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ICopv    1 


NEW 
BOO 


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JLotow  4 


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Copyrig]itl^"_ 


COFXRIGHT  DEFOSm 


Monarchical  France. 


3.     First  French  Republic. 


State    Flag,    adopted    by    the    Louisiana    Convention 
which  passed  the  Ordinance  of  Secession. 


The  present  Flag  of  the  United  States. 


Spain. 

Flag  of  the  United  States  in  1803,  when  Louisiana 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  France,  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  First  Consul. 

In  1812,  when  Louisiana  was  admitted  into  the 
Union. 

In   1815,   when  the  Battle   of   New   Orleans  was 
fought. 

Confederate  Flag,  Act  of  Confederate  Congress,  1863. 

The  present  State  Flag,  adopted  by  the  General  As- 
sembly of  Louisiana,  Act  39  of  1912. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS 

BOOK 


BY 

EMMA   C.   RICHEY 
EVELINA   P.  KEAN 


New  Orleans 
The  L.  Graham  Co  .  Ltd  ,  Printers 
430-432  common  street 
19  15 


rs79 


COPYRIGHT 


EMMA  C,   RICHEY 
EVELINA  P.  KEAN 

NEW    ORLEANS.   LOUISIANA 


(^.. 


©CI,A410684 


SEP  2?  1915 


INTKODLCTIOX. 


F  tlie  opportunities  within  lier  i-eacli  arc  intelligently 
realized,  New  Orleans  will  become  one  of  the  great 
centers  of  the  world.  Love  of  country  is  a  feeling  in- 
herent in  every  normal  l)oy  and  girl.  Community  ])atriot- 
ism— an  (mtgrowlh  of  the  modern  conditions  of  life — takes 
the  form  of  great  pride  in  one's  native  city,  or  in  the  city  one  has 
adopted  as  one's  home,  and  inevitably  leads  to  good  results. 

We  want  to  inculcate  in  the  cliildren  of  our  city  a  keen,  vivid 
interest  in  its  past  history,  in  its  ))resent,  and  in  its  future.  Economy 
in  government,  good  order,  cleanliness,  and  honesty  must  be  the  out- 
come of  the  education  of  the  children,  if  our  city  is  to  take  and  main- 
tain its  place  in  civilization.  That  the  growth  of  a  city  is  measured 
by  the  civic  interest  of  its  ])eople  is  a  recognized  fact.  New  con- 
ditions demand  that  all  children  should  be  taught  tliey  are  the  coming 
responsible  heads  of  the  community. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  national  government  was  controlled 
in-incipally  by  men  from  small  towns  or  farms.  Today,  our  Presidents 
are  city  men  who  are  calling  into  their  cabinets  advisors  from  our 
great  municipalities,  thus  proving,  "He  who  makes  the  city  makes 
the  world," 


PREFACE. 


T  is  only  nieot  that  the  public  should  know  how  this  study 
of  New  Orleans  was  made  possible.  The  accomplishment 
of  the  task  was  at  first  doubtful;  but  the  passing  weeks 
revealed  the  lively  disposition  of  the  gentlemen  of  New 
Orleans  to  assist  in  making  New  Orleans  known  to  the 
children  of  the  Southern  metropolis.  To  the  courtesy, 
civic  interest,  and  cooperation  of  those  gentlemen  whom 
it  was  our  pleasure  to  interview  and  otherwise  commimicate  with,  is 
due  the  existence  of  this  book. 

Our  kind  readers  will  no  doubt  sometimes  be  surprised  at  the 
relative  size  of  some  of  the  illustrations.  We  crave  their  indulgence. 
Such  discrepancies  are  the  result  of  the  very  limited  cost  of  the  book, 
which  preventetl  all  tlie  illustrations  being  made  to  order,  and  caused 
dependence  upon  the  generosity  of  friends  of  the  work,  for  the 
majority  of  the  illustrations. 

To  the  following  gentlemen  and  organizations,  we  desire  to  ex- 
tend special  thanks  for  information,  advice,  criticism,  or  illustrations: 
Robert  Glenk,  T.  P.  Thompson,  Gaspar  Cusach,  Norman  Walker, 
W.  0.  Hart,  J.  Zach.  Spearing,  Judge  I.  D.  Moore,  Prof.  Ellsworth 
Woodward,  S.  Locke  Breaux,  L.  E.  Bentley,  E.  E.  Lafaye,  Dr.  Jos. 
iiolt.  Dr.  G.  F.  Patton,  Dr.  I.  M.  Cline,  Dr.  W.  H.  Robin,  Stanley  C. 
Arthur,  Leonard  Nicholson,  George  G.  Earle,  Sidney  Lewis,  Chris 
Reuter,  Tiley  ^^icChesney,  the  Louisiana  State  Museum,  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad,  Association  of  Commerce,  Board  of  Trade,  and  the 
officials  of  the  city. 

We  wish  to  express  our  appreciation  of  the  unfailing  courtesy  and 
cooperation  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  New  Orleans  Board  of  Public  School 
Directors  and  the  Superintendents  of  the  New  Orleans  Public  Schools. 
it  is  our  sincere  wish  that  "The  New  Orleans  Book"  will  attain  the 
end  they  desire,  namely,  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  of  New  Or- 
leans, fostering  of  love  of  our  uuique  city,  and  development  of  a  true 
civic  spirit,  active  in  times  of  peace,  in  reform,  and  improvement  along 
lines  conservative  of  the  city's  individuality  and,  yet,  abreast  witli  real 
progress, — and  steadfast,  true,  and  self-sacrificing  in  times  of  trouble 
and  trial  which,  in  the  i)rogression  of  the  world,  must  necessarily  come 
upon  New  Orleans  in  the  future  as  in  the  past;  but,  as  in  the  past,  to 
be  heroically  borne  and  overcome,  thus  giving  rise  to  a  still  nobler 
period. 

THE   AUTHORS. 
New  Orleans,  La., 

September,  1915. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter.  Page. 

T.          Geographical  Conditions  1 

IT.         History  of  New  Orleans 7 

III.  Drainage — Sewerage — Filtici;   I'i.ant   4.'') 

IV.  Health  Conditions  J  9 

V.          Systems  of  Communication   .")9 

VI.          Trade 04 

VII.         Industries 7fi 

VIII.         Manufactures SS 

IX.         Foodstuffs !)1 

X.          Professions — Tr.ides 97 

XI.         Charitable  Institutions   10;l 

XII.          Education 107 

XIII.  Literature  of  New  Orleans IS? 

XIV.  People — Customs 128 

XV.          City  Government 1:15 

XVI.          City  Beautiful 1  l;i 

StippLEMENT.     Government  of  Louisiana T 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


The  Flags Frontispiece 


Page. 

Cross  Section  Showing  Land-Slope  from  the 

EivER  TO  THE  Lake 2 

Scene  in  Third  District  Showing  Levee  Con- 
struction;   Material    Being    Brought    on 

Cars 3 

Scene  in  Third  District  Siiowrxo  Levee  Con- 
struction; Mud  Pumped  Tiiiioufui  Elevated 

Sluices 3 

Map  of  Louisiana 7 

La  Salle 8 

Louis  XIV  8 

Pierre  Le  Motne  d'Ibeuville 9 

Jean  Baptiste  Le  Moyne  dic  BikwillI': 10 

John  Law 11 

Due  d'Orleans 11 

Map  or  1728 11 

Marquis  de  Vaudreuil 13 

I^Iap  op  New  Orleans,  17(i3 13 

Charles  III.  of  Spain 14 

Louis  XV. 14 

Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa 14 

Don  Alexandro  O'Keilly 1.5 

Bernado  Galvez  1.5 

Plan  of  the  Great  Conflagration* 16 

B.VRON  de  Carondelet IG 

Don  Andres  Almonaster  Y  Eoxas 16 

Cabildo  as  It  Appears  Today 17 

View  of  the  Interior  of  the  Cabildo 17 

View  of  the  Corridor  of  the  Cabildo 17 

Etienne  de  Bore 18 

A  Flatboat  18 

Map  of  New  Orleans 19 

Napoleon  Bonaparte   31 

Laussat 33 

Thomas  Jefferson 33 

Copt  of  Jefferson's  Proclamation  for  a  Special 
Session  of  Congress  to  Eatify  the  Pur- 
chase of  Louisiana  from  France 23 

Cession  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  St.vtes.  ...  33 

A  View  of  New  Orleans  from  the  Plantation  .  23 

Gov.  W.  C.  C.  Claiborne 34 

Jean  and  Pierre  Lafitte  and  Dominique  You  . .  35 

Andrew  Jackson   26 

A  General  Map  of  the  Seat  of  War  in  Lou- 
isiana AND  West  Florida  .. .. .. .. ........... . .. . ..  37 


Page. 

General  Jacques  Villere 37 

Map   Showing   the   Landing   of   the   Buitlsh 

Army. 38 

JIap  of  New  Orleans,  1815 29 

View,  as  It  Appears  Today,  of  the  Bank  of 
Louislana  Building,  Corner  of  Eoyal  and 

CoNTi  Streets,  Erected  in  1836 30 

The    Tallulah,    Clipper    Eng.\ged    in    Slave 

Trade  to  New  Orleans 31 

United  States  Mint 32 

Jacksox  Squ.vre  .A.S  It  Appeared  in  1838 33 

Street  Eailroad  C.\r  in  1838 33 

^L\r  of  Louisiana,  1849 34 

Canal  Street,  Royal  to  Bourbon,  1816 34 

Orleans  Alley 35 

Typical  Homes  in  the  A'ieux  Cariie,  Erected 
During  the  First  Half  of  the  Nineteenth 

Centt'hy 35 

Coiarrv-Md)  i\  \'ii:i;x  Carre 36 

First  St.  Charles  Hotel 36 

Second  St.  Louis  Hotel 36 

Old  St.  Charles  Theatre 37 

James  H.  Caldwell 37 

French  Opera  House,  Erected  in  18.59 37 

^fonument  in  memory  of  members  of  wliite 
Le.'VGue,  Who  Fell  in  Co.nflict  on  Septem- 
ber 14,  1874 39 

Harbor  of  New  Orleans,  1873 39 

Central  Building,  Cotton  Centennial  Ex- 
position. ...          40 

Old  Style  Steamboat  Landing 41 

Ships  at  the  Wharves 43 

Maison  Blanche  Building 43 

Jackson  Square  as  It  Is  ToD.iY 43 

Panorama     View     of     Commercial     Section, 

Viewed  from  Top  of  City  Hall 14 

Main  W.\terworks  Pumping  Station  and  Drain- 

.\GE  Power  House  No.  3 46 

View    Showing    Napoleon    Avenue    Drainage 

Canal  in  Course  of  Construction 47 

French  M.arket  Before  Eenovation 51 

French  Market  After  Renovation 55 

United  States  Post  Office 59 

Mule  Traction  . . ..... . . . .... 6.31 


ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued. 


Latest  Model  of  Electric  Car  in  Use  in  New 

Orleans 63 

Map  of  New  Orleans  Harbor^  Louisiana  Avenue 

TO  Alvar  Street 65 

Drydocks    and    United    States    Government 

Landings 66 

Banana  Conveyors 67 

Map  Showing  Drainage  System  of  Mississippi 

EiVER 69 

Ferrying  Cars  Across  the  Eiver 71 

Import  Coffee 73 

Custom  House 74- 

Panoramic  View  of  the  Harbor 75 

New  Orleans  Cotton  Eschange 76 

Cotton  Warehouses  and  Terminal 77 

Corn  Crop  on  Reclaimed  Land 78 

Cane  Crop  on  Eeclaimed  Land 79 

Ciialmette  Sugar  Refinery 80 

Irrigation  Pumping  Plant  in  West  Louisiana.  .  81 
Preparation  of  Soil  for  Rice  Planting  in  AVest 

Louisiana.  ...              81 

Cypress  Swamp 83 

Tons  of  Sulphur  Ready  for  Shipment 85 

Mining  Salt  Underground 86 

Jennings  Oil  Field 87 

Otis  Mahogany  Plant 89 


Page. 
Products  of  a  Truck  Farm  on  Reclaimed  Land    91 

Orange  Grove 93 

Loading  Oysters  on  a  Transport 94 

New  Orleans  Court  Building 98 

Charity  Hospital  103 

.Julian  Poydras  104 

Margaret's  Monument 105 

Three  Homes  of  the  Ursulines 107' 

Warren  Easton  High  School 112 

McDonogh  No.  14 113 

Gibson  Hall,  Tulane  Campus 115 

Newcomb  College  116 

Loyola  University  117 

New  Orleans  Public  Library 130 

Charles  Gayarre 133 

Alcee  Portier   135 

Carnival  Pageant  in  Canal  Street 130 

McDonogh  Monument  in  Lafayettk  Square.  . .   133 

Si'.  Roch's  Chapel 133 

City  Hall 136 

Delgado  Art  Museum 149 

Oaks  in  Audubon  Park 150 

Creosoted  Wood  Block  Pavement 152 

Seal  of  the  State  of  Louisiana XI. 

Map  of  New  Orleans Insert 


ERRATA. 


Chapter       I,  p.       3.     Read:     "Courtesy  N.  0.  Levee  Board." 

Chapter      II,  p.     23.     Under  first  picture  read:  Courtesy  of  La.  State 
Museum. ' ' 

24.     Under  picture,  read:     "Courtesy  of  La.  State 
Museum. ' ' 


26.  Second  column,  line  20,  read:  "Bayou  Bienvenu." 

Chapter      V,  p.     59.  Read:    "Systems  of  Communication." 

Chapter  XII,  p.  109.  Second  column,  first  line,  read:    "Church." 

120.  Read:     "New  Orleans  Public  Library." 


CHAPTER  I. 


Geographical   Conditions. 


SECTION  1.  LOCATION  OF  NEW  ORLEANS. 


Location.  Bienville  selected  a  few  knolls 
rising  out  of  a  tree-covered  swamp  as  the  site 
for  his  capital,  because  he  realized  that  one  day 
his  little  settlement  would  grow  into  a  great  and 
prosperous  city- through  the  advantages  offered 
Ity  the  Mississippi  and  the  agricultural  possibil- 
ities of  the  country.  Almost  a  hundred  years 
later,  Jefferson  secured  Louisiana  for  the  United 
States.  His  principal  object  was  the  possession 
of  New  Orleans,  which  he  predicted  would  be- 
come the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  South. 

New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  is  in  the  south  cen- 
tral i)art  of  the  United  States,  29  degrees,  56 
minutes,  59  seconds  North  Latitude,  90  de- 
grees, 41  minutes,  94  seconds  West  Longitude. 
Although  one  hundred  ten  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 


Mexico,  New  Orleans  is  a  seaport,  for  it  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Mississippi  Eiver,  which  can  float  at 
this  point  the  largest  sea-going  vessels. 

AdvaJita,ges  of  Location.  The  Mississippi 
River,  with  its  tributaries,  offers  seventeen  thou- 
sand six  hundred  fifty  miles  of  navigable  water- 
way, extending  through  twenty-two  states.  Be- 
cause of  its  location.  New  Orleans  should  be  the 
center  of  trade  between  the  Mississippi  Valley 
and  Central  and  South  American  countries.  The 
Panama  Canal  brings  a  large  portion  of  the  ori- 
ental commerce  through  this  port.  The  pros- 
perity of  a  city  depends  not  only  uj^on  its  com- 
niei-cial  facilities,  but  also  upon  the  resources  of 
tile  adjacent  region.  In  this  respect,  New  Or- 
leans, the  gateway  of  the  fertile  Mississippi 
Valley,  is  equalled  by  few  cities. 


SECTION  2.    EXTENT  OF  NEW  ORLEANS. 


Extent.  The  corporate  limits  of  New  Orleans 
emln-ace  the  whole  of  Orleans  Parish,  an  area  of 
one  hundred  ninety-six  square  miles.  New  York 
is  the  only  city  in  the  United  States  that  covers 
more  territory.  The  boundary  line  of  Orleans 
Parish  is  very  irregular,  but  it  may  be  given  ap- 
proximately as  Lake  Pontchartraiu  on  the  north 


and  west,  the  Kigolets  separating  Orleans  from 
St.  Tammany  Parish  on  the  north.  Lake  Borgne 
on  the  east  and  south,  St.  Bernard  Parish  on  the 
east  and  south,  the  Mississippi  Eiver  on  the 
south,  and  Jefferson  Parish  on  the  west.  Part 
of  Orleans  Parish  extends  over  the  river,  em- 
bracing xVlgiers  and  the  surrounding  districts. 


SECTION  3.    TOPOGRAPHY. 


Topography.  The  topograph}'  of  this  region  has 
undergone  great  changes.  This  has  been  proven 
by  a  study  of  the  soil  and  by  historic  records. 
Even  in  the  memory  of  the  i^resent  generation, 
there  were  swamps  where  now  stand  beautiful 
residences.  These  changes  have  been  largely 
effected  by  the  Mississippi,  to  which  mighty 
agency  New  Orleans  owes  its  very  existence. 


Ages  ago,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  reached 
to  the  Ohio  River.  In  this  bay  the  river  deposited 
its  sediment  until  not  only  the  bay,  but  much  of 
the  Gulf,  was  filled.  As  the  Mississippi  River 
carries  hundreds  of  millions  of  tons  of  silt  into 
the  Gulf  everj^  year,  this  process  of  land  building 
continues.  Even  after  the  land  was  raised  above 
the  sea-level,  the  river  did  not  cease  its  great 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


work.  Swollen  by  the  floods  and  melting  snows 
along  its  upper  course,  it  would  annually  over- 
flow tliis  region,  leaving  a  deposit  of  alluvium. 


from  the  river  front,  where  the  land  is  highest, 
and  a  lesser  slo^je  hack  from  the  lake  shore.  A 
slight  elevation  extends  across  the  city  along 


S?????^^^^^!??^7^3!!5?^357:5^3^5^3^?3^!^ 


Cross  section  showing  land-slope  from  the  River  to  the  Lake. 


— Courtesy  of  J<'.  0.  S.  &  W.  Board. 


Thus,  year  by  year,  until  the  levees  shut  out 
the  floods,  New  Orleans  was  built  up.  The  high- 
est portions  now  have  an  elevation  of  fifteen 
feet;  but,  in  some  places,  the  city  is  slightly 
below  Gulf  level.    There  is  a  gi'adual  slope  back 


Metairie  Ridge,  City  Park,  and  Gentilly  Terrace. 
The  section  extending  between  Lakes  Borgne 
and  Pontchartrain  as  far  as  the  Rigolets  is  al- 
most entirely  swamp  land.  Small  tracts  of  this 
have  been  reclaimed  for  market  gardens. 


SECTION  4.     SOIL  FORMATION. 


Soil  Formation.  The  causes  of  these  slopes 
and  ridges  will  be  understood  by  studying  the 
work  of  rivers  in  building  ui?  their  flood  plains. 
A  swiftly  flowing  river  can  carry  a  large  amount 
of  detritiis,  but  when  the  current  is  cheeked  it  is 
forced  to  drop  its  burden.  The  greatest  check  to 
the  current  of  a  river  overflowing  its  flood  plains 
occurs  as  it  leaves  its  channel;  consequently, 
the  heaviest  and  coarsest  sediment  is  deposited 
there.  ■  The  river  banks  are  thus  built  higher 
by  each  flood  and  a  system  of  natural  levees  is 
produced.  The  finer  silt  is  carried  farther  be- 
fore being  released.  This  causes  a  marked  dif- 
ference in  the  formation  and  -  composition  of 
front  and  hack  lands  along  a  river.  The  forma- 
tion of  the  land  along  the  bayous  is  similar  to 
that  along  the  river;  it  is  high  near  the  streams 
and  slopes  back  into  lowlands  or  swamps.  This 
accounts  for  the  ridges  along  Bavou  St.  John 


and  Bayou  Sauvage.  The  course  of  a  former 
outlet  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver  is  marked  by  the 
ridge  along  Metairie  and  Gentilly  Terrace. 

Present  Work  of  the  River.  Levees  restrain 
the  flood  waters;  but  tJie  river  has  not  ceased  its 
work.  The  current  grows  sluggish  along  the 
inner  curve  of  the  river,  and  here  a  bank  or 
"batture"  is  built  up  outside  the  levee.  The 
current  is  correspondingly  swift  along  an  outer 
curve,  whei'e  it  wears  away  the  bank.  This  is 
occurring  at  Carrollton  Bend  and  at  Greenville 
Bend  (between  Westwego  and  Carrollton).  The 
batture  from  Felicity  street  to  below  Canal 
street  has  increased  so  much  that  the  levee  has 
been  moved  to  take  in  the  newly  formed  land. 
Within  the  history  of  New  Orleans,  the  site  of 
the  present  Customhouse  was  on  the  river  front 
and  Tchoupitoulas  street  was  the  highroad  along 
the  bank. 


SECTION  5.    INUNDATIONS. 


Causes  of  Inundations.  New  Orleans  has 
suffered  from  overflows  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Lake  Pontchartrain.  Floods  from  Lake  Pont- 
chartraiji.  have  resulted  from  two  causes:   (1) 


Backwater  from  crevasses  along  the  river  fill 
Lake  Pontchartrain;  this  water,  when  prevented 
by  prevailing  southeast  winds  from  reaching  the 
Gulf,  floods  the  region  about  the  lake,    (2)  The 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


same  result  is  produced  when  violent  storms  pile 
up  the  waters  of  the  lake. 

The  level  of  Lake  Pontchartrain  was  raised 
five  feet  by  the  Bonnet  Carre  crevasse  remaining 
oi^en  from  1874  to  1882 ;  it  was  raised  six  and  a 
lialf  feet  by  the  storm  of  September,  1909. 

Crevasses.  In  the  spring,  the  snow  and  ice 
in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  begin  to  melt, 
thus  increasing  the  volume  of  water  in  the  river. 
The  force  of  this  swollen  current  is  so  great  that 
the  levees  sometimes  give  way  under  the  severe 
strain.  Such  a  break  is  called  a  crevasse. 
These  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
early  history  of  New  Orleans,  but  diminished 
as-  the  levees  were  strengthened.  New  Or- 
leans was  never  destroyed  by  flood,  but  the  daily 
a  flairs  of  the  city  were  seriousl}^  interrupted. 

Notable  Crevasses.  In  1799,  there  was  a 
crevasse  at  Macarty's  plantation,  now  Carroll- 
ton,  and  in  1813,  another  occurred  higher  up  at 


Kenner's  plantation.  The  levee  in  front  of  Ma- 
cart}^ 's  plantation  broke  again  in  1816;  this  time, 
the  water  was  from  three  to  five  feet  deep  in  the 
suburbs,  and  the  citj^  itself  was  flooded  as  far  as 
Chartres  street.  In  1831,  a  severe  storm  caused 
the  lake  to  overflow  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
waters  reached  Dauphine  street.  This  occurred 
again  in  1837,  '44,  and  '46. 

The  crevasse  of  1849  at  Sauve's  plantation, 
about  seventeen  miles  above  the  city,  was  one 
of  the  most  destructive.  "Within  twelve  days, 
Rampart  street  was  under  water  and  the  flood 
covered  the  rear  of  the  city.  Two  thousand 
houses,  like  so  many  islands,  were  completely 
surrounded  by  water.  People  who  could  not 
abandon  their  homes  were  obliged  to  resort  to 
boats  as  a  means  of  transportation.  When  the 
waters  had  subsided  it  was  found  that  public 
l)roperty,  gutters,  pavement,  street-crossings, 
liridges,  etc.,  had  suffered  considerable  damage. 


SECTION  6.    LEVEES. 


Along  the  River.  Levees  of  great  size  and 
strength  have  lioen  built  along  the  ]\[ississippi's 
course  through  the  State  of  Louisiana.  Nowhere 
in  the  world,  not  even  in  Holland,  where  the 
people  hold  back  the  waters  of  the  sea,  are  the 
levees  as  large  as  those  built  by  the  Parish  of 
Orleans  to  check  the  encroachments  of  the 
"Father  of  Waters." 

Size  and  length.  The  base  of  these  great 
levees  is  as  thick  through  as  a  city  block,  and  in 


])laces  the  crowii  or  top  is  fifty  feet  wide  and  five 
feet  above  the  highest  water  ever  recorded  at 
New  Orleans.  The  largest  levees  are  along  Car- 
rollton  Bend,  called  Carrollton  Beach  Levee,  and 
in  front  of  the  Tliii'd  District.  Tlic  great  size  of 
these  levees  is  easily  realized  because  of  the  un- 
obstructed view.  There  are  levees  of  almost  tlie 
same  height  before  the  business  section,  but  the 
slope  is  so  gradual  it  is  scarcely  perceptibl'e.. 
The  levee  at  Caiuil   street  commences  at  the 


Scene  in  Third  District  showing  levee  construction, 
mud  pumped  thrpugh  elevated  sluices. 

—Courtesy  N.  0.  S.  &  W.  Board. 


§cene  in  Third  District  showing  levee  construction, 
material  being  brought  on  cars. 

—Courtesy  N.  0.  S.  &  W.  Board, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


Louisville  and  Nashville  depot  and  slopes  up 
until  it  is  two  to  three  feet  above  liigii-water 
mark  at  the  river  front.  The  Orleans  Levefe 
Board  maintains  twelve  miles  of  levee  on  the 
left  or  east  bank  of  the  river  and  over  thirteen 
miles  on  the  right  or  west  bank,  besides  the 
fifty-two  miles  of  rear  protection  levees. 

