monarch
beetles (DynaBiidas), the Dor beetles or May beetles (MeUnihidce), the
Brilliant chafers (ButelidoiJ, and the Flower chafers fGetoncedceJ,
Among the Monarch beetles we find the largest insects in the Order.
One species, sometimes called the Bhinocerus beetle (Dynagtes tityus,
Linn.), is often seen in the Southern and Middle States. It is fully two
E— 5
64 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
inches in length, by an inch in diameter, and thick in proportion. The
color is pale gray, the. wing covers being marked with numerous irregu-
lar blotches and spots of black. From the front of the head of the
male a long, pointed, polished horn curves upward, which is almost met
by a similar downward curving one on the thorax, on each side of
which are two small, straight ones. The female has no thoracic horn,
and only a small protuberance on the head. The larvae are, as a ri^le,
found in rotten wood, but are also said to injure ash trees by feeding
on the roots.
Under the name of Dor-beetles or May or June beetles ( Melon-
THiD^), are grouped a great variety of medium-sized, leaf-feeding spe-
cies, most of which have thick, oblong bodies and are of a plain brown
color, tn some the surface is smooth and shining, in others more or
less thickly covered with huirs or scales. One of their most peculiar
characters is that each of the claws of the feet is minutely bifid or
forked at the tip, which accounts for the persistence with which they
cling to any but the hardest and most polished surfaces. This fine
division of the claws can be distinctly seen only with a lens.
In this family the agriculturist finds a large number of the promi-
nent pests of his farm and orchard, to only a few of which have we
here space for reference.
One of these destructive species is the common May or June bee-
tle (Lachno8temafu8oa, Froh.), a smooth, shining, chestnut-brown insect,
which issues from the ground in swarms during the latter part of May
or early in June, filling the air at twilight, and finding its way in num-
bers into lamp-lighted rooms, unless excluded with the utmost care.
These beetles settle on trees at night and feed voraciously on the foli*
age. They are cleanly, inodorous and inofensive creatures to handle,
and therefore make excellent and interesting subjects for examination
and experiment.
They remain hidden and dormant during the day, but awake to re-
newed activity for several successive evenings. After pairing the
male dies and the female burrows into the earth to lay her eggs.
From the latter are hatched the " white grubs," so well known as
among the chief pests of corn fields, meadows, lawns and strawberry
beds. The observations of earlier entomologists pointed to the con-
clusion that these grubs required at least two years for development,
but Prof. Forbes, of Illinois, has demonstrated that under certain con-
ditions the insect attains its growth and passes through all its transfor-
mations in a single year.
In the same genus CLaeknoiterna — which means " hairy-breasted'')
are a large number of other chafers, having essentially the same habits
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY. 66
as L,fu8ca, but many of these have not only the under side of the tho-
rax hairy, but the pro-thorax and wing-covers also covered with a soft
pubescence, sometimes evenly distributed and again arranged on the
wing-co7ftrs in longitudinal ridges. Some of the species are much
smaller and lighter colored. The Eoi^e chafer or Bose-bug (Maerodac-
tylus sMbspinosus, Eabr.) belongs also in this family (Melolonthidje:).
This is an ochreous-yellow beetle, rather slender in form, about one-
third inch in length, with very long, spiny legs. Its color is really
almost black, but when fresh it is densely and evenly clothed in pale
ochreous scales, which give to it its light color. It is altogether too
common in the Eastern and Northwestern States, where it is exceed-
ingly destructive to the blossoms of the grape, rose, and some other
plants. Its larvae feed on the roots of shrubbery, and in their turn
do much damage.
Among the Brilliant chafers (Butblid^), which are separated
from the Melolonthians by the unequal claws, which are not bifid at
the tip, is a large species, the Spotted Pelidnota (Pelidnota punctata^
Linn.), which is illustrated as a typei of the Family. (Fig. 26.) This is
one of the grape-vine pests, gnawing the foliage. It is a stout spe-
cies, about three-fourths of an inch long, of a clay-yellow color, with
three large, black dots on each wing-cover. Dr. Biley bred the larva
in decaying stumps and roots. The Goldsmith beetle (Oatalpa lanigera^
Linn.), a beautiful species, is very like the above in form and size, but
is entirely of a cream yellow color, with golden and prismatic reflec-
tions.
Among the -Flower beetles (Cetoniidjb) are a few of great size,
but, while none are very small, most of the North American species are
of medium or under medium size. The form is slightly flattened, the
scutellum unusually large, and the wing covers are peculiarly notched
or hollowed out on the sides near the base, so that it is not necessary
to raise them to allow the wings to be unfolded for flight. The mouth
is provided with a brush for collecting pollen, of which these insects
are very greedy, as they also are of nectar, and to procure it they cut
into tubular flowers. They may be found in spring drinking the sap
that sometimes oozes from the trunks of maples and other trees, and
are also quite injurious to ripe fruit. They differ from other members
of their family in being diurnal in habit. Allorhina nitiday Linn., is a
beautiful, large, velvety green species, with light-brown margins to the
wing covers. Euryomia inda and U. melancholica, smaller, red-brown
mottled species, are the most destructive to flowers and fruit.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
OHAPTEE XVIII.
Order C0LE0PTER4. Tribe Phttophaga.
BORERS AND LEAP BEETLES.
Also Section Hetebombra.
BLISTER BEETLES, ETC.
RouDiil-tieMled Apple Tree Borer (Saptrda Cttulida.)
This division of similar footed beetles comprises a gteat variety
of forms, all of which feed on vegetation, and many of ^hich are
extremely destructive to trees, herbaceous plants and seeds. Three of
the most important families are the Long-horned borers (Cerahby-
oiD^), the Leaf beetles (Ohrysohelid^), and the Seed beetles
(Bbdohid^).
The first of these fomilies, often termed the "Longicoms" or
" Oapricoms," is a large and interesting one, including many species of
great size, others of rare beanty and all very injarions. They may be
recognized at a glance by tlieir long and asoally slender antennse,
which in a few species are more than twice tlie length of the body, and
which carve backward like the horns of a goat. The form of the
body is elongate snb-cylindrical, in some species tapering toward the
hinder end. The head is broad, vertical, and famished with strong
jaws. The eyes are quite pecaliar, being lunate (hollowed oat) on
the inner side, with the antennte implanted in the hollows. The basal
joint of the latter is almost invariably longer than any of the succeed-
ing joints, which gradually taper to a point. The thorax is seldom as
broad as the Mud body, and is square or barrel-shaped, often with one
or tvo spines or teeth on each side. The legs are long, but scarcely so
well flitted for panning as for affording a secure support to the insect
when at rest. The joints of the feet are four in number, spongy or
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY. 67
cashioned beneath, and the third one bilobed. These beetles have the
power of producing a squeaking sound by rubbing the pro-thorax up
and down over the bases of the wing covers. This is done not only as
an expression of fear when captured^ but for amusement or as a call to
their mates, and is termed Stridulation. The females have an oviposi-
tor that can be teleecopically extended to a considerable length, in
order to place the eggs deep into holes or into the crevices of bark of
»
the trees in which the larvae feed. The colors of many species are
very bright, disposed in stripes or bands or in dotted patterns on a
plain ground. They are for the most part nocturnal, and conceal them-
selves carefully during the day. A few, however, are exceptional, and
may, at certain seasons, be found on flowers or enjoying the sunshine
on the trunks of trees.
The larvse are all wood-borers, and many of them do great damage
to fruit and forest trees, and in vineyards. They are fleshy, white
cylindrical grubs, terminating bluntly behind, with all the joints sepa-
rated by deep incisions, and the flrst thoracic one much enlarged and
covered with a horny plate. The head is small and usually dark brown,
the greater part of it comprised in a pair of powerful jaws, capable of
cutting into the hardest wood. A few of these larvae have the usual
number of very small thoracic legs, but the majority have no legs at all,
and move up and down in their burrows by alternate contractions and
extensions of the body, and by means of the hunched segments. It is
a habit with some species to keep one end of the burrow open, through
which to push out the chips and castings, and their presence is often
betrayed by the little heaps of sawdust on the bark. The great ma-
jority, however, leave their castings in a compact mass behind them as
they proceed. Many of these larvaB grow for two or three years, and a
few even longer. When ready for transformation they tunnel their
way to the surface, leaving a slight shell of the bark entire over the
place of exit. They then retreat to a safe distance and form a cell or
nest of wood fibers and castings, and, here assume the pupae form. In
this stage they are soft and white, sometimes almost transparent, but
with each member of the future beetle clearly defined, and they have a
peculiar mummified appearance. At the end of two or three weeks the
membranous casings are slipped off and the perfect beetle, but in a
very soft and imperfectly colored condition, is disclosed. The insect
remains quiet in its cell for some time until all the parts are hardened,
after which it breaks through the slight door and enters upon the en-
joyments and business of its mature life.
68 OUTLIME8 OP ENTOMOLOOT.
Id the gennsPnoniM we flod several very large, dark -brown spe-
cies, whose larvse, measuriDg two and one-half or three inches inlengthf
are quite frequently fonnd boring roots of grape-Tines, apple trees and
similar plants.
Saperda Candida, Fab., a beantifnl species of a cinnamon-brown
color above, with two broad milk-white stripes extending the whole
length of the body, is the parent of the much execrated " Eonnd-headed
Apple tree borer" {see Fig. 26), which does so much damage in or
chards by boring the trees near the gronnd.
The Twig-girdler (Oneidere» cingulatus, Say.) has the bad habit of
girdling the twigs in which the female lays her eggs. It attacks both
fruit and forest trees. Maples, Locust and Hickory are bored by the
larvae of a group of beautiful beetles of the genus Clytus. They are
rather large, of dark colors, ornamented with curved and V-shaped
[Fig. 2;.] transverse bands of bright yellow, pale green or white.
The Leaf-beetles (Chbys-
OMELiD^) constitute an im-
mense group of small to medi- '
um-sized species, many of which
display brilliant and beautiful
colors. The scientific name
given to the fomily, from words
signifying a goldm apple, re- 4,^,™^ beetu--.beetie; t,
feis to this quality as well aB^f|J^B%„i^|i{itS'Sfilj!"*^'*=
to the round or oval form so common among them. The
Twig.girdier. head 18 very short and much narrower than the pro-tho-
ColoTS, dnll-brown
and diDgr-white. raxf the antennse somewhat enlarged toward the tipsand
set wide apart ; the eyes are round and prominent; the legs are short
and stout; the joints of the feet are four in number, each broad and
cushioned beneath. The larvae are of a variety of forms, but mostly
broad and thick, with well-developed thoracic legs. They feed exposed
upon the surface of leaves, or, in the case of a few of the smaller spe-
cies, they mine between the upper and under cuticles.
Among these beetles we find such notorious pests as the Colorado
Potato beetle (Doryphora 10-Uneata, Say), the Asparagus beetle (flrio-
eeiiia asparagi, Linn.}, the Striped Cncumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata.
Fab.}, the Streaked Cottonwood beetle (Plagioperma scripta, Fab.), and
great numbers of others.
The Tortoise beetles, which are the especial enemies of the Sweet
potato plant and of otlier ConvolvulaccB are round or oval species from
one-fifth to one-fourth inch in length, of a flattened oval form, with a
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 69
membranous margin around the thorax and wing covers which almost
conceals the legs. The coloring is extremely beautiful — in one species,
Oassida auriehaloea, being at times of the most brilliantly burnished
gold, and again with opalescent reflections. Other species are mottled
or striped in gold and brown.
The flat, oval larvae have a spiny surface and lateral margin, and
the body terminates in a pair of strong bristles, upon which during
growth the cast-off skins and excrement are accumulated and held up
over the body to shield it from the sun and from its enemies.
The larvae of species belonging to the genera Chlamys and Oosinop'
tera make cases, which, when feeding, they carry over or drag behind
them, and to which they retire for repose.
Another group with whose destructive work the farmer and gar-
dener is only too well acquainted, contains the Elea-beetles. These are
mostly small species, characterized by their greatly expanded and thick*
ened thighs, which give them their remarkable jumping power. Haltiea
ehalyhea^ J\\ig.^ is a dark steel-blue species, often very troublesome on
grape-vines. The Cucumber-flea beetle Crepidodera euciftiiiem, Har., is
one of the pests of the Gourd family of plants. The Striped Flea
beetles (Phyllotreta sinuata^ Steph., and P. vittata^ Fabr.), riddle the
leaves of turnips, radishes aod cabbage with small, round holes. The
larvae feed under ground on the roots or mine the leaves of plants be-
longing in the same family with the vegetables mentioned. Haltiea
(GraptoderaJ foUaceaj Lee, is very destructive in the far western States
to the foliage of young apple trees.
The Seed weevils (Bruchid-«:) are a small family of beetles that
breed in seeds and grain. They are of broad oval, flattened form, from
one-tenth to one-fifth inch long. The antennae are rather short and
serrate, and the tip of the abdomen protrudes beyond the wing-covers.
The Pea weevil (Bruchus pisi, Linn.), the Bean weevil fB. obsoletus^ Say.),
and the Grain weevil (B. granarius, Linn.,) are the most destructive
species, whose habits are well known to every farmer and gardener.
Section Heteeomeea.
In this somewhat isolated group of beetles, we find the chief
peculiarity in the feet, the front and middle pair of which are five-
jointed and the hind pair four-jointed. These are not cushioned be-
neath, as are those of the Leaf beetles. Many of the species are
exceedingly interesting to the biologist on account of their peculiar
development, which has one or two seemingly retrograde stages in those
of parasitic habits.
70 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
[Fig. 29j^ fjijj^ HeteromerouB beetles are separated into quite a
nnmber of families, of which two only are of especial inter-
est to the economic entomologist, viz.: The Oil or Blister
beetles (Meloidjb:) and the Meal beetles (Tenebbionid jb).
The Blister beetles are rather elegantly formed insects and
differ from all others in having the somewhat triangular
head set on vertically with a distinct neck. The wing covers
"^after ^fey*" and entire body wall are rather thin and leathery. The
colors are satin black or plain ash-gray, or black, margined with pale
gray, or striped longitudinally with yellow. They are diurnal insects,
and, in their perfect state, feed voraciously on the foliage of the potato
and also on certain kinds of flowers, and in the early autumn may be
found on golden rod. The larvae, which undergo what is termed hyper-
metamorphosis^ exist in two forms, and are parasitic in the nests of bees
and on the eggs of locusts (grasshoppers). They belong to the genera
Oantharis and Epicauta.
Among the Meal beetles, the most abundant and pernicious spe-
cies is Tenehrio molitor^ Linn, a plain black or very dark brown spe-
cies, about three-fifths inch long, rather slender and elongate, and
without any striking characteristics. The larvae are horny skinned,
slender, cylindrical worms, with well-developed feet, and are great
pests in warehouses and storerooms where ground grain is kept.
OUTLINES OF EMTOMOLOGT.
CHAPTER XIX.
Order COLEOPTERA. Sub-Order Bsyncophoba.
SNOVT-BBETLES AND BABE-BOB£BS.
[Fig, SO. I
■i
The SQont-beetles are all incladed, by the most recent writers on the
subject, in seven or eight very distinct families, bat the species are
very nnmerons. None of the North American species are of more
than medium size, vrhile the majority are small — nnder one-fonrth inch
in length. The great pecnliarity of these insects is foand in the pro-
longation of the front part of the head into a beak or snout, termed the
rostrum, which is either broad and short, or long and thin, in some spe-
cies straight, in others carved. The small bat sharp jaws are situated
at the end of the beak, and the labrum and palpi are but very slightly
developed or wanting. The antenna arise from the sides of the beak ; '
they are slender, elbowed or bent in the middle, and end in a knob or
dub. The rostrum is often grooved at the sides for the reception of
these organs. The eyes are small and round. The body is compact
and often wedge-abaped, and in many species the surface is ridged,
pitted and raised into tubercles. The feet are four-jointed, each joint
strongly bilobcd and cushioned beneath.
When disturbed or frightened, most of the species " play 'possum,"
feigning death most skillfully and persistently. The antennae sink into
the grooves in the beak, the latter, where its stmcture permits, is bent
under, close to the body, as are also the legs, and the insect drops to
the ground motionless, where its color and shape so closely simulate a
dried bad, bit of twig or seed, that only the most practiced eye can
detect it.
72 OUTLIKBS OF BMTOMOLOGT.
The great majority of these beetles are fmit and nnt-eaters. Tha
beak is ased to drill the holes in which the eggs are placed. The ]arv»
are fat, white, thin-skinned and wrinkled gmbs, withoat feet or proIeg»
— except in one small and pecaliar gronp, the Brsuthians, which are
wood borers. They are aanally in a more or less curved position from
which some species, like the Apple-carcnlio, can
never straighten themselves. Some, when fall
I =* fed, work their way out of the frait or nnts and
drop to the gronnd, into which the hnrrow to-
transform ; others change where they have fed.
Among the more important families aretheFrnit
and Nat weevils (CuBCDLioNiD«),the Bice weev-
ils and " Bill bugs " ( CAL&fiDBiD^ ), and the Leaf-
rollers ( Attalabid^).
In the amount and value of the products de>
stroyed by it, the Peach or Plum enrculio (Cono-
LuTB Bud papa or Apple
cnTcaiio.--AnerBiier. trachelua neHuphar, Herbst) may well head the list
of the pernicioos species. Its characters and habits are so well known
that it is not necessary to recapitulate them here.
In some parts of the conntry this species is rivaled in the injury
done to stone Iruits by a slightly larger, smoother species called the
Plnm Gouger fOocoturus scutellarU Lee.) The Apple curcuIio {Antho-
nomua quadrigibbus, Say), represented in Fig. 30, breeds in the fruit sad
passes its transformations without leaving it. The Nut weevils are
nearly all included in the genns BaUninws. They are smooth, oval bee-
tles of an ocbreoas-drab color, with a very long, slender, dark brown
beak, with which they drill holes in the green nuts for the reception of
tbeir eggs.
The principal genus of the Calandbid^ is Sphenophortu, in which
are foand the Corn Bill-hugs which often do so much injury to Indian
corn by boring the roots and lower part of the stalk. The Eice weevil
(Oalandra oryzal, Linn.) is injurions to stored rice and other grain in the
Southern States. The small beetles composing the family Attaldbidct
breed on the leaves of Oak, Rhu» and other trees. After placing an egg
a portion of the leaf is rolled into a knapsack-like ease, in which the
larva develops, feeding on the partially withered portions of the en-
closed leaf,
The Bork-beetles (Scolytid^) are small, hard, cylindrical insects
of a shining black or brown color, the abdomen appearing as though
cut off obliquely behind, encircled by a ring of little points or teeth.
The antennse are very short and knobbed at the tip. The larvse are
much like those of cnrculios, but have stronger jaws to adapt them for
0TJTLINB8 OP ENTOMOLOGY. 73
wood-boring. They bore between the bark and solid wood, several of
them working from a common center — their burrows, which gradually
widen to the place of exit, radiating in all directions, making fancifnl
carvings on the inner side of the bark and the surface of the wood.