BaJik  Protection.  The  levees  are  protected 
from  erosion,  or  wearing,  by  wooden  revetments 
or  by  a  coating  of  concrete.  Willow  mattresses, 
sunk  below  the  sui'face  of  the  water,  prevent  the 
caving  of  levees  along  banks  where  the  current 
washes  with  greater  force.  The  work  of  bank 
protection  is  relegated  to  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment. From  1907  up  to  date,  the  Govern- 
ment has  expended  over  a  million  dollars  in  this 
character  of  work. 

Construction  of  Levees.  The  Orleans  Levee 
Board  is  charged  with  the  construction,  repair, 
suiDervision,  and  maintenance  of  all  levees  in  the 
Parish  of  Orleans.  The  method  of  construction 
depends  largelj^  upon  the  facilities  at  hand  for 
obtaining  the  necessary  earth  to  build  the  levee. 
Frequently  the  dirt  is  brought  on  barges,  or  in 
cars,  if  there  are  railroad  tracks  near.  Great 
cranes  unload  the  barges  or  cars  and  place  the 
dirt  in  the  required  position.  The  force  of  run- 
ning water  is  sometimes  applied  to  levee  con- 
struction. The  material  used  to  build  the  levee 
is  shot  through  long  elevated  sluices  by  a  con- 
tinuous stream,  and  the  mud  thus  produced  is 
deposited  through  troughs  at  regular  distances 
along  the  line  of  construction.    Low  dams  hold 


this  slush  within  a  certain  area,  where,  after  the 
water  has  drained  oft",  the  dirt  is  shaped  into  a 
levee.  "Where  the  use  of  machinery  is  not  prac- 
ticable, the  dirt  has  to  be  hauled  by  mules  or 
wheeled  in  barrows;  and  the  levees  have  to  be 
built  with  wheel  and  drag  scrapers. 

Protection  Levees.  Levees  are  maintained 
along  the  lake  shore,  the  parish  lines,  the  canal 
banks,  and  Bayou  St.  John,  as  well  as  along  the 
river  front.  The  purpose  of  protection  levees  is 
to  prevent  backwater  from  crevasses  or  lake 
floods  from  entering  the  city.  These  levees  are 
not  nearly  so  high  as  those  along  the  river,  but 
they  aggregate  about  fifty-two  miles  in  length. 

Swamp  Reclamation.  Since  the  construction 
of  levees  that  afford  effectual  protection  to  the 
city,  attention  has  been  directed  towards  re- 
clamation of  swamp  lands.  Cyjoress  trees  and 
tangled  undergrowth  once  covered  an  extensive 
area  of  marsh  where  streets  are  now  laid  out  and 
houses  are  being  built.  Most  of  the  reclama- 
tion has  been  effected  at  the  city's  expense 
by  means  of  the  drainage  canals,  but  the  New 
Orleans  Lake  Shore  Land  Company  has  im- 
proved a  large  tract  beyond  Gentilly  Terrace 
for  real  estate  speculation.  The  entire  area 
from  People's  avenue  to  the  New  Basin 
Canal  and  from  the  river  to  the  lake  is  now 
drained. 

Other  reclamation  projects  are  uow  being 
considered  and,  when  completed,  all  of  the 
swamp  lands  in  the  rear  of  the  city  will  be  re- 
claimed by  drainage  canals  and  levees. 


SECTION?.    CLIMATE. 


Conditions  that  Affect  Climate  in  New  Or- 
leans. The  climate  of  New  Orleans  is  affected 
by  (1)  latitude,  (2)  nearness  to  large  bodies  of 
water,  (3)  direction  of  prevailing  winds,  (4) 
levelness  of  the  surrounding  country. 

Latitude.  New  Orleans  is  only  about  seven 
degrees  north  of  the  torrid  zone,  consequently 
the  sun's  rays  are  almost  vertical  during  the 
summer  months.  The  thirtieth  parallel  of  lati- 
tude crosses  Africa  and  Arabia  through  burning- 
deserts,  but  New  Orleans,  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  equator,  has  mild  and  pleasing  sum- 
mers. 

Nearness  to  Large  Bodies  of  Water.  Regions 


adjacent  to  large  expanses  of  water  are  less  sub- 
ject to  extremes  of  temperature  than  inland  sec- 
tions, because  water  neither  heats  nor  cools  as 
rapidly  as  land.  The  extensive  water  surface 
formed  by  the  network  of  bayous  and  lakes 
which  indent  the  coast  of  Louisiana  materially 
affects  the  climate.  Especially  is  this  true  in 
New  Orleans,  which  is  made  almost  an  island 
by  Lake  Pontchartrain,  Lake  Borgne,  and  the 
Mississippi  Biver.  The  warm  Gulf  stream  lessens 
the  severity  of  winter. 

Direction  of  Prevailing  Winds.  For  almost 
six  months  of  the  year  the  city  is  swept  by  south- 
easterlv  winds  from  the  Gulf.    These  are  satu- 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


rated  witli  moisture,  wliicli  lessens  the  intensity 
of  the  sun's  rays  by  day  and  prevents  rapid 
radiation  by  nigiit.  During  the  winter  months, 
the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  north  and 
northeast,  but,  having  to  cross  Lake  Pontchar- 
train,  they  are  tempered  before  reaching  New 
Orleans.  The  atmosphere,  though  laden  with 
moisture,  is  not  heavy  nor  oppressive.  Breezes 
from  the  Gulf  impart  a  fresh  and  vigorous  tone 
during  the  summer  and  ■  moderate  the  cold  in 
winter. 

Levelness  of  the  Surrounding  Country.  There 
are  no  heights  of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Or- 
leans to  obstruct  the  winds  or  prevent  the  dis- 
tribution of  moisture. 

Temperature.  The  summers  are  long,  but 
the  maximum  temperature  never  exceeds  and 
seldom  equals  that  of  inland  cities  much  farther 
north.  The  highest  the  thermometer  has  ever 
registered  at  New  Orleans  was  102°  Fahrenheit 
on  July  13,  1901,  and  again  on  June  22,  1915. 
Only  on  five  other  occasions  was  it  as  high  as 
100°  Fahrenheit.  The  mean  temperature  for 
July  and  August,  the  hottest  months  of  the  year, 
obtained  from  records  extending  over  a  period 
of  forty-two  years,  is  82°.  Excessive  heat  is 
rare  and  heat  prostrations  are  few.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  winters  are  exceedingl}^  mild.  There 
is  ice  on  an  average  of  less  than  four  times  a 
year,  and  the  ground  seldom  freezes.  All  but  the 
most  delicate  plants  can  remain  put  of  doors 
during  the  winter  with  only  a  covering  of 
burlap  or  paper  to  protect  them  from  frost. 
The  lowest  temperature  ever  recorded  at  New 


Orleans  did  not  descend  to  zero,  being  seven 
degrees  above  zero  on  February  13,  1899.  The 
season  of  greatest  cold  occurs  during  December 
and  January. 

Rainfall  and  Moisture.  There  is  no  distinc- 
tive rainy  season  in  New  Orleans,  as  many  out- 
siders suppose.  The  average  rainfall  is  about 
equal  for  all  the  months  of  the  year,  increasing 
slightly  during  the  summer.  The  inhabitants 
appreciate  this  provision  of  nature,  for  rainy 
days  are  few,  and  frequent  showers  serve  to  cool 
the  atmosphere.  Spring  and  autumn,  having 
very  moderate  rainfall,  are  always  pleasant 
seasons.  The  annual  monthly  rainfall  averages 
four  and  five-tenths  inches. 

Healthfulness.  Few  places  have  a  more  uni- 
formly delightful  climate  than  New  Orleans. 
Those  who  condemn  it  as  disagreeable  and  un- 
healthful  do  so  through  ignorance  of  present 
conditions.  Much  of  the  sickness  resulting  from 
other  causes  has  been  charged  to  the  damp, 
"tropical"  climate  of  New  Orleans.  The  re- 
clamation of  nearby  swamp  lauds  has  reduced 
the  high  humidity  which  made  it  an  undesirable 
place  for  persons  suffering  from  some  maladies. 
Residents  of  New  Orleans  have  no  need  to  seek 
mountain  and  seashore  resorts  in  summer,  for 
breezes  from  the  gulf  and  lake  keep  their  own 
city  pleasant  during  the  summer  months,  while 
strangers  flock  to  the  Southern  metropolis  to 
enjoy  the  winters,  where  trees  are  green  and 
flowers  bloom,  where  outdoor  life  is  uninter- 
rupted and  fires  may  be  dispensed  with  many 
days  in  the  season. 


SECTION  8.     WEATHER  BUREAU. 


Weather  Bureau.  Climate  exerts  so  much 
influence  over  the  lives,  habits,  and  occupations 
of  people  that  the  United  States  Government 
has  established  the  Weather  Bureau  under  the 
Department  of  Agriculture.  The  work  of  this 
Bureau  is  to  study  the  rise  and  fall  of  tempera- 
ture, the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind,  the 
amount  of  rainfall,  and  the  barometric  pressure, 
in  order  to  anticipate  unusual  weather  con- 
ditions, and  to  give  information  and  warning 
with  regard  to  floods. 

New  Orleans  Station.  There  is  a  station  in 
New  Oi'leans  fully  equipped  for  making  observ- 


ations and  forecasts.    The  offices  are  located  in 
the  Post  Office  building. 

Observations  of  local  weather  conditions  are 
taken  twice  daily  at  about  two  hundred  observ- 
ing stations  in  the  United  States.  Trained 
observers,  using  delicate  instruments,  determine 
weather  changes  with  utmost  accuracy.  Com- 
plete telegraphic  reports  are  immediately  sent 
to  Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  where  ex- 
pert forecasters  determine  the  weather  con- 
ditions that  may  be  expected  to  prevail  during 
the  next  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours.  Reports 
are  also  sent  to  some  of  the  larger  stations. 


6 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


wlicro  similar  calculations  are  niade  for  tlieir 
respective  A'ieinities. 

Distribution  of  Forecasts.  Witliin  two  hours 
after  the  moruiug  observations  have  been  taken, 
the  forecasts  are  telegraplied  from  the  forecast 
stations  to  nearly  two  thousand  distributing 
points.  Countless  individuals  receive  the  daily 
weather  news  from  these  points  by  means  of 
telegraph,  telephone,  or  mail.  The  principal 
features  of  current  weather  conditions  through- 
out the  country  are  represented  on  a  map. 

Value  of  Forecasts.  The  extent  to  which  the 
Weather  Bureau,  in  the  collection  and  publica- 
tion of  data  and  the  issue  of  weather  forecasts 
and  warnings,  affects  the  daily  life  of  the  people, 
is  increasing  yearly.  Warnings  of  storms  and 
hurricanes,  issued  for  the  benetit  of  marine  in- 
terests, are  the  most  important  and  valuable. 
These  are  displayed  at  more  than  three  lumdred 
points  along  the  coasts  and  along  the  shores  of 
Ihe  (rreat  Lakes.  So  nearly  perfect  has  service 
become  that  scarcely  a  storm  of  marked  danger 
lo  maritime  interests  lias  occurred  for  years  for 
which  ample  warnings  have  not  been  issued 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  in  advance. 
West  Indian  reports  are  especially  valuable,  as 
the  approach  of  those  destructive  hurricanes 
which  sweep  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coasts  from 
July  to  October  can  thereby  be  accurately  de- 
termined. 

Change  of  Temperature  Warnings.  The 
warnings  of  those  sudden  temperature  changes 
known  as  cold  waves  are  probably  next  in  im- 
portance. These  warnings,  issued  from  twenty- 


four  to  thirty-six  hours  in  advance,  are  scattered 
throughout  the  threatened  region  by  flags  at 
Weather  Bureau  stations,  by  telegraph,  tele- 
phone, and  mail  service;  planters,  florists,  ship- 
pers and  many  others  profit  by  this  knowledge. 
Fruit,  sugar,  tobacco,  cranberry,  and  market 
gardening  interests  are  protected  by  forecasts 
of  frost  or  freezing  weather.  Savings  to  growers 
in  a  limited  district  through  the  instrumentality 
of  such  warnings  has  been  estimated  at  thou- 
sands of  dollars  for  one  cold  spell. 

Flood  Warnings.  The  commerce  of  our  rivers 
is  greatl}'  aided  and  lives  and  property  in  regions 
subject  to  overflow  are  protected  by  the  publica- 
tion of  river  stages  and  the  issue  of  river  and 
flood  forecasts.  These  are  liased  on  reports  re- 
ceived from  about  five  hundred  special  river  and 
rainfall  stations.  The  value  of  this  service  was 
strongly  emphasized  during  a  great  flood  in  the 
Mississippi  watershed,  which  was  one  of  the 
greatest  in  its  history,  the  stages  in  some  jilaces 
1)eing  the  highest  ever  known.  Yet,  notwith- 
standing the  enormous  volumes  of  water,  the 
forecasts  and  warnings  were  accuratels-  verified 
as  to  location,  stage,  and  date. 


TOPICS.  Section  1.  Lof-ation  of  New  OHe.ins;  Section  2. 
Extent  of  New  Orleans;  Section  3.  Topography;  Sec- 
tion 4.  Soil  Formation;  Section  5.  Inuiulatioiis;  Sec- 
tion 6.  Levees;  Section  7.  Climate;  Section  8.  Weather 
Bureau. 

REFERENCES:  Geological  Survey  of  Louisiana;  Waring 
anil  Cable,  History  and  Present  Conditions  of  New 
Orleans,  1880;  Eeport  of  the  Orleans  Levee  Board; 
Reports  of  the  Weather  Bureau. 


Chapter  il. 

History  of  New  Orleans. 

SECTION  I.    FRENCH  DOMINATION. 


1.     LOUISIANA  BEFORE  1718. 

Early  Explorers  of  Louisiana.  In  1528,  Pam- 
pliilo  de  Nai'vaez  led  an  expedition  from  Cuba 
into  Florida.  Defeated  by  the  Indians,  he  re- 
treated to  the  coast,  only  to  find  his  ships  gone. 
They  built  some  rude  crafts  and  embarked  from 
about  what  is  now  Choctawliatchee  Bay.  After 
several  days'  sailing,  they  passed  the  mouth  of 
a  great  river  and  drank  of  its  water;  but  the 
mighty  current  dispersed  the  boats,  and  Nar- 
vaez  was  never  heard  of  again.  Three  boats 
reached  Texas,  and,  after  six  years'  detention 
by  the  Indians,  several  of  the  survivors,  led  by 
Cabeza  de  Vaca,  the  treasurer  of  the  expedition, 
managed  to  reach  a  Spanish  settlement  in  Mexico. 

Eleven  years  later,  Hernando  de  Soto  sailed 
from  Cuba  with  a  large  force  and  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Tampa  Ba^^,  determined  to  conquer  the 
territory  explored  by  Narvaez.  After  wander- 
ing through  what  is  now  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Mississippi,  having  his  army  diminished  by  In- 
dian attacks  and  malaria,  he  at  last,  in  the  third 
year  of  the  expedition,  readied  the  Mississippi 
River  at  a  point  slightly 
south  of  Memphis.  Here 
he  crossed  the  river  and 
wandered  as  far  west  as 
the  Red  River,  but  be- 
coming ill  he  returned 
to  the  banks  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, where  he  died. 
His  followers,  fearing 
attacks  of  the  Indians 
should  they  hear  of  their 
leader's  death,  placed 
his  body  in  the  trunk  of 
a  tree  and  buried  him  in 
the  great  river.  Unable 
to  reach  Mexico  by  land, 
they  built  seven  brigan- 
tines  and,  led  by  Mos- 
coso,  de  Soto 's  successor, 
one-half  of  his  followers 
finally  reached  Tampico 
River  in  Mexico. 


Expeditions  of  Pere  Marquette  and  La  Salle. 

In  1673,  having  heard  from  the  Indians,  of  a 
great  river  that  flowed  to  the  west,  Pere  Mar- 
quette, a  Jesuit  missionary,  set  out  from  Quebec 
accompanied  by  Joliet,  a  fur-trader,  to  explore 
and  claim  it  for  France.  They  went  in  their 
birch-bark  canoes  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
and  through  Lake  Ontario,  Niagara  River,  Lake 
Erie,  St.  Clair  River,  and  Lake  Huron,  Macki- 
naw Straits  and  Fox  River,  thence  down  the 
Wisconsin  to  the  Mississippi.  They  descended 
it  as  far  as  the  Arkansas;  and,  convinced  that  it 
flowed  south  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  instead  of 
west,  proceeded  to  return  to  Canada.  Worn  out 
by  the  hardships,  Pere  Marquette  died  on  the 
banks  of  the  Illinois  River  and  Joliet  proceeded 
alone  to  bear  the  news  to  Quebec. 

Inflamed  with  the  desire  of  establishing 
France's  power  through  the  heart  of  the  conti- 
nent from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  that 
of  the  Mississippi,  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur  de  La 


MAP  OF  LOUISIANA. 


-Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


8 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


Salle,  left  Quebec,  February  2,  1682,  to  explore 
the  MississipiDi  tlirougli  its  entire  length.  He 
reached  the  mouth  on  April  6th,  claimed  for 
France  all  the  land  watered  by  the  Mississippi 
and  its  tributaries,  and  named  it  Louisiana  in 
honor  of  Louis  XLV.,  King  of  France.  It  was 
the  desire  of  La  Salle  to 
establish  a  chain  of  forts 
from  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  the  Mississippi.  On 
liis  return  to  Canada,  he 
went  to  France,  where 
the  government  fitted 
out  an  expedition  for 
him.  In  1684,  he  landed 
oh  the  coast  of  Mata- 
gorda Bay  in  Texas, 
having  failed  to  find  the 
mouth  of  the  Missis- 
si]3pi.  Soon  he  lost  his 
vessels.  In  attempting 
to  find  the  Mississippi 
River  and  reach  Canada 
liy  way  of  that  river,  he 
was  murdered  by  one  of 
his  followers. 

France  at  the  Close 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  France  had 
risen,  through  the  skill  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the 
genius  of  his  ministers,  to  the  dominance  of  the 
affairs  of  Europe.  Though  an  able  ruler,  Louis, 
"le  Grand,"  was  not  farsighted.  After  the 
death  of  Colbert,  the  great  financier,  he  gave 
no  attention  to  the  development 
of  France's  colonies,  which  had 
l)een  one  of  the  cherished 
plans  of  the  able  Comptroller. 
In  1689,  the  Count  of  Pontchar- 
train  was  en,t rusted  with  the 
finances.  The  treasury  was  de- 
pleted by  the  constant  strain 
upon  it  caused  by  the  continuous 
European  wars,  the  development 
of  the  interior  of  France,  ma- 
terial encouragement  given  to 
commerce  and  manufactures, 
erection  of  such  costly  struc- 
tures as  Versailles,  the  Louvre 
and  Hotel  des  Invalides.  The  nation  was  groan- 
ing under  the  burden  of  taxation  which  had  been 
thus  necessarily  increased.  In  the  endeavor  to 
solve  this  mighty  financial  problem,  Pontchar- 
train,  following  Colbert's  policy,  turned  his  at- 


tention to  the  development  of  the  colonies.  He 
l)egan  with  Louisiana,  as  yet  a  wild,  trackless 
wilderness,  extending  from  the  Province  of 
Canada  on  the  north  and  the  English  colonies 
on  the  Atlantic,  to  the  Eocky  Mountains,  the 
Spanish  province  of  Mexico,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  on  the  south.  As 
the  seventeenth  century 
saw  the  struggle  among 
the  European  nations 
for  control  of  Europe,  so 
the  eighteenth  century 
was  to  see  the  conflict 
for  supremacy  in  North 
America  carried  on  be- 
tween France  and  Eng- 
land. As  a  preparation 
for  this  struggle,  France 
proceeded  to  establish 
settlements  in  her  terri- 
tory along  the  Gulf. 

Early  Colonization 
of  Louisiana.  Pierre  Le 
Moyne  d 'Iberville  was 
chosen  in  1698  to  settle 
Louisiana.  An  able  sea- 
man, brave,  energetic, 
inured  to  hardshijis  by  his  life  on  the  frontier 
of  Canada,  Iberville  was  in  every  way  suited  to 
the  accomplishment  of  the  difficult  task.  With 
four  ships  and  two  hundred  emigrants,  he 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  after  touching  at 
San  Domingo  and  Pensacola,  at  which  latter 
place  he  found  the  Spaniards 
already  established,  anchored  in 
Mobile  Bay.  After  cruising  among 
the  islands  along  the  coast,  they 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi on  March  2,  1699,  and  for 
the  first  time  since  La  Salle's 
memorable  visit,  the  solemn 
notes  of  the  Te  Deum  resounded 
through  the  dismal  swamps. 
Iberville  ascended  the  Missis- 
sippi as  far  as  Red  River  and 
returned  by  the  same  route  to 
the  mouth  of  Bayou  Manchac, 
where  he,  accompanied  by 
three  companions  and  an  Indian  guide, 
left  the  others  to  continue  their  way  by 
river,  and  entered  Bayou  Manchac;  thence 
through  Lakes  Maurepas,  Pontchartrain  and 
BorgTie,  to  Mississippi  Sound  and  Mobile  Bay, 


LOUIS  XIV. 
— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


wLich  he  thus  reached  before  the  river  party. 
As  he  had  found  no  spot  on  the  river  free  from 
the  annual  overflow,  he  erected  a  fort  on  the  east 
side  of  Biloxi  Bay  (named  after  an  Indian 
tribe),  where  is  now  Ocean  Springs,  and  called 
it  Biloxi.  Iberville  left  Louisiana  in  order  to 
take  part  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
(Queen  Anne's  War),  and  entrusted  the  gov- 
ernorship to  his  younger  brother,  Bienville.  A 
settlement  was  made  on  Mol)ile  Bay,  to  which 
the  capital  was  removed  from  Biloxi.  In  1704,  a 
ship  bringing  twenty 
.girls  for  the  colonists 
aiTived.  Intei'nal  dis- 
sensions, lack  of  funds 
and  food,  low  class  of 
iramigTants,  unfavor- 
al)le  natural  con- 
ditions, fever  visita- 
tions, retarded  the 
development  of  the 
colony. 

Louisiana  a  Pro- 
prietary Colony  1712- 
1717.  Louis  XIV.  be- 
came tired  of  the 
burden  of  Louisiana, 
and  granted  the  prov- 
ince, with  exclusive 
control  of  the  trade  as 
far  north  as  Illinois, 
to  Anthony  Crozat,  a 
weal  thy  Paris  banker, 
who  was  to  give  the 
king  a  share  in  the 
precious  metals  and 
stones.  Cadillac  was 
appointed  governor 
by  the  proprietor, 
with  Bienville  as  lieu- 
tenant-governor. A 
trading  post  was  es- 
tablished at  Natchi- 
toches and  at  a  few  other  places,  and  ti'ade  with 
Mexico  was  vainly  sought.  Cadillac  declared 
war  against  the  powerful  Natchez  Indians  for 
having  murdered  some  Frenchmen,  and  sent 
Bienville  with  a  small  force  against  them.  He 
succeeded  by  strategy  in  decoying  the  leaders 
into  his  hands  and  forced  them  to  accept  his 
terms.  De  I'Epinay  now  became  governor,  but 
met  with  no  better  success  than  Cadillac.  As 
Crozat  had  parted  with  a  large  part   of  his 


PIKRRR  LE  MOY 


fortune  in  the  endeavor  to  make  money  out  of 
Louisiana,  he  decided  to  restore  the  king's  gift 
by  resigning  the  charter. 

2.     PROPRIETORSHIP  OF  THE  COMPANY 
or  THE  WEST. 

Company  of  the  West.  In  1717,  the  French 
Grovernment  chartered  a  company  to  take  over 
Louisiana.  At  the  head  of  this  company  was 
John  Law,  a  Scotchman,  who,  by  his  bold  finan- 
cial schemes,  had 
dazzled  the  poor  re- 
gent, the  Dvlg  d 'Or- 
leans, and  obtained 
great  influence  in 
the  management  of 
the  government's 
finances.  The  com- 
])any  received  a  twen- 
ty-five-year charter, 
and  promised  during 
that  period  to  send 
over  six  thousand 
white  persons  and 
three  thousand  Afri- 
can slaves.  There 
were  at  that  time 
seven  hundred  whites 
in  Louisiana.  Law's 
great  insight  into  the 
condition  of  the  coun- 
try was  displa3fed  in 
liis  advertising  among 
the  people  of  the  Low- 
lands of  Europe  for 
emigrants  to  Loui- 
siana; he  established 
a  band  of  these  Ger- 
mans on  his  own  land 
grant  on  the  Arkansas 
NE  DiBERviLLE.  Rivcr.   BieuviUe  was 

-Courtesy  La,  State  Museum,    reinstated  g  0  V  e  r  U  0  r , 

and  immediately  made  plans  for  a  settlement  on 
the  Mississippi  River. 