They often prove very deetrnctive in forests, to both pine and hard-
wood trees. A species introdaced from Europe fScolytua ruguloatu,
£atz.) bam recflutly exoited alarm among the frnit-growers of Illinois, by
working nnder the bark of twigs and young branches, principally of
atone fruits, producing an efTect like blight, and in some cases causing
the death of the tree. Prof. Forbes, who has published the first account
of ita injuries in tbie country, finds it very generally distributed and
promising to become a very serioae enemy to all varieties of fruit trees.
CHAPTER XX.
Order III. lepidoptera.
[rig. ss.]
bntterfly, Isttr and cbrya ills— irterTeiiDey,
Among the bntterfiies and moths we find the most attractive, and
with a fev exceptions, (he most conspicaons members of the class of
insects. They are recognized without difficulty by their broad and often
74 OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOaY.
gaily colored wings, their soft, hairy bodies, small heads, prominent
eyes and antennae, and in most species, the long, coiled tongue.
In the Lepidoptera the three principal divisions of the body are
distinct, but the neck is very short and there is no slender pedicel con-
necting the thorax and abdomen. The head is small, but broad in pro-
portion to its length, and moves freely on the neck ; the eyes are heoii-
spherical and of various colors, sometimes sparsely hairy.
Two ocelli are present in some of the moths, but are concealed
under the hairy scales that clothe the top and front of the head, and
probably are not of much use as organs of vision.
The antennae are always conspicuous. They are either filiform,
feathered or club-shaped. The upper jaws are not developed in the
perfect insects, and the lower jaws fmaxillcBj are united and length-
ened out to form a horny tube called the tongue or lingua^ which is
coiled up li^e a watch spring when not in use. The palpi — at least one
pair of them — are large and plumy and curve up in front of the face on
each side of the tongue. ^
The usual form of the body is long and slender, tapering somewhat
in both directions. The pro-thorax is a very narrow ring, scarcely vis-
ible on top except for the two little knobs which it bears, from which
arise small tufts of hairs. The mezo-thorax is the most developed seg-
ment of the body, bearing the fore-wings and the middle legs, and the
two little lappets (patagia) that cover the bases of the wings. The
meta-thorax is also quite large, and has attached to it the hind legs and
hind wings. The legs are weak and slender, and are used chiefly as
supports for the body when the insect is at rest, and only rarely for
walking or crawling. They are clothed with hair-like scales, and have
one or two pairs of spurs at or near the outer end of the shank (tibia).
The feet have five slender cylindrical joints, and terminate in a pair of
minute claws.
The wings, in this order of insects, are the most striking features
of the organism, and of first importance in every respect. They are
formed of membrane supported by numerous strong veins (see Fig. 5),
and covered with a powdery substance which, when magnified, is found
to consist of minute scales narrowly or broadly oblong, attached by a
little stem; they are notched on the outer edge and overlap each other
in irregular rows, like the shingles on a roof. It is in the brilliant colors
and elegant patterns formed by the arrangement of these scales, that
the beauty of the butterflies and moths chiefly resides.
The patagia are covered with long hairs, and fit over the bases of
the upper wings like epaulettes. In their perfect state lepidopterous
insects are rather short-lived, if we except the comparatively few species
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 75
that hibernate. The only nonrishment they require is an occasional
sip of nectar from flowers or water from a dew-drop or trom the moist
earth. Their basiness in life is to seek their mates and place their eggs
upon the plants or other substances upon which their larvae subsist.
The eggs of butterflies are usually conical and ridged or fretted on the
surface, and as a rule are deposited singly, while those of moths are
mostly spherical or circular, and deposited in clusters.
The transformations in this order are complete, and more easily
observed than in most other insects. The larvae are all properly termed
caterpillars, but the smooth species are often popularly designated
" worms,'' as for example, " cut- worms," " canker-worms,'' " bud-
worms," etc. Like the parent insects, they vary greatly in form^ size
and color. The body is usually cylindrical, composed of twelve or
thirteen segments, besides the head. The latter is covered by a horny
plate, often divided in the middle by a triangular " face," which has its
base at the labrum. The jaws are broad and strong, serrated or toothed
on the edges, the under lip (labium) is^well developed, but the maxillae
and palpi are in most species quite rudimentary. The antennae are
represented by a pair of three or four jointed tubercles, and the eyes
by three or four little dots or simple eyes, which probably enable them
to distinguish daylight from darkness. As Dr. Packard says, '^ this is
nsefal information from a caterpillar's stand-point, as most of them hide
by day and feed by night." The spineret is a small colnical tube on the
lower lip, through which a gummy substance, secreted by most cater-
pillars, is drawn out and becomes a fine silken thread, of which these
insects make great use in forming their nests or cocoons, in attaching
themselves when molting, or suspending themselves in the air as a
means of escape from their enemies.
Caterpillars, with very few exceptions, have from ten to sixteen
^6gs — six of which, on the thoracic joints, are termed the true or tho-
racic legs, and are pointed and horny ; the others, which support the
hinder part of the body, are broad fleshy props, and are termed the
false legs or pro-legs; they terminate in a circle of minute hooks, by
which their possessor is enabled to cling to any surface upon which it
wishes to crawl. Some caterpillars have the surface of the body
smooth, while in others it is covered with hair or protected by clusters
of sharp branching spines, or roughened by warts and tubercles. On
the top of the first joint, just back of the head, there is in many spe-
cies a clearly defined horny plate called the cervical collar or shield, and
a similar plate at the hinder end forms the anal or supra- anal plate.
76 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
In the process of growth, lepidopteroas larvae mo {^ or change their
akins from three to five times. The operation is as follows: The
hindmost or anal pro-legs are made fast to some rough surface, or to a
mat of silk prepared for the purpose. The larva then rests and fasts
for a certain length of time. Presently the head plates begin to sepa-
rate from the neck, and a longitudinal slit appears on the top of the
thoracic segments, which gradually widens until the fore part of the
body cau be forced through, after which, by alternate expansions and
contractions, the outgrown skin is made to slip backward until, by a
final effort, the anal legs are withdrawn and the crumpled mass of cast-
off skin, termed the exuvium (plural, exuvicBj, is left attached to the
leaf or bark, while the caterpillar, in its new dress — which is, in some
eases, quite differently colored and ornamented from the out-grown
one — crawls off in search of food with which to renew its exhausted
strength.
The great majority of caterpillars subsist on the leaves, flowers and
fr*uit of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. Of these they consume
vast quantities every year, often partially or entirely destroying the
most valuable crops in satisfying their voracious appetites. A few
species infest drugs and grocers' wares and some gnaw furs and woolen
goods.
When full grown, caterpillars cease to feed, and seek some place
in which they will be concealed from their enemies while unable either
to escape or defend themselves. In this they succeed so well that it
is but rarely that the pupsB are discovered by any but practiced eyes.
Lepidopterous pupse are called chrysalides. They are of various
shapes, some being angular and irregular in outline, and have the sur-
face roughened with humps and protuberances, while others are smooth,
oval or oblong and highly polished. The integument is horny or shelly
in its nature, composed of chitine, a substance which enters largely into
the composition of the body-wall of insects in all stages of develop-
ment. Each member is not encased in a separate sheath, as with the
Hymenoptera and Goleoptera, but the outlines of the parts can, in most
species, be distinguished through the case in which they are enclosed.
The chrysalides of many species have no covering or outer envelope,
but are simply attached by bands of silk to some surface. Others are
enclosed in thick cocoons, or hidden within rolled-up leaves, or formed
in earthen cells several inches under ground. The pupa state varies
in duration from eight or ten days to several months, according to the
habit of the species or the season of the year.
OUTLINBS OF ENTOMOLOGY. 77
The Lepidoptera cannot be so readily classified by the beginner as
the bees and beetles, although the primary groups are not difficult to
distinguish. The first division is into two sections or sub-orders :
I. Butterflies (Bfiopalooera — club-horns).
II. Moths (Heterocera — variable horns). \
A glance at the antennae serves to show us to which of these
groups an insect belongs. In the butterflies these organs are stiff,
thread-like, and either abruptly or gradually enlarged at the tip, so that
they always terminate in a knob or club. The antennsd of moths, on the
other hand, no matter what their general form may be, whether
feathered or filiform, or spindle-shaped, invariably end in a point Be-
sides the antennsB there are many other characters which separate the
insects composing these two divisions. In the butterflies the body is
usually small and slender in proportion to the size of the wings, while
in many moths it is stout and clumsy ; the fore and hind wings of but-'
terflies are not attached during flight, while those of moths are held
together near the base by a bristle termed a frenulum on the second-
aries, which fits into a loop or socket on the inner margin of the pri-
maries. The butterflies are diurnal insects^ while most of the moths
:fly at night or during the morning and evening twilight. When at rest
butterflies hold the wings, at least one pair of them, erect, with the
under surfaces exposed ; the moths on the contrary close the wings
either flat or roof-like over the body, with the upper pair entirely con-
cealing the under pair, except in one family, where both are spread
out.
While an entomologist rarely mistakes a butterfly larva for that of
a moth, or vice versa, it is somewhat difficult to give a list of the char-
acters by which they can be distinguished. The chrysalides of butter-
:fiies are usually unprotected by any sort of cover or cocoon, and are
very angular and irregular in outline, or are brightly colored, while
those of moths are protected in cocoons of silk, or in rolled leaves, or
hidden in the earth, and are mostly smooth and oval or oblong in out-
line, and in no instance display brilliant or metallic colors.
It must be borne in mind that in entomology the term ^^moth'' is
not restricted to the few small insects that breed in furs, woolens and
similar substances, but is used to designate the greater proportion of
the scale-winged insects, without regard to size or habit. The gigantic
Oecropia, whose wings expand about six inches, and whose body is as
thick as one's finger, is as much a '^ moth '' as is the tiny creature that
sometimes flutters out of closets or up from the borders of carpets, to
the disturbance of the thrifty housekeeper.
ODTLIHBS OP BBTOMOLOGY.
OHAPTEB XXI.
Order lbpidoptera , Sub-Order Rhopaloceka.
BUTTKBPLIBS.
[Fig, M]
Hkckberrr bntterdy, AptOwa-elglen, wltb Itrra and cbrrHlli. Alter Btle;.
Of all the insect tribes -the butterflies are the popular favoriteB.
None of the prejudice witb which insects are generally regarded seems
to attach to them. Used by the clasBio writers to symbolize the soul,
they have ever continued to be favorites of the poets, and are associated
with whatever is most aiiily graceful and beantifol in nature.
The larvee of butterflies feed exclusively on vegetation, each species
being restricted to one, nr at most to two or three kinds of plants. In
their general form they do not vary so much as the larvee of moths,
being all more or leas cylindrical and alvays possessing the fall com-
plement of six legs and ten prolega. Tbe head, though not always large,
is quite distinct, nsnally with a somewhat fretted or stippled surf^e, and
in a tew species, adorned with branching horns (see Fig. 3Sb), or spiny
tubercles. The surface of the body is in some species smooth and
velvety, in others bearing fleshy horns and protuberances or covered
with spines.
The papffi are naked, except in the species constituting one family,
where they are slightly enclosed in threads of silk. They are,asarDle,
very angnlar, especially toward the anterior end, and are either pendent
by the tail, or are supported in an upright position by a band of silk
which the larva, before changing, contrives to weave across its back.
Some of the characters by which butterflies are gronped into
families and genera are foaud in the oatline and venation of the wings,
the shape of tbe club of the antennte and of the palpi, the presence or
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOaY. 79
seeming absence of the front pair of legs, and, to a certain extent, in
the coloring.
Butterflies have been classified and re-classified in various ways,
by different naturalists, each system based on some excellent ideas, but
all more or less defective. The simplest arrangement is that by which
they are all grouped into four comprehensive families, all of which
are numerously represented in all parts of the United States. These
families are: the Swallow-tails and their allies (Papilionid^), the
Browns and Silver-spots (NYMPHALiDiB), the Little Blues and Coppers
(Lyg^nidjb,) and the Skippers (Hesperid^).
The Swallow-tails (genus PapilioJ are so called from the narrow
lobes or tabs into which the outer edges of the lower wings are pro-
longed. Among these we find the largest and some of the most beau-
tiful of our native species. They are mostly of dark colors — black or
rich brown, ornamented on the wings and body with spots and streaks
of bright yellow and orange, with shadings or lustrous reflections of
blue or green. The club of the antennae is rather small ; the tibisd of
the hind legs have a single pair of spurs, and those of the fore legs at
the base a sort of flap covered with long hairs. All the species in the
family have six equally developed legs. ( See Fig. 32.)
The larvsB are, with one or two exceptions, smooth, cylindrical cat-
erpillars, often gaily striped or ornamented with eye-like spots (see
Fig. — ), and possess a distinguishing character in a Y-shaped scent
organ (osmateriumj of an orange color, which can be protruded at will
and emits a disagreeable odor. It is used to frighten away parasitic
enemies. This appendage is peculiar to the larvae of the true PapUios,
and when the insect is quiet, is completely retracted under the edge of
the segment next the head. The larva of Papilio asterias feeds on the
foliage of carrots, parsley, caraway and other nmbeliferous plants.
The chrysalis is marked in wood brown and white, and has the form
represented in Fig. 32. The butterfly is black, with bluish shadings,
and is ornamented with several rows of bright yellow dots near the
outer edges of the wings. The Turnus butte^rfly f Papilio tumus^ Linn.)
is one of the largest and commonest species, expanding over four
inches. It differs from all its congeners in having the ground color of
the wings bright yellow, but crossed by broad dashes and streaks of
hlack, and with a black border in which are set lunate yellow spots.
The larva is deep green, and about one and one-half inches in length
deep when full grown. The front edge of the second joint and a part of
the fifth joint are yellow, and on each side of the fourth joint are a
couple of small purple spots. The chrysalis is in various shades of
E— 6
1
80 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
brown, in shape much like that of P. asterias, but is larger and has a
more prominent horn projecting forward over the head. The larvae
feed on a variety of frnit and shade trees, and are sometimes quite
destructive. There are eight or nine North American species of Swal-
low-tailed buttel*flies, besides several quite distinct varieties, all of
which are very handsome.
The Garden Whites or Cabbage butterflies (genus PierisJ include
about a half dozen species, among which are found several very serious
pests of the vegetable garden. They are of rather small size, expand-
ing not more than two inches, and are all of a dingy white with blackish
margins and dustings, or are more or less thickly spotted with grayish
black. The larvae are slender, cylindrical caterpillars with a rugose or
velvety surface, and either plain green or with a striped and checkered
pattern in dull green, black, lilac and white.
The European cabbage butterfly fPieris rapce^ Linn.) was accident-
ally introduced into this country about twenty years ago, and has now
become naturalized in almost every section, proving very destructive
to cabbages, turnips and other cruciferous plants.
The Sulphur yellows (genus OoliasJ include the medium-sized, ^ay
yellow and black or orange and black butterflies that are so numerous
late in sprinc: and early in autumn. Their larvae are of a green color^
with a velvety surface, and many of them have a lateral band, com-
posed of a line of bright crimson, and one of white, extending from
the second to the eleventh segments. They feed upon clover, lucern
and other leguminous plants.
The Browns and Silver Spots composing the family Nymphalid jb
are called the "four-footed'' butterflies, from the apparent absence of
the front pair of legs. If carefully examined these members are seen
to be folded and closely appressed to the breast, and often have the
tarsi undeveloped. The majority of these butterflies are of large size
and of dark, rich colors, many species being elegantly ornamented on
the under side of the wings with silvery spots. The larvae of most
species have the surface covered with spines or raised into humps and
prominences. The pupae are always suspended by the tail and hang
head downward. A few of the chrysalides are smooth and casket-
shaped, but the majority are characterized by many angles and projec-
tions. Nearly all are 'studded with golden or gem-like spots, which
disappear or lose their luster shortly before the butterfly emerges.
The manner in which these pupae contrive to attach themselves to
the point of support is a process so interesting that the observer is
well repaid for the time expended in watching it. It may be briefly
described as follows : The caterpillar, when ready to change, spins a
OUTLINES OE ENTOMOLOGY. 81
little mat or tuft of silk upon some convenient surface. Into this it
entangles the hooks of the hind legs, and loosening its hold in front
and carling ap the head, it suffers itself to drop and hang by these anal
pro-legs. In this position it remains from twelve to thirty-six hours.
The skin then bursts open just back of the head, and the anterior end
of the chrysalis is protruded. By violent exertion, in alternate length-
enings and contractions, the larval skin is shoved backward until it
forms a shriveled mass near the point of attachment. The crowning
effort is now to be made in withdrawing the tail of the chrysalis and
fixing it into the little mat of silk prepared for it. The chrysalis, it
must be remembered, is not yet hard and stifl^ but is capable of con-
siderable motion; accordingly, by a sharp contraction, a portion of the
larval skin is tirmly grasped between two of the abdominal joints, and
with only this slight hold the hinder end of the chrysalis is withdrawn
from the old skin, and, with a vigorous thrust, the little spike, termed
the cremaster, with which it is provided, is struck sharply into the tuft
of sUk. Sometimes the first stroke suffices to fix it ; in other cases
two or three efforts are required, and, occasionally, there is utter feil-
ure and the chrysalis drops to the ground. When the chrysalis is made
fast it whirls itself rapidly round and round to detach the larval skin
and to more firmly entangle the barbs of the cremaster. After this
the chrysalis contracts and hardens, and the beautiful colors which
characterize the particular species are displayed.
Among the most beautiful and most easily recognized genera of
the four-footed butterflies may be mentioned DanaiSj Argynnis, Apa-
tura, Vanessaj Orapta and Hipparchia. The Archippus butterfly
(Danais archippus^ Fabr.) is one of the most common and abundant
species. The wing expanse is between four and five inches, the color
a bright red-brown with black veins and black border in which are set
two rows of white dots. The larva feeds on the milkweed or silkweed
f Aseel^iasJ^And is elegantly colored in transverse stripes of black, white
and yellow, with a pair of black velvety horns on the third and eleventh
joints. The chrysalis is shaped like a lady's ear-drop, and is of a clear
green color, ornamented with black and gold.
The Argynnis butterflies have broad velvety wings of a tawny
orange color, shaded and spotted with dark-brown on the upper sur-
face, while the under sides are resplendent with- numerous silvery spots.
In these species the antennis terminate in a large, roundish knob. The
larvsB are covered with spines and feed upon violets.
The Hackberry butterflies (genus Apatura) are of a dull brown,
mottled with white and black spots. The eggs of A. clyton (see Fig. 33)
82 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
are laid in a mass, and the head of the larva bears a pair of branching:
horns.
In Vanessa the edges of the wings are scalloped and angular in
oatline. The palpi are large, and project in front of the head like a
beak. The beautiful Antiopa butterfly {Vanessa antiopa, Linn), which
has deep purple, buflF-bordered wings, and whose larva are very de-
structive to the Lombardy poplar and elm, and the red Admiral ( V.
atalanta, Linn), distinguished by broad, orange-red stripes, passing ob-
liquely across the upper wings and bordering the outer edges of the
lower ones, and whose larvae feed on the nettle, belong to this genus.
The genus Orapta may be recognized by the very jagged outline of
the wings. The upper pair, besides being notched, are deeply hollowed
out on the outer edge, and the lower pair are furnished with two short
*'tails.'' The upper surface is pale reddish brown, mottled with largCi
irregular spots of dark brown. Some species have a narrow border of
pale blue. The under side is of duller colors, with a single silvery or
golden mark. These butterflies may be popularly termed the "Punctu-
ation'^ butterflies, since, from the punctuation-like marks on the under
side of the wings, the various species have been named Orapta comma,
Orapta interrogationis, etc.
The genus Hipparchia contains the "Wood butterflies," so named
from the fact of their being usually found in groves and thickets, and
also from their wood-brown colors, relieved by eye-like spots.
The family Lycjenid^ contains the small coppery red and the
blue butterflies often seen fluttering about pools of water and muddy
places by road-sides.
The larvae feed on grass, are smooth, short and thick, and secure
themselves with a loop in an upright position, when about to transform.
The genus TheeJcla may be recognized by the two thread-like tails which
ornament each of the hind wings.
The Hespebid^ comprise a large number of black and brown,
dull-colored butterflies, mostly of small size, and which differ in so
many respects from the other Ehopaloceba that they seem to fur-
nish the connecting link between the true butterflies and the moths. The
body is generally short and thick, and in repose only the fore wings
are held erect, and these not pressed together, while the hind wings
are laid flat upon the back. The antennae end in a little hook. They
fly with rapid, jerky motions, often alighting. Hence they are popu-
larly denominated "Skippers." The larvae are spindle-shaped, with a
rough surface, a small, distinct neck and a large head, which is usually
somewhat heart-shaped and marked with two or more conspicuous
spots. They live in cases which they form by folding leaves and fast-
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOGY. 83
eaiog them in place with what look like long stitches of coarse, white
silk. They leave their cases at night to feed, and when one case is
outgrown they constrnct a new one. They change to pupse within their
leafy homes and farther enclosed in a lace-like silken cocoon. The
chrysalis is smooth and oval, often covered with a fine powder or
" bloom," and is suspended by the tail. The Tityrus skipper (Euda-
mu8 tUyrus, Fabr.), the larva of which feeds on the locust and acacia,
is the largeBt and best known species.
CHAPTBE XXII.
Order lepidoptera. Sub-Order Hb tee oc be a.
The moths greatly exceed the butterflies in number of species and
individuals and in diversity of size, structure and habit. Among them
may be found some (tropica!) species whose expanded wings measure a
foot from tip to tip, and others whose wing expanse is scarcely one-
eighth inch. Some forms are slender and graceful, and can scarcely
be distinguished from butterflies; others, when on the wing, might
easily be mistaken for bees or wasps ; still others simnlate beetles,
while a few, destitute of wings, and in some cases of legs also, present
the appearance of over-grown maggots or grubs. In the peculiarities
of their development, also, the entomologist finds a field of inexhaaet-
84 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
ible interest, and in which he learns much that can be turned to prac-
tical account in his endeavors to discover the best methods of keeping
pernicious species in check. A general description of the insects com-
posing this sub-order is almost impossible. Almost the only charac-
ters common to all are the pointed antennae, the horizontal position of
the wings in repose, the rounded or oval and inclosed pupse, and, with
some exceptions, the nocturnal habit. The moths are very conveni-
ently separated into ten families: Sphinx moths (Sphingib^,
Clear-wings (^gebiidjs), Butterfly Mimics (Zyg^nid^), Spinners
(BoMBYOiD^), Owlet moths or Cut-worm moths (Nootuidje), Span-
worm or Measuring- worm moths (Gbometrid^), Snout moths (Pyra-
LiD^), Leaf rollers (Tobtbicid^), Fringe- wings or Tineids (Tineid^)
and Plume moths or Feather-wings (Ptebophobidje). Of these fam-
ilies the first six are sometimes collectively termed the Macro-lepidop -
tera, and the remaining four the Microlepidoptera.
The JEgerians and Zyg»nids are diurnal ; the Sphinx moths are
crepy^cular — t. e., flying in the twilight — while all the others are noctur-
nal.
The Sphinx moths are so nan^ed from a habit of many of the larvae
when at rest, of raising the front part of the body and drawing in the
head, giving them a fanciful resemblance to the figures of the Sphinx
in Egyptian carvings and pictures. They are also called "hawk moths"
from the strength of their narrow and pointed wings, and "humming-
bird moths" from their manner of hovering over flowers while extract-
ing the nectar. These moths have stout, smooth, spindle-shaped bodies,
and the fore wings are nearly twice the length and breadth of the hinder
pair, and close roof fashion over the body in repose. The antennae are
somewhat thickened in the middle, and in most species end in a hook.
The "tongue'' is remarkably long, often five or six inches, enabliog the
insects, while on the wing, to reach the deepest nectaries of the flowers
for which they have a preference, among which may be mentioned the
Daturas, Petunias, and other long-tubed blossoms. The larvae are cylin-
drical caterpillars with a roughened or granulated surface, generally of
some shade of green, and often with oblique stripes along each side,
and almost always have a pointed horn or an eye-like spot on the top
of the twelfth joint. With a few exceptions they enter the ground to
transform, and some species have an external tongue case which is
bent over like a jug-handle in front.
The common tomato or tobacco worm (Sphinx quinquemaculata^
Haw.) and the Sphinx caterpillars of the grape vine are good examples
of this family. All the species are very voracious and destructive to
valuable trees and plants.
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOGY. 85
The Clear- winged moths (^geeiid^) are mostiy of small size and
might easily be mistaken for bees or small wasps when on the wing.
[^'8**i They have sLender bodies, some-
times endiDg in a tafi of long hairs.
I In some species only the under-
wings are transparent, in others
there is merely a border of scales
around each pair. Among the larvse
F.Mh-iH,rer (f fJ^;f^':'»f-)^*?-»f'«' Ki'-'J'- we find some of the worst borers,
such as the Peach-tree borer {jEgeria exitiosa. Say.), the Baspberry
borer (j^rvhi, Eiley), and the Pickle worm [PhakeUwra nitidalti, Cram).
The beatftiful Insects that I have termed "Bntterfly Mimics"
(Zyg^nid^) can scarcely be dietingaished from the genuine batter-
flies, except by the pointed antennse, and even these organs sometimes
have a little silken tnft near the tip which helps the deception. They
delight in the hottest sunshine, and display very gay colors on their
broad wings. The larvse are usually transversely elriped in black and
white with an orange-colored hump on the top of ^be eleventh segment.
Some very injurious species are known as the " Blue caterpillars of the
vine." When ready to change they enter the groand or bore into the
wood of the grape posts.
A-moug the spinners (Bombyoid^) are most of our largest and
most elegant moths, as well as the few species which are in the highest
degree valuable, viz., the silk producers. Some of these species ex-
pand from six to nine inches. The wings are broad, and sometimes
faloate: i. e., hollowed out at the outer edges They are densely cov-
ered with hairs and scales of rich colors. The head is small, and the
antennte beautifully feathered, and are in some species so broad as to
be mistaken for an additional
pair of wings. The mouth parts
are undeveloped, and, large as
they are, these moths are inca-
pable of taking even a sip of
nectar. The body is stout and
heavy, and the plumy legs rather
weak. The magnificent Cecro-
I pla moth (Bamia cecropia, Linn).
' or the Polyphemus (Teleapoly-
phemus, Cram.) — named for the
fabled one-eyed monster of
p,bj J classic poetry, because of the
great eye-like spot that oma-
. r»br )
,; b, pupa; c, moth— all nataral
86 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
ments each hind wing — occafiionally enter lighted rooms on summer
nights ; but, as a rule, the moths of this family are not much attracted
by light. The most delicately beautiful of our native species is the
Luna moth (Actias luna, Linn.), which is of a pale green color with an
eye spot at the end xA the discal cell in each wing, and the hind wingB
extended at the outer edges into lobes or tails sometimes one and one-
half inches long. The full grown larvse of these species are immense
caterpillars, usually of a green color, sparsely hairy and studded with
wart-like tubercles of brilliant colors, or bear, near the head, from one
to six long, spiny horns that give them a most formidable aspect.
The invaluable and interesting Ohinese silk-worm (Bombyx mori,
Linn.) is a near relative of the species named above. It is of a bluish
or creamy white, with a few more or less distinct brown markingg.
The surface is smooth, except for a few ridges and wrinkles on the
thoracic joints and a small pointed horn on the top of the eleventh
joint. All these species are very voracious, and feed for from four to
six weeks.
The native spinners are often quite destructive to various kinds of
fruit and shade trees, while the Ohinese silk'-worm thrives best on the
White mulberry, but may be grown successfully on the Osage orange,
and, in the Southern States, it is said to feed on Alfalfa. The silk
gland, lying along the under side of the body, is very large in all the
typical Bombycids, and secretes a quantity of viscid fluid, which upon
being drawn out through the spineret on the labium, forms flne threads
of the exquisite substance known as silk. Of this the larvse form thick
oval, or slender, oblong cocoons, weaving layer over layer until about
half the substance of the caterpillar is transformed into the covering
for the pupa. In the latter stage our native species hibernate, but the
imported species cuts its way out in about two weeks, appearing as
a rather small, white moth, whose weak wings are incapable of sup-
porting it in flight. The female lays a quantity of eggs, and by means
of these the species is carried over winter.
Among the most interesting species of Bombycids are the singular
forms termed " slug caterpillars."
In these the feet are but slightly developed, and the insect moves
with a snail-like glide, over a leaf or other surface, by means of ridges
on the under side, leaving a slimy track behind it. Some have a
rectangular shape with several fleshy prominences on the back, others
are almost circular, or of the shape of a beech nut. Some are adorned
on top with a double row of plumy spines.
Kearly all are brightly colored, or have the colors displayed in
peculiar and beautiful patterns. Great care mast be exercised in
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY. 87
handling them, as the hairs and spines inflict a nettle-like sting. Quite
a number of species included among the spinners do not secrete silk,
and change to pupsB under ground in a frail earthen cell. Among
these is the Green-striped Maple worm (Dryoeampa ruhiounda^ Fab.),
(see Fig. 36), which is occasionally very destructive to the shade trees
from which it derives its name.
The Cut-worm moths or Owlet moths (Koctuid^) are a very
extensive group of medium sized insects, mostly of plain clors, but
containing a few very gaily decked species. The body is rather thick
and heavy, the fore wings narrow, and in repose entirely cover the
hind wings, which are folded beneath them. The head is small, the
antennsB simple (thread-like), the tongue long, and the eyes in many
cases hairy or encircled by hairs.
The thorax is often crested or tufted, with long, erect scales.
The upper wings, whatever their color and markings, display two more
or less distinct spots, the one round, the other kidney-shaped (orhicu-
lar and reniformj. The true cut-worms are smooth, dingy-colored
caterpillars, many of which commonly rest in a coiled position. They
conceal themselves by day and crawl out by night to their work of
destruction, cutting off not only tender herbaceous vegetation, but
ascending trees and vines to nip off the young leaves. When ready
to transform, these " worms " burrow into the earth or conceal them
selves under rubbish on its surface, but never spin any regular cocoon.
The well-known Army worm (Leueania unipuncta, Haw.), which
sometimes devastates numerous grain fields in a single march, is one
of the representatives of this group. So, also, is the wide- spread Oorn
worm or Boll worm (Helioihia armigera, Hub.) See Fig. 34. The large
moths of the genus Catocala, easily recognized by their gaily banded
under-wings, in which scarlet, crimson, orange or white alternates with
black, are also included in the family Noottjidjs.
88 OUTLINES OF BKTOMOLOGT.
The SpaQ-Torm Fig si.
moths (Obombt- i
BiD£)are mostly ^
>of pale, delicAte
colors, with Blen-
der bodiee,broad
thin wings, vhich
in repose are
spread out at
right angles from
the body, and by
the nsnallyBlight-
ly or broadly
feathered anten-
nffi. Id this fam-
ily the females
are sometimes
wingless. The
laFTfe are called
"Measnrin gums'tiee winter motb (Bi/iernia lUlaria , Hai.l ■rtarBlley, Un leR above
„ „„ le the bro»d-wlQgtcl niBle, whila the aplder-llke crBBtore below iBthe
worms" Or'Span famale, which never aujalTeBWlagBi on right, oterpUUn.
worms" from their looping mode of crawling. This is necessitated by
the lack of two or three pairs of the abdominal pro-legs, bo that in
crawling the hinder end of the body is brought up close to the head
at every onward motion. These worms are generally long, slender and
cylindrical. Some have bod-like or scale-like hnmps on the body, so
that when the latter is at rest and held ont from a branch in an obliqne
direction, it simalates a twig so closely as to escape recognition. In
preparing for transformation, these larvw either enter the ground or
enclose themselves in thin cocoons in some concealed spot. Among
the pernicious species we find the Apple and Elm tree Canker worms
fAniaopteryx vemata, Har., and A. autumnalis, Pack.), and the Lime
tree Winter moth (Hyhemia tiUari, Har.) See Pig. 37.
The Snont moths (PyralidcE) are much like many of the G-eometers
in general appearance, bat may usually be diatingaished from them by
their Bmaller size and the long, slender palpi, which are held close to-
gether and project in front of the head like a beak. Some of the
larvEB are leaf-rollers ; others feed on meal or in clover hay, while others
are trae "grass worms" and do macb damage to meadows and pastures.
The true leaf-rollers (TortrieidceJ are a family of small moths, maoy
of which are richly and beautifully colored. They are characterized
by the oblong form of the upper wings, which, in repose, are folded
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOaT. 89
roof-like over the body. The eyes are luge, the antennee filiform, the
palpi broad, tafted and Bomewbat triangalar. The larva are usually
rather soft, plainly colored worms with a heart-shaped head, a distinct
bomy collar, and horny plate on top of the last joint. The great ma-
jority conceal themselves within leaves variously twisted and rolled,
from which habit the group derives its name. A few species feed on
fruit, among which the aDlversal apple enemy, the Codling moth (Oar-
pooopaa pommiella, Linn.), is the most notorious.
The Fringe-wings (Tineid^) include the smallest insects in the
Order. They have slender, lance -shaped wings, bordered by long
fringes, and many of them are exquisitely colored in various metallic
and prismatic tints. The auleunEe are simple, and usually nearly as
long as the body. The palpi vary in form, but are, as a rule, long and
conspicuous, in many species curving upward in firont of the head.
The larvse are often leaf-miners or caue-bearers. Others are destrac.
tive to frnit or grain, or feed upon feathers, furs and wool, being the
"clothes moths," against whose ravages it is necessary to protect some
of oar costliest apparel.
The Feather-wings or Flame moths ( Ptebophobid^ ) have the
wings cleft so that each appears composed of several feathers. They
are small insects, only one or two of which are seriously destructive,
as for example .the Grape-vine Plume.
CHAPTER XXIII.
Order IV. DIPTERA.
[Fig. S3.]
TachlDK fl; (LyUtlla doryphor.
In this Order are grouped the insects that have but a single pair
of wings, and a few others that have no wings at all. They are popu*
90 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
larly distingnished as flies. Although many flies, in the larva state, are
undoubtedly useful as scavengers, yet the perfect insects are, most of
them, so annoying, and often so positively injurious, that the entire
Order is regarded with much disfavor. Mosquitos, gnats, houso-flies^
gad-flies and other species frequently occur in such immense swarms
in certain localities as to render life almost intolerable. A few species
are brilliantly colored, or of striking size or form, but, as a rule, the
members of this division are the most individually inconspicuous of
insects.
The bodies of most flies are soft and fragile. The head is usually
largo, round or hemispherical, often quite coi^cave behind, and is at-
tached to the thorax by a p^g-like neck, on which it can be twirled
almost completely around without being separated from the body. The
eyes are, except in a few very lowly organized species, very large, cov-
ering the greater part of the head, and their faceted structure can be
seen even without the aid of a lens. The mouth-parts are very differ-
ently developed in the different families, but are all peculiarly fitted for
sipping fluids. In the house-fly the jaws and true maxillse are wanting^
but the secondary maxillse and the lower lip form a proboscis which
ends in a pair of broad flaps, whose ridged surface enables the insect
to lap up sweet fluids or the perspiration from the hand, or the juices
of meat or other liquids to which it is attracted. When not in use, the
proboscis being jointed, is folded up and fits into a groove in the face.
The so-called "stinging flies" have the jaws modified into very sharp
lancets, which are so strong that ^hey are capable of piercing even the
thick skin of a horse and drawing the blood. The antennae' are either
short and stout, having but three joints and a bristle, or are many-
jointed, long and feathered, as in the mosquito. The thorax is large
and round, the first and third segments — pro-thorax and meta-thorax —
being very small and closely consolidated above with the meso-thorax^
which is large and muscular. The wings are composed of thin, trans-
parent or smoky membrane supported by strong veins. They can be
vibrated with exceeding swiftness, and the insects are capable of longer
and more continuous flights than any of the four-winged species. At
the base of each wing is a little roundish scale called the winglet or
alulet, the use of which has not yet been discovered. The hind wings
are represented by two thread-like organs ending in little knobs, which
are the haltereSj poisers or balancers^ whose function is likewise un-
known. The legs are generally rather weak and slender, and in some
species are very long. The feet are five-jointed, and besides the claws^
are provided with a bilobed cushion clothed with microscopic hairs
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 91
from which exudes a sticky fluid, by means of which the insect is en-
abled to walk up and down the panes of a window or along the ceiling
of a room. The old, ingenious theory of "the exhaustion of air under
its feet," by which the crawling of a fly on such surfaces used to be
explained, is now known to be erroneous. In the abdomen of the
stouter-bodied flies it is difficult to distinguish more than four seg-
ments, the terminal ones being abruptly narrowed and drawn within
the body to form the ovipositor.
Such flies as the house-fly and the gad-fly are on the wing and
troublesome only during the day. Others, like the mosquito, are most
active at night, while some are equally tormenting during the entire
twenty-four hours.
The transformations of dipterous insects are complete. The eggs
are deposited singly or in masses upon the solids or fluids upon which
the larvae feed. Those of many species are smooth and white and of
a linear oblong shape.
The larvae of terrestrial flies are called maggots. They are soft,
thin-skinned, cylindrical, and taper most toward the head, or rather
the mouth, for but few of them have any distinct head. They have no
legs or other organs of locomotion, and wriggle from place to place by
a peculiar twisting of the body, or, as in the case of the " cheese skip-
pers," they coil themselves up and seize the tail between the jaws, and
then by suddenly letting go, jerk themselves to great distances by the
rebound.
Aquatic larvae are furnished with fln-like swimming organs, and
some species breathe through long tubes situated on the posterior end
of the body, which can be elevated above the surface of the water.
Many dipterous larvae are parasitic ; others feed upon decaying animal
or vegetable matter ; those which are aquatic subsist on organic im-
purities of water, and a considerable proportion feed on the tissues of
growing plants. Except in the case of some aquatio species, the pupae
are inactive. They are of two forms : eoarctate^ that is, inclosed in the
dry and hardened larva skin, or obtected^ with the larva skin thrown
off, and the rudimentary members of the mature insect separately en-
cased, as in the pupae of Hymenoptera and Ooleoptera. The pupa
state is generally of short duration. The Diptera may be considered
under two sub-orders :
I. Obthobapha, in which the obtected pupa escapes from
the larval skin through a cross slit or T-shaped opening between the
seventh and eighth joints ; and
II. Y L o E A p H A, including mostly coarctate pupae, from
which the perfect fly escapes through a circular hole on top of the
puparium.