Founding  of  New  Orleans,  1718.  Iberville 
had  proven  the  land  along  the  left  bank  of  the 
river,  south  of  Bayou  Manchac,  to  be  a  real 
island,  surrounded  by  the  waters  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, Bayou  Manchac,  the  three  lakes,  and  the 
Giilf  of  Mexico.  Bienville  chose  for  the  site  of 
his  settlement  an  elevation  on  this  island  one 
hundred  ten  miles  from  the  river's  mouth,  be- 


10 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


1  weoii  the  head  of  Bayou  St.  John  and  the  river. 
This  location  iiresented  many  advantages  over 
the  surrounding  country;  the  land  was  higher; 
it  was  accessible  by  two  waterways,  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  by  the  lakes  and  Bayou  St.  John; 
it  was  well  known  to  the  Indians  of  that  dis- 
trict as  the  home  of  the  Houma  Indians,  hence 
could  be  a  good  Indian  trading  post.  Even 
though  this  land  was  elevated  above  the  rest  of 
the  country,  it  was  subject  to  frequent  over- 
flows, and  Was  then 
scarcely  more  than  a 
swamp  presenting 
elevations,  and  had 
all  the  disadvantages 
of  an  uncleared  low- 
land in  a  semi-tropical 
climate.  To  this  spot, 
in  1718,  Bienville  sent 
the  Sieur  le  Blond  de 
la  Tour  and  fifty  men 
to  clear  the  under- 
growth and  lay  out 
the  city.  De  la  Tour 
arranged  the  settle- 
ment in  the  shape  of 
a  rectangle  facing 
the  river,  and  in  the 
middle  marked  off  a 
square  to  be  used  as 
a  Place  d'Armes,  to 
the  rear  of  this  to  be 
the  church,  school  and 
government  house. 
Barracks  and  a  few 
huts  were  erected,  and 
to  this  crude  settle- 
ment Bienville  gave 
the  name  of  La  Nou- 
velle  Orleans  in  honor 
of  the  Eegent,  the  Due 
d'Orleans.  Storms 
and  fever  visitations, 

prevented  the  immediate  growth  of  the  little 
settlement. 

New  Orleans,  the  Capital,  1722.  "When  Bien- 
ville had  requested  that  New  Orleans  be  made 
tlie  capital  of  the  colony,  the  directors  refused, 
saying  it  could  not  be  safely  reached  by  large 
vessels.  In  1722,  Bienville  had  his  chief  en- 
gineer, Pauger,  examine  the  mouths  of  the  Mis- 
sissiijpi;  he  reported  eighteen  feet  of  water  in 
southeast  pass,  and  suggested  that  if  dikes  were 


JEAS  B.UTISTE  LE  MOYNE  DE  BIENVILLE. 


built  along  this  pass  and  the  others  closed,  the 
current  would,  by  its  own  power,  keep  sand  out 
of  this  pass.  It  was  in  accordance  with  this 
plan  that,  nearly  two  centuries  later,  Eads  con- 
structed the  jetties.  Bienville  had  one  of  his 
vessels  taken  through  the  pass  of  the  Balize. 
The  directors,  on  receiving  the  reports  of  these 
investigations,  yielded  to  Bienville  and  New 
Orleans  was  made  the  capital.  According  to 
Pere  Charlevoix,  who  visited  New  Orleans  in 
this  yeai',  the  town 
consisted  of  a  hun- 
dred disorderly,  bar- 
rack-like buildings,  a 
wooden  storehouse, 
and  two  or  three 
homes  that  woiild  not 
ornament  a  French 
\illage;  nevertheless, 
lie  foresaw  a  great 
luture  for  this  city, 
found  its  location 
superior  to  that  of 
Pome  and  Paris,  and 
declared  it  would  be 
"one  day ^ and  per- 
haps that  day  is  not 
far  distant  —  an  opu- 
lent city  and  the  me- 
tropolis of  a  great  and 
rich  colony."  Three 
years  previous,  the 
first  negTo  slaves  had 
been  introduced,  five 
hundred  in  number. 
New  Orleans '  posi- 
tion near  the  mouth, 
controlled  the  south- 
ern entrance  to  the 
whole  country  be- 
tween the  Alleghenies 
and  the  Eockies,  for 
the  province  of  Lou- 
isiana was  then  only  accessible  by  the  rivers 
draining  its  vast  extent,  all  of  which  contributed 
their  waters  to  the  Mississippi  long  before  it 
reached  the  point  opposite  La  Nouvelle  Orleans. 
Failure  of  Law's  Bank.  Law's  great  bank 
in  Paris  failed  at  this  time,  ruining  the  majority 
of  those  connected  with  him.  The  poor  Germans 
whom  he  had  located  on  the  banks  of  the 
Arkansas  managed  to  reach  New  Orleans,  and 
there  prayed  Bienville  to  send  them  back  to 


— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


The    mew    ORLEANS    BOOK 


11 


their  homes.  He  persuaded  Uieiii  to  settle  along 
the  river  above  the  city.  Thus  was  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  German  settlement  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi  which  is  to  this  day  called 
German  Coast. 

As  slaves  continued  to  be  received,  laws  had 
to  be  made  for  their  governance ;  Bienville  drew 
up  the  Black  Code,  a  set  of  laws  which  has  been 
equally  Avell  praised  and  blamed.  About  the  most 
important  provision  was 
that  forbidding  the  inter- 
marriage of  the  black  and 
wliite  races,  which  is  still 
enforced  in  Louisiana. 
Bienville  was  now  recalled 
and  Perrier  appointed  to 
succeed  him. 

Grovernorship  of  Per- 
rier. Pori'ier  accouiplished 
many  improvements.  He 
had  a  levee  eighteen  feet 
wide  and  nine  hundred  feet 
constructed  in  front 


long 


JOHN  LAW. 
— Coiivtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


of  New  Orleans  and  continued  for  eighteen  miles 
above  and  below  the  city.  The  inliabitants  fur- 
nished tlieir  slaves  to  do  the  work  and  the  gov- 
ernment fed  them  while  they  were  so  engaged. 
To  protect  the  city  against  Indian  inroads,  a 
stockade  with  eight  little  forts  was  erected.  The 
first  sanitary  measure  was  now  undertaken, 
namely,  as  Perrier  termed  it,  ventilating  the  city 
l)y  clearing  the  forest  between  the  city  and  Lake 
Pontchar train;  lack  of  funds  and  means  pre- 
vented its  completion.  Taxation  was  unknown; 
hence  the  only  revenues  available  for  public 
improvements  were  those  furnished  by  the 
home  government. 

Need  of  Women.  There  were  few  women 
of  good  character  in  the  colony;  conse- 
quently many  of  the  better  settlers,  missing 
their  homelife  in  France,  desired  to  return. 
It  thus  became  evident  that,  if  the  settle- 
ment were  to  be  permanent,  the  men  must 
have  good  wives  to  make  homes  for  them. 
An  experiment  in  Indian  wives  was  tried; 
but  as  one  dusky  bride,  on  returning  from 
Prance,  where  her  marriage  to  a  French 
officer  had  been  performed  at  court  with 
great  pomp,  grew  tired  of  civilization  and, 
having  sought  again  the  haunts  of  her  tribe, 
was  influenced  by  them  to  betray  her  hus- 
band's post,  it  was  deemed  an  unwise  in- 
novation.   When  Bienville  left  the  colony, 


in  1724,  he  promised  to  send  a  band  of  good 
women  over  as  soon  as  possible.  In  1727,  the 
"Casket  Girls"  (Filles  a  la  cassette),  so  called 
because  of  each  having  received  a  box  contain- 
ing her  trousseau,  arrived  and  were  placed  under 
the  care  of  the  Ursulines  until  they  should  be 
married. 

Education.  In  1751,  Bienville  granted  to  a 
company  of  Jesuits  a 
plantation  which,  by 
later  extensions,  up  to 
1745,  occupied  about 
the  area  of  the  pres- 
ent First  District. 
Here,  in  1727,  the 
Jesuits  establislied  a 
church  and  mission 
center.  Their  planta- 
tion became  the  first 
agTicultural  school  of 
Louisiana,  for  here 
Duc  D'ORLEANs.  t'lcy    iutroduced    the 

— Courtesy  La.  state  Museum.  pT^lJtiy  at  ion      of      the 

orange,  fig,  sugar  cane  (1751),  indigo  plant,  and 
myrtle,  from  which  was  obtained  myrtle  wax; 
these  became  staple  crops  and  the  industry  and 
enterprise  of  the  Fathers  a  good  example  to  the 
other  colonists.  The  order  was  suppressed 
through  political  reasons  in  1763  and  their  great 
plantation  confiscated  by  the  king  of  Spain  and 
sold  for  about  one  hundred  eighty  thousand 
dollars. 

A  convent  of  Capuchins  was  established  ad- 
joining the  church,  of  which  they  took  charge. 


'  ^ ,:  ''b'"-  ',     ,  ■     ;  _     .     _  ', . . 


MAP  OF  1728. 


— Ooui'tesy  La.  State  Museum. 


12 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


besides  conducting  the  regular  parish  school. 
The  hoys,  however,  had  to  be  sent  to  France  for 
a  good  education. 

The  girls  of  New  Orleans  were  more  fortu- 
nate, for,  in  1727,  Bienville  had  induced  the 
Ursuline  Nuns  to  establish  a  convent  there. 
They  were  first  located  in  Bienville's  former 
home,  until  their  convent  on  Chartres  and  Ursii- 
line  streets  was  completed  in  1730;  this  build- 
ing is  the  oldest  in  the  United  States,  west  of 
the  Alleghenies,  and  the  school  conducted  by 
the  sisters  was  the  first  in  the  United  States  to 
be  opened  for  girls. 

Life  in  New  Orleans  in  1730.  The  city  ex- 
tended from  Bienville  to  Ursuline  streets,  and 
from  the  river  to  Dauphine  street.  The  Place 
d'Armes  was  located  in  the  central  square 
facing  the  river,  and  to  the  rear  of  it  was  the 
church  and  convent  of  the  Capuchins;  further 
down,  on  what  are  now  Hospital  and  Ursuline 
streets,  Avere  the  convent  of  the  Ursulines,  the 
hospital,  and  barracks;  the  homes  of  the  colo- 
nists clustered  about  the  Place  d'Armes  and 
these  principal  buildings;  the  homes  were  built 
of  wood  and  soft  brick,  and,  like  all  pioneer 
homes,  presented  little  comfort.  Greased  paper 
or  linen  was  used  in  the  windows  instead  of 
glass,  and  torches  or  the  ill-smelling  myrtle  wax 
candle  furnished  artificial  light.  Nevertheless, 
according  to  the  letters  of  Sister  Madeleine 
Hachard,  an  Ursuline  nun,  to  her  family  in 
France,  the  people  dressed,  had  the  same  man- 
ners, and  partook  of  the  same  foods  as  the 
people  in  France.  Sister  Madeleine  wrote  that 
the  ladies  knew  how  to  paint  and  rouge  as  did 
those  in  France,  and  that  their  manners  were 
as  charming;  she  was  much  surprised  to  enjoy 
cafe  an  lait  and  chocolate  for  breakfast.  There 
were  now  five  thousand  whites  and  two  thousand 
blacks  in  the  colony;  the  white  population  con- 
sisted of  French,  Germans,  and  Canadians;  the 
blacks  were  negi'oes  from  Africa. 

Natchez  War.  The  greed  of  the  French  com- 
mander at  Fort  Rosalie  in  Mississippi,  for  the 
best  lands,  had  urged  him  to  seize  the  "White 
Apple  village  from  the  Natchez.  As  a  result, 
the  Indians  fell  upon  the  fort  and  settlement  and 
massacred  two  hundred  men,  taking  the  women 
and  children  into  captivity.  Perrier  fitted  out 
an  expedition  and  marched  against  them;  but 
they  managed  to  escape  by  strategy.  They  took 
.their  last  stand  at  Sicily  Island  in  the  northern 
section  of  the  state;  here,  after  being  forced  to 


give  up  their  white  captives,  the  gTeater  number 
of  the  braves  escaped  to  the  Chickasaws.  In 
consequence  of  this  drain  upon  its  funds,  the 
Company  of  the  West  gave  up  its  charter.  Lou- 
isiana again  became  a  royal  colonj^  Perrier  was 
recalled  and  Bienville  reappointed  as  governor. 

3.     NEW  ORLEANS,  1731-'63. 

Negro  Insurrection,  1732.  In  the  attempt  to 
put  down  the  Natchez,  the  Louisianians  had 
even  armed  and  trained  their  negro  slaves.  The 
negroes  then  rose  in  revolt.  The  insurrection 
was  not  suppressed  until  the  leaders  had  been 
put  to  death — the  women  on  the  gallows,  and 
the  men  on  the  wheel.  The  heads  of  the  men 
were  put  on  posts  at  each  end  of  the  town  to  in- 
spire fear  in  probable  future  insurrectionists. 

Chickasaw  War.  Bienville  saw  the  necessity 
of  defeating  the  Chickasaws,  the  harborers  of 
the  Natchez  warriors,  if  peace  were  to  be  re- 
stored in  Louisiana.  In  1736,  he  marched 
against  them  in  northern  Mississippi.  Through 
English  help,  they  were  able  to  defeat  Bien- 
ville's army,  taking 
many  captives;  these 
poor  unfortunates 
were  burned  by  the 
Indians  as  Bienville 
bitterly  withdrew  the 
remnant  of  his  army. 
He  fitted  out  another 
expedition,  which  was 
even  more  overwhelm- 
ingly defeated.  Re- 
pulsed by  the  Indians 
and  worn  out  by  the 
trials   and  hardships 

MARQUIS  DE  VAUDREUIL.  ^f     ^j^^      COloUy,      the 

-Courtesy  La.  State  Museum,    p^thcr     of    LouisiaUa 

asked  to  be  recalled.  His  request  was  gi^anted 
and  the  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil,  "le  grand  Mar- 
quis," was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 

Improvements.  De  Vaudreuil 's  rule  was  a 
period  of  development.  The  levees,  so  necessary 
to  the  good  of  the  country,  were  continued  and 
made  better.  In  1737,  Jean  Louis,  a  poor  sailor, 
laid  the  foundation  of  one  of  the  city's  greatest 
institutions — the  Charity  Hospital.  Its  first 
quarters  were  in  a  building  on  Rampart  street, 
between  St.  Louis  and  Toulouse.  English  occu- 
pation of  the  Ohio  Valley  drove  out  many  of  the 
French  settlers,  who  then  flocked  to  New  Or- 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


13 


leans.  This  sudden  influx  of  people  forced  the 
government  to  erect  more  commodious  barracks 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  city  by  the  river  front, 
■where  is  now  Barracks  street.  Sixty  more  girls 
of  good  character  were  sent  over  in  the  care  of 
the  Ursulines.  New  Orleans  became  the  trade 
center  of  the  colony.  Hides,  tobacco,  indigo, 
rice,  and  a  little  cotton  and  sugar  were  sent  to 
her  by  the  other  sections  of  Louisiana  for  ex- 
port. Cotton  was  introduced  in  1740.  As  a 
slave  could  pick  not  more  than  six  pounds  a  day, 
it  was  not  extensively  raised  imtil  after  Whit- 
ney's invention  of  the  gin,  when,  with  the  gin, 
a  negro  might  clean  a  thousand  pounds  a  day. 
The  Jesuits  brought  in  sugar-cane  in  1751  from 
San  Domingo  and  cultivated  it  on  their  planta- 
tion. A  few  years  later,  Dubreuil  devoted  a  large 
plantation  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane, 
building  thereon  the  first  sugar  mill  in  Lou- 
isiana; his  plantation  was  located  where  Es- 
planade avenue  is  to-day.  The  method  of  granu- 
lating was  unknown;  the  sugar  produced  was 
hard,  sticky,  gluey;  tafia,  a  drink  resembling 
rum,  was  made  from  it.  The  export  of  this  sugar 
to  France  was  attempted  in  1765,  but  was  given 
up  owing  to  a  large  portion  of  it  having  leaked 
out  of  the  barrels. 

Obstacles  to  Progress.  One  of  the  great 
hindrances  to  progress  was  the  unstable  con- 
dition of  the  currency,  which  was  changed  three 
times  during  this  period;  finally  the  king  and 
Council  of  State  of  France  interfered  and  put  a 
stop  to  changes  in  the  currency.  Lack  of  money 
also  militated  against  the  colony's  advance.  The 
monopoly  system,  by  which  the  government 
gave  or  sold  to  an  individual  or  company  the 
sole  right  to  operate  an  industry,  is  of  its  very 
nature  detrimental  to  the  good  of  a  community. 
The  Louisiana  government  not  only  supported 
monopolies,  but  even  arbitrarily  regulated  tlie 
price  at  which  produce,  such  as  tobacco,  rice, 
etc.  should  be  sold.  Again,  the  people  had  no 
voice  in  their  government;  frequently  laws  and 
regulations  were  formulated  in  France  by  people 
ignorant  of  the  conditions  in  Louisiana. 

Fourth  French  and  Indian  War.  France  and 
England,  during  these  years,  were  approaching 
their  final  struggle  for  commercial,  naval  and 
colonial  supremacy.  Rivals  in  Europe,  India 
and  America,  the  two  nations,  for  over  half  a 
century,  had  kept  the  world  of  that  day  in  a 
constant  state  of  war.  In  North  America,  France 
had  established  her  power  in  Canada  and  Lou- 


isiana, and,  by  a  system  of  forts  extending  from 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  that  of  the 
Mississippi,  had  sought  to  make  her  position 
invulnerable ;  her  last  step  in  that  dii'ection  had 
been  the  erection  of  Fort  Duquesne  at  the  junc- 
ture of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  Rivers, 
where  they  unite  to  form  the  Ohio  River.  This 
position  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio  Valley  might 
be  said  to  be  the  key  to  the  whole  system  of 
French  Forts.  The  English  had  established 
their  control  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine 
to  Florida.  The  Virginians  realized  the  im- 
portance of  Fort  Duquesne  and  sent  Major 
George  Washington  to  dislodge  the  French.  He 
failed,  and  a  British  army  led  by  Braddock 
against  it  in  1755,  met  with  crushing  defeat. 
The  war  that  then  began  is  known  in  Europe  as 
the  Seven  Years'  War.  At  first,  victory  favored 
the  French;  but  in  1757,  William  Pitt,  becoming 
Prime  Minister  of  England,  changed  the  tide  of 
victory  to  the  English  side.  The  war  was  prac- 
tically ended  by  the  surrender  of  Quebec  and 
Montreal  to  the  English;  the  former  in  1759,  and 
the  latter  in  1760.  Peace  was  not  concluded 
until  1763,  when  a  treaty  was  signed  in  Paris. 
By  this  treaty,  France  ceded  to  England  Canada, 
Cape  Breton  Island,  and  Louisiana  as  far  west 
as  the  Mississippi  River,  excepting  the  Isle  of 
Orleans.  England  had  captured  Manila  and 
Havana  from  the  Spaniards,  but  returned  them 
on  Spain  ceding  Florida  to  her. 


MAP   OF   NEW  ORLEANS,   17G3. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


14 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


Government  Under  French  Rule.  Tlie  Lou- 
isiana province  'was  governed  by  a  Superior 
Council,  composed  originally  of  two  members, 
namely,  the  governor  and  commissary.  Gradu- 
ally the  membership  was  extended  to  twelve 
persons.  This  council  was  the  supreme  legis- 
lative and  judicial  body  in  the  colony.  That 
does  not  mean  that  all  laws  for  Louisiana  were 
made  in  the  colony;  many  were  made  in  France, 
and  all  others  had,  of  course,  to  accord  with 
French  law.  "The  Custom  of  Paris"  became 
the  basis  of  colonial  law.  Louisiana  was  divided 
into  nine  districts,  each  having  a  commandant 
and  judge,  but  these  were  subject  to  the  Superior 
Council.  The  people,  unlike  the  English  colo- 
nists, took  no  part  in  their  own  government: 
however,  on  the  whole,  considering  the  times, 
the  colony  was  governed  well  and  liberally. 
There  was  broader  religious  toleration  in  Lou- 
isiana than  in  most  of  the  English  colonies  along 
the  Atlantic  coast. 

'  Changing  Ownership.  In  1763,  the  Treaty 
of  Paris  was  concluded  between  France  and 
England;  by  this  treaty,  England  gained  all  the 
territory  east  of  the  Mississippi,  except  the  Isle 
of  Orleans.  On  November  3,  1762,  Louis  XV. 
bad,  by  the  secret  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  given 
all  Louisiana,  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
Isle  of  Orleans  to  his  cousin,  Charles  IH.  of 
Sjiain.  Governor  Kerlerec,  the  successor  of 
Vandreuil,  had  been  recalled  to  France,  and  on 


charge  of  having  misapropriated  the  colony's 
funds,  had  been  thrown  into  the  Bastille.  D'Ab- 
badie  then  became  governor.  It  was  not  until 
October,  1764,  that  the  French  king  notified  the 
governor  of  the  transfer  of  Louisiana,  nearly 
two  years  previous,  to  Spain,  and  ordered  him 
to  surrender  Louisiana  to  accredited  Spanish 
commissioners  when  they  should  present  them- 
selves. The  people  heard  the  tidings  with  dis- 
may, and  could  not  be  convinced  that  it  was 
final.  A  convention  assembled  in  New  Orleans 
and  sent  Jean  Milhet,  one  of  the  wealthiest  mer- 
chants, with  a  petition  to  the  king  entreating 
him  to  take  them  back  under  French  control. 


ll^^^^B^L  "^  uHB^H^^^hI 

® 

CHARLES   III.   OF   SPAIN. 

— Courtesy  La.  SLjte  Museum. 


LOUIS  XV. 
— Courtesy  La.  State  JIuseu 


SECTION  II.     SPANISH  DOMINATION. 


1.     MANIFESTATION  OF  THE  SPIRIT  OF 
LIBERTY,  1766- '68. 

Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa.  Four  years  after  the 
cession  of  Louisiana  to  Spain,  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment sent  over  Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa  as  gov- 
ernor of  the  province.  LTlloa  was  a  distin- 
guished scientist,  but,  by  his  lack  of  judgment 
and  tact,  imfitted  to  occupy  his  new  position. 
He  wrote  from  Havana  to  Aubry,  who,  on  the 
death  of  d'Abbadie,  had  succeeded  to  the  con- 
trol of  affairs,  of  his  appointment  as  governor 
and  early  arrival  in  Louisiana;  yet,  when  he 
reached  New  Orleans,  he  refused  to  present  his 
credentials,  and  removed  neither  the  French 
officials  nor  the  French  flag.  Louisiana  had  a 
joint  Spanish   and   French   government,     For 


seven  months  he  absented  himself  from  the  city 
to  await  at  the  Balize  for  the  coming  of  his 
Peruvian  bride.  He  or- 
dered the  merchants  not 
to  sell  their  goods  until 
"just  and  intelligent 
persons"  had  insiaected 
them  and  listed  the 
prices. 

Conspiracy  of  Octo- 
ber, 1768.  The  mer- 
chants called  upon  the 
Superior  Council  to  pre- 
vent the  enforcement  of 
PON  ANTONIO  DE  ULLOA.     these  reguktious.     Led 

-^3ouitesy  La.  state  JfuseuiB.   W     I^afreuiere,     DoUCCt, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


15 


the  Milliets  and  others,  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
for  the  expulsion  of  UUoa  and  the  seizure  of  the 
city.  Noyan  and  Villere,  with  their  followers, 
secured  control  of  the  city,  forcing  Ulloa  to  flee 
for  safety  to  a  Spanish  vessel  in  tlie  harbor.  The 
patriots  drew  up  a  memorial  of  Ulloa 's  outrages 
and  sent  a  copy  to  him  in  Havana.  They  then 
formed  the  project  of  organizing  a  republic  and 
union  of  all  American  colonies.  The  plan  failed. 
The  times  were  not  yet  ready  for  such  a  change. 

2.     ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SPANISH  CON- 
TROL, 1769-'70. 

.  Suppression  of  the  Revolution.  Spain  de- 
cided to  keep  Louisiana.  It  would  serve  as  a 
good  bulwark  be- 
tween the  English  pos- 
sessions and  valued 
Mexico.  Don  Alexan- 
der O'Reilly  became 
the  new  governor, 
and  with  three  thou- 
sand six  hundred 
Spanish  troops  and 
twenty-four  vessels, 
arrived  at  New  Or- 
leans in  August,  1769. 
The  leaders  of  the 
DON'  ALEXANDRo  O'REILLY,      couspiracy    of     '68 

—Courtesy  La.  state  Museum.    tllOUgllt     of     leaving 

the  colony.  Aubry,  who  was  in  constant  com- 
munication with  d  'Eeilly,  advised  them  not  to, 
as  they  would  be  treated 
with  clemency.  However, 
events  proved  the  contrary. 
They  were  entrapped,  and 
five  of  the  principals,  in- 
cluding Lafreniere  and 
Noyan,  were  shot  October 
25, 1769 ;  six  others  were  con- 
fined in  various  pr'isons. 