92 OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOGY.
Each of these divisions contains many families which differ in
many points of structure and habit. Tt will be possible here to refer
only to those which include the species most commonly met with, and
of most importance from an economic standpoint. In the first we find
the Gall-gnats and grain-flies (CECiDOMYiDiB). These are all smaJl
species, which are injurious to vegetation. They have slender bodies
and long antennae, which are often plumy. The wings have three or
four veins, extending from base to outer margin, and are usually
fringed around the edge. The halteres are long and round-knobbed,
and the legs long and slender. The gall-making species place their
eggs upon leaves or tender stems, into the tissues of which the larvae
work their way, causing by irritation, peculiar fleshy or woody swell-
ings. On this abnormal vegetable tissue the larvae feed. The latter are
minute maggots, often of a pale red color, with a peculiar, clove-
shaped dark mark on the under side near the head, which can be
clearly distinguished only by the aid of a lens.
The Hessian fly (Oecidomyia destructor^ Say.) and the Wheat-midge
(Dij^losis triticij Kirby) are the most notoriously destructive of these
gnats. The larvae of the former are flesh-colored maggots, which are
found beneath the sheaths of the lower joints of the wheat stalk in au-
tumn and early spring, and which dwarf and sometimes entirely kill the
plant by extracting the sap from the tender stems. In the change to
pupa, the larval skin hardens and turns brown, forming a ''flax-seed"-
like pupariumj within which the transformations take place.
The Wheat-midge is a tiny, orange-colored fly which places its eggs
on the young heads of wheat, from which the red maggots extract the
juices and cause the kernels to shrivel.
The Buffalo-gnats (Simulid je) are short, thick species with a very
rounded thorax, short antennae and strong mouth parts, capable of
drawing blood from cattle and mules as well as from man. At certain
seasons of the year they are an almost insupportable pest on the shores
of the northern lakes and in the south, along the principal water-
courses. The larvae breed in water and have a singular feathery gill at
the hinder end.
Mosquitos (Culicid^) are characterized chiefly by the complex
mouth parts, which are projected straight forward in front of the head.
The beak or sting of the female mosquito — for the males are inoffen-
sive creatures, that neither sing nor sting — when closely examined, is
seen to consist of a bundle of fine bristles, seven in number, which to-
gether form a sharp-pointed tube by which the skin of man and the
larger animals is pierced, and through which a minute portion of poison
from a gland in the pro-thorax is forced into the wound, before or after
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY. ^ 93
the blood b^s been drawn. The moath parts of the male mosquito are
not so long, and are adapted to sipping the nectar of flowers instead of
the sanguinary nourishment preferred by his partner. The eyes are
very large and somewhat oblong. The antennaB are plumy in both
sexes, but those of the male are much more ornamental than those of
the female. The thorax is considerably humped and the bind body
long and slender. The legs are also very long and thin. The wings
are fringed on the edge and the principal veins are outlined by fine
scales. The eggs are laid in a boat*shaped mass on the surface of still
water, and the larvse ar^ the well-known ^'wrigglers" so often seen in
standing water. They swim by the aid of unsymmetrically arranged
tofts of bristles, and breathe through a tube at the hinder end of the
body, which they frequently project above the surface of the water.
The pupae do not take any nourishment, but are active, club-headed
affairs which swim by means of the two paddles in which the abdomen
terminates. There are a great many species of these venomous gnats,
some of which are strictly nocturnal while others are equally active day
and night. Culex dliatus^ Fab. is perhaps the most generally dis-
tributed species.
The Crane-flies (Tipulid^) resemble mosquitoes in general ap-
pearance, but many species are from five to ten times the size of the
latter. They have no sting and are not injurious in any way. The
larvae breed in soil that is rich in decaying organic matter, and there-
fore often emerge from flower-pots and hot^beds. They also occur in
mould and other fungi, and in water.
Gad-flies or Breeze-flies (Tabanid^). — In this and the two follow-
iDg families of the Orthorapha, the antennae are short and three-jointed.
The Gkiid-flies or Horse-flies are shaped much like the house-fly, but are
very much larger. The mouth parts are very strong and awl-shaped, and
the bite is very painful. There are several species, of which the
'' Green-head fly" fTabanus Uneola, Fabr.) and the large black Horse-
fly fT. atratus Fabr.) are exceedingly annoying to horses during the
summer months, their sharp stabs and their menacing buzz driving the
animals into a frenzy, and not infrequently causing them to run away.
.The Mottled Breeze-fly, a somewhat smaller species, mottled in
a dirty white and brown, is more especially injurious to horn cattle.
The larvae are aquatic or semi-aquatic, and those that have been
described are glossy, greenish or yellowish "woims," with a row of
rounded tubercles on each side, and taper to a very small head. The
papae are ridged or roughened on the abdominal joints, and formed in
the ground.
94 ^ OT7TLINBS OF ENTOMOLOGY.
The Eobber-flies (AsiLiD^)liaye long, slender bodies and wings, and
spiny, long, stout legs. The beak is short bat strong, and the under
lip well developed. The eyes are almost globular, and the antennae
short, often tipped with a bristle. The body is usually hairy, varying
in length from one to two inches, and tapers toward the tip. The colors
are mostly black and white, though some species have the thorax
clothed with yellbw hairs. In their perfect state, the Bobber-flies are
fierce and greedy cannibals, especially destructive to the honey-bee, of
which one species has been known to kill and suck the vital juices of
more than one hundred and forty in a day, according to Dr. Packard.
They sometimes make amends, however, by preying on the Cabbage
butterfly, though I fear this has not yet become a very general habit.
The larv8B live in the ground, and those that have been studied have
fed upon roots.
The Bee-flies (Bombtlid^) resemble small Humble bees in their
thick, hairy bodies. They are very swift on the wing, and are often
found on flowers, from which they extract nectar with the long pro-
boscis. The larvae are parasitic on bees and on the eggs of locusts
(grasshoppers).
In the Sub-Order Ctolobapha we And a large number of
families of flies whose larv» are parasites or scavengers and a few
that feed on vegetation, among which are some common gall-makers
also some that live in water. The transformations take place either
underground or on the surfaces .upon which the larvae fed — the larval
skin thickening and hardening into an oblong case, within which the
soft, white pupa is formed. The flies always come out through a round
hole on the top. They usually have rather short, thick bodies, broad
heads and short antennae, ending in a bristle. The following families
contain the species that are most directly beneflcial or injurious to man :
Syrphus flies (Sybphid^). See Plate of Orders.) This is a group of
handsome flies, ranging in size from small to medium (having a body
length of from one-flfth to one-half inch). The colors are often arranged
in bright bands, giving the insects quite a wasp-like appearance. The
front of the face has no groove for the reception of the antennae, which
have the last joint much thickened just back of the bristle. The
larvae are legless and headless, leech-like creatures, which do us great
service in destroying all kinds of plant-lice (Aphididcd), and may almost
always be found in the colonies of the latter, which they very rapidly
exterminate. The great majority of the beneflcial species are found in
the genus Syrphm. Their transformations are very easily observed, as
they are hardy and develop rapidly.
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOGT. 95
The Bingular ^' rat-tailed " larvaB, often found in stagnant pools or
other foal water, produce hairy flies of the genas JEristalis,
Bot-flies (CEsTBiD^) are stout, hairy insects, much resembling small
Humble bees. The mouth parts are but slightly developed, and the
small antennsB, hidden in little cavities in the very narrow face, seem, at
first glance, to be wanting. They are chiefly interesting from the habits
of the larvae, which live in the stomachs of horses, in the heads of
sheep, and on the backs and other parts of the bodies of cattle and
other animals, causing great suffering and sometimes even death to the
poor creatures infested. The Bot-flies of the horse fOastrophilus equi,
Fabr.) lay their eggs on the horee^s front legs or on the flanks or hips,
glueing them most firmly to the hairs. The larvae, which are hatched
very shortly, produce an irritation which induces the horse to bite at
those parts, and by this means they enter the mouth and make their
way into the stomach. There they attach* themselves, by means of
mouth hooks, to the lining membrane, feeding on the mucus and diges-
tive .fluids, occasionally penetrating to the muscular tissue, causing
mach irritation and pain, and, when very numerous, producing danger-
ous fever and weakness. When full grown, the ^^ bots" pass out with
the excrement and burrow into the earth, f^om which the flies issae in
six or seven weeks. The Sheep bot-fly (CEstrus ovis, Linn.) deposits its
larvae, already hatched, in the nostrils of the sheep, which immediately
work their way into the nasal cavities and frontal sinus of the head and
attach themselves to the walls, producing the disease known as ^' grub
in the head,'' from which sheep so commonly suffer and not infrequently
die. When these maggots are full grown they drop from the nostrils
to the ground, beneath the surface of which they transform.
The Ox bot-fly (Hipoderma boviSj De Geer) is a similar, but larger
species, which causes tumors on the backs of cattle, usually laying its
eggs on parts which the creature cannot conveniently reach with its
tongue. The larvae, termed ^^ warbles," burrow beneath the skin and
cause veiy disfiguring and painful swellings.
The Tachina flies (Taghinid^) are stout, dark-colored, bristly
flies, which deserve to be held in the highest estimation on account of
the parasitic habits of all the larvae, which feed in the bodies of nu-
merous destructive caterpillars and grubs, and greatly reduce the
numbers of these pests. The small, oval, ivory-white eggs are laid,
sometimes singly, sometimes two or three in a cluster, on the back of
the caterpillar or other insect, often just behind the head, in order to
be safe from the jaws of the victim. These eggs adhere so flrmly that
E— 7
96 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
it is impossible to refmove them entire. The larvsd, immediately npon
hatehing, penetrate the skin of the insect and feed upon the non- vital
parts, so that, as a mle, the infested specimen is able to enter the
gronnd or to spin its cocoon before it is killed by the parasite. The
transformations of the latter then take place, and the flies appear very
shortly, or, in other cases, hibernate with the remains of their host and
emerge in the spring, at the season when fresh victims are most numer-
ous. Army worms and all cut-worms, various spinners and sphinxes,
grasshoppers, the larvae of the Colorado potato*beetles and many other
pests are destroyed by them. See Fig. 38.
House-flies, blow-flies, etc. (Musoidce), !No family of insects are
more familiar to us than the principal members of this group. At
almost any season of the year the student can obtain a fresh specimen
for examination, since many individuals of the common house-fly, and
also of the meat-fly, contrive to secure winter quarters in our warm
sitting-rooms and pantries. In these insects the greater portion of the
head is occupied by the eyes, which are, in some species, quite brightly
colored. The short antennae are plum^ or sparingly bristled; the
labrum is elongated into a jointed proboscis, terminating in a pair of
broad, sucker-like flaps, which have their ridged inner surfaces closely
pressed together when not in use, but are spread out when lapping up
liquids, as may be easily observed in the House-fly. Other species have
the proboscis terminate in minute lancets. The body is sparingly
clothed with stiff hairs, and is either of a dull black and white or gray
color, or, as in the " Blue-bottles '' or green meat-flies, it is of a dark
metallic blue or green. The wings are transparent, the legs rather
stouter than in other flies and more or less hairy. The eggs are soft,
pearl-white and slender-oblong, deposited singly or in little bundles or
masses. The larvae are soft, white or whitish maggots, some of them
elongate- conical, thick and blunt at the hinder end and tapering to a
point in front ; others are slender and cylindrical ; most of them have
a smooth or somewhat ridged surface, but a few are hairy. Those of
the House-fly (Musca domestica^ Linn.) breed mainly in horse manure.
Another species which also breeds in stables and barn-yards is the
Lancet-fly (Stomoxya calcitratis, Linn.) It is scarcely to be distin-
guished from the common House-fly, except that when crawling or at
rest the wings are held more apart and the proboscis is more slender
and terminates in a point instead of a pair of fleshy lips. It bites
severely and is very troublesome to horses and cattle, nor does it hesi-
tate, upon occasion, to draw human blood. It is. most abundant late
in summer and in early autumn.
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY. 97
Still another plagae of the herds has recently appeared in this
country as an immigrant from Europe. This is the Horn-fly (HcematO'
hia serrata-j Rob. — Des). From the accounts of Dr. Riley of Washing-
ton, and other eastern entomologists, we learn that it is a dark species,
mueli smaller than the house-fly, but otherwise much like it, which has
the habit of settling in swarms on the' necks, shoulders, and around
the bases of the horns of cattle. It punctures the skin with its horny
beak and draws the blood, so worrying the poor animals that they be-
come reduced in flesh, and cows flail to give the usual quantity of milk.
The flies lay their eggs on the fresh droppings of the cattle, in which
the larv8B breed.
The large hairy " Blue-bottle '^ fly (Mmca ccBsar, Linn. J, and the
smaller Green "Meat-fly" fOaliphora erythrocephala,M^Qig.\s>Te well.
known species which give much trouble to meat dealers and house-
keepers.
The Screw-worm fly (LuciUa maeellaria, Fabr.) has occasionally
proved fatal to human life by laying its eggs in wounds or in the nostrils
of persons who were sleeping in the open Air. It occurs in the South-
western States, where it is a great plague on cattle.
The family Teypetidjs includes a number of veiy pretty flies,
which have the wings variegated with smoky-brown spots and bands.
Many of these flies are gall-makers on various weeds, and are not
especially injurious. One, however (Trypeta pomonella, Walsh.), is the
parent of the Apple maggot, which has, in some of the Eastern States,
proved very destructive to apples, rivaling, and in some instances ex-
ceeding, the damage done by the Codling moth.
The Onion fly (Tritoxa flexa, Wied.) is sometimes quite injurious to
growing onions. It has dark, oblong wings, crossed by three curving
white bands. It is now placed in the family Obtalidjs.
In the PioPHiLiDJBS we find the Cheese fly (Fiophila casein Linn).
The family Dbosphilid^ includes several small species that attack
ripe and preserved fruits. In Oscinidjbs are a few species injurious to
growing grain. Meromyza amencana. Fitch., burrows in the tender
stalks.
A third Sub-Order (Pupipara) has been grouped with the
more lowly organized Diptera, although the usually minute insects
composing it are not much like the typical flies. These are the Sheep-
tick (Melophagus ovinus, Linn.) and the Horse tick (Hippohosca equina
Linn.), which is the only winged species. Others, very minute, are the
Bat-ticks and Bee-lice.
The Fleas also have many affinities with flies, and may here be con-
sidered in connection with them ; yet most authors now class them in a
98
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
Bmall separate Order — S iphonapteba. They are hard, thick,
wingless creatures, having the body compressed at the sides and
sparsely hairy. In place of the usnal compound eyes they have two
ocelli. The pointed head is armed with backward pointing teeth. The
legs are stout, with the thighs greatly thickened, giving them their
wonderful leaping power. The eggs are scattered about in untidy
human dwellings, dog kennels and the like, and the slender maggot-
Hke larvsB feed in the dust and organic particles that accumulate in the
cracks of floors, under rugs and similar hiding places. When ready to
transform the larvsB enclose themselves in silken cocoons. The human
fLeek IB Pulex irritans^ Linn., while P. eaniSy Dag., affects the dog and
oat. The tropical "jigger," "chigoe" or "chique" fSarcopsylla pene-
trans) is the pest of hot, sandy regions, but must not be confounded
with a small tick — a species of mite — that occurs further north, and
also burrows into the skin and causes sores, and which is likewise often
called a "jigger."
CHAPTER XXIV.
Order V. HEMIPTERA.
[Fig. 40.]
HaTleqnin Cabbage- bug (Murgantia hisMonica, Hahn.— after Riley, a, 6, larra and
pupa (nymphie;; c, eggs natural Bize; d, e, same magnified ; g. A, perfect bug.
This Order derives its name from a compound Greek word signi-
fying half-wing, and refers to the half membranous, half-leathery (cori-
aceous) structure of the wings of many of the representatives. It con-
tains the only insects that may, with perfect accuracy, be called bugs.
The term "bug," so generally but incorrectly applied to many kinds of
insects, is supposed to have had its origin in the word "bug-bear," as
something frightful or dangerous, and it is most fitting that, correctly
used, it should refer to the division which includes such insects as the
bed-bug, louse and similar objects of dread and disgust.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 99
The insects of this Order display great differences of form and
habit, but as all subsist solely on liquid nourishment, extracted from
living plants or animals, all the principal representatives agree per-
fectly in the structure of the mouth. This consisto of a strong, three
or four-jointed beak, which is a modification of the under lip into a
channeled brace in which rest two pairs of very fine bristles, corres-
ponding to the two pairs of jaws, the combination being an admirable
arrangement for piercing and sucking. (In some of the more lowly
organized members of this Order, there is no homy-jointed beak, but
the front of the head is merely elongated, forming a sucker-like cup
provided with minute biting organs.) The upper lip (labrum) is con-
solidated with the lower part of the face to form a strong support to
the developed mouth parts. The eyes are large and round, in some
cases brightly colored, and two ocelli may be distinguished in many
species. The antennsB are usually thread-like or bristle-like, in some
cases quite long, with the terminal joints slightly enlarged.
In their general form the Hemiptera are among the most variable
of insects. Some have the 'body almost hemispherical, others are thick
and square or oblong, while others still are very long and slender.
There is no general plan on which the joints of the thorax are devel-
oped, some having the pro-thorax crowded down out of sight from the
upper side, while in others it is very large and conspicuous. The meso-
thorax is usually the least variable division, except as to the scutellum,
which is sometimes so large as to extend backward almost to the tip
of the abdomen. The six legs are always present and the feet are three-
jointed; some terminate in a very distinct claw or pair of claws with
cushions (pulvilli) between them, while in others these appendages can-
not be distinguished. The upper wings, sometimes termed hemelytraj
in the typical bugs lie flat upon the back, the transparent or trans-
lucent tips overlapping, appearing as though crossed in the middle.
In other forms they are altogether membranous or coriaceous, and fold
roof like over the body.
In this and the remaining Orders the transformations are usually
incoinpletej the pupa being as active and as voracious as the larva or
the perfect iasect. These Orders are termed inferior, not only on
account of the less distinct metamorphosis, but also because of the
many lowly organized forms which they include.
Hemipterists are not agreed as to the primary subdivisions of the
Order, some finding it more convenient to consider the various forms
under three Sub-Orders, while others find it necessary to define five.
100 OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOOY.
As two of these inclnde bnt few species of general interest, we shall
here consider but three :
I. True Bugs (Sub-Order Hetebopteba).
II. Harvest-flies, Leaf-hoppers, etc. (Sub-Order Homopteba).
III. Lice (Sub-Order P A B A s i t a).
CHAPTER XXV.
Order hemtptera. Sub-Order Hetebopteba.
PBINCIPAL FAMILIES OF TBUE BUGS.
[Fig. 41.]
BapaciOTiB Soldier- bug (Reduviut raptaloriutt 8«y.)—AtteT Siley.
The insects in this Sub* Order always have the head horizontal —
namely, on a plane with the body, with the beak arising from the front.
The form of the head is somewhat flattened and triangular, attached to
the thorax by a broad base or by a very short neck. The thorax from
above does not present any striking peculiarities, except in the varying
size of the scutellum; on the under side, however, of a large majority
of the species are two small openings, connected with an internal scent
gland that emit a vile and persistent odor — one of the chief character-
istics of these insects, familiar to the farmer in the smell of the chinch-
bug and squashbug, and to the housekeeper in that of the bedbug.
The wing -covers show considerable variety in coloring and in the
relative size of the opaque and transparent portions. The hind wings
are veined somewhat like those of beetles, and afford no characters
used in classification. The eggs of many bugs are conspicuous for
their beauty, making amends, in some measure, for the deficiencies
of most of the perfect insects in this respect. Some of them can only
be compared to strings or clusters of tiny beads of the purest gold ;
others are bronzed or reflect prismatic colors ; others, again, are re-
markable for their graceful shapes or for their elaborate ornamentation
in ^hat appears like filigree work. Instead of larvae, the immature
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 101
bugs are termed nymphce, and after the third molt the rndiments of the
wings begin to show, there being two stages corresponding to the pup®
of the higher Orders. These nymphs© are often qnite differently col-
ored from the mature insects.
A convenient division of the Heteroptera is into three sections :
Terrestrial bugs, Amphibious bugs and Aquatic bugs.
The Terrestrial bugs may be again divided into Plant-eaters and
Cannibals.
Plant-eating bugs have a more slender beak than those that prey
on other insects, or draw the blood of larger animals, but are otherwise
not very different from them. The most important Families are : OoR-
EID.S, Lyg^id^, Gapsid^ and Oobim^lid^. Inclusive popular
name&.are difficult to suggest for these groups.
The first of these families is best represented by the well-known
Squash-bug [Anam tristiSj DeOeer). (See bug on plate.) This is a me-
dium-sized, oblong, dingy-brown insect, paler beneath, with the head
marked on top with two dull black stripes. The antenna3 are about
half the length of the body and rather stout; the feet are three-joinied.
The young are dull green or yellowish, much broader in proportion
than the perfect insect. This is one of the most universal and serious
pests of melon, cucumber and squash vines. Some very large and
striking species belonging in this family occur in the Southern states.
The Lyg^id^ is a large group of rather small bags which are
gaily or contrastingly colored, among which we find the pernicious
Chinch-bug {Bliasus leucopterus, Say). Few farmers, especially in the
Western States, have escaped a costly acquaintance with this insect,
which is one of the chief enemies of cereal crops, particularly of wheat
and Indian corn. The perfect bug is of oblong form, about one-eighth
inch in length and of clear black and white color. The yellow eggs are
laid in the spring upon the roots or base of the stalk of wheat or other
grain, and from these hatch myriads of pale-red young, which by their
punctures soon dwarf and deaden the plant. Although the perfect in-
sects have ample wings, they seldom rise into the air, and mostly per-
form their emigrations from field to field on foot. The false Chinch-bug
(Nysius destructor, Riley) is rather smaller than its namesake, and less
strikingly marked, being of a shaded grayish brown color. It is very
injurious in certain sections of the country to grape-vines, potatoes,
radishes and a number of other plants.
As the most familiar example of the family CAPSiDiE, the Tarnished
Plant-bug fLygtia lineolaris, Beaur.) may be instanced. This species is
one-fourth inch in length, of flat, oblong form, with four-jointed anten-
nae, the joints being long. It varies in color from yellowish gray to
J 02 OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOOY.
ochreous brown, has a yellow Y-shaped mark on the scntel, and two
or three parallel dark veins on each wing cover. The larvae of these
bugs are green, and broad oval in form. They may be found during
sammer in great abnndance in all stages of development upon flowers.
They injure fruit trees in the spring by puncturing the leaf and flower
buds and the tender twigs and sucking the sap. They also feed on
berries, to which they impart a flavor as nauseous as their odor.
Another abundant member of this family is the Four-lined Leaf-
bug CPcBciloeapms lineatusj. This is somewhat larger than the pre-
ceding species, is of a deep yellow color, ornamented with four black
lines, extending the whole length of the body. It feeds on various
shrubs and herbaceous plants, and is at times seriously destructive to
currant b«shes, clover and other valuable plants.
The GoBiMEL^NiD^ contains but a single genus, the ^^Kegro-bugs"
fOorimelcmaJj small, shining, almost round, beetle-like insects of a
black color, sometimes with bluish or greenish reflections. The great
peculiarity is the depth of the scutellum, which extends backward so
t&T as to entirely cover the wings. These little bugs are sometimes
very destructive on strawberry beds and on the foliage of various
flowering plants. They also have a great predilection for ripe raspber-
ries, to which they give their own disagreeable, bed-buggy odor and
flavor.
Among the cannibal bugs the most important families are the
Pbntatomidje, Ebduviad^ and Aoanthiin^.
In the first of these groups we find many species of flattened,
short, oblong bugs, somewhat under medium size, having the large
scutellum extended backward in a rather slender point. The head
and pro thorax together form an obtuse angle, there being no constric-
tion to form a neck ; the antennae are flve-jointed and the thighs are
but slightly broadened and not spiny; the beak is stout. Although
the greM majority of the species are predaceous, and rank among use-
ful insects, we find among them one serious pest. This is . the Harle-
quin Cabbage-bug fMurgantia histrionioa, Hahn.), a notorious exception
to the rule, being very destructive, in the Middle and Southern States,
to the vegetable from which it gets its popular name. It is a hand-
some insect, as bugs go (See Fig. 40), of a polished black color, with
the scutel margined and the wing covers crossed by stripes of bright
red or orange, and with two distinct white spots on the head ; beneath,
it is marked by lines of yellow dots. Dr. Riley says the eggs " may be
likened to little barrels, for though the sides are straight, the edges
are rounded off, and the black bands recalling the hoops, and a black
spot near the middle recalling the bung-hole, add to the resemblance.''
OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOOY. 103
The larvae, or young nymphse, are pale green, marked with black, while
those more mature show some of the colors of the perfect insect and
have *large wing- pads. The development is very rapid, often requiring
not more than two weeks from the egg to the mature insect. It attacks
not only cabbage and other cruciferous plants, but sometimes injures
peas and other vegetables.
The other members of this family make amends for the injuries
done by this one. Among them we find the Spined Soldier-bug fPod-
istis 8pino8U8 Dallas), long celebrated as a most persistent enemy of the
Oolorado Potato-beetle. This insect is of a dull green, and is chiefly
characterized by having the sides of the pro-thorax produced into
sharp spines. The beak iis so strong that the habit of the bug, even
when very young and small, is to impale the beetle larva or yoting cater-
pillar upon the end of it, and hold it up in the air while sucking out
the fluid contents of the body.
The Ebduviadjb are fiercely predaceous and destroy great num-
bers of other insects, and are thus directly of the greatest benefit to
the agriculturist. They are more slender and elongate in form and of
harder texture than the members of the preceding family, and some
are rather elegantly colored. The strong, horny beak is folded under
against the breast when not in use. The legs are stout in some species,
somewhat bristly, but seldom toothed or spined. Some of the species
are more than an inch in length, but the majority only about half that
length.
The Wheel-bug (Prionidas cristatusj^ which is quite common in the
more southern States, is one of the largest and most formidable species.
It is of a shaded gray color, and has a curious notched crest on the
pro-thorax, which resembles a section of a cog-wheel — whence its
popular name.
The young bugs are bright red, with black markings. They are
most ferocious, and Mr. Glover says : ** They kill their prey by inserting
into it the proboscis, which ejects a most powerful poisonous liquid
into the wound. The victim, thus pierced, dies in a very short time.
They then leisurely suck out the juices and drop the empty skin.''
They attack all kinds of caterpillars and grubs, and even destroy
one another at times in true cannibal fashion.
The Blood-sucking Cone-nose or Big Bed-bug fOonorhinus aangui-
sugu8 Lee.) is sometimes found hiding in beds and stuffed furniture, and
does not hesitate to attack the rightful occupants, upon whom it in-
flicts very painful wounds. People have been known to die from the
effects of its venomed stabs. It is about an inch in length, black
margined all around with short red dashes.
104 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
A similar but more plainly colored species has been named by Prof.
Gomstock the Masked Bed-bng hunter (Opsiecetas personatus)^ from its
habit of preying on the genuine bed-bug. It is an European species^
but a variety is also native to the Eastern States. The young secrete
all over the surface a viscid jBuid to which dust and particles of wool
and feathers adhere, giving them a most singular and disguised appear-
ance. The Eapacious Soldier-bug (BeduvitM raptatorius, Say.) is a slen-
der, rather graceful bug with a long narrow head, and stout raptatorial
front legs. The sides of the thorax are sharply angled. (See Fig. 41.)
It preys on all soft- bodied insects. Of similar form and habits is the
Many-banded robber {Milyas cinctuSj Fabr.), which appears in yellow,
black and white colors.
The family Aoanthiin^, is represented by a single species of the
worst repute — the mal-odorous and cosmopolitan bed-bug {AcantUd
lectularia^ Linn). Few people are so happy as not to have made the
acquaintance of this annoying insect, if not in their own well-kept cham-
bers, at least in those of hotels and boarding houses, from which it can
only by the greatest care be excluded. It is of flat, broad-oval form
and redbrown color, about one-fifth of an inch long. It never acquires
wings, and the perfect bugs can only be known from the young by their
larger size, darker color and very minute rudiments of wing covers.
It is strictly nocturnal, and hides by day in the smallest cracks and
crevices. It is capable of enduring long fasts, and it is said will
recover its vitality after being imprisoned for many months without
food.
A solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol is the most certain
remedy in infested rooms and on bed-steads. Benzine and kerosene
are also much used, and by dusting the sheets with pyrethrum powder,
travelers may obtain a night's rest even in infested rooms. This bug is
said to occur in myriads under the dead bark of certain trees in the far
west, although, if animal fluids be necessary to its development, it is
difficult to imagine on what it can feed under such circumstances.
There are several families of amphibious bugs which are chiefly
interesiing from their adaptation to walking lightly on the surface of
the water, or in marshy spots, without having the feet broadened or
any sail-like or oar-like processes to aid locomotion.
The Water-stiiders (Hydrobatid^) have the middle and hinder
legs very long, the bodies slender and flattened, and no distinct scutel-
lum. They are predaceous in habit, and leap into the air after the small
flies and gnats on which they subsist.
Among the Aquatic bugs are the Water scorpions and Giant water
bugs (Nepid^), where we flnd some species that exceed in size all
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOGT.
106
other species of the Order. They possess oar-like legs and fiat bodies.
The species are all carnivorous and are provided with strong, sharp
beaks, npon which the bodies, not only of other insects, bnt of tad-
poles and young fish, are impaled antil they can be drtdned of the vital
finids. The Water scorpions are of slender form, and the abdomen is
terminated by a pair of long, slender, grooved styles, which, when shnt
together, form a breathing tnbe that can be elevated above the water,
while the insect ia making its predatory excursions beneath the sur-
face. The 6iant water bag {Belottoma grisea, Say.) is more than two
inches in length, by one in width, with a fiat, boat-shaped body and
powerful swimming legs. It also files long distances, and is often
attracted in great numbers to electric lights. The Back-swimmers (So-
TONEGTID^) swim in a reversed position, and have very long, feathery
hind legs.
CHAPTER SXVI.
Order BEMIPTERA. Sab-Order Homoptbba.
CICADAS, LKAP-HOPPBBS, PLANT-LIOB ASD BAEK-LICE.
[Flg.lS.]
'^SS^-
lT-y«ai Cicada (C. tcplemilectm, Linn.), after Bller a, pnpsoT
DTinph; ft, Bbell otBBmei c. perfect Uluada; d, pDnctnTee lu
iHieDiade for the eggs: e, eggs, much msgDltled.
In this division of beaked insects we find the wings — where these
organs are present — of the same texture throughout, and closing roof-
106 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
like over the body. In several large groaps they are transparent, and
sapported by many or few strong veins ; in others they are tough and
opaque, and show many different colors. The head is broad, but
usually very short, without any neck, and has the beak arising so far
under that it seems to be attached to the breast, against which it may
be closely folded. The eyes are round and prominent. The antennae
in the larger species are very inconspicuous, but in the more minute
forms are long, and often beautifally feathered. Some species are
provided with a strong, horny ovipositor by which the eggs are inserted
into woody stems or branches of trees ; others place their eggs on
exposed surfoces, or under loosened bark.
The most important families of homopterous insects are the Ciga-
DiD^, Mbmbbaoid^, Jassidjb, Aphidid^ and OoooiDiB.
In the first of these families we find the large and noisy Harvest-
flies or Dog-day flies (gen as Cicada J. They have an oval form, with
the body enclosed in a firm, shelly crust, head as broad as the thorax,
protruding eyes, with three distinct ocelli between them, and the an-
tennas are short and awl-shaped or end in a sharp-pointed bristle. The
feet are three-jointed ; wings large and glassy ; abdomen of the females
bearing an ovipositor which rests in a fissure on the under side of the
abdomen, and is adapted for sawing and boring into hard wood. The
males have a most ingenious musical apparatus for producing the deaf-
ening buzzing or ^^drumming " with which our shade trees and groves
resound from early summer until autumn. These instruments are little
membranous sacs, which are gathered into fine plaits and fit over cavi-
ties at the base of the abdomen. The sound is produced by rapid
expansion and contraction, by means of strong muscles within that
part of the body.
The most interesting of these insects is the Periodical or Seventeen-
year Cicada, or ''Locust '' — incorrectly so-called— ^Otoadfa septemdecim,
Linn.) see Pig. 42, which enjoys the distinction of being the longest-
lived insect known to entomologists. The perfect cicadas are of a dark
brown or black color, with red eyes and glassy, orange- veined wings,
beneath which are situated the " drams,'^ whose sound is thought by
some to be the word " Pharaoh," very much prolonged.
These singular insects appear in the same locality only once in
seventeen or thirteen years — the development in the Southern States
being somewhat more rapid than in the Northern States. Their life,
as perfect insects, is comparatively brief, lasting not more than five or
six weeks. The females saw numerous consecutive, longitudinal slits
in the branches of fruit and forest trees, often severely injuring the
trees in the process. The young hatch in the course of a few weeks
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 107
and drop to the groand,into which they burrow and where they remain,
descending deeper and deeper year by year, feeding on the rootlets of
trees and growing very slowly, until ready to chigige to pupae, when
they begin to ascend. The pupa is active, and after emerging from the
ground crawls to the trunk of some tree or shrub, to which it clings
with its spiny claws, while the perfect cicada emerges. As these pupa
shells retain their form, except for the slit on the top, through which
the imago escaped, they are often mistaken for dead '^ locusts," and
it used to be a popular superstition that they ^^ sang until they burst."
They appear in May or Juue.
• ■
The annual Bog-day or Harvest-flies, of which there are but two
or three, not very distinct species, in this country, develop about mid-
summer, and sing late in the afternoon and in the twilight, until frost.
The most common species is somewhat larger than the seventeen-year
species, of a green and black color, having the body thickly covered
by a whitish powder or ^^ bloom," from which circumstance it received
its name. Cicada pruinosa, Say.
The Tree-hoppers (Membbacidjb) are rather small insects, but
among them are some of the most singular and grotesque forms of
animate life. The pro- thorax is the part most subject to variation.
This often exteads backward almost to the tip of the abdomen, or the
front edge is prolonged into a horn that curves far over the head.
The BufPalo Tree-hopper fOeresa bubalus^ Fabr.) exhibits in its
form a variety of triangles ; in front, on top, and on each side, one or
more of these geometric figures can be traced. It is of a dull green
color, nearly one-half inch in length, and the female often does consid-
erable damage to the tender twigs of fruit trees by the numerous slits
which she saws in them for the reception of her eggs.
Among the Leaf-hoppers (Jassid^) are a number of small, but
very destructive species. These insects have oblong forms, long
wings, often beautifully colored, a rounded pro-thorax and a triangular
head. A few are about one-half inch in length, but the greater number
are very small. The Grape-vine Leaf-hopper {Erythroneura vitiSy Har.),
commonly but erroneously called " Thrips," frets the leaves of the vine
with innumerable punctures until they turn brown and wither. These
insects are often so numerous late in summer that they leap off in
clouds when the vines are shaken. Other species are injurious to
roses, growing grain and grass.
The Plant-lice (Aphididjs) are a very comprehensive and interest-
ing class of insects. They range from small to exceedingly minute,
but make up in numbers what they lack in size, and include some of
the most destructive pests known to the agriculturist. They are soft-
108 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
bodied and gregarious, and most Bomerous in the wingless forms.
The eyes are usually quite large and of a dark color, and the antennad
of many species long and thread-like ; the beak is two-jointed, and in
some cases as long or longer than the body ; legs, in the leaf-feeding
species, rather long and slender, but in the root-feeding and gall-inhab-
iting forms short and stout; wings thin and transparent, with dark
veins on the anterior margin. Kear the tip of the abdomen, on the
back, many species have a pair of little tubes through which exudes a
sweet fluid, sometimes in such quantities as to thickly besprinkle the
plants infested. This is then termed ^' honey dew," although the genu-
ine "honey dew" is an excretion from the leaves of certain plants
during dry, hot weather. Ants, as is well known, are extremely fond
of ^^aphis nectar," and induce the insects to yield it in large quantities
by caressing them with their antennae, for which reason they are called
the "ants' cows." Other species of aphides excret>e from a part or the
whole of the surface of the body a whitish powder or " bloom," or
numerous filaments of fine, cottony matter, in which they become com-
pletely enveloped. The reproductive processes of aphides are very
complicated and remarkable, and have been the subject of much care-
ful study and experiment. Our knowledge in regard to them may be
briefly summarized as follows : At certain seasons of the year — usually
late in summer or early autumn — individuals of both sexes are pro-
duced, and the females lay eggs,. which in some species hatch immedi-
ately, in others remain dormant over winter. The sexed aphides were
formerly supposed to be the winged form, but later discovery shows
that there is not necessarily any connection between the possession of
wings and of true sexual organs, the wings being simply an adaptation
for migration from one locality or plant to another. The form hatching
from the egg is denominated the "stem mother," and in the course of a
few days begins a peculiar process of reproduction, called partheno-
genesis or agamio reproduction, bringing forth her young alive and in
very rapid succession. This process has been likened to the multipli-
cation of certain kinds of plants by slipping and budding. The off-
spring of the "stem mother " begin, in their turn, to produce vivipa-
rously in the course of a few days, and in this way the multiplication of
individuals proceeds at a most extraordinary rate. Fortunately for the
safety of vegetation, plant lice have a variety of natural enemies. They
may also be destroyed by alkaline applications, tobacco smoke or in-
fusion, or kerosene emulsions. Poisons such as Paris green or London
purple do not have much effect upon them, as they do not eat leaves,
but puncture them and extract the sap from beneath the cuticle.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOaY. 109
f
I
Among the excessively injurions species of Aphides may be men-
tioned the Grape Phylloxera fP. vastatHx, Plan.) which has caused such
wholesale destruction of the vineyards in France and other European
countries, and prevents the cultivation of many choice varieties of grapes
in this country. This species occurs in two forms, one inhabiting
warty galls on the foliage, but the most destructive form occurring on
the roots, which it causes to decay. This species and its allies do not
produce the young alive, but always by means of eggs. Another root-
louse, belonging in another family, is the Woolly louse of the apple
(Schizoneura lanigera, Hausm.) This also sometimes appears above
ground on the trunk of the tree, and is one of the species that clothes
itself in a cottony or woolly excretion.