Change  in  Government. 
O'Reilly  abolished  the  Su- 
perior Council  and  replaced 
it  by  the  Cabildo,  in  which 
some  of  the  memberships 
were  held  for  life.  The  gov- 
ernor presided  over  the  Ca- 
bildo in  person.  Spanish 
laws  were  substituted  for  the 
French,  but  as  both  were 
based  on  the  Roman  code, 


this  did  not  cause  much  change.  The  Spanish 
language  became  the  official  tongue,  though 
French  was  permitted  in  notarial  and  judicial 
acts  in  the  parishes.  A  system  of  taxation  was 
organized  which  provided  a  regular  revenue  for 
the  city:  a  shipping  tax  was  devoted  to  the  con- 
struction and  improvement  of  the  levees.  Com- 
merce was  greatly  benefited  by  the  opening  of 
free  trade  with  Cuba.  A  census  taken  gives  the 
population  of  New  Orleans  at  three  thousand 
one  hundred  ninety,  of  which  one  thousand  nine 
hundred  one  were  free  persons,  one  thousand 
two  hundred  thirty  slaves,  and  sixty  Indians; 
there  were  four  hundred  sixty-eight  houses. 

3.    SPANISH  DEVELOPMENT  OF  NEW  OR- 
LEANS, 1770-1800. 

Improvement  of  Trade  Laws.  When  0  'Reilly 
came  to  New  Orleans,  the  English  controlled  the 
trade.  This  was  soon  stopped  by  English  ships 
being  prohibited  entrance  into  the  port.  Under 
certain  restrictions,  trade  was  allowed  with 
Campeachy  and  the  French  and  Spanish  West 
Indies.  Trade  in  slaves  from  these  islands  was 
forbidden  because  of  the  revolutionary  spirit 
existing  there,  but  encouragement  was  given  to 
the  Guinea  slave  trade.  Grovernor  Galvez  per- 
mitted free  trade  with  France  and  the  Thirteen 
American  Colonies  in  1778.  Merchants  from 
Boston,  New  York  and  Philadelphia  soon  opened 
business  houses  in  New  Orleans. 

Assistance  Given  to  American  Revolution. 
Galvez  allowed  Oliver  Pol- 
lock, an  American  merchant, 
to  collect  arms  and  anununi- 
tion  and  send  them  by  a  fleet 
of  canoes  to  Fort  Pitt  for 
delivery  to  the  Americans. 
In  1779,  Spain  allied  herself 
to  the  Thirteen  Colonies  and 
France  against  England. 
Galvez  immediately  marched 
against  Fort  Manchac,  Baton 
Rouge,  Mobile  and  Pensa- 
cola,  and  drove  the  English 
from  these  forts.  The  Treaty 
of  Paris,  1783,  confirmed 
Spain  in  the  possession  of 
this  territory,  granted  free 
and  open  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  River  to  the  sub- 
'^urte^sy  La.  state  Museum,  jects   ©f  Grcftt   Britain  aud 


16 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


the  United  States,  and  gave  thirty-one  degrees 
North  Latitude  as  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
United  States. 

Great  Fires  of  1788  and  1794.  The  couflagi-a- 
tion  of  1788  originated  in  a  Spanish  official's 
private  chapel  on  Chartres  street,  near  St.  Louis. 
It  destroyed  the  cen- 


tral portion  of  the 
town,  where  were  the 
commercial  quarter, 
the  principal  resi- 
dences, government 
house,  arsenal,  prison, 
church,  and  Capuchin 
convent.  Nineteen 
squares  were  devas- 
tated, with  a  loss  of 
eight  hundred  fifty- 
six  houses.  In  1794, 
some  children  acci- 
dentally set  fire  to  a 
hay  store  on  Royal 
street.  Two  hundred 
twelve  homes  were 
destroyed.  The  ca- 
thedral, recently  re- 
built,    escaped.     The 

financial  loss  occasioned  by  this  fire  exceeded 
that  of  the  first,  and  has  been  estimated  at  two 
million  six  hundred  thousand  dollars.  Camps 
were  opened  in  the  Place  d'Armes  and  on  the 
levee  to  shelter  the  homeless  population. 

Spanish  Rebuilding  of  the  City.  The  con- 
flagration had  a  most  beneficial  effect  on  the 
city.  It  was  seen  that  the  material  generally 
used  for  buildings  was  highly  inflammable  and 
assisted  tbe  fire  in  its  ravages.  Carondelet  urged 
the  use  of  tile  roofs  instead  of  shingles,  and 
even  offered  a  pre- 
mium on  them.  The 
old  city  gradually 
rose  up  as  we  see  it  to- 
(hiy,  with  its  Spanish- 
American  architect- 
ure— walls  of  adobe 
or  In'ick,  white  or 
yellow  lime -washed 
stucco,  heavy  doors 
and  windows,  bal- 
conies, portes-co- 
clieres,    arcades,    and 

BARON  DE  CARONDELET.  imipr       />onrts-       twO 

—Courtesy  La.  state  Museum.        iiiuei       COLllLte,       LWO- 


story  homes  replaced  the  former  low  one- 
story. 

Work  of  Don  Almonaster  y  Roxas.    Don  Al- 

monaster  y  Roxas  was  the  greatest  benefactor 

of  New  Orleans  in  that  period.    He  opened  his 

purse  freely  to  his  city  in  her  hour  of  need,  for 

all     purposes.     He 


_  g'-tl  Ctn/U^.  iticn  ./  l},.„0'Cf»  —■ 


PLAN   OF   THE   GREAT  CONFLAGRATION,    1788 


rented  in  peipetuity 
from  the  city  the 
squares  flanking  the 
Place  d'Armes,  and 
where  now  stands  the 
red  Poritalba  build- 
ings, erected  a  fine 
row  of  brick  build- 
ings, which  were  im- 
mediately occupied 
by  "boutiques,"  the 
retail  stores.  In  1784, 
he  had  the  Charity 
Hospital,  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  a 
hurricane  five  years 
])revious,  rebuilt  in 
brick  at  a  cost  of  one 
hundred  fourteen 
thousand  dollars. 
Three  years  later,  he  gave  the  Ursuline  nuns  a 
chapel  of  stucco  brick.  The  rebuilding  of  the 
church  was  begun  in  1792  at  his  exj^ense  and, 
when  completed  two  years  later,  became  the 
cathedral,  as  Florida  and  Louisiana  had  been 
united  into  one  diocese,  with  the  bishopric  in 
New  Orleans.  The  cathedral  was  constructed 
of  brick,  and  had  much 
the  same  appearance  as 
to-day.  Owing  to  crack- 
ing, the  belfiys,  which 
were  added  in  1815, 
Avere  changed  in  the 
fifties.  Don  Almonaster 
gave  not  only  to  charity 
and  religion,  but  to  the 
government  as  well.  In 
1795,  he  gave  the  city 
its  town  hall,  or  hall  of 
the  Cabildo,  now  com- 
monly known  as  si.uply 
the  Cabildo;  there  has 
been  one  great  change 
made  m  its  appearance      ^q^  andrk.s  almonaster  y 

Smce      the      time      OI      its  —courtesy  La.  state  Museum. 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


17 


CABELDO  AS  IT  APPEARS  TO-DAY, 

St 


founder— the  addition  of  a  French  roof.    Here, 

the  Spanish  Cabildo  held  its  sessions  and  the 
formal  transfer  of  Louisiana  from  France  to  the 
United  States  took  place. 

Government's  Improvements.  The  barracks, 
which  had  been  begun  l)y  Kerlerec  when  the 
French  settlers 
were  driven  out 
of  other  places 
by  victorious 
English,  were 
well  completed 
and  nearby  a 
military  hos- 
pital and  chapel 
were  built. 

Where  now 
stands  the  Cus- 
tomhouse,  a 
little  wooden 
one  was  erect- 
ed; the  "Old 
French  Mar- 
ket," the  "Halle 
de  Boucheries," 

was  also  built  then.  By  1796,  the  excavation  of 
Carondelet  Canal  and  the  ' '  old  basin ' '  was  com- 
pleted; thus  New  Orleans  was  connected  with 
Bayou  St.  John  and  Lake  Pontchartrain,  and 
the  city's  drainage  begun. 

San  Domingo  Refugees 
San  Domingo  caused 
many  of  the  planters 
to  come  with  their 
families  and  slaves  to 
New  Orleans.  They 
brought  with  them  the 
French  revolutionary 
ideas  of  the  period, 
which  they  easily  in- 
troduced by  means  of 
such  songs  as  the  ' '  Mar- 
sellaise"  and  the  "Ca 
Ira." 

Carondelet 's  Fortifl- 
catioris.  To  protect  the 
city  against  possible 
inroads  of  the  Ken- 
tuekians  and  put  down 
the  developing  revo- 
lutionary spirit  with- 
in the  city,   Caronde-        view  in  the  interior  of  the  cabildo, 

let    had     the     city    for-      showing  the  emnd  staircase  and  Wrought  Iron  Door, 


tified.  Though  these  fortifications  could 
not  have  accomplished  the  first  piu-pose,  they 
did  secure  the  second;  they  consisted  of  five 
forts  connected  by  a  wall,  in  front  of  which  was 
a  moat.    Fort  St.  Charles  was  on  the  lower  river 


front  and  Fort  St.  Louis  on  ilic 


n]>per;  each  of 
iliese  consisted 
i)f  a  fort  and  a 
)  larapet  eigh- 
teen feet  thick, 
faced  with 
l)rick;  they 
could  each  ac- 
e  o  m  m  o  d  a  t  e 
one  hundred 
fifty  men,  and 
were  armed 
with  twelve 
twelve  and 
eigiiteen-poun- 
ders.  Fort  Bur- 
gundy was  at 
the  corner  of 
Canal  and 
Rampart ;  Fort 


The  revohitions  in 


Joseph  on  the  present  Beauregard  Square 
(formerly  known  as  Congo  Square);  and  Fort 
St.  Ferdinand  at  the  corner  of  Rampart  and  Es- 
planade avenue.  The  wall  connecting  these  forts 
was  fifteen  feet  high,  and  the  fosse,  or  moat,  seven 
feet  in  depth  by  a  width  of  forty  feet;  Caron- 
delet Canal  kept  the  water  in  it 
about  three  feet  high. 

Granulation  of  Sugar,  1794.  The 
indigo  crop  had  not  been  a  success 
because  of  the  unfavorable  climate 
and  the  devastation  of  an  insect  that 


view  OF'  THE  CORRIDOR  OF  THE  CABILDO, 

Showing  Massive  Arches, 


18 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


ETIENNE  DB  BORE. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


fed  on  its  leaves.  Etienne  de  Bore  decided  to 
cultivate  his  entire  plantation  in  sugar.  This 
plantation  was  where  CarroUton  now  is.  He 
hired  a  skillful  sugar-maker,  a  San  Domingo 
refugee,  to  granulate  the  sugar.  Mr.  de  Bore's 
family  and  friends  had  pleaded  with  him  not  to 
be  so  rash,  but  to  no 
purpose.  A  number 
of  planters  went  to  de 
Bore's  for  the  experi- 
ment. They  gathered 
around  the  little  mill 
to  watch  the  process. 
Suddenly  a  cry  arose, 
"It  granulates!"  De 
Bore's  fortune  was 
made  and  the  famed 
Louisiana  industry 
brought  to  light, 
opening  wide  a  great 
door  to  prosperity. 

Commerce.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  1783,  the  Mississippi  Eiver  was 
free  to  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  for 
navigation;  but  Spain  did  not  intend  to  hold  to 
this  clause.  Those  Americans  who  had  crossed 
over  the  Alleghany  Mountains  to  seek  homes  in 
the  rich  valley  of  the  Ohio  took  advantage  of 
this  privilege  to  build  up  a  flatboat  trade  with 
New  Orleans,  exchanging  their  produce  of  hides, 
meat,  flour,  corn,  etc.,  for  manufactured  goods. 
As  early  as  1786,  some  of  these  flatl.ioats  were 
seized  and  confiscated.  The  enraged  Westerners 
threatened  to  capture  New  Orleans,  but  waited 
for  Congress  to  treat  with  Spain.  Spain  had 
two  plans,  namely,  to  induce  the  Kentuckians 
to  come  in  as  immigrants,  or  to  generate  among 
them  the  spirit  of  insurrection  against  the 
"negligence"  of  Congress,  and  thus  separate 
the  West  from  the  East.  Some  Westerners  did 
come,  and  located  about  the  town  of  New 
Madrid.  General  James  Wilkinson,  a  shrewd 
Kentuckian,  sent  a  number  of  flatboats  laden 

with  western 
produce  to  New 
Orleans  in  1787, 
and,  by  working 
on  Governor 
Miro  's  political 
fears,  opened  up 
the  river  trade. 
A  FLATBOAT.  Thc  ucxt  year  he 

—Cfourtesy  L.a.  state  MuBeunx.  reCeiVQd     trOm 


his  agent  in  New  Orleans  the  first  cargo  of  dry 
goods  for  the  Kentucky  market.  Trade  was 
conducted  with  Pliiladelphia  by  means  of  false 
dealings,  such  as  false  arrests  and  imprison- 
ment. The  fire  of  1788  was  made  an  excuse  for 
permitting  open  trade,  and  Miro  sent  three  ves- 
sels for  various  goods,  especially  flour.  France 
controlled  the  city's  Atlantic  trade.  The  port 
of  New  Orleans  was  neither  closed  nor  open; 
commerce  could  be  carried  on,  but  there  was 
danger;  all  depended  on  the  caprices  of  Spanish 
officials.  In  1793,  Spain  granted  to  all  her  col- 
onies free  trade  with  Europe  and  America. 

Carondelet  succeeded  Miro  as  governor.  He 
endeavored  through  an  agent,  one  Thomas 
Powers,  to  bribe  the  Kentucky  leaders  into  sep- 
arating from  the  United  States,  but  in  vain. 

Spain  and  the  United  States  concluded  the 
Treaty  of  Madrid  in  October,  1795.  New  Or- 
leans was  opened  to  the  Americans  as  a  point 
of  deijosit  for  three  years,  free  of  duty  or  charge 
on  produce,  except  a  reasonable  price  for  store 
rent.  Should  the  king  not  wish  to  renew  this 
privilege,  he  must  assign  some  other  point  on 
the  river  where  such  privileges  could  be  en- 
joyed. The  commerce  of  New  Orleans  improved 
by  leaps  and  bounds.  The  levee  was  the  scene 
of  noisy,  excited  bustling  and  business.  Before 
the  people  could  realize  it,  the  three  years  had 
passed.  The  United  States  demanded  that  Spain 
evacuate  her  territory,  as  agreed  in  the  two 
treaties.  Morales,  the  intendant  of  the  colony, 
closed  the  port  of  New  Orleans  and  assigned  no 
other  place  to  the  Westerners.  American  in- 
dignation rose  high.  President  Adams  secretly 
prepared  an  expedition  to  capture  New  Orleans. 
Its  advance  was  prevented  by  the  approaching 
retirement  of  Adams  and  Spain's  disapproval  of 
the  intendant 's  act. 

4.     NEW  ORLEANS  IN  1800. 

Size.  New  Orleans  extended  from  the  river 
to  North  Rampai't  and  from  Canal  to  Esplanade 
avenue.  Beyond  these  boundaries  there  were 
houses  scattered  here  and  there,  as  in  Faubourg 
Ste.  Marie,  a  suburb  being  developed  by  Gravier. 
The  population,  in  1803,  was  ten  thousand;  the 
Creoles  were  greatly  in  the  majority  in  the  white 
population. 

Buildings.  Tlie  Spanish  governors  lived  in 
a  plain,  one-story  brick  house  at  the  corner  of 
Toulouse  au,d  the  Eue  de  la.  Lavee ;  it  faced  the 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


19 


river,  had  a  parterre  to  one  side  and  on  tlie  other     Hospital  and  Military  Hospital  have  also  passed 


a  latticed  screened  gallery;  the  kitchen  and 
stables  were  in  the  well-fenced  rear  yard.  The 
Orleans  legislature  occupied  the  building  from 
1803  until  it  was  burnt  in  1827.     The  Charity 


^LOBU 


away.  The  Cathedral  and  Cabildo  are  still  in- 
tact, and  are  splendid  types  of  the  Spanish 
architecture  then  prevalent.  Bi'ick  or  stucco 
with  a  covering  of  cement  were  used  in  build- 
ing; the  structures 
were  massive, 
with  arches  and 
arched  doorways, 
balconies  and 
courtyards;  they 
were  to  stand  the 
wear  of  time  and 
weather.  The  old 
French  Market  is 
also  the  product 
of  these  times,  as 
is  shown  by  the 
materials  of  which 
it  is  made  and  the 
large,  cool  arches. 
Many  private 
buildings  in  the 
Vieux  Carre  date 
from  this  period. 

People.  The 
city  was  cosmo- 
politan in  its  pop- 
ulation.  There 
were  the  native 
Creoles,  French, 
Spanish,  English, 
Americans  from 
the  States,  Ger- 
mans, Italians, 
refugees  from  San 
Domingo  and 
Martinique,  emi- 
grants from  the 
Canaries,  gipsies, 
negroes  and  In- 
dians. The  French 
were  the  shop- 
keepers and  farm- 
ers; the  Span- 
iards, in  the  gov- 
ernment's  em- 
ploy; the  Cata- 
lonians,  the  shop 
and  saloon  -  keep- 
ers. The  Ameri- 
can, English,  and 
Irish    elenieiLt 


20 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


formed  the  chief  commercial  class.  The  dairy- 
men and  truck-farmers  were  mostly  Canary 
Islanders  or  Islennes;  the  fishermen,  Italians; 
gipsies,  who  had  given  up  their  wandering  life, 
turned  musicians  and  dancers.  The  "Kain- 
tocks,"  Kentucky  flatboatmen,  formed  a  large, 
though  floating  population;  they  brought  down 
the  river  on  their  flatboats  the  raw  produce  of 
the  west  and,  after  the  sale  of  their  cargoes, 
would  give  themselves  up  to  riotous  times.  The 
Creoles  cordially  disliked  them,  as  is  shown  by 
the  custom  among  Creole  mothers  of  telling  a 
naughty  child,  "Tu  n'es  qu'un  mauvais  Kain- 
tock." 

Jackson  Square.  The  Place  d'Anaies,  now 
called  Jackson  Square,  was  the  Canal  street  of 
1800.  Here,  the  troops  were  reviewed  and  the 
children  played  of  an  evening,  on  the  barren 
ground,  beneath  the  shadow  of  the  wooden 
gallows,  which  stood  about  where  General  Jack- 
son's statue  is  to-day.  The  Cathedral,  Capuchin 
convent,  Cabildo,  and  government  warehouses 
faced  the  square;  the  leading  "boutiques"  and 
restaurants  were  around,  and  to  one  side  was 
French  Market,  where  handkerchiefs,  shoes 
and  hats  were  sold  along  with  meat,  fruit  and 
vegetables.  The  public  landing  was  along  the 
levee  in  front  of  the  square.  Here,  on  a  holiday, 
the  populace  congregated;  excitable  Louisiani- 
ans,  ever  ready  to  defend  their  honor  with  their 
rapiers;  Canadian  trappers  and  hunters;  At- 
takapas  'Cadians  in  home-made  cottonades;  in- 
dolent gentlemen  banished  for  interference  with 
the  king  or  politics;  fascinating  Quadroon 
beauties  from  San  Domingo;  quiet,  energetic 
Germans  from  German  coast;  brilliantly  uni- 
formed Spanish  soldiers;  ex-galley  slaves  and 
convicts.  Peddlers  wheeled  their  goods  about 
in  coffin-shaped  vehicles;  turbaned  women  bal- 
anced large  cans  of  milk  and  coffee  on  their 
heads.  In  the  morning,  the  colored  marcliandes 
kept  the  air  resounding  with  cries  of  "callas 
tons  ehauds,"  and  at  dusk,  "belles  chandelles." 

Streets.  The  streets  were  regTilarly  laid  out, 
and  drained  by  wooden  gutters;  but  there  was 
no  pavement.  Pedestrians  were  accommodated 
by  a  wooden  banquette  four  or  five  feet  wide; 
between  tlie  sidewalks,  the  streets  were,  accord- 
ing to  the  state  of  the  weather,  either  a  marsli 
or  a  mass  of  dust.  Wagons  sank  to  the  hub  as 
they  worked  their  way  through  them.  Chartres 
street  and  the  Eue  de  la  Levee  were  the  prin- 
cipal thoroughfares. 


Lights.  The  streets  were  lighted  by  oil  lamps 
swung  at  the  street  intersections  from  ropes 
caught  to  the  corners  of  the  houses;  their  dim- 
ness forced  the  people  to  carry  lanterns  if  they 
wished  to  see  their  way.  The  homes  were  lighted 
by  myrtle  wax  candles,  placed,  for  protection 
against  drafts,  within  huge  glass  vases,  open  at 
the  bottom  to  facilitate  their  being  put  over  the 
candles. 

Water  Supply.  There  were  neither  cisterns 
nor  water  system.  The  i:)eoi3le  drank  filtered 
river  water,  and,  for  household  purposes,  used 
dug  wells  on  the  premises. 

Servants.  The  servants  were  negro  and  In- 
dian slaves.  But  it  was  the  negTo  mammy  who 
was  the  ideal  servant  as  cook,  nurse,  and  second 
mother  to  the  children,  despite  the  fact  that  she 
taught  them  the  wretched  patois,  "gombo,"  of 
the  Louisiana  negro.  This  dialect  consisted  of 
a  few  hundred  words,  and  lacked  grammatical 
structure ;  it  was  originated  by  the  brute  negroes 
of  Africa,  who  found  the  French  language  too 
difficult.  The  manual  work  of  the  colony  was 
done  by  slaves;  people  made  a  business  of  own- 
ing slaves,  training  them,  and  renting  them  out 
to  those  who  did  not  possess  any.  The  servants 
always  dressed  plainly;  the  women  wore  on  their 
heads  the  brilliant  bandannas,  "tigiions."  In- 
dian slaves  were  troublesome,  and  at  length  be- 
came so  dangerous  the  United  States  govern- 
ment freed  them;  the  result  was  a  negro  up- 
rising, which  was  only  overcome  after  consider- 
able loss  of  life. 

Manner  of  Dress.  The  dress  of  the  women 
previous  to  the  coming  of  the  San  Domingo 
refugees  was  extremely  simple  and  lacked  taste; 
they  wore  no  headgear  except  in  winter,  when 
a  handkerchief  served  the  purpose;  their  dress 
consisted  of  a  short,  round  skirt  and  long 
basque-like  overgarment;  these  two  i^ieces  were 
generally  of  different  colors  and  much  l)e- 
ribboned.  The  San  Domingo  women  In-ouglit 
with  them  French  fashions,  and  immediately 
converted  the  Creole  ladies  into  adopting  them. 
Ball  dresses  were  made  of  embroidered  muslins 
and  brilliant  taffetas,  cut  in  the  latest  style  and 
trimmed  with  fine,  gold-worked  laces.  Much 
jewelry,  such  as  ear-rings,  collars,  bracelets, 
rings  and  other  adornments  were  introduced. 

M.  Eobin,  a  traveler  in  Louisiana  in  1803, 
wrote  this  about  the  men:  "The  men  show 
themselves  more  enslaved  to  fashion  than  the 
women,  going  about  in  the  hea\^'  clothing  of 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


21 


Europe,  heads  sunk  in  liigh  collars,  arms  and 
hands  lost  in  long  sleeves,  chins  buried  in  triple 
cravats,  and  legs  encased  in  high  boots  with 
great  flaps." 

City  Guaxdians.  The  military  had  the  duty 
of  preserving  order.  For  this  purpose  a  small 
band  of  soldiers  were  kept  on  duty  at  the  cala- 
boose, and  at  stated  intervals  paraded  through 
the  streets,  or  appeared  on  the  scene  of  disorder 
after  the  trouble  had  subsided.  At  night,  it  was 
their  duty  to  call  out  the  hour  and  the  state  of 
the  weather.  Their  costume  was  very  impos- 
ing; it  consisted  of  a  deep  blue  frock,  crossing 
over  which  were  black  leather  sti-aps  to  uphold 
a  cartridge  box,  bayonet  and  scabbard;  knee- 
breeches  completed  the  outfit.  They  were  armed 
with  an  old  flint-lock  musket  and  short  sword. 

Promenades  and  Drives.  The  favorite  walk 
was  along  the  levee;  there,  at  the  ends  of  the 
streets,  were  a  few  backless  benches  where  the 
promenaders  met  to  rest  and  chat.  Bayou  Road, 
leading  to  Glentilly  and  Metairie,  was  the  even- 
ing driveway  of  the  citizens. 

Entertainment.  The  city  boasted  of  one 
theatre,  on  St.  Peter  street,  between  Royal  and 
Bourbon;  it  was  a  long, 
low  cypress  structure. 
A  company  of  San 
Domingo  actors  and 
actresses  rendered 
comedy,  vaudeville,  and 
comic  opera  in  1799. 
After  a  few  years,  the 
troupe  declined,  and 
were  replaced  by  local 
talent. 

Dancing.  Of  all  amuse- 
ments, dancing  was  the 
most  popular.  In  a  long 
room,  about  eighty  feet 
by  thirty  feet,  in  a 
wooden  building  on 
Chartres,  between  St. 
Ann  and  Dumaine,  the 
light-hearted  people  met 
twice  a  week  to  enjoy 
the  Terpsichorean  art ; 
one  evening  was  for 
adults  and  the  other  for 
the  children.  The  danc- 
ers paid  fifty  cents  a 
head.  Elevated  boxes 
along  the  wall  accommo- 


VI 

■ 

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jipT'^^'ifl 

^^^^H^            T  '/-^H 

Hi 

■H:l-  ...    1  .:M 

l^g 

NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE. 


dated  the  mammas  and  young  wall  flowers;  seats 
to  the  front  of  these  were  for  the  fair  dancers ;  the 
men  were  allowed  to  stand.  The  music  was  fur- 
nished by  gypsy  violinists.  There  were  also  the 
famed ' '  cordon  l^leu"  balls  given  by  the  beautiful 
quadroon  women,  which  were  far  more  popular 
with  the  Creole:  gentlemen  and  visiting  strangers. 
Duelling.  There  existed  among  the  men  of 
that  day  the  "code  d'honneur,"  by  which  a 
gentleman  fought  another  for  anything,  from 
an  accidental  mashing  of  a  sensitive  corn  to  an 
attack  on  his  life  or  character.  French  custom 
considered  a  man's  honor  satisfied  by  the  first 
dro])  of  blood.  The  Creole  fought  with  coliche- 
mards,  Creole  rapiers,  sword  canes,  or  pistols. 
Tliere  were  three  noted  duelling  grounds,  viz.: 
St.  Antliony  Square,  in  rear  of  the  Cathedral, 
which  was  then  tliickly  hedged  in;  "The  Oaks," 
near  the  crossing  of  Gentilly  Road  and  Elysian 
Fields,  where  the  more  talked-of  duels  took 
place;  and  "Les  Trois  Capalins,"  three  sister 
trees,  on  Metairie  Road. 

The  First  Newspaper.  1794  saw  the  first 
newspaper,  "Le  Moniteur  de  la  Louisiane,"  pub- 
lished in  New  Orleans.  It  was  not  very  newsy, 
being  more  of  a  journal 
of  government  proceed- 
ings. Ten  years  later, 
the  first  English  paper, 
the  Gazette,  was  edited. 

SECTION  3.     TRAN- 
SITION PERIOD. 


Louisiana  Coveted  by 
the  United  States  and 
France.  The  United 
States  realized  the  ne- 
cessity of  possessing 
Louisiana  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  western 
section,  and  proceeded 
to  look  to  its  acquisition. 
Napoleon,  the  First 
Consul  of  France,  de- 
sired to  re-establish  the 
colonial  power  of  France 
in  North  America,  and 
looked  with  a  pleased 
eye  upon  Louisiana. 

Treaty  of  Luneville, 
February,  1801.  The 
peace     of     Luneville 


22 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOlC 


^BB^'^^M 

I 

^H 

^^^Em  -sff^ll^H 

^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^    '^■t&rf^jr      «^SbB 

^^^^H 

HT'^IW^ 

3 

W^^'^:mk^Kk 

Hh 

^K^i'^^EPS^H 

1 

LAUSSAT. 
— Ckjurtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


closed  the  War  of  the  Second  CoaUtion.  Na- 
poleon ohtained  from  the  Austrian  Emperor  the 
cession  of  Tuscany  in  Italy,  which,  as  the  king- 
dom of  Etruria,  he  transferred  to  the  Prince  of 
Parma,  the  Spanish  Infanta's  husband;  in  re- 
tm'n,  Sixain  secretly  ceded  Louisiana  to  France. 
The  transaction  became  known  in  America  in 
November,  1802. 

Unsettled  Condi- 
tions in  Louisiana. 
Not  until  March, 
1803,  did  the  French 
Colonial  prefect, 
Laussat,  land  in  New 
Orleans.  With  Gov- 
ernor Salcedo  and 
the  Marquis  de  Casa 
Calvo,  a  former  gov- 
ernor, he  began  prep- 
arations for  the  re- 
ception of  General 
Victor,  who  was  to 
receive  the  formal 
transfer  of  Louisiana 
from  Spain.  Once  more  the  people  were  astir. 
They  knew  not  what  to  expect  of  the  lately 
established  Republican  Government  in  France. 

Purchase  of  Louisiana  by  the  United  States, 
April  30,  1803.  President  Jefferson  realized  the 
great  danger  to  the  United  States  in  having  a 
foreign  power  in 
possession  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. He  ap- 
pointed Monroe 
and  Livingston  to 
treat  with  Na- 
poleon for  the  pur- 
chase of  the  "Isle 
of  Orleans. ' '  Na- 
poleon refused  this 
offer,  but,  instead, 
proposed  to  sell  the 
whole  of  Louisiana 
for  fifteen  million 
dollars.  The  two 
eommissionei's  real- 
ized the  good  qual- 
ity of  the  bargain, 
and  made  the  pur- 
chase' April  30, 
1803,  trusting  to 
Jefferson  to  secure 


its  ratification  by  Congress.  This  Jefferson 
accomplished  the  following  October,  and  ob- 
tained the  authorization  to  take  possession  of 
the  ceded  territory. 

The  Transfers.    Instead  of  General  Victor's 
arrival  in  July,  came  the  news  to  New  Orleans 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON. 


%.  tJH^vv^ 


y  *|H|" 


V  i  J  o  \ 


COI'V  OF  .TBFF'F.RSON'S  PROOLAiUTION  OF  A  SPECIAL  SESSIOX  OF  CONGRESS  TO  RATIFY  THE 
PURCHASE  OF  LOUISLINA  FROM  FRANCE. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


23 


of  the  United  States'  purchase  of  Louisiana  in 
the  preceding  April.  On  November  30,  the 
troops  were  drawn  up  in  the  Place  d'Armes  and, 
in  the  hall  of  the  Cabildo,  Governor  Salcedo  de- 
livered the  keys  of  the  city 
to  Laussat.  Casa  Calvo 
addressed  the  people  in 
the  name  of  the  Spanish 
King,  and  released  them 
from  their  allegiance  to 
Spain;  the  Spanish  flag- 
was  lowered  and  that  of 
France  hoisted.  Twentj^ 
days  later  the  same  cere- 
mony took  place,  with  a 
change  in  the  drainatis 
personniie;  Laussat  trans- 
ferred the  province  to  the 
two  American  commis- 
sioners, Claiborne  and 
Wilkinson;  the  former 
took  charge  of  civil  affairs 
and  the  latter  of  the  mili- 
tary. With  such  sudden 
changes  of  nationalit}^,  in 
which  the  Louisianians 
were  handed  about  from 
one  nation  to  another, 
without  ever  being  con- 
sulted, is  it  any  wonder  that  they  appeared 
apathetic  and  uninterested? 


CESSION   OF  LOUISIANA  TO  THE   UNITED  STATES, 


SECTION  4.    AMERICAN  DOMINATION. 

1.   New  Orleans,  1803- '15. 

Commerce.  The  United  States'  purchase  of 
Louisiana  had  an  imme- 
diate effect  on  New  Or- 
leans trade.  The  first  half 
of  1803  showed  an  increase 
in  tonnage  of  thirty-seven 
per  cent  over  that  of  1802; 
the  exports  exceeded  two 
million  dollars  and  the  im- 
ports two  million  five  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars. 
The  flatboat  trade  became 
enormous;  their  mooring 
was  above  the  city,  along 
what  is  now  Tchoupi- 
toulas  street. 

Suburbs  or  Faubourgs. 
Above  the  Terre  Com- 
mune.  Common  street,  was 
Mme.  Grravier's  planta- 
tion, part  of  the  former 
Jesuit  grant.  In  1788, 
some  streets  were  opened 
and  lots  marked  off;  it 
grew  very  little  at  first, 
until  the  coming  of  the 
Americans;  it  then  became  the  commercial 
center  of  the  city.    The  street  names  commemor- 


A  VIEW  OF  NEW  OELEANS  FROM  THE  PLANTATION  OF  MAEIGNY,  1803. 


— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


24 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


ated  the  first  owners,  or  the  use  the  place  was 
put  to;  as,  for  example:  Uravier  street,  from 
Gravier,  the  original  owner;  Poydras  street, 
■from  the  great  philanthropist,  whose  home  was 
located  there;  Magazine  street,  from  the  Spanish 
name  for  the  great  tobacco  warehouse  that  stood 
on  Magazine  and  Common;  Camp  street,  from  a 
slave  camp  located  there,  between  Poydras  and 
Girod.  The  aristocratic  suburb  was  along  the 
Bayou  St.  John  road.  Below  the  Vieux  Carre 
was  the  Marigny  plantation,  which,  when  in- 
herited by  Bei'nard  Marigny,  was  opened  up  as 
a  fanlxmrg  and  settled  liy  the  French.  To-day 
it  is  one  of  the  most  densely  poinilated  ])ortions 
of  New  Orleans; 

Orleans  Territory,  March  26, 1804.  Congress 
divided  Ijouisiana  into  two 
parts;  the  extent  of  the  present 
state  was  known  as  Orleans  Ter- 
ritory. The  President  appointed 
a  legislative  council  and  named 
Claiborne  governor;  certain 
Spanish  land-gTants  were  nul- 
lified and  an  official  inspection 
made  of  all  titles ;  the  slave  trade 
was  interdicted.  The  Lonisiani- 
ans  became  indignant  at  the  last 
regulation;  insurrectionary  sen- 
timents were  placarded  on  the 
streets,  copied  by  crowds,  and 
when  the  police  attempted  to 
remove  them  they  were  driven 
away.  However,  the  trouble 
went  no  further.  But  slaves  con- 
tinued to  be  smuggled  in  by  way 
of  the  lakes  and  ditferent  bayous  gov.  w.  c. 

and  inlets. 

City  of  New  Orleans,  March,  1805.  New  Or- 
leans was  incorporated  as  a  city  bj-  the  charter 
of  March,  1805.  The  people,  in  electing  alder- 
men, exercised  their  right  of  suffrage  for  the 
first  time. 

Congress's  Concessions  to  Orleans  Territory. 
In  March,  1805,  Congress  allowed  the  people  of 
Oi'leans  Territory  to  elect  the  House  of  Eepre- 
sentatives,  and  promised  them  statehood  when 
the  population  should  equal  sixty  thousand 
souls. 

Restless  Spirit  in  City.  The  spirit  of  the 
l^dpulace  was  restless,  owing  to  the  unsettled 
conditions,  viz.,  the  war  between  Spain  and 
Great  Britain;  presence  of  Casa  Calvo  and 
Morales;  possibility  of  war  between  the  United 


States  and  Spain ;  and  malignant  hatred  of  some 
Americans.  Casa  Calvo  and  Morales  were  put 
out  of  the  colony  and  the  trouble  with  Spain 
passed  over.  Claiborne,  writing  to  the  Presi- 
dent in  November,  1806,  said:  "Were  it  not  for 
the  calumnies  of  some  Frenchmen,  who  are 
among  us,  and  the  intrigues  of  a  few  ambitious, 
unprincipled  men,  whose  native  language  is 
English,  I  do  believe  that  the  Louisianians 
would  be  very  soon  the  most  zealous  and  faith- 
ful members  of  our  Republic." 

Aaron  Burr's  Conspiracy.  In  June,  1805, 
Aaron  Burr  visited  New  Orleans;  he  brought 
letters  of  introduction  from  General  Wilkinson 
to  the  best  people.  Claiborne  tried  the  ensuing 
winter  to  strengthen  the  city  against  any  pos- 
sible outbreak  of  war  with 
Spain;  but  Wilkinson  withdrew 
into  Mississippi  a  whole  com- 
pany from  the  total  two  hundred 
twenty  soldiers.  The  governor 
of  Mississipi^i  warned  Claiborne 
to  beware  of  a  conspiracy.  In 
September,  Wilkinson  took 
charge  of  the  troops  at  Natchi- 
toches; there,  a  certain  Samuel 
Swartwout  brought  him  letters 
from  Burr.  On  October  20,  Wil- 
kinson wrote  to  President  Jef- 
ferson about  Burr's  nefarious 
schemes.  Then,  he  went  to  New 
Orleans,  demanded  of  Claiboi'ne 
the  establishment  of  martial  law 
and,  on  the  governor's  refusing, 
took  things  into  his  own  hands 
and  defied  governor  and  courts 
alike.  Aaron  Burr  was  captured 
near  Natchez  in  Mississippi;  being  released  on 
bond  to  appear  for  trial  at  the  next  territorial 
court,  he  left  Mssissippi;  he  was  recaptured  and 
tried  in  Virginia;  though  he  was  not  convicted, 
his  treasonalile  designs  were  defeated. 

West  Indian  Immigration.  The  population 
more  than  doubled  itself  between  1803  and  1810. 
The  war  between  France  and  Spain  caused 
many  whites  and  mulattos  of  San  Domingo  to 
become  exiles;  between  May  19  and  July  18, 
1809,  thirty-four  vessels  from  Cuba  brought  to 
New  Orleans  over  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
whites,  almost  as  many  free  persons  of  color, 
and  about  two  thousand  slaves;  in  all,  about  five 
thousand  seven  hundred  ninety-seven  souls. 
Others  followed  from  Cuba,  Guadeloupe,  and 


C;   CLAIBORNE. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


25 


other  islands,  until  the  total  reached  ten  thou- 
sand. Very  few  ever  left  the  city.  The  Creoles 
of  the  West  Indies  were  united  with  the  Creoles 
of  Louisiana  by  strong  ties;  they  had  the  same 
religion,  language,  and  political  ideas,  and  had 
met  with  similar  misfortune.  This  was  the 
period  of  Creole  domination;  the  city  had  few 
G-ernian  and  Irish  citizens;  the  two  thousand 
free  persons  of  color  were  an  indolent  class ;  the 
floating  population  of  sailors  from  all  parts, 
bargemen,  flatboatmen,  and  raftsmen  from  the 
wild  region  of  the  Tennessee,  Ohio,  and  Cum- 
lierland  Rivers,  were  unruly  and  riotous,  engag- 
ing in  riots  and  brawls, 
and  giving  themselves 
up  to  shameful  excesses 
on  completing  their 
journey.  Strife  i3er,- 
vaded  the  town.  A  riot 
was  nearly  caused  by  a 
newspaper  article  that 
reflected  on  Napoleon. 
Plays  were  put  upon  the 
theatre  boards  which 
caused  the  Ursulines  to 
appeal  to  the  governor 
for  protection  against 
public  derision. 

Batture  Riots  of  1806. 
Two  riots  occurred  over 
a  contest  between  the 
public  and  some  private 
citizens  for  possession 
of  the  batture  formed 
by  the  Mississippi  in 
front  of  Faubourg  St. 
Marie.  In  the  second 
riot,  September  15, 1807, 
after  the  Supreme  Court 
had  given  its  decision, 
the  people  gathered  by 
thousands  on  the  batture;  they  were  only  dis- 
persed by  the  patient  appeals  of  Governor  Clai- 
borne and  the  recommittal  of  the  case  to  the 
United  States  Courts.  In  August,  European 
and  American  seamen  met  in  a  skirmish  on  the 
levee.  "La  Lanterne  Magi  que"  was  edited  for 
the  purpose  of  publishing  libellous  attacks  on 
the  government.  Claiborne  asked  the  commander 
of  the  United  States  troops  in  Mississippi  to  send 
hiui  reinforcements. 

Admission  of  Louisiana  as  a  State,  April  30, 
1812.    The  population  of  Orleans  Territory  had 


now  reached  the  60,000-mark  required  by  Con- 
gress as  necessary  for  her  admission  as  a  state. 
A  convention  met  in  New  Orleans  in  November, 
1811,  to  draw  up  a  constitution;  it  was  adopted 
as  the  State  Constitution,  January  28,  1812,  and, 
on  the  following  April  30,  Louisiana  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  state. 

The  "New  Orleans."  January  10,  1812,  was 
a  red-letter  day  in  the  city 's  commercial  history. 
On  that  day,  the  "New  Orleans,"  a  steam-pro- 
pelled vessel,  built  by  Nicholas  I.  Eoosevelt  (a 
relative  6f  Ex-President  Roosevelt)  arrived  on 
her  maiden  trip  from  Pittsburg.  It  was  only 
five  years  previous  that 
Fulton  had  invented  the 
steamboat. 

Outlook  on  City's 
Future,  1812.  New  Or- 
leans' future  appeared 
assured  to  be  prosper- 
ous, once  international 
politics  should  be 
cleared.  Cotton,  by 
"Whitney's  invention  of 
the  gin  had  become  one 
of  the  world's  greatest 
industries.  Steam  navi- 
gation closely  united 
New  Orleans  with  the 
distant  parts  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.  State- 
hood confirmed  the 
people  in  the  possession 
of  their  government  and 
liberty. 

War  of  1812.  Eng- 
land's violation  of  the 
LTnited  States'  rights  as 
a  neuti-al  and  her  as- 
sumption of  the  right  to 
search  American  vessels 
and  impress  seamen  on  board,  whom  she  consid- 
ered English  citizens,  precipitated  war  between 
the  two  nations.  The  War  of  1812  was  the  after- 
math of  the  Revolutionary  War  and  settled  the 
remaining  disputed  points. 

Defenseless  Condition  of  New  Orleans.  New 
Orleans  was  left  imdefended  by  the  attempt  to 
make  Canada  the  seat  of  the  war.  Wilkinson 
was  ordered  to  occupy  that  part  of  Florida  west 
of  the  Perdido  River.  The  Creeks  massacred 
350  whites  at  Fort  Mimms,  Mississippi.  Drunken 
Choctaws  roamed  the  streets  of  New  Orleans.  La- 


JEAN  AND  PIERRE  LAFITTE   AND  DOMINIQUE  YOU. 
From  a  Portrait  by  Jarvis,  1812. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum, 


26 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


fitte  and  his  piratical  smugglers  held  Barataria 
Bay  and  appeared  daily  in  the  city.  Crevasses 
occurred,  as  well  as  fires.  Though  Claiborne 
labored  assiduously,  it  was  many  months 
before  he  could 
muster  the  1,000 
men  called  for  by 
the  President.  In 
the  meantime,  Na- 
poleon's abdication 
enabled  England  to 
throw  more  energy 
into  her  campaigns. 
In  August,  Con- 
gress ordered  Jack- 
son to  proceed  to 
New  Orleans  for 
its  defense.  The 
British  had  estab- 
lished themselves 
in  Florida  and 
were  offering  large 
rewards  to  all  who 
would  join  them, 
especially  the  Bara- 
tarians. 

The  Baratarians. 
The  Baratarians 
were  a  band  of 
French  and  South 
Americans,  who 
claimed  to  be  en- 
gaged in  smuggling, 
not  in  piracy.  The 
Lafitte  brothers  had 
obtained  control 
over  these  daring 
characters  and  or- 
ganized them  into  a 
band.  The  English 
failed  in  their  at- 
tempt to  secure 
their  assistance;  in- 
stead, Lafitte  of- 
fered their  services 
to  Claiborne,  who 
refused  them,  as 
Colonel  Eoss  were 
their    rendez-vous 


/»/>' 


Commodore  Patterson  and 
on  their  way  to  destroy 
on  Barataria  Bay.  This 
was  accomplished  a  few  days  later;  the  La- 
fittes  escaped  to  the  German  Coast,  while 
their  followers  made  use  of  any  available 
refuge. 


Andrew  Jackson's  Arrival.  The  arrival  of 
Andrew  Jackson  on  December  1st,  created  con- 
fidence and  enthusiasm  among  the  New  Or- 
leanians.  He  immediately  set  to  woi'k;  fortified 
Fort  St.  Phillip, 
demolished  its 
wooden  barracks, 
mounted  additional 
cannon ;  inspected 
the  countrj^  in  and 
about  the  city,  and 
instructed  Gov- 
ernor Claiborne  to 
have  obstructed  all 
bayous  on  the  "Isle 
of  Orleans"  lead- 
ing to  the  Gulf. 
Through  some  un- 
explained over- 
sight. Bayou  Bien- 
ville was  not  closed. 
By  December  14th, 
the  British  fleet  of 
eighty  sail,  led  by 
Cochrane,  the 
dreaded  ravager  of 
the  Atlantic  Coast, 
was  in  possession 
of  Lake  Borgne. 
Claiborne  informed 
the  Legislature  of 
the  arrival  of  the 
British  fleet  and  ad- 
vised its  adjourn- 
ment; the  Legisla- 
ture did  not  comply 
with  this  advice,  so 
Jackson,  declaring 
the  safety  of  the 
city  required  it, 
proclaimed  martial 
law.  Jackson  later 
was  fined  $1,000 
for  this,  but  was 
subsequently  re- 
imbursed by  the 
United  States  Government.  Jean  Lafitte  now 
offered  the  services  of  the  Baratarians  to  Jack- 
son, who  accepted  them.  Jackson's  armj'  was  a 
motley  crew;  every  man  capable  of  bearing  arms 
was  mustered  into  service;  it  was  5,000  strong, 
composed  of  Tennessee  riflemen  under  Generals 
Carroll  and  Coffee,  Creoles  and  French,  freemen 


ANDREW  JACKSON", 
liniature  presented  by  Andrew  Jackson  to  Edward  Livingston,   March  1,   1815, 
painted  by  Jean  Francois  Valle  in  New  Orleans,  by  Jackson's  orders, 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


%/a.<^ 


%4o-> 


FAC-SIMILE    OF    NOTE    F'ROM    ANDREAV   JAClvSON   TO    EDWARD    LIVINGSTON. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


27 


o£  color,  Ghoctaw  Indians,  even  prison  inmates. 

The  streets  resounded  with  "Yankee  Doodle," 

"La  Marseillaise,"  and  "Le  Chant  du  Depart." 

Advance    of   the    British.     Cochrane    com- 


from  being  tarnished  with  the  suspicion  of  his 
being  in  league  with  the  British.  He  made  a 
bold  dash  for  liberty,  sped  past  his  guards,  and, 
unscathed  by  the  shower  of  bullets  sent  after 


A  GENERAL  MAP  OF  THE  SEAT  OF  WAR  IN  LOUISIANA  AND  WEST  FLORIDA. 


-Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


manded  the  fleet  and  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  the 
land  forces;  in  all,  9,600  veterans  of  Welling- 
ton's famed  Peninsular  campaign.  Eeconnois- 
sance  of  Lake  Borgne  revealed  the  unclosed 
entrance  to  Bayou  Bienvenue; 
the  Amei'ican  picket  stationed 
there  was  easily  overpowered, 
and  the  English  boats  passed 
up  the  bayou  into  Villere's 
canal.  At  half-past  eleven  in 
the  morning,  Greneral  Keane's 
division  came  out  upon  the 
open  plain  at  the  rear  of  Gen- 
eral Villere's  plantation,  seized 
the  home,  and  formed  their 
camp.  There  was  not  a  foot  of 
fortification  between  the  En- 
glish camp  and  New  Orleans. 
General  Villere  had  been  locked 
up  in  his  home.  He  realized 
the  necessity  of  informing 
Jackson  of  the  location  of  the 
British  in  order  to  save  New 
Orleans    and    save    his    honor 


him,  reached  the  swamp  forest  in  the  rear.  Here 
he  hid  in  the  thick  moss  up  in  the  trees  until  the 
English  gave  up  the  search;  his  faithful  dog- 
having  followed  him,  he  was  forced  to  end  his 
life  in  order  to  keep  his  hiding- 
place  in  the  tree  concealed.  He 
reached  the.  city  in  time  to  in- 
form Jackson  of  the  enemy's 
advance.  General  Villere 's  foot 
race,  though  little  known,  was 
far  more  hazardous  than  Paul 
Revere 's  midnight  ride.  The 
English,  by  halting  for  re- 
inforcements, gave  Jackson 
time  to  prepare  for  them.  That 
evening,  he  sent  the  schooner, 
Carolina,  to  open  her  broad- 
sides on  the  British  camp,  while 
he  attacked  by  land.  The  fight- 
ing lasted  until  stopped  by  the 
weather.  The  next  morning, 
Jackson  removed  two  miles 
nearer  to  New  Orleans,  to  Rod- 
riguez's canal;  here,  he  estab- 


GEN.   JACQUES  VILLERE. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum, 


28 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


lisliecl  his  fortifications,  threw  up  breastworks, 
dug  trenches,  and  put  his  ten  g-uns  to  oppose  the 
twenty-eight  of  the  British.  Skirmishing 
occurred  nearly  every  day;  but  still  the  enemy 
made  no  great  attack.  Their  delay  strengthened 
Jackson's  army.  On 
December  30th,  300 
Acadians  arrived ;  two 
days  later,  500  men  from 
Baton  Eouge;  on  Janu- 
ary 2nd,  250  Kentuck- 
ians,  poorly  clad  and 
armed;  the  citizens  of 
New  Orleans  immedi- 
ately collected  $16,000, 
which  was  spent  for 
clothing  for  them,  the 
garments  being  made  by 
the  women  of  the  city. 

Battle  of  New  Or- 
leans, January  8,  1815. 
General  Lambert's  di- 
vision at  last  arrived. 
The  British  planned  to 
make  four  simultaneous 
attacks:  one  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  river 
and  three  on  the  New 
Orleans  side.  The  first 
attack  was  delayed,  the 
time  allowed  the  troops 
being  too  short;  hence, 
though  it  was  success- 
ful, it  occurred  too  late 
to  be  of  any  help.  The 
English  formed  about 
400  yards  from  the 
American  line,  in  a  close 
column  of  sixty  men 
front;  burdened  with 
heavy  fascines  of  ripe 
sugar-cane,  ladders,  and 
weighty  knap-sacks, 
they  could  move  but 
slowly;  with  three 
cheers  they  were  liter- 
ally led  to  the  slaughter. 
The  accuracy  of  the 
American  fire  tore  out  whole  files  of  men.  The 
British  retreated  and  formed  again,  to  meet 
with  worse  defeat.  The  soldiers  could  not  be 
rallied  for  a  third  attack.  Sir  Edward  Paken- 
ham  and  General    Gibbs    had   fallen  mortally 


wounded,  and  General  Keane  was  severely  in- 
jured; this  left  General  Lambert  in  command. 
The  English  continued  the  fire  from  their  bat- 
teries until  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon;  but 
the  Battle  of  New  Orleans  was  over  at  nine- 


PLAN 

OF  THE  ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  LINES 

Below  New  Orleans,  on  the  8th  January,  1815. 