The Hop Aphis fPhorodon humultj often occasions great loss in
hop-yards, and Dr. Riley has made the interesting discovery that in
autumn the winged migrant form resorts to plum trees and there pro-
duces the sexed individuals whose eggs hibernate on the plum, on the
leaves of which the first spring generations feed, becoming winged
early in summer and again returning to the hop-yards. The largest
species are found on the hickory and sycamore trees. These belong
to the genus LachnuSj and when thickly congregated on the trunks
and branches are a most repulsive sight. Some species, especially
those of the genus Pemphigus, cause very singular galls on trees of the
poplar and willow family. As nearly all aphids are more or less injuri-
ous, it is out of the question to attempt here to give a list, even of
those that are serious pests.
In the family CocoiDiDiE are grouped the Scale-insects or Bark-
lice, the Mealy-bugs and a few similar forms, which rival the members
of the preceding family in rapidity of increase, in injurious effect upon
the plants attacked and in the difficulty with which they are eradicated
or even kept in check. In these insects only the males undergo trans-
formation, protected by a small larval scale. They acquire wings, two
in number, very transparent and with only one or two veins. The
antennsB are long, and, under the microscope, are seen to be many-
jointed and hairy or plumy. The mouth parts are undeveloped, and in
their place we find a second pair of eyes. The females never acquire
wings, and most of the species become fixed in one spot very shortly
after hatching, the long but extremely fine beak penetrating to the sap-
wood of the tree or shrub infested and slowly imbibing the sap required
to perfect the growth and development of the insect. Immediately
upon becoming fixed the surface of the body exudes a waxy substance
that very soon forms, together with the motled skins, a complete shell
or scale over the body. After being visited by the winged male, the
110 OUTLINBS OF BNTOHOLOGY.
eggs begin to form and soon fiU the body of the mother inaect. Upon
hatching, the very minute lice creep from under the scale and disperse
with great activity all over the tree or branch, from whence some are
carried by birds and insects, or are wafted by the wind to other trees,
and in this way they are disseminated from one orchard or vineyard
or grove to another. Besides the waxy scale, some species excrete a
great quantity of white, cottony matter, as a protection to the eggs.
This substance is arranged in various forms characteristic of the spe-
cies.
Among the coccids that form simple scales is the widely-distributed
Oyster- shell Bark-louse of the apple CMytilaspis pamonum, Bonche.)
This species covers the branches and trunks of trees with its pale
brown, somewhat oyster-shaped scales, beneath which are the females,
each with its almost invisible beak penetrating to the growing wood
and extracting sap in such quantities as to retard the growth of the
tree, and reduce the quantity and impair the quality of the fruit.
The youDg are hatched late in spring, and are active for a few days
only. Alkaline washes or kerosene emulsion applied at this time are
most effectual in preventing their increase* They have a few natural
enemies in the shape of Ooccinelid beetles. Lace- wing fly larvae and one
or two minute parasitic flies. Two similar scales of other species are
found in the South on orange trees. Several species of white scales
(Chionnspis) are also found on apple, pear, pine and willow. A smaller,
white, scurfy scale flHaspisJ is sometimes very abundant on the stems
of roses, blackberries and raspberries. The scale insects most trouble-
some in green-houses and on house-plants, and occurring also on the
orange, belong to the genus Aspidiotus. Among the scale insects that
produce cottony masses is Pulvinaria innumerabalis (Bath.), which ap-
pears in great numbers on grape vines, and especially on maple and
elm trees, covering the bark with its masses of flocculent matter and
honey-dew like excretions, greatly disfiguring and injuring vines and
trees. The orange tree is especially subject to the attacks of scale
insects; and one of these, the Fluted scale flcerya pureha6iJ,BeTio\i&\j
threatened the existence of the groves of California, until Br. Riley
happily discovered its chief natural enemy in Australia, from which
country the scale had been introduced, and secured the importation of
the useful Lady-bird beetle, which in about two years has almost exter-
minated the particular species of pest on which it naturally preys.
The Mealy bugs (Daetylopius) — especially troublesome on house-
plants and in green-houses — while agreeing with the scale insects in
many particulars, do not secrete scales and the females do not become
fixed in one place. The bodies are covered with a white powdery
OUTWNBS OF BNTOMOLOGT. Ill
matter, with short fllsments around the anterior end and aides and sev-
eral lon^ ones at the tail. One of the CoccidiB (CoccKa cacti) is the
insect bo well known as "cochineal," which, nntil the invention of the
aniline dyes, was the source of the beantifnl red and crimson colors so
much need in the mannfaotare of textile fabrics.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Order hemipteea. Sub-Order Paeasitica.
HUMAN AITD CATTLE FABASITE3.
'■ Bgg ! /- mrface of egg, Hll greatly lUBgniflad.
In this Snb-order we find the most repulsive and annoying of all
insects — the true parasites of mammals, not excepting man. The gen-
eral stractnral characters are depicted with great exactness in the
illustration, Fig. 44.
The true lice are all very small insects, which never acquire wings.
They remain close to the skin and snck the blood of tbe animals in-
fested, causing great discomfort and irritation by their presence and
their inunmetable punctures. They are the result of neglect and squalor,
and on cattle and horses indicate a very unthrifty physical condition.
The proboscis is merely a fleshy prolongation of the front of the head,
at the end of which are a pair of extremely sharp lancets, which are
retracted within the head when not in use. At the base of these, as
shown at 6, in the figure, is a rosette of sharp, recurved hooks, which.
112 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
when the insect is feeding, are thrnst into the skin to support the
lancets. The eyes are simple and very small, and the antennae very
short and miuately bristly. The legs have thick, short, notched joints
and end in a strong carved claw, that when closed down, meets a little
tooth on the shank — a provision for clinging to and climbing hairs.
There are no transformations. The eggs are called ^^nits," and are
firmly glaed at one end to the hairs.
Three species attack man under certain external conditions of pov-
erty and UQcleanliness, namely: The Head-louse {Pediculus capitis),
which is confined to the hair and skin of the head, and is most frequently
found on neglected children; the Body-louse (Pedicultis vestmeutajj
which hides in the seams and folds of the clothing, and draws the blood
from any part of the body ; and the Crab-louse {PtMrius pubis), which
attacks the arm pits and pubic region. These pests commonly aggra>
vate the miseries of military prisons and camps and other situations
where human beings are congregated without provision for cleanliness
and lack nourishing food. Mercurial ointment is the best remedy, with
entire change of clothing, where possible.
The true lice that are sometimes found on thin and neglected
horses, cattle, swine and other animals, differ very slightly from those
found on man. They are placed in the genus Hematopinus. Strong
infusions of tobacco or of larkspur seeds are among the remedial
washes, also an ointment of kerosene and lard, thoroughly mixed ; but
the experiments of Prof. 0. P* Gillette, of Colorado, have demonstrated
the superiority of that valuable insecticide, the ordinary kerosene emul-
sion, over every other preparation, in ridding animals of these pests.
Dr. Riley, whose invention it was, says of it : "It has long since be-
come recognized as an insecticide of unrivaled merit, against most of
the insect enemies of plants, and also in the case of animals, as a means
against the BuflFalo-gnat, Horsefly, etc. ♦ ♦ ♦ The only precaution
necessary with this substance is to see that the emulsion is properly
made, and that in winter time the animal be protected from severe
cold."
There are certain other kinds of lice occasionally found on cattle,
belonging to the same group with chicken-lice, bird-lice and so forth,
which, although they bear considerable resemblance to the true lice,
are structurally very different and form a low sub-order of the Keu-
V roptera. The remedies for these are the same as for the more common
species.
ODTLINBS OP BNXOMOLOar.
OHAPTEU XXVIII.
Order VI. OKTHOPTERA.
Old World mgntOTj Locust (Pachi/lylf ttigralBrtiu.)
lu tbis Order of so-called atraight-tcinged insects we find many
nnnsnally interesting species. Oeologically and historically tbey are
the oldest of insects. In the stratided rocks their remains are foattd
among the very earliest forms of animal life ; while the "locusts," so
freqaentl; mentioned in the Old Testament, and in equally ancient sec-
ular history, as suddenly swooping down apon a country and "devonr-
ing eTery green thing," are among the typical representatives. Except-
ing the Cicadas, described in a preceding chapter, we find among the
Orthoptera the only insects provided with a special musical apparatus,
each species having its own pecaliar instrument and contributing its
characteristic notes, called etridulationa, to the insect concerts that
enliven the snmmer days and nights. Many of the most singular imi-
tative forms that occur in nature are also found here in the " walking
sticks " and " walking leaves " that compose one of the groups ; and
by ntany other peculiarities of strnettire and habit the Orthoptera chal-
lenge attention from the student of pure science, the lover of nature,
and the economist.
The straight-winged insects are nearly all of a size to be examined
withoat the aid of a microscope, and some forms have been considered
superior to all others as subjects for dissection in the study of internal
as well as external structure. While they exhibit much variation in
form, all the more conspicuous species agree in the vertical position of
the head, the biting mouth, the large pro-thorax, and the parchment like
wing-covers — when these organs are present.
The head is usually large, and though somewhat sunken under the
pro-thorax in many species, is freely movable on the flexible neck. The
eyes are round or oblong, and prominent in most species. The antennae
114 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
are either short, stent and few-jointed, or very long and slender with
an indefinite number of indistinct joints.
In these insects we find the mouth parts particularly well devel-
oped, and adapted for biting and masticating solid food. The mandi-
bles are short, but broad and strong, with a toothed cutting edge ; the
maxillsB are adapted to the of&ce of holding the food in place, in which
the two pairs of mouth-feelers (palpi) assist; the lower lip (labium)
forms the floor to the mouth, and the unusually long and broad labrum
closes over the other mouth parts like a true lip, when the insect is not
feeding. The pro-thorax only appears on the upper side of the body,
and in a great majority of the species it is more or less saddle-shaped,
often with a longitudinal ridge on top. There is much variation in the
length, thickness and character of the surface of the legs, which are
adapted for running, jumping, burrowing, grasping and other uses.
The wing-covers are composed of strong membrane more or less thick-
ened and opaque, in which the venation is peculiar to the species.
They usually over-lap at the bases or for their entire length, and either
lie fiat upon the back or are concave, and enclose the sides also like a
pod. The under wings are very broad, in many species composed of
transparent, but closely net- veined membrane. A few kinds display in
life various beautiful colors, which shortly disappear in cabinet speci-
mens. When not in use these wings are folded in fan-like plaits and
hidden under the upper pair. In the hind body we can count eight or
nine distinct segments, attached to the last of which are the variously
shaped claspers of the males, and the equally varied ovipositing organs
of the females. On the under side of this part of the body the protect-
ing crust seems thinner and more flexible than elsewhere, and expands
and contracts with the inhalation and exhalation of air.
The Orthoptera are very voracious in all stages of their develop-
ment, and whUe the majority feed on growing vegetation, others are
predaceous, and a considerable number are serious household pests,
on account of their preference for the contents of pantries and the
offal of kitchens.
The transformations are incomplete, and the young differ from the
mature insects even less than young bugs differ from those that have
acquired the perfect form.
There is considerable confusion in the terms applied to some of
the groups in this Order. Thus the true locusts are very generally
called "grasshoppers,'^ while the term "locusf is in this country ap-
plied to the Periodical Cicada. Again, all the more conspicuous forms
included by entomologists among " grasshoppers " are not found on
grass at all, but inhabit the tops of the tallest trees. Kor does this
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 115
inapt nomenclature occur only in popular language, for we find the
LocuSTiDJB include only the green grasshoppers and other solitary
species, while the genuine, often gregarious, and infinitely more destruc-
tive locusts are placed in the Family Acbidid^.
All the more important American species of Obthopteba are
found in six Families, namely : Crickets (Gbyllidje) ; Green Grass-
hoppers and Katydids (LoousTiDiE) ; True Locusts (Aobidid^) ; Walk-
ing sticks or Specters (Phasmidje) ; Soothsayers, Devil's horses (Man-
TiD^) and Cockroaches (Blattidjb). The first three Families form a
section of the Order distinguished from their mpde of progression as
the Jumpers (Saltatobia) ; the fourth Family includes the Walkers
(Ambulatobia) ; the fifth the Graspers (Raptatobia) ; the sixth the
Eunners (Cubsobia).
CHAPTER XXIX.
Order, ORTHOPTERA. Section, Saltatobia.
OBICKETS, GBASSHOPPBBS, KATYDIDS, AND LOCUSTS.
The jumping Orthoptera include all the musical and nearly all the
injurious species, namely, the Crickets, Green Grasshoppers and Lo-
custs. The Crickets (GBTLLiD-as) are easily separated into three groups,
Mole crickets, House and Field crickets and Tree crickets, each con-
taining comparatively few species. They all agree in having somewhat
cyljndricalfbodies, either short and stout or slender and elongate, and
always terminate in more or less conspicuous stylets or a long, exserted
ovipositor. The head is large, roundish, or obtusely triangular ; eyes
hemispherical, widely separated ; antennse long, slender and tapering ;
upper lip nearly circular, and the palpi, of which both pairs are well
developed, are somewhat club-shaped. The pro-thorax is broad and of
a firm, horny or shelly texture. The wings and wing covers, except in
the Tree crickets, cover only one-half or two-thirds of the abdomen.
The wing covers are of thick, leathery or mica-like membrane, with a
peculiar ridged venation, by means of which their calls and chirps are
produced. The legs vary in the development of certain parts to cor-
respond with the habits of the species, but the hinder pair always have
large thighs and more or less spiny shanks.
The Mole crickets do not jump, but are peculiar for their burrow-
ing habits, and seldom emerge from their subterranean abodes until
after nigbtfall. They are large, stout insects, of dull brown colors, and
116 OUTLINES OF KNTOMOLOGY.
have the surface thickly clothed with a soft pubescence — ^in this, as in
many other particalars, imitating the genuine mole. In the fore legs
all the joints are flattened and broadened, the tibise spreading out like
the palm of the hand, and having on the lower edge four long, homy,
finger-like processes, so that they are almost exact miniatures of the
shovel-like fore feet of the animal from which they are named. These
insects are usually found in damp soils, where their horizontal gallerieB
are betrayed by the little ridges which appear on the surface of the
ground. They feed upon roots and under-ground stems of plants, va-
rying their diet by devouring any burrowing larv» or exposed pupae
with which they come in contact in their tunneling operations. The
most common l^orthern species is Oryllotalpa boreales^ Barm, while in
the Southern States O. longipennis is more frequently met with.
The House and Field crickets live in chimneys, stone walls and
similar situation^, or in holes in the ground. Modern methods in build-
ing have banished the ^^ cricket on the hearth," whose cheerful chirp
formerly blended with the cosy " song " of the tea-kettle, inspiring in
poets and novelists some of their most beautiful thoughts on the com-
forts of home.
The House Cricket (Orylliis domesticusj is of a brown or grayish
color, and is an immigrant from Europe and the far East. It is quite
abundant in our eastern cities, but is not yet very generally dissemi-
nated over the country. The larger Field Orickets are black with
brown wings, and the males of some species survive the winter and
may be heard chirping during warm evenings early in the spring. They
all belong in the same genus with the Mole and House Crickets, and
show much variation in coloring and in the development ot the wings.
The eggs are deposited in masses of two or three hundred, but are not
enclosed in a sac as are those of the Mole Cricket. The young hatch
about midsummer and disperse in all directions, feeding on all varieties
of vegetation, often proving quite injurious. The species of l^emobius
appear later in the summer, are of a dull, pale brown color, sometimes
obscurely striped, and in one or two species the wings are wanting, and
the shelly elytra (wing covers) somewhat loosely enclose the body. The
Tree Crickets are of more slender and delicate form, with broader and
more glassy wing covers and long slender legs and antennae. The
males of CEcanthus niveus Har. and (E. latipennia Biley are white or
greenish white, the wing covers transparent, flat, and when closed, com-
pletely over-lapping arid crossed by W-shaped ridges. When stridulat-
ing, these wings are elevated almost at right angles to the body and
the surfaces rubbed together with a motion too swift to be followed by
the eye, producing a metallic " whirr " that is incredibly loud and pierc-
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 117
lug in comparison with the size and delicate texture of the insect.
The females are quite different in appearance, being slender and almost
cylindrical, with the wing covers curving down at the sides so as to
partly enclose the body. The ovipositor is slender but very strong and
homy, nearly as long as the abdomen, and terminates in a blunt tip
beset with minute points. With this instrument the female of (E, niveus
pierces the young canes of grape or of raspberry, depositing in a row
a considerable number of eggs. (E. latipennis forces hers into the pith
of stems or into bark through a series of pinhole-like punctures
from one-half an inch to one inch apart. The punctured twigs are
invariably killed, and the insects occasionally do considerable damage ;
but as these crickets feed almost entirely upon aphides and other mi-
nute pests, they make ample compensation for all the injury that they
do, and may be accounted beneficial rather than injurious.
The most sBSthetically interesting insects among the LocuHidcB are
the " Katydids." The peculiar, interrupted stridulations of these little
tree-top musicians have inspired many a poetic gem and dainty bit of
imaginative prose. "Sot are they merely favorites with the poets, who,
for the most part, know them only by their notes ; but the naturalist,
who keeps them as pets, finds in their habits and histories most instruct-
ive and suggestive revelations of insect life. They are mostly of large
size, and of a bright green color, in this assimilating closely to the foli-
age amid which they dwell. The large, free head is curiously like that
of a horse ; the eyes are round and bright, and of a yellowish-brown
color ; the antennsB are very long, slender and tapering ; the various
mouth parts are easily distinguished without the aid of a lens, and the
processes of cutting and mastication may be closely observed, as the
insects will often sit upon one's finger and nibble a leaf or bit of fruit
in fearless enjoyment. The upper side of the pro-thorax is covered by
a wide collar, which projects slightly over the head in front, and, pos-
teriorly, overlaps the bases of the wings. In repose the wings meet on
the back in an acute angle, and are more or less convex at the sides, to
enclose the body. At the base they over-lap in a wide, flat triangle, th«
upper surface of one and the under surface of the other being pecu-
liarly ridged and roughened to form the " taborets," which grate together
as the insect raises and lowers its wings. These wing-covers display a
venation imitative of that of leaves. The under wings are broad, com-
posed of very delicate, finely-netted membrane, with green tips where
they project slightly beyond the upper pair. The legs are slender, with
the tibiae slightly spiny and the tarsi ending in long, sharp claws. The
hind legs are very nearly twice the length of the others. At the base
of the tibisB of the fore legs are peculiar oval cavities covered with
118 OUTLIRBS OP ENTOMOLOGT,
transparent membrane, which are supposed to be the seat of the sense
of hearing. The bodies of the males terminate in conspicuoas stylets
or claspers, while those of the females bear a large sickle-shaped or
sword-like ovipositor, composed of two thin blades, by means of which
the eggs are inserted into bark or leaves, or are laid in over-lapping
rows on thin stems or on the edges of leaves.