MAP   SHOWING  THE   LANDING  Of  THE   BUmSH   ARMY. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


thirty  in  the  morning,  when  the  attempt  to  storm 
the  American  line  was  abandoned,  one  hour 
after  the  signal  had  been  given  to  begin 
fighting.  January  9-18,  an  ineffectual  attack 
was  made  on  Fort  St.  Philip.    The  only  explan- 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


29 


ation  for  the 
defeat  of  so 
splendid  an 
army  by  so 
poor  a  one,  is 
in  the  deadly 
marksmanship 
of  the  Ken- 
tucky sharp- 
shooters and 
the  slowness 
of  the  Britsih 
advance. 

Effects    of 
the  Great  Vic- 
tory.   Eejoic- 
ing    in    New 
Orleans    knew 
no  bounds.    A 
public  recep- 
tion  in    the 
Place  d'Armes 
was    tendered 
General  Jack- 
son,    during 
which  he  was, 
as  the  victors 
of  old,  crowned 
with  laurel; he 
then   attended 
the    solemn 
services    of 
thanksgiving- 
held  in  the  Ca- 
thedral. There 
was    little    to 
mar   the   gen- 
eral   joy,    as 
only  six  of  the 
defenders  had 
been    killed 
and    seven 
wounded.  The 
kindly    assist- 
ance    that 
would    have 
been  given  to 
their  own  was 
generously  ex- 
tended to  the 
thousands   of 
English   dead 
and  wounded. 


iJI^Jl^iiBBBB 


?y%r  1"      J}  \-\  \  \    ■■■■SB    ' 

'"^^ 'j' -' "ll   '    *'.  r^BBBBBB 

,' ■  \^'::/.'f*'rr~^'^~^'^\  sbbbbbB 
'A'  '.,vr,;-:j;/Onnn  ifBiBBB 


30 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


On  February  13,  1815,  Admiral  Coclirane  wrote 
General  Jackson  tliat  a  treaty  of  peace  liad  been 
signed  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  on  December  24,  1814.  Jackson  received 
the  official  news  on  the  following  March  17th. 
On  March  16th,  Claiborne  wrote  to  Mr.  Monroe, 
Secretary  of  War,  as  follows:  "Our  harbor 
is  again  whitening  with  canvas;  the  levee  is 
crowded  with  cotton,  tobacco,  and  other  articles 
for  exportation.  The  merchant  seems  delighted 
with  the  prospect  before  him;  the  agriculturist 
finds  in  the  high  price  for  his  products  new  ex- 
citements to  industry."  The  discordant  elements 
from  that  time  gradually  became  welded  into 
one  harmonious  whole.  The  patriotism  of  the 
Creoles  was  no  longer  doubted.  Fighting  side 
by  side  on  the  battlefield  developed  a  feeling  of 
brotherhood  between  the  Creoles  and  Ameri- 
cans, and  union  of  the  two  people  by  intermar- 
riage cemented  the  bond  thus  established. 


2.     FROM  1815- '60. 

Commerce,  1815- '40.  Steam  navigation  first 
appeared  on  the  Mississippi  in  1812.  A  move- 
ment was  started  after  the  War  of  1812  to  have 
the  steamboats  ply  on  the  river.  In  1817,  1,500 
flatboats  and  500 
barges  brought  the 
produce  of  the 
great  valley  to  New 
Orleans ;  four  years 
later,  287  steam- 
boats, 441  flatboats, 
and  174  barges 
moored  along  the 
city 's  river  front. 
The  Faubourg  Ste. 
Marie,  the  Ameri- 
can section  of  the 
city,  became  the 
trade   center;  be- 


ports  and  exports  were  valued  at  $17,000,000. 
The  value  of  trade  increased  75  per  cent  be- 
tween 1820  and  1830,  and  by  1835  was  valued  at 
$53,000,750;  this  increase  was  partly  due  to  the 
extraordinary  rise  in  prices  throughout  the 
country. 

Credit  System  in  Business.  There  was  an 
evei'-incr easing  demand  for  cotton,  and  the  rich 
agricultural  resources  of  Arkansas,  Mississippi, 
and  Louisiana  offered  great  returns  even  for  the 
investment  of  borrowed  money.  Thus  the  credit 
system  became  the  rule  among  the  cotton,  sugar 
and  tobacco  planters  of  these  sections.  New  Or- 
leans advanced  them  millions  in  money  at  a  high 
rate  of  interest,  and  huge  quantities  of  supplies 
which  were  kept  on  hand  in  the  citj^  In  this  way. 
New  Orleans  merchants  and  bankers  enslaved 
the  agricultural  community,  who  were  able  to 
buy  and  sell  only  through  them.  Eeckless  bor- 
rowing and  lending  kept  the  planter  in  constant 
debt  and  the  city  without  capital.  Planters' 
notes  were  based  on  the  value  of  their  slaves  and 
tilled  lands  and,  regarded  by  results,  were  al- 
most imaginary;  but  the  system  caused  a  great 
(amount  of  business,  which  in  turn  called  in  num- 
berless immigrants. 

Population.  People  came  in  from  every  part 
of  the  Imion  and  Europe;  from  33,000.  in  1815, 
the  population  in- 
creased to  41,000 
in  1820.  But  the 
morals  were  very 
lax.  The  Creoles  at- 
tributed this  to  the 
immigrants;  Gov- 
ernor Villere  issued 
a  special  message 
lie  cause  of  the 
' '  scandalous  prac- 
tices  almost,  at 
every  instant  tak- 
ing place  in  New 
Orleans    and    its 


r>QnCQ     nf    +>.Q     clool-     VIE^^•,  AS  IT  APPEARS  TO-DAY,  OF  THE  BANK   OF  LOUISIANA  BUILDING,  CORNER   „,,  1,  ,,„  1,  „     ))       a  t,  A 
L-dLlSt;     Ul      inn     feiaCis.  OF  royal  and  CONTI  streets,  erected  in  1826.  OLIUUIUO,  clUU 


water   in   front   of 

its  batture,  the  flatboats  moored  there;  thence 
arose  great  storehouses  for  the  products  brought 
down  from  the  valley.  The  Vieux  Carre  re- 
tained control  of  the  trade  in  coffee,  indigo, 
sugar,  rice,  foreign  fruits  and  wines;  but  cotton, 
tobacco,  pork,  beef,  corn,  flour,  and  northern 
and  British  materials  were  received  into  the 
American  section.    In  1825,  New  Orleans  im- 


stated, ' '  Indeed,  we 
should  be  cautious  in  receiving  all  foreigners. 
The  great  increase  in  population  was  due,  in 
large  measure,  to  the  previous  simple  trade 
quadrupling  itself.  However,  the  increase  in 
population  was  not  proportionate  to  that  in  com- 
merce, largely  due  to  the  absence  of  manufac- 
tures ;  between  1830  and  1840,  the  trade  adanved 
75  per  cent  and  the  population  only  20  per  cent. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


31 


Tn  this  same  period,  Baltimore's  population  ad- 
vanced 25  per  cent,  Philadelphia's  39  per  cent, 
and  New  York's  67  per  cent.  The  number  of 
inhabitants  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  increased 
57  per  cent,  without  any  large  towns  arising. 
Travelers  declared  the  extensive  immorality  was 
due  to  the  San  Domingo  influence  in  carrying 
pleasures  to  excess  and  in  their  passion  for 
gambling  and  duelling.  South  American  fili- 
busters made  New  Orleans  their  headquarters. 

Position  of  New  Orleans  Among  Cities  of  the 
United  States.  In  1840,  New  Orleans  was  fourth 
in  population,  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Bal- 
timore taking  the  lead.  In  1847- '48,  she  actually 
exceeded  New  York  in  exports  of  domestic 
products,  and  in  total  exports  was  surpassed 
only  by  New  York;  but  her  imports  were  far 
less;  New  York  imported  ten  times  as  much  and 
Boston  over  three  times;  her  principal  imports 
were  coffee,  iron,  hardware,  and  French  fancy 
fabrics.  By  1850,  Boston  had  taken  fourth  place 
among  the  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  New 
Orleans  dropped  to  fifth. 

Cause  of  Loss  of  Valley's  Trade.  The  open- 
ing of  the  Erie  Canal,  1825,  connecting  Lake 
Erie,  by  way  of  Buffalo,  with  New  York  City, 
and  of  the  Ohio  Canal,  1832, 
linking  the  Ohio  River  to 
Lake  Erie,  established  a 
short,  easy,  and  safe  com- 
munication between  the  Ohio 
Valley  and  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  thereby  with 
Europe.  It  was  only  a 
natural  consequence  that  the 
Ohio  Valley  trade  should 
take  this  quicker  and  less 
hazardous  course  to  the  New 
York  markets  and  thence  to  the  ta 

T-,  •        1         T        p    n         ^  Clipper  eiig'iig'ed  in  sluv 

Europe,  mstead  oi  the  long, 
dangerous  one  to  New  Or- 
leans and  then  through  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
around  Florida,  and  across  the  Atlantic  to 
Europe.  The  establishment  of  these  canals 
opened  up  a  direct  course  to  the  world's  centers. 
In  1835,  Ohio  State  sent  86,000  barrels  of  flour, 
98,000  bushels  of  wheat,  and  2,500,000  staves 
through  Buffalo  to  the  Atlantic  ports.  A  second 
factor  in  alienating  the  valley  trade  from  New 
Orleans  was  the  danger  to  navigation  on  the 
Mississippi  and  Ohio  Elvers;  1824- '27,  property 
loss  on  the  two  rivers  aggregated  one  and  one- 


ably  reduced  by  the  Federal  Government's 
efforts.  The  sinking  of  a  steamer  in  1837  caused 
the  loss  of  300  lives;  numerous  other  tragedies 
occurred,  giving  river  navigation  ill-fame. 
Again,  the  cost  of  running  steamboats  on  these 
rivers  was  six  times  as  heavy  as  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  Neither  were  the  mouths  of  the  Missis- 
sippi clear;  sand  bars  continually  formed  and,  ■ 
in  this  period.  Northeast  Pass,  considered  the 
deepest,  had  a  depth  of  twelve  feet.  The  open- 
ing of  railroad  communication  after  1840  severed 
the  last  tie  that  bound  the  northern  valley  com- 
merce to  New  Orleans. 

Three  Municipalities.  With  all  good-will,  it 
seemed  impossible  for  the  Creoles  and  Amer- 
icans to  agree;  jealousies,  party  spirit,  language, 
customs,  nationality,  all  militated  against  ac- 
cord. The  strife  culminated  in  1836,  in  the 
division  of  the  city  into  three  municipalities: 
old  town,  "Vieux  Carre"  formed  the  first 
municipality;  Faubourg  Ste.  Marie,  the  second; 
and  Faubourg  Marig-ny,  the  third.  The  gov- 
ernments were  distinct  and  had  independent ' 
powers,  but  there  were  a  mayor  and  general 
council  for  the  whole  city.  Faubourg  Ste.  Marie 
immediately  took  and  held  the  lead. 

Slavery — Effects.  The  in- 
stitution of  slavery,  of  its 
very  nature,  is  an  obstacle  to 
industrial  development.  The 
African  slave  labor  in  and 
about  New  Orleans  was  also 
of  a  most  inferior  grade. 
Wild  men,  as  were  these 
negroes,  do  not  become  civil- 
ized and  masters  of  crafts  in 
one  generation.  Slavery 
kept  out  the  class  of  im- 
migrants that  were  adepts  in 
mechanical  and  productive 
arts,  the  people  who  rapidly 
develop  a  nation's  resources.  One-third  of  the 
increase  in  population  between  1830  and  1840 
was  composed  of  slaves  and  free  persons  of 
color;  this  last  class,  under  the  conditions  of  the 
times,  were  a  heavy  burden ;  the  remaining  two- 
thirds  of  the  increase  were  Irish  and  Germans 
of  the  very  poorest  class. 

Financial  Crisis,  1836- '37.  The  downfall  of 
the  United  States  Bank,  establishment  of  mul- 
titudes of  poorly  capitalized  banks,  and  wild 
specvilation  in  land,   caused   a   terrible   money 


LLULAIT. 

s  tRule  to  Now  Oi'leaus. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum 


third  millions;  these  losses  were  later  consider-    crisis  throughout  the  United.  States.  There  were 


32 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


few  banks  in  New  Orleans;  with  a  little  over 
$2,500,000  in  their  vaults,  they  had  $7,000,000 
in  circulation,  and  were  purported  to  have  a 
capital  of  $37,000,000.  Their  failure  prostrated 
the  city.  So  strong  a  sentiment  against  banks 
arose  that  the  Constitutional  Convention,  then 
in  session,  provided  that  no  banking  corporation 
should  be  established  in  Louisiana;  thus  the 
banking  monopoly  was  given  to  a  few  houses 
that  bore  up  under  the  financial  stress  and  re- 
sumed payment  of  specie  in  1843  with  $4,500,000 
in  their  vaults  and  $1,250,000  in  circulation.  The 
city,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  then  ex- 
ported over  1,000,000  bales  of  cotton. 

Railroads.  The  first  railroad  was  completed 
in  New  Orleans  in  1830;  it  ran  out  Elysian 
Fields  and  connected  the  city  with  Milneburg. 
Captain  Grant,  the  builder  of  the  road,  was  the 
originator  of  the  raised  platform;  it  was  not 
until  1858  that  it  was  adopted  throughout  Eng- 
land and  Europe.  Later  in  the  thirties  there 
were  two  unsuccessful  railroad  schemes,  namely, 
'the  "New  Orleans  and  Nashville"  and  the 
"Mexican  Grulf."  The  last  was  to  develop  the 
waters  about  Cat  Island  into  a  harbor  for  large 
vessels  coming  from  the  East  to  New  Orleans, 
and  thus  shorten  the  journey  between  New  York 
and  New  Orleans;  it  never  got  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  next  parish.  In  1837,  two  railroads  were 
planned  to  join  New  Orleans  to  the  great  central 
railroad  system  of  the  United  States  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  and  with  Texas;  the  first  was  to 
stretch  nortliHo  Jackson,  Mississippi ;  the  second, 
westerly  to  Opelousas, 
Louisiana.  The  state  as- 
sisted both  enteriDrises, 
and  by  1855  the  first  and 
by  1857  the  second  ex- 
tended eighty  miles 
from  the  city. 

City  Expansion.  The 
ancient  fortifications 
disappeared  about  1808. 
The  city  spread  out 
above  and  below  along 
the  river  bank.  New 
streets  were  cut;  they 
were  wider  than  the 
old  ones,  especially 
those  in  the  American 
quarter,  and,  after  1820, 
paved  with  brick  or 
iStoiie,     The     battiire 


being  formed  by  the  river  in  front  of  the 
Faubourg  Ste.  Marie,  was  taken  and  built 
up  for  business  purposes.  Before  the  eighties, 
the  expansion  was  entirely  along  the  river,  fol- 
lowing the  line  of  commerce.  The  little  town 
of  Algiers,  on  the  river,  opposite  the  second 
municipality,  began  to  develop  its  marine  work- 
shops. 

Period  of  Architectural  Improvement.  Archi- 
tects and  builders  were  busy  erecting  halls, 
churches,  schools,  stores,  markets,  warehouses, 
banks,  hotels,  and  theatres.  In  1830,  the  parish 
prison  of  stuccoed  brick  was  erected  in  the  rear 
of  Beauregard  Square;  the  same  year,  the  vege- 
table division  was  added  to  French  Market,  and 
a  little  later  St.  Mary's,  Washington,  and  Poy- 
dras  markets  were  built.  In  1835,  the  new  United 
States  Barracks,  on  the  city's  lower  limits,  were 
completed  and  called  Jackson  Barracks.  The 
Charity  Hospital  was  moved  from  Canal  street 
to  a  building  erected  at  a  cost  of  $150,000,  on 
Common  street;  the  old  structure  became  the 
State  House.  Two  extensive  cotton  presses  and 
warehouses  were  put  up,  costing,  respectively, 
$500,000  and  $758,000.  A  branch  of  the  United 
States  mint  was  established  on  the  site  of  the 
former  Fort  St.  Charles,  corner  of  Esplanade 
and  Peters.  Banks'  Arcade  was  built  in  1833; 
it  was  an  unusual  structure,  a  glass-roofed  court 
in  the  middle  of  the  St.  James  Hotel  in  Maga- 
zine, iTsed  for  mercantile  purposes.  Three  years 
later  the  Merchants'  Exchange  was  completed 
in  Royal  street  and  a  post-office  established  in 


UNITED  STATES  MINT. 


-Courtesy  Southern  Pacific  E.  5- 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


33 


it.  Dakin  and  Gallier,  architects,  erected  the  far- 
famed  old  St.  Charles  Hotel  in  1837,  at  a  cost  of 
$600,000;  this  firm  also  built  the  City  Hall,  State 
House  at  Baton  Rouge,  and  Opera  House. 
Diagonally  opposite  the  St.  Charles,  E.  0. 
Pritchard  put  up  the  Verandah  Hotel  at  a  cost 
of  $300,000.  The  St.  Louis  Hotel  was  constructed 
at  the  same  time 
on  Toulouse  street 
by  Depouilly. 
Many  churches 
were  built;  the 
FirstPresbyterian 
Church  on  Lafa}'- 
ette  Square,  the 
Carondelet  Meth- 
odist Church,  cor- 
ner of  Carondelet 
and  Poydras, 
Christ  Church  on 
Canal  street,  and, 
above  all,  reared 
the  lofty  and  beau- 
tiful tower  of  St. 
Patrick's  Church. 
Mr.  James  H . 
Caldwell  erected 
two  theatres;  the 

first  on  Camp  street,  and,  in  1839,  the  St.  Charles 
Theatre  at  a  cost  of  $350,000.  The  Commercial, 
Atchafalaya,  Canal,  and  City  Banks  were  built. 
The  present  City  Hall  was  the  Second  Munici- 
pality's Town  Hall.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment  had  the  present  Custom  House  erected; 
General  Beauregard  supervised  the  construction 
of  both  the  Mint  and  the  Cus- 
tom House.  One  of  the  towers 
having  fallen,  the  Cathedral 
was  renovated  in  1850.  Six 
years  later  the  Jesuits  erected 
their  beautiful  church  in  Ba- 
ronne  street.  Many  charitable 
institutions  were  founded; 
namely,  the  Poydras  Orphan 
Asylum,  French  Orphan  Asy- 
lum, Fireman's  Charitable  As- 
sociation, Howard  Association, 
Stone's  Hospital,  and  Many 
others. 

European  Immigration.  New  Orleans  shared 
with  New  York  the  influx  of  European  im- 
migrants to  western  lands;  between  1845  and 
1850,  they  averaged  30,000   per   year.     Man^ 


JACKSON  SQUARE  AS  IT  APPEARED  IN  183S 


located  in  the  city;  in  1842,  the  population  was 
said  to  be  "largely  mixed  with  Germans."  This 
immigration  militated  against  slavery  because 
of  the  superior  service  rendered  by  the  white 
immigrants.  In  the  decade,  1840- '50,  the  num- 
ber of  slaves  decreased  by  5,330. 

Mulatto  Exodus.  The  free  mulattoes  were 
nearly  one  -  third 
as  numerous  as 
the  whites  in  1840. 
They  were  held  in 
contempt  by  all, 
especially  by  the 
Americans.  The 
abolition  move- 
ment created  an 
antagonistic  sen- 
timent towards 
them.  The  result 
was  that  during 
the  decade  more 
than  9,000  left  the 
city.  No  evidence 
has  been  foimd  of 
their  ever  return- 
ing. Their  de- 
parture raised  the 
proportion  of 
whites  in  the  community  from  58  per  cent  to 
78  per  cent. 

City  of  Lafayette.  In  1833,  the  three  subiirbs, 
Lafayette,  Livaudais,  and  Eeligieuses,  rmited 
to  form  the  City  of  Lafayette.  The  Fourth  Dis- 
trict occupies  the  site  of  the  City  of  Lafayette. 
Many  of  the  wealthy  citizens  of  New  Orleans 
moved  into  it  and  built  beau- 
tiful homes,  large  and  airy,  in 
the  midst  of  gardens  and  large 
trees.  They  settled  to  the  rear 
of  the  town,  while  the  im- 
migrant German  and  Irish  la- 
borers gathered  along  the  river 
front.  In  1850,  the  population 
of  Lafayette  consisted  of  12,319 
whites  and  1,871  colored. 

Modern  Improvements.   Gas 
was  first  used  in  1833   (Chap. 
XVI.).     Water     Supply     and 
Drainage,    (Chap.  IIL).    Tele- 
graph, (Chap.  v.).  Eailway,  (Chap.  V.).  Paving, 
(Chap.  XVL). 

Finances.  The  separation  of  the  city  into  three 
municipalities  does  not  seem  to  have  improved  its 


rtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


STKEET   liAILROAD   CAR    IV   ISoS. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum 


34 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


finances.  Aggregate  debt  in  1852  was  $7,700,000.  from  tlie  interior  were  A^alued  at  $45,700,000; 

Assessments  and  taxation  were  unsatisfactory,  tliey  increased  rapidly,  and  in  1851  were  esti- 

Modern  bond  systems  were  not  used.  Tlie  people  mated  to  be  worth  $107,000,000.     The  tobacco 

demanded  a  change  in  the  government  of  the  city,  trade  was  given  new  life.     One-tenth  of  the 


'XX  < 


m^i 


1 


■"    I  -^^-i  ,-j^y>^' 


mp^'>' 


■^ 


^ 


MAP   OF  LOUISIANA,   1849. 


-Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


Union  of  Municipalities.    Tlie  result  was  the  arrivals  by  sea  were  steamships.     This  trade 

union  of  the  three  mimicipalities  and  the  City  was  carried  on,  despite  the  danger  facing  ves- 

of  Lafayette  into  one  city.     The  city  was  gov-  sels  entering  the  river.    In  the  space  of  a  few 

erned  by  a  mayor  and  two  chambers,  aldermen  weeks  in  1852,  foi*ty  ships  went  agTound  at  the 


and  assistant  alder- 
men; there  were  a 
comptroller,  sur- 
veyor, and  street 
commissioner.  By 
April  1,  1853,  this 
government  had 
paid  off  over  $4,000,- 
000  of  the  city  debt. 
The  rotunda  of  the 
St.  Charles  Hotel 
took  the  position 
formerly  held  by  the 
St.  Louis  Bourse  and 
became  the  city's 
unofficial  guild  hall. 
Commerce,  1840- 
'60.  In  1842,  receipts. 


CANAL  STREET,  ROYAL  TO  BOIJEBGN,  1846. 

-^Oourtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


entrance  to  the  river. 
The  terrible  yellow 
fever  scourges  of 
1853-  '55  reduced  the 
volume  of  the  trade. 
This  was  regained, 
?nd  a  high -water 
mark  reached  in 
1857.  The  financial 
crash  followed. 
Fifty-eight  mercan- 
tile houses  failed, 
and  in  the  course  of 
the  next  year  forty- 
five  more.  But  the 
failures  in  New  Or- 
leans were  as  noth- 
ing to  those  in  New 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


35 


York,  which  recorded  1,321,  and  iu  Boston,  376. 
Imports  and  exports  were  reduced  $36,000,000. 

Obstacles  to  Progress.  There  were  three 
great  obstacles  to  progress,  namely,  inundations, 
epidemics,  and  the  dangerous  condition  of  the 


ORLEANS  ALLEY. 


Ilirin  I\HiHc  U.  U. 


entrance  to  the  river  resulting  from  shallow 
water  and  the  formation  of  sand  bars,  (Chap. 
I.);  Epidemics,  (Chap.  IV.);  Condition  of 
entrance  to  river,  (Chap.  VI.). 

Education.  The  Public  School  system  was 
established  in  1841;  then  occurred  a  period  of 
Library  development,  (Chap.  XII.). 

Homes.  The  homes  of  this  period  varied 
from  the  slave's  cabin  to  the  palatial  mansion 
in  the  Vieux  Carre  The  homes  of  the  Amer- 
icans provided  the  comforts  afforded  by  the 
times,  but  were  devoid  of  luxuries.  French 
mirrors,  beautiful  carpets,  handsome  furniture, 
fine  china  and  silverware  were  found  in  wealthy 
houses  in  the  old  city.  The  Americans,  more 
frugal  than  their  neighbors,  were  more  engrossed 
iu  making  money  than  in  money  spending.  The 


houses  were  lighted  of  an  evening  by  candles  and 
oil  lamps;  the  former  were  often  supported  in 
handsome  candelabra  (girondoles)  trimmed  with 
scintillating  crystal  drops;  the  oil  lamp  was  ever 
on  the  center  table.  Young  ladies  dressed  by  the 
light  of  candles  held  by  the  slave  girls  at  differ- 
ent needful  angles.  The  furniture  was  covered 
with  haircloth  meant  to  withstand  the  ravages  of 
time:  Of  all  famed  pieces  of  furniture  of  those 
days,  the  most  noted  is  the  four-posted  bed, 
sometimes  piled  so  high  with  mattresses  as  to- 
call  for  a  miniature  step-ladder  with  which  to 
scale  its  sides ;  the ' '  tester, ' '  to  quote  Mrs.  Ripley, 
"was  ornamented  with  a  wall  paper  stuff,  a 
wreath  of  imposisble  red  and  yellow  roses,  big 
as  saucers,  stamped  on  it,  and  four  strands  of 
same  roses  reaching  to  the  four  corners  of  the 
monsti'osity";  some  "swells  had  testers  covered 
Avith  silk."  Open  fireplaces  with  a  crane  served 
in  the  kitchen  until  about  1840,  when  stoves 
began  to  be.  used.  The  households  were  very 
busy;  all  sewing  was  done  at  home;  there  were 
no  ready-to-wear  garments  then;  even  the  men's 
shirts,  elaborately  tucked  and  beruffled  affairs, 
collars  and  cuffs,  were  made  at  home.    The  cast- 


TYPIOAL  HOMES  IN  THE  VIEUX  C  iRRl     ERI  CILD  DURING 

THE  FIRST  HALF  OF  THE  NINETEENTIi  CENTURY. 

Note  the  handsome  wroiight-iron  balustrades. 

off  clothes  of  the  larger  were  turned  out  as 
the  Sunday  best  of  the  smaller  members  of  the 
family. 

Hotels.     An  important  feature  of  New  Or- 
leans in  ante-bellum  days,  was  the  brilliant  hotel 


36 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


life.    The  habit  of  the  planters  in  bringing  their     one  of  the  great  political  centers  outside  Wash- 
families  to  the  city   for   the   festivities  of  the     ington.     The   Okl   St.   Louis,   like   the  Old  St. 


winter  season  developed 
this  mode  of  living.  This 
life  centered  about  the 
St.  Charles  Hotel,  in  the 
Second  Municipality, 
and  in  the  St.  Louis 
Hotel  in  the  old  town. 
These  were  the  first  of 
the  great  American 
hotels  and  became  mer- 
cantile and  political,  as 
well  as  social  centers. 
Noted  travelers  praised 
the  St.  Charles  enthusi- 
astically. Oakey  Hall 
wrote  of  it:  "Put  the  St. 
Charles  down  in  St. 
Petersburg,  and  you 
would  think  it  a  palace; 
in  Boston,  and  ten  to 
one  you  would  christen 
it  a  college;  in  London, 
and  it  would  marvel- 
ously  remind  you  of  an 
exchange ;  in  Ne  w  Or- 
leans, it  is  all  three." 
Lady  Wortley,  an  En- 
glish litterateur  and 
traveler,  declared  she 
had  not  found  a  finer 
piece  of  architecture  in 


'ILlliHIIMm 

1 

raY^  N 

^M) 

1 

U 

bR^ 

5^3 

1 

1 

HL 

1 

ti 

^™ 

1 

B 

^■^n 

1 

1 

^p 

M 

9 

H 

nt-iiS^  >»i' 

1 

■ 

H 

1 

1 

Charles,  was  grander 
than  its  successor; 
Canova,  the  son  of  the 
great  Italian  sculptor, 
had  decorated  the 
splendid  rotunda.  It 
was  burned  ten  years 
before  its  rival,  and 
was  immediately  re- 
built. Society  gathered 
here  for  some  of  the 
most  famed  balls  in  its 
histoiy.  Here,  in  the 
winterof  1842-'43,  was 
given  the  wonderful 
subscription  ball  in 
honor  of  Henry  Clay, 
wlien  200  guests  were 
entertained  at  a  ball 
and  supper  at  a  cost  of 
$20,000. 

Lake  Resorts.  Three 
lake  resorts  were 
opened  up  during  this 
period,  namely,  Milne- 
burg,  Spanish  Fort, 
and  one  a  few  miles 
above  Wes.t  End. 
Hotels  and  restaurants 
flourished  at  all.  Span- 
ish Fort  occupied  the 


COURTYARD  IN  VIEUX  CARRE. 

—Courtesy  Southern  Pacific  R.  R. 

the  new  world  than  its  wonderful    dome    and     site  of  the  old  fort  erected  by  Governor  Caron- 
Corinthian  portico.     The  St.  Charles  was  de-     delet  for  the  defense  of  the  entrance  to  Bayou 

stroyed  by  fire  in St.  John.     It  was  at  Milneburg  that 

1851,  but"  imme-  I  friends  and  admirers  of  the  great  En- 

diately  rebuilt,  K^  glish    noveUst,   "William    Makepeace 

though    on    a  «^^V.  Thackeray,  entertained  him  at  a  sump- 

lesser  scale;  the  l«i^  tuous  dinner, 

famed  dome, 
which  was  sec- 
ond in  size  in  the 
United  States 
only  to  that  of 
capitol  in  Wash- 
ington, was  omit- 
ted from  the  new 
edifice.  This  ro- 
tunda had  been 
the  great  center 
of  the  city's  life. 
Parlor   P.   was 


FIRST  ST.   CHARLES   HOTEL. 

: — Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


SECOND  ST.  LOUIS  HOTEL, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


37 


Clubs.  Club  life  began  in  New  Orleans  in  1832 
with  the  organization  of  the  Elkin  Club.  Its  head- 
quarters were  in  a  hostelry  at  the  mouth  of  Bayou 
St.  John,  which  had  been  formerly  conducted 

by     one 
JT-^  ^~--       ~  ,,.,.......-.,      ii^Yvej 

LL-     ^  -.  i  1^:  1  k  i  n  , 

hence  its 
11  a  m  e  . 
This  club 
numbered 
among  its 
members 
the    most 


p  r  0  m  - 
inent  cit- 
i  z  e  n  s  . 
Tlie  finan- 
cial crisis 
of  1837 
caused  its 
abandon- 
ment in 
1838.  It 
was  suc- 
ceeded by 
the  "Old 
Pelican 
Club," 
a  r  i  s  t  0  - 
From  this 


OLD   ST.   OHABLES  THEATRE. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museun 


cratic  and  narrow  in  the  extreme 
chib  the  young  men  were  debarred,  so  tliey 
formed  the  Orleans  Club,  about  the  most  brilliant 
of  the  time.  The  club 
13urchased  Mr.  Robb's 
home  in  St.  Charles 
street  for  $40,000.  Its 
membership  reached 
400  and  included  plant- 
ers, merchants,  law- 
yers, doctors,  poli- 
ticians, newspaper 
men,  race  horse  follow- 
ers, etc.  The  great 
races  were  then  being 
conducted  at  "Old 
Metairie,"  and  it  is 
stated  that  at  the 
famous  interstate  race, 
when  Lecompte,  the 
Mississippi  horse,  beat 
Lexington  of  Ken- 
tucky, the  betting  be- 


came high,  and  one  person  won  $20,000,  to  the 
loss  of  the  many  others. 

Steamboats  on  the  River.  As  travel  to  New 
Orleans  was  possible  only  by  water,  and  that 
required  a  fair  amount  of  time,  steamboats  be- 
came commodioiTs,  elegant.  They  were  large 
and  airy  and  had  huge  saloons  extending  their 
full  length,  with  highly  polished  floors  for  the 
enjoyment  of  the  dancers.  The  cuisines  were  of 
the  best;  the  skill 
of  the  chefs  being 
widely  known.  Vis- 
itors to  New  Or- 
leans, when  i^ossible, 
boarded  on  the  boat 
on  which  they  had 
made  the  trip,  in- 
stead of  taking  up  a 
residence  in  the  city; 
especially  was  this 
true  at  carnival  time. 
The  building  of  the 
railroads  drove  the 
palatial  river  boats 
out  of  existence. 

Theatres.  The  Or- 
leans Theatre,  on  Orleans,  between  Royal  and 
Bourbon  streets,  was  the  home  of  the  opera.  It 
was  built  by  subscription  in  1817;  John  Mc- 
Donogh  having  acquired  it  later  on,  willed  it  to 
the  City  of  Baltimore.  It  was  destroyed  by 'fire 
in  1868,  but  the  famous  ballroom  that  adjoined 
it  was  saved  and  used  as  a  criminal  courtroom 


JAMES  H    CALDWELL, 
bronze  bust  in  Louisiana  State 
Museum. 
— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


FKENCH  OPEBA  HODSE,  EEECTEO  IN  1S59. 


— Courtesy  Southern  Pacitic  R.  R. 


3g 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOlC 


from  1872  imtil  the  court's  removal  to  St.  Pat- 
rick's Hall.  Opera  of  the  first  order  was  sung 
to  large  and  appreciative  audiences.  Not  to 
have  a  bos  or  seats  at  the  opera  was  a  cause  of 
social  ostricism.  Operas  were  given  on  four 
nights  in  the  week,  the  fashionable  evenings 
being  Tuesday  and  Saturday;  nights  when  there 
was  no  opera,  the  drama  held  the  boards.  Ludlow 
introduced  English  plays  the  very  first  year  of 
the  theatre's  existence,  but  English  drama  did 
not  flourish  until  1820,  when  James  H.  Cald- 
well took  charge  of  the  St.  Philip  street  theatre. 
Caldwell  was  the  personal  exponent  of  the  most 
progressive  spirit  of  the  city;  he  was  an  En- 
glishman of  handsome  and  charming  manners, 
brilliant,  clever,  able;  in  England  he  had  mingled 
with  such  noted  actors  as  the  Kembels,  Keans, 
Cooper,  Booth,  and  the  like.  He  organized  a 
theatrical  troupe  of  known  talent  (Booth, 
Barret,  Eussel  among  the  members),  and  came 
to  the  United  States.  They  tried  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia, then  came  to  New  Orleans.  Booth  was 
the  leading  actor  and-,  with  Mrs.  Caldwell, 
played  in  French  as  well  as  in  English.  In  182.3, 
Caldwell  erected  a  theatre  in  Camp  street,  able 
to  accommodate  1,100  people;  to  this,  he  moved 
his  troupe  from  the  Orleans  Theatre.  He  met 
with  great  financial  and  dramatic  success.  In 
1824,  he  lighted  this  theatre  by  means  of  gas. 
Edwin  Forrest  began  his  great  theatrical  career 
in  the  Camp  street  theatre.  In  1835,  Caldwell 
had  the  St.  Charles  Theatre  built,  at  a  cost  of 
$350,000;  it  was  then  the  largest  in  the  United 
States;  the  building  was  noted  for  the  wonder- 
ful chandelier,  over  two  tons  in  weight  and  sup- 
2:)orting  two  hundred  gas-lights,  that  was  sus- 
pended from  the  center  of  the  building.  Four 
years  later,  the  Camp  street  theatre  was  closed. 
Mr.  Caldwell  was  not  only  a  promoter  of  theatres 
and  the  highest  fojm  of  English  drama,  but  also 
of  other  city  improvements;  he  was  the  founder 
of  the  St.  Charles  Hotel  and  the  gas  works. 

3.     WAR    TIME    AND    RECONSTRUCTION 
DAYS. 

,  Outbreak  of  Civil  War.  The  Republican 
party  had.  won  in  the  presidential  election,  and 
tl^^upoji  South  Carolina  passed  an  ordinance 
of  secession.  Casting  'her  lot  with  the  other 
Southern  States,  Louisiana  seceded  January  26, 
1861,  and  sent  her  ablest  sons  to  the  front. 


New  Orleans  as  a  Strategic  Point.  New  Or- 
leans sent  over  5,000  of  her  best  soldiers  to  the 
defense  of  the  northern  line  of  the  Confederacy. 
The  southern  government  seemed  oblivious  of 
the  city's  location;  not  so,  the  Washington 
authorities.  Two  expeditions  were  set  afoot  for 
securing  the  Mississippi  to  the  Union;  one  under 
Grant,  to  descend  the  river,  the  other  under 
Farragut  and  Butler  to  ascend  it. 

Capture  of  New  Orleans,  April  25,  1862. 
Grant  was  slowly  but  surely  pushing  his  way 
down  stream.  Farragut,  with  a  fleet  of  forty- 
three  vessels,  was  entering  the  river  from  the 
Gulf.  In  vain,  General  Lovell  asked  for  assist- 
ance; none  could  be  given  him.  He  did  his  best 
to  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  Federal  fleet  by 
having  cables  put  across  the  river  below  the  city; 
old  vessels  were  linked  together  and  set  ablaze. 
Farragut  succeeded  in  passing  the  two  poorly 
armed  forts  and  making  his  way  up  to  the  city, 
which,  because  of  the  high  water,  lie  was  able 
to  sweep  with  his  gams.  General  Lovell,  recog- 
nizing the  nselessness  of  fighting,  retreated.  The 
city  front  blazed  with  the  fire  from  the  thousands 
of  bales  of  cotton  and  hogsheads  of  sugar  and 
molasses  which  the  citizens  burned  to  prevent 
the  Federals  obtaining. 

Military  Rule.  General  Butler,  with  15,000 
soldiers,  took  charge  of  the  city  on  May  1,  1862. 
Mayor  Monroe  was  put  out  of  office  and  a  mili- 
tary commandant  appointed  in  his  place.  The  City 
Council  was  replaced  by  the  Bureau  of  Finance 
and  the  Bureau  of  Streets  and  Landings.  Butler's 
rule  in  New  Orleans  has  ever  been  execrated  by 
the  people  of  the  city  and  condemned  by  the  out- 
side world  as  disgraceful ;  he  was  removed  before 
the  year  expired.  The  city's  commerce  had  been 
reduced  by  the  war  to  a  diminutive  trade  in  war 
supplies  with  the  neighboring  territory.  Cotton 
sold  in  1864  at  $1.63  per  pound,  and  sugar  at  26 
cents.  The  end  of  the  war  caused  the  immediate 
renewal  of  commercial  intercourse  with  other 
])arts. 

Reconstruction  Acts.  The  Republican  Con- 
gress decided  that  the  Southern  States  should  be 
regarded  as  conquered  territory,  reconstructed, 
and  readmitted  into  the  Union.  First  of  all,  the 
new  freemen  were  to  be  secured  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  their  citizenship  and  suffrage.  The  white 
men  of  the  state  were  virtually  deprived  of  the 
use  of  the  ballot  by  all  the  restrictions  placed 
upon  its  exercise. 

Misrule.     As  is  the  case  after  most  wars,  a 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


39 


host  of  undesirable  individuals,  seeking  to  make 
fortunes  by  easy  means,  followed  in  the  wake 
of  the  victorious  northern  army.  They  became 
known  as  "carpetbaggers,"  as  the  southern 
people  of  a  like  class  received  the  appellation  of 
"scalawags."  In  New  Orleans,  they 
became  the)  leaders  of  the  voting- 
populace —  largely  composed  of  the 
.newly  enfranchised  negroes — and  thus 
gained  control  of  the  government.  The 
city's  property  was  literally  stolen.  By 
1872,  the  extravagant  expenditures 
had  reached  $6,961,381  and  the  bonded 
debt  $21,000,000,  on  some  of  which  ten 
per  cent  interest  was  being  paid.  The 
city  issued  an  enormous  amount  of 
valueless  "city  currency"  with  which 
the  officers  and  Public  School  teachers 
were  paid.  Taxation  rose  to  2^%oo  per 
cent  in  1871.  This  government  main- 
tained itself  by  means  of  the  "Metro- 
politan Police,"  especially  organized 
for  the  protection  of  the  officials,  and 
a  rigid  system  of  espionage  conducted  against 
those  opposed  to  their  rule. 

Change  in  Government.  In  1870,  the  city 
government  was  changed.  Under  the  new 
system,  there  was  a  mayor,  with  a  salary  of 
$7,500  per  year,  and  seven  administrators, 
with  salaries  of  $6,000;  these  administra- 
tors each  had 
charge  of  one 
department; 
the  depart- 
ments were 
Finance,  Ac- 
counts, Com- 
merce, Im- 
provements, 
Water  Works 
and  Public 
Buildings,  As- 
sessments, and 
Police.  The 
administrators 
were  appoint- 
ed by  the  gov- 
ernor. 

September  14,  1874.  The  citizens  of  New 
Orleans  had  formed  the  "White  League"  for 
the  expulsion  of  the  carpetbag  government.  To 
frustrate  their  plans,  an  order  was  issued  that 
forbade  a  citizen  to  keep  a  firearm  even  in  his 


MONTTiMENT  IN  MEMORY  OF 
THE  MEMBERS  OP  THE 
WHITE   LEAGUE, 
Who    Fell    in    Conflict    Sep- 
tember 14,  1874. 


HARBOR   OF   NEW   ORLEANS,   IS 


home.  It  was  learnt  that  a  ship  with  a  cargo  of 
ammunition  for  the  League  was  to  arrive  on 
September  14tli.  The  Metropolitan  Police  formed 
at  the  foot  of  Canal  street  and  the  levee  with 
mounted  cannon  to  prevent  the  citizens  from 
reaching  the  vessel.  The  "White 
League"  moved  out  Poydras  street  to 
the  levee  until  they  faced  the  Metro- 
politans. A  skirmish  followed,  witli 
the  result  that  the  Metropolitans  fled, 
suffering  the  loss  of  many  of  their 
members.  The  "White  League"  lost 
sixteen.  In  memory  of  the  citizens 
who  lost  their  lives,  a  monument  was 
erected  at  the  foot  of  Canal  street, 
where  had  stood  the  Metropolitans' 
cannon.  The  "White  League,"  by 
gradual  successes,  finally  restored  the 
citizens  to  the  control  of  their  city. 

Improvements.  It  was  impossible 
for  any  progress  to  be  made  under  the 
prevailing  conditions.  The  city  under- 
took the  operation  of  the  water  works 
in  1869.  Paving  the  streets  with  wood  was  tried 
and,  as  it  proved  a  failure,  abandoned.  A  drain- 
age system  was  projected  in  1871,  but  be- 
cause of  its  costliness  and  the  ruinous  con- 
dition of  the  city's  finances,  was  shortly  after 
given  up.  The  Board  of  New  Orleans  Park 
Commissioners   bought  the  Upper  City  Park, 

now  Audubon 
Park,  in  1871, 
at  a  cost  of 
$80,000. 

Population. 
From  168,755 
in  1860,  the 
population  in- 
creased  to 
191,418  in 
1870.  This  was 
due  in  great 
measure  to  the 
incoming  of 
freed  negroes 
from  the  coun- 
try districts. 
Expansion  of 
City  Limits.  In  1870,  two  districts,  the  Fifth 
and  Sixth,  were  added  by  the  annexation  of  the 
town  of  Algiers,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river,  and  of  Jefferson  City,  a  town  adjoining 
the  Fourth  District,    the    former    City  of  La- 


— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


40 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


fayette.  By  the  addition  of  Carrollton,  in  1874, 
as  the  Seventh  Municipal  District,  the  city  at- 
tained its  present  Umits. 

4.    MODERN  PERIOD,  1874-1914. 

Premium  Bonds.  With  the  victory  of  the 
Eeg-ular  Democracy  in  electing  Charles  Leeds  as 
mayor  in  1874,  the  carpetbag  government  may 
he  said  to  have  been  ended.  The  bonded  debts 
reached  $20,000,000  in  1875.  Real  estate  had  de- 
preciated; business  in  general  had  greatly  de- 
clined. A  crisis  had  come  in  the  city's  affairs. 
Edward  Pilsbnry  was  administrator  of  the  De- 
]iartment  of  Finance;  he  formed  the  Premium 
Bond  plan ;  by  this,  all  the  city  bonds  were  funded 
into  bonds  of  $20,  bearing  five  per  cent  interest 
when  drawn  by  lots.  By  this  system  the  annual 
interest  was  reduced  from  $1,416,000  to  $307,500. 
Pilsbury  succeeded  Leeds  as  Mayor  in  1876. 

Board  of  Liquidation.  In  1880,  the  Legisla- 
ture created  a  board  to  see  to  the  liquidation, 
reduction,  and  consolidation  of  the  city's  debt. 
Thus  the  payment  of  the  city  debt  was  taken  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  city  officials. 

Improvements  Before  the  Exposition.  The 
telephone  was  in- 
troduced in  1876, 
and  two  years 
later  the  first  line 
was  constructed. 
A  little  later,  the 
various  lines  in 
operation  were 
joined    into    the 

New  Orleans  Telephone  Exchange  for  the  pur- 
pose of  intercommunication.  The  Carrollton 
Railroad  was  franchised  and  the  New  Orleans 
and  Pacific  Railroad  was  granted  the  batture  in 
front  of  the  park.  With  money  derived  from 
the  gambling  houses  of  the  city,  an  almshouse 
was  erected  at  a  cost  of  $100,000  and  named  in 
honor  of  Mayor  Shakespeare.  The  greatest  of 
all  improvements  was  that  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  In  1882,  Captain  Eads  completed  the 
jetties  in  South  Pass,  Ijegun  June  2,  1875;  from 
seventeen  and  a  half  feet,  the  water  on  the  bar 
was  deepened  to  thirty  feet.  The  benefits  to 
commerce  were  innumerable.  According  to  the 
United  States  census  of  1880,  the  population  had 
increased  to  217,140. 

Return   to    Aldermanic    Government.     The 
people    became    dissatisfied    with    the    Bureau 


WBSi^^Mml^^^fi 

-t  "  ,; 

M 

9 

S 

CENTRAL  BUILDING,   COTTON 


system,  said  it  was  too  expensive,  and  demanded 
a  return  to  the  old  aldermanic  form  of  govern- 
ment. So,  in  1882,  the  Legislature  passed  an 
act  changing  the  city's  form  of  government. 
Under  the  new  charter,  the  executive  officers 
were  Mayor,  Treasurer,  ComiDtroller,  Commis- 
sioner of  Police,  and  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works,  each  receiving  a  salary  of  $3,500.  The 
Council  was  composed  of  thirty  members. 

Cotton  Oenteimial  Exposition,  1884.  An  ex- 
position was  held  in  New  Orleans  to  celebrate 
the  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  first  exporta- 
tion of  cotton;  in  1784,  a  few  bags  had  been  sent 
to  England  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 
The  Fair  grounds  were  in  the  Sixth  District  and 
comprised  seventy-five  acres.  The  main  building 
was  larger  than  any  that  had  yet  been  erected  at 
an  exposition.  The  only  remnant  left  of  the  numer- 
ous structures  is  Horticultural  Hall  in  Audubon 
Park,  which  is  only  part  of  a  building,  portions 
of  it  having  been  destroyed  by  storms.  This  hall 
is  not  kept  up  as  well  as  in  former  times  because 
of  laclv*  of  funds.  The  exposition  was  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  opening  of  the  Sixth  District. 

Principal  Improvements  Before  1900.  Elec- 
tricity for  street  lighting  was  introduced  in  1884; 

Royal  street  from 
Canal  to  Esplan- 
ade was  thus 
lighted.  Two  years 
later  electricity 
supplemented  gas 
for  street  lighting. 
CENTENNIAL  EXPOSITION.  St.  Charlcs  street 

-Courtesy  La.  State  Museum,  ^^g      payed      with 

asphalt  in  1884.  Four  years  later,  the  erection 
of  the  present  Criminal  Court  House  and  parish 
prison  was  begun;  St.  Patrick's  Hall,  the  former 
domicile  of  the  Criminal  Court,  was  some  years 
later  made  to  serve  as  a  Public  Library  by  the 
removal  of  the  Fisk  and  Public  Librai'ies  to  it. 
The  Orleans  Levee  Board  was  organized,  as  well 
as  the  Public  Library  Board.  A  paid  Fire  De- 
partment replaced  the  Volunteer  Corps  in  1891. 
In  this  year,  the  New  Orleans  and  Louisiana 
Construction  and  Improvement  Company  under- 
took the  management  of  the  city  wharves  for  ten 
years,  but  their  excessive  charges  caused  the 
state  to  purchase  their  rights  in  1896;  the  Legis- 
lature created  a  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the 
Port  of  New  Orleans  to  manage  the  wharves. 
Two  railroads  received  grants  along  the  river 
front,  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Louisville  and 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK: 


41 


Nashville;  the  former  received  a  grant  in  the 
Sixth  District  and  soon  erected  the  Stuyvesant 
Docks  and  large  grain  elevators;  the  latter  was 
allowed  to  run  their  tracks  on  the  levee  helow 
Canal  street  and  build  a  depot  at  the  foot  of 
Canal.  In  return  for  these  privileges,  the  cor- 
porations had  to  maintain  the  levees  within  the 
limits  of  their  grants.  The  present  drainage 
system  was  begun  in  1899  and  put  into  operation 
in  1900,  in  which  year,  also,  an  ordinance  was 
passed  providing  for  a  City  Public  Belt  Eail- 
road.  The  neutral  ground  on  Canal  street  was 
paved.  In  the  centennial  year,  the  city  took  an- 
other step  toward  municipal  ownership  of  public 
works  by  taking  over  the  control  of  the  markets. 

Change  in  Aldermanic  Form  of  Government. 
The  year  1896  saw  the  city's  government 
changed  again.  The  Mayor's  powers  were  in- 
creased; he  had  the  appointment  of  the  Com- 
missioners of  Public  Works  and  of  Police  and 
Public  Buildings,  the  City  Attorney  and  the 
City  Engineer;  his  salary  was  raised  to  $6,000. 
The  Treasurer  and  Comptroller  were,  like  the 
Mayor,  elected  by  the  people.  The  Council  con- 
sisted of  seventeen  members,  elected  by  the 
people  and  were  paid  twenty  dollars  per  month. 