The trae Katydid (Oyrtophyllu% conoavusj is the most robast-looking
species, the wing- covers being oblong and very convex on the sides,
almost meeting below as well as on the back. The taborets consist of
mica-like plates, with very strong, peculiarly curving ridges. The
Angular-winged Katydid (Mierocentrum retinervis) has longer, narrower
and less convex wings. The taborets are opaque, and the sounds pro-
duced resemble a metallic clicking sound, which has not been reduced
by any imaginative listener to syllables. The Narrow- winged E^atydid
CPhaneroptera curvicaudaj is a smaller, duller-green species, irith a less
noticeable note. It must be remembered that the males are the musi-
cians of the family, although the females are capable of emitting a £aint
response by a sudden upward jerk of the wings.
Among the Grasshoppers are some long, slender, bright-^rreen
species which have the front of the head produced into a point. These
are called the Gone-heads. Xiphidium ensifer is the largest species.
The males produce the most deafening, continuous *' whirr" of any of
the tribe. The females have a long, straight, sword-shaped ovipositor,
and in both sexes the wings are nearly twice the length of the body.
The smaller and very graceful Orchilimums^ which enliven the autumn
days with their soft purring notes, belong also in this group.
The true Locusts (Acbidid^) are the species which live on grass,
grains and other low-growing vegetation, and are in this country very
generally called ^^ grasshoppers." In this group belong not only the
various dull-green and brown species that are so numerous every year
in fields and pastures, and which in dry seasons become very injurious,
but certain migratory species, which, having exhausted the food supply
of the regions to which they are indigenous, by a common impulse rise
into the air in clouds and sweep like a besom of destruction over the
country. They fly by day and descend at night to feed, often traversing
thousands of miles before reaching their limit. These are the only
insects which have been used to any great extent as food, and this
mainly in trans- Atlantic countries, where the famishing inhabitants of
the desolated regions were forced to feed upon them or perish. The
Bocky Mountain Locust (Oaloptenus spretus, Thom.) is tbe most im-
portant American species of migratory locust ; but one or two Eastern
species manifest a like tendency, and during some years prove very
destructive over limited areas.
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 119
The Locusts are robust insects, stouter iu body and legs than the
Grasshopper and Katydids, and are well protected by a firm leathery
integument. The head is even larger in proportion to the body than in
the preceding family. It is set vertically, in some species receding
toward the mouth. The eyes are large and broadly elliptical in form ;
antennae short and rather thick ; the face is marked in many species by
three distinct ridges ; upper lip broad, with the lower edge somewhat
hollowed out just above the jaws. The saddle-like collar over the
back of the pro-thorax, or pro-notum, is marked by transverse in-
dented lines, and rounds out over the insertion of the wings. Many
locusts have on the pro-sternum, just under the chin, a cone-like pro-
jection sparsely covered with short spines or prickles. The wing
covers are of stout, closely netted membrane, with a projecting ridge
or heavy vein near the middle on the outside, or a series of prominent
veins«on the under side. They are of a narrowly oblong form and
slightly overlap in a straight line on the back. The broad under wings
are so folded as to be entirely covered by them. The legs are
all stout, but the hinder pair, always much thicker, and gener*
ally much longer also, than the others, provide the leaping power
which . is so wonderful in these insects. The outer margins of
the tibisB are beset with a varying number of pairs of spines,
and just at the base of the three-jointed tarsi are two pairs of
jointed spurs. At the base of the abdomen on each side is an
oval orifice covered with thin membrane, like those on the fore legs
of the Katydids, and, like them, termed the ears or aural sacs.
In the abdomen of the males nine segments can be perceived from the
under side. The anal appendages are a pair of side claspers and an
upward curving ventral plate. In the abdomen of the female but
eight segments can be distinguinhed, and the tip has four horny,
, pointed blades, which can be brought' together in a poin^ to penetrate
the soil, and afterward spread out to pry the earth apart and prepare
a cavity for the reception of the eggs, which are extruded in a compact
mass, inclosed in a sort of glutinous pod or case.
The stridulations of Locusts are effected in two ways by differing
species. Most of the larger species "fiddle," by rubbing the ridged
inner surface of the hind thighs over the prominent mid-vein of the out-
side of the wing covers. Prof. Comstock, quoting Mr. Scudder, who
has made most exact and interesting studies of the so-called musical
insects, says : " When about to stridulate they place themselves in a
horizontal position, with the head a little elevated ; then they raise both
hind legs at once, and grating the femora against the outer surface of
the tegmina, produce notes which in the different species vary in rapid*
120 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
ity, nnmber and duration." Another method of ^' fiddling." character-
istic of other species takes place during flight, when the under surface
of the upper wings is grated back and forth over the front edge of the
under wings.
These insects are probably all single-brooded, the young hatching
in the spring from the eggs laid the previous summer and autumn. The
very young locusts have much larger heads in proportion to their bodies
than the more mature forms. There are five molts before the insect
arrives at its perfect form. At the third molt the embryo wings begin
to appear. These are in a reversed position with the under wings on
top. By this peculiarity pupsB can always be distinguished from the
few species of locusts that never acquire wings, but h^ve these organs
represented merely by short pads on each side of the abdomen. Ex-
amples of these wingless species are found in the Lubber Grasshop-
pers of the South and West, which are large, dark, clumsy species,
incapable of flight or stridulation.
Our largest and handsomest species is the American Locust (Acri-
dium americanumj, which is often more than two inches in length, with
a golden brown stripe down the back and beautifully mottled wings ;
the hind shanks are bright red, beset with spines, which are ivory-white
tipped with black. There are red markings also on the head, thorax
and edges of the wings, and the fore and middle legs are also a paler
shade of the same color. The most common and generally distributed
species is the Bed-legged Locust fOaloptenua femur-rubrum DeG.). This
is scarcely more than one-third the size of the flrst-named species, is of
a pale, greenish-brown with dull-red hind legs. It often multiplies to
such an extent as to do great injury to growing grain.
The Bocky Mountain Locust, or Western Migratory Locust fOalop-
tentis 8pretu%^ Thomas), is only to be distinguished from the fiamiliar red-
legged species by the greater length of its wing-covers and wings.,
Concerning the destructiveness of this species at irregular periods in
the States and territories west of the Mississippi river. Dr. Biley, who
has devoted much time and labor to the study of this insect, and to
devising methods for keeping it in check, writes : ^^ It was so very
destructive in the Northwestern States and Territories from 1873 to
1877 that it may truly be said to have been one of the chief causes of
the business crises which characterized that period. So wide-spread and
disastrous were the results of its work that Congress provided for a com-
mission to investigate it. * * * No one who has not witnessed the
ravaging power of locusts can fully conceive of or appreciate it. The
organization and habit of the typical locust admirably fit it for raven-
ous work. Muscular, gregarious, with powerful jaws, and ample diges-
OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOaY. 121
live and reproductive eystems ; strong of wing and assisted in flight by
numerons bnoyant air sacs — all these traits conspire to make it the ter*
rible engine of destruction which history shows it to have been. In-
significant individually, but mighty collectively, locusts fall upon a
country like a plague or blight.'^
The winged locusts do not generally appear in swarms until late in
summer, when, after devouring all sorts of vegetation, the females fill
the ground with their eggs and then die.
The young locusts, which hatch in the spring, are at hand to take
the next crop, and unless vigorous and combined effort is made to sub-
due them, by repeated plowings, they take all the early vegetation of
the second year. Those that survive to attain their wings return in
small swarms to their native breeding places.
The species of CSdipoda often have the hind wings brightly colored
and prettily banded or bordered. The small species, ^termed Grouse
Locusts, genus Tettix^ are characterized by the prolongation of the col-
lar backward so as to almost entirely cover the top of the abdomen and
taking the place of the upper wings, which, being useless, are reduced
to very small pads. In these insects the hind legs, though not long,
are very stout. They are of dull black or dark colors, and are usually
found along water-courses or in other damp places, ^one of the
species are especially injurious.
CHAPTER XXX.
Order orthoptkra. Sections Ambulatobia, Raptoria,
and GuRSORiA.
WALKING STICKS, MANTES AND COCKROACHES.
The " Walking sticks," '* Walking leaves," and so forth^ included in
the family Phasmidje:, are mainly tropical species, exhibiting in their
forms the most exact and remarkable resemblances to twigs and leaves
that have been observed in nature. These imitations of inanimate ob-
jects are the sole reliance of these insects for safety, as they have no
means of defense agianst their enemies, and their movements are too
sluggish to permit them to escape. The Walking sticks, of which a
few species occur in the United States, are long, slender and cylindri-
cal in form, with long legs, the middle pair having the thighs somewhat
thickened. When at rest the front legs are pressed close together and
122 OUTLINES OP BNTOMOLOGY.
stuck straight out ia front of the head, with the long thread-like anten-
nae between them, and when in this position the eye may rest for some
time upon them without recognizing their difference from the twigs and
leaf-stalks by which they are surrounded. They also have a chameleon-
like power of changing their colors to assimilate with those of the
plant or tree which they inhabit. They never acquire even the rudi-
ments of wings, and the principal difference between the sexes is that
the females are somewhat larger and stouter than the males. Th&
former lay their eggs in the autumn, dropping them carelessly to the
ground. They are about the size, shape and color of spinach seed, and
remain unhatched until late the following spring, or for two years. The
young, which are about one-fourth of an inch long when hatched, ar&
precise miniatures of the mature insects, except that they are more
uniformly green in color. They feed at first on grass and other low-
growing vegetation, but soon ascend the nearest trees, in which they
find a home adapted to all their needs. Diapheromera femorata is the
only common northern species. This is, when full grown, from three
to four inches long, exclusive of the front legs, with a diameter varying^
from one-eighth to one-fifth inch. It seldom appears in any locality in
sufficient numbers to be accounted injurious, but there are exceptions,
to this rule, as, for example, in certain parts of the middle Atlantic
states, where during one or two seasons some years ago it almost de*
foliated the forest trees.
The second section — Graspers (RAPTdBiA) — contains the family
Mantid^. The singular forms and attitudes of these insects have sug-
gested for them various expressive popular names, such as '^ Devil's
riding-horses,'' "Rear-horses," "Intelligence bugs," " Sooth-say ers,"
"Praying nuns" and the like. The English names "Camel-cricket" or
"Praying mantis" are more appropriate, and worthy of general adoption.
These insects have always been the objects of superstitious regard, not
only by the ignorant and uncivilized natives of tropical regions, where
their species are most numerous, but even by cultured, but too imagi-
native Europeans. It was formerly believed that they could foretell
good and evil fortunes, and that the person on whom one alighted was
especially favored of the gods, and they still receive divine honors
from many savage tribes. They have indeed a wickedly- wise and weird
look, to which their rapacious and cruel habits fully correspond. They
are among the fiercest of cannibals, greedily devouring all kinds of soft-
bodied insects, which they seize and hold between their spiny front legs
until slowly masticated. They do not hesitate to attack each other,
and when two chance to meet a battle is the almost invariable result*
The females are stronger and more savage than the males, and after
OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOaY. 123
pairing the former generally dines npon her partner. These insects
:are of large size — tw^o inches or more in length. The head is triangular,
free, very wide at the top, with large, round, singularly expressive eyes ;
antennae thread-like and not very long; mouth at the apex of the in-
verted triangle; jaws strong, though small. The thoracic joints are
cylindrical and elongated, and move freely upon each other ; the fore
^^gs (graspers) are not used for walking, but are folded and held up in
a position suggesting the attitude of prayer, though it is really one of
menace. The hind body is oval or oblong, somewhat flattened, and in
the male completely covered by the folded ample wings, and the over-
lapping wing covers. The female has much shorter wings and wing
covers, and is incapable of flight. The sexes differ also in color, the
male being dull-brown while the female is usually some shade of green.
This description applies to the only species commonly met with in the
United States below the thirty-ninth parallel, namely, Phasmomentis
earoUna. The eggs are laid in a compact oblong mass, which closely
resembles a fossil called a ''trilobite." It is attached by its flat surface
to fence-posts, the wood of trellises and the stems of shrubbery. These
egg masses should never be destroyed, as the Mantes are very useful
in clearing gardens and vineyards of plant-feeding pests.
The section Otjrsoeia, family Blatid^, is represented by the
disgusting and omnivorous household pests, the Cockroaches. These
insects have no attractions of form or color, and have a disagreeable
odor which they communicate to the closets and rooms infested, while
their swift motions and the deftness with which they disappear into
almost invisible cracks and crevices is most exasperating to their pur-
suer. There is nothing to be said in their iavor, except that they prey
upon the bed-bug, an instance in which the ''cure is as bad as the dis-
ease." They have received various common names, such as "black
beetles" and "croton bugs," but are quite generally recognized as
** roaches " or " cockroaches." They are all nocturnal in their habits
and very partial to warmth and moisture, which accounts for their
abundance about kitchen sinks and in the holds and pantries of ships,
steamboats and similar situations. They are of very flat, oblong form,
with the head horizontal and almost concealed by the projecting margin
of the collar. The antennse are long and slender; the legs spiny and
nearly equally developed ; the wing-covers are usually present, but some-
times short, and the under wings often entirely wanting. The females
lay all their eggs in one mass, enclosed in a bean-shaped sack, which is
often carried about for some time before being dropped. Dr. Eiley has
observed that the females of some species remain with and protect
their young. The latter are at first pure white, and at every molt the
124 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
insects revert more or less to this color, thoagh soon becoming of the
shade of brown which characterizes them.
Oar native species seldom give ns much annoyance. The males
occasionally fly into lighted rooms at night, bat the females are asaally
found around rotten stamps and under bark of dead trees. The Light
brown cockroach fPlatamodes Peim$ylvanieaJ is the largest species. It
measures about an inch in length, has very delicate wings, and is of a
light brown color. A smaller species of a very dark brown or black
color, but with lighter margins, is also quite common. This is Ectohiafia-
vodneta. The most destructive and annoying cockroaches are found
among the introduced species. These are especially, the large, very
dark brown or black Oriental cockroach fPeriplancta oriewtalis, linn.), a
species which is supposed to be native in eastern Asia, but which now
occars in all parts of the civilized world. It is about one inch long and
one-third of an inch wide, very flat, so that it is able to creep into the
smallest crack. The wing covers in the male extend over little more than
one-half of the abdomen, and in the female are still more rudimentary
These insects are very long-lived, and it is said require several years
to complete their transformations. The smaller, German cockroach,
also called the '^ Groton bug" fUotobia germanicaj^ has become very
troublesome in the eastern cities, and from its fondness for wheat bread
and dough, is the especial pest of bakeries and bread boxes. This
species has folly developed wings, and is of a light brown color, with
two dark stripes on the pro-thorax.
The free use of pyrethrum powder will preserve cloth-bound books
and similar property from the attacks of these insects, and if used
freely in kitchens and other places which they frequent, wUl render
them helpless, so that they may be easily swept up and^burned. Pow-
dered borax mixed with sugar will also kill them.
OUTLIMBa OF BKTOMOLOQT.
CHAPTER XXXI.
Order VII. nburoptera.
DrBSOU-fly (P(att«iit (ri-manitataj .
The insects here considered ander the old Order NBUBOPTEKi.
are DOW separated into from two to five minor Orders, aecording to the
importADce attached by authors to the peculiar development of certain
organs, and, more especially, with regard to the different methods of
tranaformation which obtain among them. As very few of these insects
are of economic importance, however, and as all the more conspionoas
forms agree in general wing structure, and in the possession of biting
mouth parts (except in one group, where these organs are entirely un-
developed), it will be more convenient to discuss them as members of a
single primary gronp.
In these insects the body wall is soft and flexible, and there is bnt
little consolidation of segments in any part. The bead is nsnally rather
large and free; antennae always filiform or bristle-like, but sometimes
very short ; eyes, except in a few of the lowliest forms, conspicuous,
and in many species occupying the entire sides of the head; month
parts, especially the enter jaws and lips, peculiarly large and strong;
thoracic joints mote equally developed than iu most species of preced-
ing orders. The two pairs of wings are composed of delicate, trans-
parent membrane, closely netted with fine veins, with strong supporting
ribs on the anterior margin; legs, as a rule, rather small and weak;
abdomen slender, oblong or lanceolate, iu some cases terminated by a
pair of carved forceps or two or three long, bristle-like tails.
In a portion of these insects the metamorphosis is complete, the
pupal stage of life being one of quiescence and rest; while in the
remainder of the Xeuroptera the papse are active and voracious and
126 OUTLINES OF BNTOMOLOGT.
molt a number of times, although they differ considerably in form from
the larvsB. Even the winged insects of a few species molt once or
twice, a habit that has no parallel in the life history of the more highly
organized forms. The great majority of the species are aquatic, and
feed upon insects and other small water animals. In their relation to
man they are, with the exception of a few small groups, either neutral
or beneficial. The aquatic species form a large part of the food of
fishes, and the few terrestrial species mostly prey on small pests of the
orchard and garden.
Following the idea of Prof. Oomstock. it will be convenient to
separate the l^erve- winged insects into two sections, Neuroptera,
proper, and Pseudoneuroptera. The insects included in
the first section undergo complete metamorphosis, and are therefore
ranked by many authors higher than Hemiptera or Orthoptera, although
their structural peculiarities would not place them in advance of the
latter. The principal families of l^europtera, proper, are the Oaddice
flies (Phryganidjb), Ant lions and Lace wings (Hemerobiad^) and
the Hellgrammite flies and others (Soialidje). In the Pseudoneu-
roptera are grouped a large number of more or less diverse families,
including some wingless and degraded parasitic forms. The most
interesting and conspicuous species are found in the families of the
Dragon-flies (Libellulid^), the May-flies (Ephemerid^), the Stone-
flies (Perltd^), and the White ants (Termitid^). Here also be-
long the little creatures often seen in old or long unopened books,
called book-lice (Psooid^), and the peculiar parasites referred to in a
previous chapter, the true Bird-lice (Malophagid^).
The Oaddice flies closely resemble moths in their general outline^
but the wings are of more delicate texture and rather sparsely covered
with hairs instead of scales. The antennas also are like those of moths,
being long and thread-like, but there is no coiled tongue, and the other
mouth parts are differently developed. The female flies lay their eggs
upon water plants, and the aquatic larvae attract much attention on
account of the sigular and ingenious little cases which they construct
for the protection of their soft bodies. These are made of silk, and to
the outside are attached small pebbles, coarse sand, or bits of sticks
or leaves, giving them very peculiar and often beautiful forms. Some
species make their cases entirely of silk, and of a very elongated cone
shape. The thoracic legs are long and strong, and when moving from
m
place to place, the case is dragged along over the hinder end of the
body, but when resting or molting the larva retires within it and closes
the opening by a little door or grating, which admits the water neces-
sary to respiration, but excludes enemies. These case-bearing larvae
may be found along the shores of lakes and in the beds of shallow
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 127
fitreams. They feed upon small water insects and vegetation. Prof.
Comstock describes a species that makes a very simple case under
stones in rapid streams, but excites much admiration by its ingenuity
in fishing, catching its prey by means of a seine-like web stretched be-
tween two stones.
The Ant-lions (genus Myrmeleovi) are very delicate and beautiful
flies, with slender bodies and oblong, lace-like wings, sometimes plain,
sometimes ornamented with black dots (see lower figure in plate).
They have a graceful flight, and are occasionally attracted into our
lamp lighted rooms at night. The larvae are ugly and ferocious look-
ing. The body is rough and broad-oval in shape, and the flattened
head is provided with a proportionately enormous pair of pincer-like
mandibles, adapted for seizing and holding its victims while they are
pierced and comminuted by the maxillae. These larvae dig funnel-
shaped or saucer-shaped pits in sandy soil, with a straight shaft in the
center in which they hide, supporting themselves with the tips of the
gaping jaws just above the edge, ready to close with lightning-like
rapidity on any unlucky ant or other insect that carelessly strays over
the edge of the pit-falls and slides into the trap at the bottom. If the
insect obtains its footing and attempts to crawl up the steep sides it
is brought down with showers of sand thrown upon it by the enraged
and disappointed ant-lion, and it is but very rarely that it escapes.
These larvae are called "doodle bugs" in some parts of the country,
and are most commonly found on the margins of streams and in shel-
tered ravines. [Fig. 48.]
The Lace-wing flies are another small
group of terrestrial Neuroptera. They
are pretty but fragile and ill-odored flies,
Lace- wing fly (Ckrysopa) and egga on _ _ , , .
stalks, after Riley. of a pale green or rosy hue, the wings re"
fleeting prismatic colors. The antennae are thread-like and nearly as
long as the body, and the round eyes gleam like jewels. The oval pale
green eggs are laid in clusters, each attached to the top of a slender
silken stalk. This is supposed to be a precautionary instinct of the
parent fly to preserve them from the rapacity of the larva that hatches
first. The larvae are called "Aphis-lions" from the small insects which
are their more especial prey. They are of depressed oval form with
pincer-like jaws and long, rather sprawling legs. They render valuable
aid to the farmer and horticulturist in clearing his trees and other
plants of plant lice, bark lice and similar small pests. When full grown
they enclose themselves in round white cocoonrs, which are closed on
top by a lid that is easily pushed up when the fly is ready to emerge.
B— 9
128 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY.
The Hellgrammite fly and the other, much smaller, species of the
family Soialid^ have carnivorous larvsB that live under stones in run-
ning water. The large fly above named fVorydalis comuttisj is the
only conspicuous member of the group. This is one of the largest, if
not the very largest, insect in the Order — the length being between
two and three inches, with a wing expanse of about five inches. It is
quite common in most sections of the United States. The body is
soft, with the pro-thoracic joint rather narrow, forming a sort of neck
to which the much broader and rather square head is closely joined.
The eyes are rather small and wide apart, and the stout, many-jointed
antennce taper to a point. In the female the jaws are broad, curved
and notched at the extremity, but in the male these are modified into
a pair of long, cylindrical tapering tusks, with which he can clasp the
neck of the female. The wings are quite broad, of rather thick mem-
brane, with a fine -net-work of veins, and stippled all over with whitish
dots. The general color of the insect is a dull, ash gray. The female
lays her eggs on sticks or leaves or stones that overhang the water,
protecting and surrounding them by a white substance that gives the
entire mass the appearance of a splash of whitewash. The larvsB, upon
hatching, drop into the water. They are formidable-looking creatures
when full grown. The head is broad and almost square, with strong
jaws and other mouth parts. The thoracic joints, of which the first
is longest, are quite elegantly sculptured. The feet terminate in a pair
of claws. The sides of the hind body are furnished on each joint
with spiny, oar-like processes and feathery tufts for gills, and there
are also spiracles through which air can be breathed. They are
fipom two to two and a half inches long by nearly one-half inch in
diameter. They are highly esteemed for bait by fishermen, by whom
they are termed ** crawlers," " dobson," etc. It is said that they are
nearly three years in completing their growth, and that the transfor-
mations are rapid and take place in cells under stones or drift-wood on
or near the banks of the stream.
The other insects of this group (genera ChauUodes and 8iali8j
bear a close general resemblance to Corydalis |in structure and habit,
but are very much smaller and do not attract much popular attention.
Among the Pseudoneubopteba the most conspicuous and
beautiful insects are the Dragon flies or Mosquito-hawks (Libellu-
LiDJS). These are also called " Darning needles," and have been made
objects of terror to children by the tradition that they ai^e constantly
watching for an opportunity to " sew up their ears," or do them some
other bodily harm. In other parts of the country they are termed
'^ Snake doctors," and are said to hover over the bodies of dead reptiles
OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY. 129
and ^^ bring them to life." The probable foundation for the latter
superstition is that they are in pursuit of the flies that have been at-
tracted by the odor of the carrion. It is needless to say that they are
absolutely incapable of injuring any human being, and never show
even the disposition to do so. Their motions are very graceful, and
their habits are in the highest degree interesting. They are most
numerous in the neighborhood of standing water, and dart back and
forth through the clouds of mosquites and small gnats, seizing and
devouring them in great numbers.
Their appearance is familiar to every one. The body is long and
slender, tapering backward, and often of brilliant metallic colors,
terminating in more or less conspicuous claspers or other appendages.
The sides of the head are nearly covered by the large eyes ; the anten-
n$e are very short and bristle-tipped; the jaws are small but strong, and
the parts corresponding to the lips of larger animals are both very
large and close completely over the other mouth parts.
The wings are long, narrow and stiff, the hinder pair a little larger
than the others. They are composed of transparent, closely-netted
membrane, in many species crossed by broad dark bands or ornamented
with spots and cloudings of crimson or orange. The legs are rather soft
and weak, and are useful chiefly as supports to the body when the insect
alights. The females drop their eggs in masses, embedded in a jelly-
like substance, into the water, or attach them to the submerged stems
of aquatic plants. The larvaB are carnivorous, and somewhat resemble
the perfect insect in form, but breathe through leaf-like gills q^t the
tip or along the sides of the body. In this age the labium (lower lip)
shows a still more remarkable form than in the mature insect; it is very
broad and hinged in the middle, and when the insect is at rest folds up
over the face like a mask. The anterior edge is tarnished with a pair
of sharp hooks, and the apparatus can be extended to a great length in
reaching after the prey, which is seized by the hooks and carried back
to the jaws for mastication. The pupae, when full grown, crawl up the
stems of water plants, to which they cling by their legs, while the fly
emerges through a slit on the back.
The May flies or Lake flies (Ephemera)^ of which there are many
species, often arise in clouds at night from the shores of lakes or
rivers, and in the morning the ground, especially around lamp-posts
and under lighted windows, will be covered with their dead bodies.
These insects are very soft-bodied and frail, and, in the perfect state,
live but a few hours— just long enough to pair and lay their eggs. The
head is small, the greater part of its surface being occupied by the
eyes; the antennad are very short and fine. The fore wings are broad
130 OUTLINES OP ENTOMOLOGY,
somewhat trian^lar in shape, while the hind wings are scarcely one-
fourth their size, and nearly circular. The legs are slender, the front
pair longer than the others. The abdomen tapers backward, and- ends>
in two or three bristle-like appendages that are twice or three times
the length of the body. The eggs are simply dropped into the water
in a mass. The young feed upon minute aquatic vegetation or prey
upon microscopic animals. Some species, whose habits have been
studied in aquaria, have been observed to molt more than twenty-
times, and to require from one to three years in which to complete
their growth. Among other anomalous characters found in these lar-
vae are a pair of large tracheal gills attached to the under side of the
head. Another singular phenomenon occurs in these insects — namely^
the molting of the perfect insect. The first winged form is called the
sub-imago. This rises into the air, but after a short flight settles upon
some object and rapidly sheds its skin, wings, legs, caudal bristles and
all, leaving behind it the fllmy integument of the sub-imago.
The Stone flies (Perlidce)^ so called because the young are com-
monly found under stones in running water, are much larger than the
May flit^s, and resemble, in general form and structure of the body
and wings, the Hellgrammite fly, although none of the species are so
large as the latter. The hind wings are also proportionately much
broader, and have few cross-veins. Some very minute species appear
very early in the spring, and are called Snow flies, being often coinci-
dent with late snows.
The Termites or white ants abound chiefly in tropical regions,
where they are excessively destructive and difficult to contend with.
A few species also occur in temperate climates, and one, Termes flavipes,
is found in all parts of the United States, and often does much damage
to the sills of buildings and wooden sidewalks, to fence posts and
similar property. In the Southern States it also occasionally attacks
the roots and trunks of orange trees, and the roots of Pampas grass.
It feeds, however, by preference upon dead wood, and works so in-
sidiously that its presence is not even suspected until the walls of a
building give way, or an article of furniture drops in pieces upon being
moved. Like the true ants, the Termites are social insects, and live in
exceedingly populous colonies. In the tropics many species are mound-
builders, erecting conical structures of earth or wood fiber, held in
place with cement, that are from eight to ten feet high. All the. more
northern species are more secluded in their habits, avoiding the light
and excavating chambers deep in the earth or in the centers of the
largest stumps. From these, under-ground passages and tunnels ex-
tend for hundreds of feet in every direction. They are all small insects
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY, 131
probably seldom exceeding one-half inch in length, even in the eqaa-
torial regions, while onr own species are only about one-fifth of an inch
long. In this matter of size, however, one individual in each colony is
an exception. This is the ^' queen " or fertile female, whose abdomen
becomes so enormously distended with eggs, that it is from two to six
or eight inches in length and of a proportionate thickness. The aver-
age size of the queen of Termes flavipea is from one to one and one-
half inches. These insects are of a dingy white color. The head, with
which the excavating is done, is large and horny and very nearly
equare in shape, except in the ^^soldiers," in which it is oblong, and pro-
vided with long, sharp-pointed mandibles. The thoracic segments are
constricted anteriorly, but broaden gradually toward the oval abdomen,
which has the surface microscopically hairy. The wings are possessed
only by the perfect males and females, and by these for a few hours
only; they are long and narrow, with forked but not netted venation.
The legs are quite long and stout.
As in the colonies of the true ants, the Termites are divided into
castes^ each nest containg not only males, females and neuters, but the
latter are divided into " workers " and " soldiers," the sole duty of the
latter being the defense of the colony, while the workers perform all
the labors of sapping and mining, building and provisioning the differs
ent cells, taking care of the helpless queen and feeding the young.
Moreover, the sexed individuals are of two sorts, " kings " and " queens"
of the first rank, which, upon reaching maturity, acquire wings and
make an excursion into the upper world of light and air before settling
down to their one duty of providing for the continuance of the colony;
and in addition to these, what are termed '^ supplemental " kings and
queens, which never become winged, and whose function is to preserve
the colony from extermination in case, after swarming, the workers
fail to secure a genuinely royal pair.
The internal economy of Termes' nests has been found very diflft-
cult to investigate, but so far as it has been observed, corresponds
closely to that of the ants. The eggs, as fast as they are laid, are car-
Tied out by the workers and placed in other apartments, and the
young, which are active but incapable of taking care of themselves,
are fed upon comminuted wood or fungi. In due time the males and
females acquire wings and make their way out of the nest, but after
fiying or being wafted by the wind to greater or less distances, fall to
the ground and shed their wings. Each male then seizes a female by
his mandibles, and such of the couples as escape the greediness of
birds and carnivorous insects are, it is said, taken in charge by workers
which are on the watch for them, and either taken to old colonies in
132 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY.
need of new queens and kings, or a new colony is founded for tbem to
people. They are placed in the strongest and most healthful chambers
and receive every attention, but are not even permitted to wander
about the nest, which the queen would indeed be incapable of doing in
a very short time. She is supposed to live for several years, and during
this period lays innumerable eggs. The swarming of the young males and
females in such vast numbers is understood to be a provision for cross-
fertilization, as the swarming from a number of colonies takes place at
once, and the chances are largely in favor of males and females from
different colonies coming together. In the event of the death of the
old queen, and the failure to secure a young one after her aerial excur-
sion, a wingless ^^ supplemental " pair are brought into the royal apart-
ments and the colony is preserved by means of their progeny, although
the latter are not nearly so numerous as those of the true queen.
THE END.
IISTHDEX
Page
.A^canthiiiise 104
AcricHdae 118
Aculeata 28
Adephaga 68
.^geriad» 86
Animals, olaBSiflcatioii of 4
Andxeuids 81
Annelida 4
AntB 41
Ant-lion 127
AnthopMla « 29
AphididaB 107
AphodlidsB 62
Apple cnicnlio 72
Apple maggot 97
Apple-tree bark-lonae 110
Argynnis 81
Army wonn 87
Aailldie 94
Asteilas butterfly 79
Attalabidaa 72
Back Bwimmers 106
Bald-faced hornet 88
Bark beetles 72
Bed-bug 104
Bed-bug hunter 104
Bees 29
Big bed-bug •. lOS
Bill bugs 72
Blatidae 128
Blister beetles 70
Blue-bottle flies 97
Bombardier beetle 66
BombylidsB 94
Bomby ci dae 86
Botflies 96
BruchidsB 69
Bugs 98
Buffalo tree-hopper 107
Burying beetles 66
Cabbage butterfly 80
Caddice flies 126
OalasdridsB 72
Caloptenus spretns 120
Canker worms 88
Cannibal beetles 68
Cantheris 70
Capsidaa 101
Paok
Carpenter bees 84
Catocala s^
Cecidomyidae 92
Cecropia moth 85
CerambyddaB 66
Cheese fly 97
Chaloidao 46
Chlamys 69
Chrysalides 76
Cicadidae 106
Circulatory system is
Classiflcation 2
Clavicomia 66
Clytus 68
Cockroaches 124
CoccinelidaB 57
Coccididae 109
Codling moth 89
Colias 80
Coleoptera 24
Conehead iig
Copridas 62
Corimelaenidae m
Com worm 87
Corydalis 128
Cosinopiera 68
Crane flies 98
Cremaster 81
Crickets 66
Croton bug 124
Crustacea 2
Culicidae 92
Curculionidaa 72
Cursoria 128
Cyclorapha 91
CynipidaB 47
Danais 81
Dermestes 68
Digger wasp 89
Dog-day fly 106
Doryphora 68
Dragon flies 128
Drosphilidas 97
Elateridae 69
Entomology 4
EphemeridaB 129
Epicanta 70
ExcrementiYora 62
II
INDEX.
Pagk
External ■tmcture 6
Feather-wingB , 89
Flea-beetles 8©
Fleas 98
FUes 89
Fozmica 44
FrlDge-wlngs 89
Fruit weeyils 72
Oallgnats 98
Oeometrldae 88
Ol ant water-bog 105
Goldsmith beetle 66
-GrapoTine leaf-bopper 107
Grapevine phylloxera 100
Grapta 82
Grasshoppers 118
Hackberry butterfly 78
Harleqnin bng 102
Hellgrammite fly 128
Hemiptera 106
HerbiTora 62
Hesperidffi 82
Hessian fly 92
Histerocera 77
Heteromera 69
Hipparchia 82
Honeybee 81
Horn flies 97
Horn tails 41
Horse flies 98
House crickets 116
Honse flies 96
Humble bees 88
Hymenoptera 96
Hypoderma 96
Ichneumon fly 6
Imago 4
Insect 8
Isomera 02
IsBoma 47
-JassidsB 107
-Jigger 96
Katydids 117
Xace-wing 127
liachnostema, 64
Lady- birds 57
Lamellicomia 61
Xampyridffi 59
Lancet flies 96
Larva 4
Leaf-beetles 60
Leaf-chafers 68
Leaf-cutter bees 85
Leaf-rollers 88
Lebia grandis 55
Lepidoptera 78
Xice Ill
Lime-tree moth 88
LocustidaB 117
Longicorns 66
Lucanidaa 61
Luna moth 86
LycffinidaB 82
XygaBldaB 107
MantidaB 122
l^any-banded Robber 104
Pagx
Maple worm 87
Mason bees 85
May beetle 64
May flies 129
Meal beetle 70
Mealybugs 110
MelolonthidaB 64
MembracidaB 107
Metamorphosis 4
Migratory locusts 118, 118
Mole cricket 115
Moths 88
Muscular system 114
Murgantia histrionica 103
MusddaB 96
Myriapoda 2
Myrmica 44
Necroph irlda 57
Nepidw 104
N ervous sy stem 18
Neuroptera 125
Neuroptera, families of 126
Noctuldaa 87
NotonectidsB 66
Nutweevils 72
NymphalidaB 80
CEdlpoda 121
CBstridaB 95
Oncideres 68
Onion fly .t 97
Orange scale 110
Orthoptera 118
Orthoptera, families of 115
Orthorapha 91
OsdnidiB 97
Owlet moths 87
Parasitica Ill
Parthenogenesis 108
PapiUo 79
Pea weevil 69
Pecticornia 61
Perlidas 130
Phaaaeus oarnifex 68
Phitophaga 66
Phylloxera 79
Pigeon tiemex 60
Pieris. ...! 80
Piophilida 97
Plagioderma 68
Plum curcullo 72
Polyphemus 85
Potter wasp 89
Preying mantis 122
Prionus 68
Pseudoneuroptera 128
Pupa *
Pupipara 97
PttfrophoridsB 89
Pyralidae 89
Rapacious Soldier-bug 10^
ReduviadaB 108
Reproductive organs 1^
Respiration 18
Rhinoceros beetle 68
Rhopalocera 77
Rhyncophora 71
Robber-flies ^
INDEX.
Ill
Pag»
Rocky Mountain locust 118
Rose chafer 68
Rose sing. 48
Rove beetles 57
SaltatoTia 116
Sftperda.; 68
Saw-flies 48
SciaUdae 128
ScolytidaB 72
Screw-worm fly 97
Seventeen-year cicada 106
Serricomla BS
Short-homed borers 69
SimulidsB 92
SilphidaB * 66
Siphonaptera 98
Slug caterpillars 86
Snapping beetles 69
Snout oeetles.. 71
Snout moths* 88
Solitary bees 84
Span worms 88
Squash bug 101
Syrphus flies 94
Stone flies 130
TabanldaB ^ 98
Tachina flies 96
Page
Tenebrlo 70
TenthredinidaB 48
Terebrantia 46
TermitidaB , 180
Termes 180
Tettix 121
Thrips 107
Tortoise beetles 68
Tortricidae 80
Tree crickets 11^
TrogldaB lift
True bugs 100
Trypetidae 97
rumble bug. 6&
IJroceridae 48
Vanessa 72
Yedalia cardinalis 68-
Walking sticks 121
Wasps 87
Water scorpions 104
Water stridors 104
Wheat midge 92
White ants 180
White grub 64
Woolly apple louse 109
Wood wasps 40
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