Commerce  and  Manufactures  Since  1900.  For 


the  late  development  of  commerce  and  manu- 
factures, see  Chapters  VI.  and  VIII. 

Expected  Benefits  to  Be  Derived  from  the 
Opening  of  the  Panama  Canal.  New  Orleans 
expects  a  vast  improvement  in  commerce  as  a 
result  of  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Be- 
cause of  her  location  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, practically  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
twenty  degrees  further  north,  ten  further  west 
than  the  Canal  Zone,  it  is  the  common  opinion 
that  the  great  bulk  of  the  South  American 
trade,  especially  that  of  the  Pacific  coast,  will 
be  brought  to  the  great  New  Orleans  port.  Chap- 
ter VII. 

Present  Educational  Conditions. 
See  Chapter  XII. 

Population.  The  city's  population  in  1900 
was  287,104,  and  increased  during  the  decade  to 
.339,075;  it  is  now  estimated  at  between  360,000 
and  370,000.  New  Orleans  is  very  cosmopolitan; 
according  to  the  last  United  States  census,  every 
country  in  Europe  is  represented  and  several 
in  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  and  Central 
America. 

Public  Works.     The    city's    present  policy 


,=JITHH 


OLIl  STYLE  STKAMBOAT  LANDING. 


A^ 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOlC 


tends  towards  municipal  ownership  of  public 
works,  so  as  to  operate  them  at  cost  for  the 
benefit  of  the  citizens.  For  light  and  paving, 
see  Chapter  XVI.;  for  water  and  drainage,  see 
Chapter  ni. 

Architectural  Development.  During  the  last 
two  decades,  the  city  has  assumed  her  modern 
appearance.  It  has  been  a  period  of  building. 
All  the  large  structures  have  been  erected 
during  this  time.  The  sky-scraper,  in  modified 
form,' has  invaded  the  city;  there  are  the  Maison 
Blanche,  Grunewald  Hotel,  Monteleone  Hotel, 
Whitney-Central,  Canal  Bank  buildings.  Steel 
frames  are  now  used  in  the  construction  of  large 
buildings.  The  United  States  Grovermnent  has 
erected  -  in  Camp  street  the  magnificent,  new 
Post  Office.  The  state  erected  the  elegant, 
marble-faced  Court  House  in  Eoyal  street. 
Handsome  schools  and  splendid  factories  are 
continually  being  built. 

Realty  Improvements.  The  Cotton  Centen- 
nial Exposition  inaugurated  the  development  of 
the  city's  real  estate  by  drawing  attention  to  the 
desirability  of  sites  in  the  Sixth  District ;  exten- 
sion of  the  street  car  system,  street  lighting, 
and  paving  have  united  to  open  up  the  outlying 
sections.  Modern  development  was  then  first 
begun  in  the  Sixth  and  Seventh  Districts.    The 


Second  District  then  came  to  the  front;  all  the 
land  between  the  cemeteries  and  the  lake  was 
cleared,  drained,  paved,  and  lighted;  trees  and 
palms  were  planted  along  the  streets;  and  now 
Lakeview  is  a  rapidly  growing  and  pretty 
suburb.  Extending  northeast  from  City  Park, 
really  a  continuation  of  Metairie  Ridge,  is  Gen- 
tilly  Terrace,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  New 
Orleans'  many  garden  spots.  The  tract  of  land 
beyond  Gentilly  and  along  Lake  Pontchartrain 
to  slightly  east  of  Little  Woods,  is  being  de- 
veloped by  the  New  Orleans  Lake  Shore  Land 
Company ;  between  this  and  Chef  Menteur  is  the 
Miehaud  Tract,  which  is  being  improved  in  like 
manner,  by  drainage  and  splendid  shell  roads, 
so  that  lots  now  sell  at  the  former  jorice  of  acres. 
The  United  States  Government,  by  the  erection 
of  the  Naval  and  Immigration  Stations,  has  con- 
tributed to  the  development  of  the  Fifth  Dis- 
trict. A  great  plan  is  now  in  progTess  for  the 
improvement  of  the  Jefferson-Plaquemines 
Drainage  District;  11,500  acres  are  within  the 
limits  of  Algiers.  Bayou  Barataria  is  the  natural 
drain  of  this  district,  and,  with  Harvey  Canal, 
almost  makes  an  island  out  of  the  land  in  the 
river's  bend.  A  dam  has  been  constructed  across 
Bayou  Barataria,  where  it  is  joined  by  Harvey 
Canal;    huge    pumps    erected    at    this    point 


SHIPS  AT  THE  WHARVES. 


-Courtesy  ot  Board  of  Port  Commissioners. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


43 


are  to  lift  the  water  across  the  dam  into 
the  bayou.  New  Orleaniaiis  may  enjoy 
farm  life  on  the  banks 
of  Bayou  Barataria  and 
yet  be  within  twenty  or 
thirty  minutes  of  the 
heart  of  the  business  sec- 
tion, hj  way  of  the  road 
alongside  the  New  Or- 
leans Southern  and  Grand 
Isle  Bailroad,  the  Jack- 
son avenue  ferry  and  car 
line,  Metairie  Eidge  is  a 
delightful  suburb  out- 
side the  city  limits,  in 
Jefferson  Parish. 

Commission  Form  of 
Government.  In  1912,  by 
special  act  of  the  Legis- 
lature, the  city's  gov- 
ernment was  changed,  a 
modified  form  of  the 
Commission  Plan  of 
Municipal  Grovernment 
being  adopted.  See 
Chapter  XV. 

Present  Financial  Condition  of  the  City.  The 
city's  bonded  debt  increased  to  $37,937,568.50 


in  1913.  This  increase  is  due  to  the  city's  under- 
taking the  operation  of  her  own  sewerage  and 
water  system  and  the 
Public  Belt  Railroad ;  the 
former  added  between 
$16,000,000  and  $17,000,- 
000  and  the  latter  $2,- 
000,000  or  $3,000,000  to 
the  city's  debt.  The  tax 
receipts  for  1913  were 
$4,904,602.26  on  an  as- 
sessment of  $245,492,194. 
Centennial  Celebra- 
tion of  the  Battle  of  New 
Orleans.  January  8, 
1915,  the  hundredth  an- 
niversary of  the  Battle 
of  New  Orleans,  marked 
also  a  century  of  peace 
between  the  two  great 
English-speaking  na- 
tions of  the  world.  Great 
Britain  and  the  United 
States.  "With  character- 
istic hospitality,  New 
Orleans  entertained  rep- 
resentatives of  King  George  V.  of  England, 
tlie  Canadian  Government,    and    distinguished 


MAISON  BLANCHE  BUILDING. 


JACKSON  SQUARE  AS   IT   IS  TO-DAY. 


-Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


44 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK: 


Americans.  The  walls  of  the  old  Cathedral  re- 
echoed the  chant  of  the  solemn  Te  Deum  as  they 
had  one  hundred  years  before,  military  and 
civic  parades  recalled  the  spirit  of  Jackson  and 


his  followers,  and  the  ladies  of  1815,  as  well 
as  the  heroes  of  battle,  seemed  to  live  again  in 
the  "tableaux  vivants,"  presented  as  a  fitting 
climax  to  the  celebration. 


TOPICS:  Section  1,  French  Domination:  I.  Louisiana 
before  1718,  II.  Proprietorship  of  the  Company  of  the  West, 

III.  New  Orleans,  17.S1-1763;  Section  2,  Spanish  Domination; 

I,  Manifestation  of  the  Spirit  of  Liberty,  II.  Establishment 
of  Spanish  Control,  III.  Spanish  Development  of  New  Orleans, 

IV.  New  Orleans  in  1800;  Section  3,  Transition  Period:  Sec- 
tion   4,    American    Domination:    I.    New    Orleans,    1803- '15, 

II.  From  1815- '60,  III.  War  Time  and  Reconstruction  Days, 
IV.  Modern  Period. 

REFERENCES:  Bossu,  Travels  through  that  part  of 
North  America  formerly  called  Louisiana  (translated  by  John 
Eeinhold  Forster) ;  Charlevoix,  History  and  General  Descrip- 
tion of  New  France  (edited  by  John  Gilmary  Shea) ;  La 
Harpe,  Journal  Historique  de  I'Establissement  des  Francais 
a  la  Louisiane,  Nouvelle-Orleans,  1831;  Le  Page  du  Pratz, 
Histoire  de  la  Louisiane;  Eeuben  Gold  Thwaites,  The  Jesuit 
Relations  and  Allied  Documents;  King  and  Ficklen,  Stories 
from  Louisiana  History;   Claiborne,  "Mississippi";   Bunner, 


History  of  Louisiana,  1841;  Early  Voyages  Uj>  and  Down  the 
Mississippi,  Albany,  1861;  B.  "M.  Norman,  New  Orleans  and 
Environs,  1844;  A.  Oakey  Hall,  The  Manhattaner  in  New 
Orleans,  1851;  Jewell's  Crescent  City,  1873;  Waring  and 
Cable,  History  and  Present  Conditions  of  New  Orleans,  1880; 
Guide  and  Sketch  Book  to  New  Orleans,  1885;  Andrew  Mor- 
rison, New  Orleans  and  the  New  South;  F.  X.  Martin,  History 
of  Louisiana;  Phelps,  Louisiana;  Charles  Ga3'arre,  History  of 
Louisiana;  Alcee  Fortier,  History  of  Louisiana;  Walter 
Fleming,  Documentary  Historj'  of  Reconstruction,  etc.;  The 
South  in  the  Building  of  the  Nation;  Rightor  (editor),  Stand- 
ard History  of  New  Orleans;  T.  W.  Campbell,  Manual  of  the 
City  of  New  Orleans,  1900;  Grace  King,  New  Orleans — The 
Place  and  the  People;  Eliza  Ripley,  Social  Life  in  Old  New 
Orleans;  Publications  of  the  Louisiana  Historical  Society; 
De  Bow's  Review,  1846- '59  and  1867  to  '68;  Stanley  C. 
Arthur,  The  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  published  by  the  Lou- 
isiana Historical  Society;  New  Orleans  Directories;  News- 
paper files  of  the  Bee,  Picayune,  an<l  Times-Democrat. 


MAYORS  OF  NEW  ORLEANS. 


1803- 
1804- 
1805- 
1807- 
1812- 
1815- 
1820- 
1828- 
1838- 
1840- 
1844- 
1846- 
1854- 
1856- 


-Etienne  Bore 
-James  Bitot 
-John  Watkins 
-Joseph  Mather 
-Nicholas  Girod 
-Aug.  McCarthy 
-.T.  Rouffignae 
-Dennis  Prieur 
-Charles  Genois 
-Wm.  Freret 
-Edgar  Montegut 
-A.  D.  Crossman 
-John  L.   Lewis 
-C.  M.  Waterman 


18.58— 

1860— 

May, 

July, 

Aug., 

Sept., 

Nov., 

July, 

May, 

March 

June, 

.1865— 

1866— 


Gerard  Stith 

John  T.   Monroe 
1862— G.  F.  She]jlev 
1862— G.  Weitzel 
1862— J.  H.  French 
1862— H.  C.   Deming 
1862— J.  F.  Miller 
1864— Stephen  Hoyt 
1865— Hugh  Kennedy 

,  1865— S.  M.  Quincy 
1865— Glendy  Burke 

■Hugh  Kennedy 

John   T.  Monroe 

E.  Heath 


1868— J.  R.  Conway 
1870— B.  P.  Flanders 
1872— L.  A.  Wiltz 
1874— C.  J.  Leeds 
1876- Edward  Pilsbury 
1878—1.  W.  Patton 
1880 — Jos.  A.  Shakespeare 
1882— W.  J.  Behan 
1884— J.  V.  Guillotte 
1888 — -Jos.  A.  Shakespeare 
1892 — John  Fitzpatrick 
1896— W.  C.  Flower 
1900 — Paul  Capdevielle 
1904 — Martin  Behrman 


PANORAMA   OF   t'OMMUliCTAL   SECTION,    VIEWliD   FUOM   TOP   OF   CITY   HAXL. 


CHAPTER  III. 


Drainage — Sewerage — Filter  Plant. 


In  the  past,  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in 
preventing  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  New 
Orleans  has  heen  its  reputation  for  unsanitary 
conditions.  Sanitary  improvements  are  of  vital 
importance  in  progress,  and  the  three  great 
systems  of  sewerage,  water,  and  drainage  have 
helped  New  Orleans  in  the  race  for  civic 
advancement. 

New  Orleans'  Problem.  In  the  construction 
of  these  works.  New  Orleans,  owing  to  the  flat 
surface,  faced  its  greatest  mimicipal  problem. 
High  water  in  the  river  is  above  the  highest 
land  in  the  city.  The  natural  drainage  is  away 
from  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  generally  to- 
wards the  lakes  to  the  north.  The  level  of  Lake 
Pontchartrain  is  the  level  of  the  sea,  but  the 
accumalation  of  waters  along  its  south  shores, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  continued  north  and 
northeast  winds,  often  reached  several  feet 
above  that  level.  Without  artificial  aid.  New 
Orleans  would  always  be  flooded  by  the  rains 
falling  upon  it  and  running  to  it  from  the  river 
slope,  and  also  by  the  high  lake  tides  backing 
into  the  low  part  of  the  inhabited  area. 

Early  Attempts  at  Drainage.  In  the  early 
colonial  days.  Governor  Perrier  found  it  nec- 
essary to  construct  a  levee  in  front  of  the  city. 
Some  attempts  at  drainage  were  made  by  the 
governors,  Vaudreuil  and  Carondelet.  The 
Carondelet  Canal,  (Old  Basin)  after  its  com- 
pletion to  the  Bayou  St.  John,  drained  a  great 
part  of  the  old  city  limits.  •  By  1838,  a  natural 
drain  in  the  rear  of  the  Second  Municipality 
had  been  broadened  and  deepened  into  the  Mel- 
pomene Canal,  giving  some  relief  to  the  then 
new  portion  of  the  city.  From  1871-73,  consid- 
ex-able  work  was  done  in  the  excavation  of 
drainage  canals.  In  1880,  the  city  depended  for 
its  drainage  upon  a  rude  form  of  pumping 
machines  similar  to  those  used  in  Holland. 
These  machines  were  solely  for  the  purpose  of 


removing  surface  water  from  the  streets  and  the 
house  lots.  The  gutters  were  deep  channels 
from  two  to  three  feet  wide,  but  were  more  or 
less  filled  with  tidal  water  from  the  Lakes  and 
helped  little  in  the  drainage.  By  1895,  enough 
construction  work  had  been  carried  out  by  pri- 
vate drainage  companies  to  demonstrate  the 
practicability  and  the  cost  of  drainage  and 
sewerage. 

Inception  of  the  Present  Development  in 
Drainage  and  Sewerage  Systems.  It  was  not 
until  1895,  that  the  city  took  upon  itself  to  de- 
sign an  effective  drainage  system.  Construc- 
tion work  was  begun  in  1897  but  no  adequate 
financial  provision  had  been  made  to  complete 
it.  The  people  of  the  city  were  beginning  to  be- 
lieve that  they  must  have  a  sewerage  and  a 
water  works  system  as  well  as  drainage.  This 
sentiment  grew  because  the  epidemics  of  1897, 
1898  and  1899  were  vital  in  their  effect  on  trade 
and  growth.  Finally,  in  1899,  after  a  campaign 
in  which  prominent  men  took  an  active  part, 
and  women's  organizations  did  a  vast  amount 
of  educational  work,  a  law  was  passed  provid- 
ing for  a  bond  issue.  Property  holders  voted 
for  a  tax  to  meet  the  payment  of  these  bonds. 
This  law  also  created  a  board  for  the  execution 
and  the  subsequent  management  of  the  three 
systems. 

Effects  of  Improved  Drainage.  About  1900, 
the  work  had  proceeded  far  enough  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  main  drainage  system,  to  remove 
as  rapidly  as  it  fell  a  rainfall  of  moderate  in- 
tensity; thus  preventing  the  supersaturation  of 
the  soil  and  giving  it  a  chance  to  dry  out. 
Lands  before  worthless  became  at  once  avail- 
able for  agricultural  or  city  development.  Mos- 
quitoes decreased,  and  gutters — if  only  cleaned 
out — drained  to  their  bottoms.  The  death  rate 
dropped  from  27.2  per  1,000  to  22  per  1,000. 
The  area  now  drained  is  from  the  Mississippi 


46 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


Eiver  to  Lake  Pontchartrain,  and  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  Protection  Levee.  The 
drainage  of  New  Orleans  has  convinced  the 
world  that  the  millions  of  acres  of  marsh  land 
surrounding  the  city,  can  easily  be  reclaimed 
and  put  under  cultivation. 

The  Capacity  of  the  Drainage  System.  The 
drainage  system  consists  of  about  fifty  miles  of 
main  low  level  canals,  from  which  the  water  is 
pumped;  and  of  twenty  miles  of  high  level  out- 
fall canals  into  which  the  water  is  pumped.  The 
latter  discharged  into  the  Lake.  The  system  is 
constructed  and  operated  so  as  to  produce 
artificially  the  necessary  slope.  Seven  great 
pumping  stations  cause  the  water  to  flow  into 
and  through  the  canals.  "When  the  additional 
pumps  which  are  now  being  constructed  arc 
completed,  the  total  drainage  capacity  will  be 
over  7,000,000,000  gallons  per  day.  At  present, 
the  final  discharge  is  into  Lake  Pontchartrain. 
Ultimately,  all  dry  weather  and  small  storm 
flow  is  to  go  into  Lake  Borgne,  and  only  the 
flow  from  great  storms  into  Lake  Pontchar- 
train. 

Reasons  for  Separating  the  Sewerage  and 
Drainage.  It  was  considered  undesirable  to  dis- 
charge the  sewerage  of  the  city  into  tidal  or 


Lake  waters.  A  small  stream  of  sewerage  in 
tlie  great  drainage  canal  would  not  move  rapidly 
enough  to  reach  the  outlets  without  fennenta- 
tion,  which  would  cause  objectionable  condi- 
tions in  the  drains.  Owing  to  the  gi*eat  amount 
of  work  required  and  the  cost,  the  construction 
of  one  system  of  sewerage  and  drainage  would 
have  taken  many  years.  It  was  desired  within 
the  shortest  possible  time  to  sewer  the  five  hun- 
dred miles  of  streets. 

Operation  of  the  Sewerage  System.  In  order 
to  accomplisli  the  desired  results,  a  system  of 
sewers  was  designed  com^josed  of  main,  sub- 
main,  and  lateral  sewers.  These  lead  to  nine  sep- 
arate pumping  stations  with  good  slopes  of  falls 
from  the  higher  end  of  the  sewers  to  the  pump- 
ing stations.  The  largest  portion  of  the  sewers 
drain  directly  by  gravity  to  the  principal  pump- 
ing station.  Remote  ones  drain  to  other  pump- 
ing stations,  and  some  of  the  sewage  passes 
through  two  pumping  stations  before  it  reaches 
the  principal  station,  from  which  it  is  dis- 
charged into  the  river.  Six  of  the  intermediate 
lift  stations  are  operated  by  electricity  from  the 
main  station,  automatically  starting  and  stop- 
jnng  their  pumps  as  the  sewage  flows  into  them. 
These  stations  raise  the  sewage  from  a  low  level 


MAIN  WATERWORKS  PUMPING  STATION  AND  DRAINAGE  POWER  HOUSE  NO. 


-Courtesy  N.  0.  S.  &  W.  Board. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


47 


sewer  on  the  suction  side  to  a  higher  level  sewer 
on  the  discharge  side;  and  the  flow  of  sewage 
to  and  from  them  is  just  as  much  by  gravity  as 
if  tlie  sewers  had  the  usual  gravity  outlet. 

Time  Taken  for  the  Construction  of  Sewers. 
The  construction  of  the  sewers  was  hegun  in 
June,  1903,  and  they  were  ready  for  operation 
in  October,  1907.  Practically,  the  entire  pop- 
ulated areas  of  the  city  are  now  sewered.  It  is 
expected  by  1917  to  have  all  premises  on  the 
line  of  a  sewer  connected.  There  is  no  longer 
a  doubt  of  the  efficiency  of  the  sewerage  system. 

The  Water  Supply.  In  1810,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  establish  water  works,  which  were  of 
the  most  primitive  character.  The  pipes  were 
hollowed  cypress  logs  and  the  water  supply  was 
obtained  from  the  river  by  slave  labor.  The 
slaves  pumped  the  water  into  a  large  reservoir 
from  which  it  was  distributed  through  the 
hollow  logs  to  such  citizens  as  had  suljscribed 
The  majority  of  the  people  depended  upon 
cisterns  or  wells.  In  1833,  the  Commercial  Bank 
was  organized,  its  purpose  being  to  establish 
water  works  in  New  Orleans.  The  cypress  log 
pijjes  were  replaced  by  iron  ones.  A  few  cement 
pipes  were  used  but  proved  unsatisfactory.  The 
charter  of  this  company  expired  in  1869,  and  the 


city  bought  the  water  works,  issuing  bonds  for 
that  purpose.  Owing  to  bad  management  and 
lack  of  funds,  the  city  in  1877,  gave  the  monoply 
to  the  New  Orleans  Water  Works  Company  for 
fifty  years. 

The  Water  Supply  Problem.  The  filters  of 
of  the  New  Orleans  Water  Works  Company 
had  never  yielded  a  satisfactory  effluent. 
Coincident  with  the  design  of  the  sewerage 
system  a  study  was  begun  of  the  water  problem. 
Many  held  that  the  purification  of  the  Mississippi 
River  water,  so  as  to  convert  it  into  a,  safe  and 
acceptable  water  supply  was  an  impossibility; 
and  that  the  only  solution  was  to  go  north  of 
Lake  Pontchartrain  for  a  water  supply.  Others 
believed  that  a  sufficient  and  satisfactory  artesian 
supply  could  he  found. 

Experimental  Purification  Tests.  The  Miss- 
issippi Eiver  is  very  muddy  and  moderately 
liard;  its  chemical  and  sanitary  conditions  are 
excellent.  Between  1892  and  1900,  the  methods 
of  treatment  wliich  were  applicable  to  the  eco- 
nomical purification  of  very  muddy,  clay-bear- 
ing waters  were  greatly  developed.  In  1900,  the 
Sewerage  and  Water  Board  made  a  thorough 
study  of  these  methods  at  an  experimental 
plant,  built  at  Audubon  Park.    Here  the  proper 


VIEW  §HO\VWQ  NAPOLEON  AVENUE  DRAINAGE  CANAL  IN  COURSE  OF'  CONSTRUCTION. 

—Courtesy  N.  0.  S.  &  W.  Board, 


48 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


methods  to  be  applied  to  the  Mississippi  River 
water  at  New  Orleans  were  fully  determined. 

Water  Works  Plant.  The  water  works  plant, 
covering  about  seventy  acres  or  twenty-six  city 
blocks,  was  begun  in  1905  and  put  into  operation 
in  1908.  The  water  works  intake  is  at  the  extreme 
upper  end  of  the  city.  The  system  of  purification 
are  sedimentation,  coagulation  (the  coagulants 
being  lime  and  sulphate  of  iron)  and  filtration. 
The  water  is  first  pumped  from  the  river  into 
the  grit  reservoirs  where  the  coarser  suspended 
matter,  mostly  sand,  is  removed  by  sedimenta- 
tion. From  here,  the  water  passes  into  the  lime- 
mixing  reservoirs;  then  into  the  coagulating 
reservoirs  where  the  process  of  sedimentation 
is  completed,  and  the  water  is  softened  and  pre- 
pared for  filtration.  The  filters  are  merely 
gravity  sand  filters  designed  to  handle  large 
quantities  of  water,  and  to  be  easily  and  cheap- 
ly cleaned.  The  entire  cost  of  treating  and 
filtering  the  water,  and  pumping  it  into  the  dis- 
tribution system  is  not  over  two  cents  per  thou- 
sand galloiQS,  and  the  cost  of  water'  delivered 
through  meters  is  less  than  the  prices  paid  in 
other  metered  cities. 

Methods  of  Water  Distribution.  New 
Orleans  being  almost  flat,  there  is  no  possi- 
bility of  a  reservoir  at  high  elevations  into 
which  water  can  be  pumped,  and  from  whicli 
the  supply  can  be  drawn.  The  pumps  of  this 
plant  can  be  adjusted  to  maintain  whatever 
pressure  is  desired;  and  will  automatically  in- 
crease and  decrease  their  output  to  maintain 


the  pressure  for  which  they  are  set,  and  to  de- 
liver the  quantity  of  water  which  is  being  drawn 
form  the  mains.  Pressure,  maintained  in  this 
way,  is  as  satisfactory  as  if  it  were  supplied 
from  a  high  level  reservoir.  The  distribution 
system  consists  of  four-inch  pipes  to  forty-eight- 
inch  mains  and  covers  547  miles  of  streets. 
There  are  5,.302  hydrants.  The  pressure  is 
sixty-five  pounds  per  square  inch  which  is  am- 
ple for  first  class  fire  i3rotection.  The  present 
capacity  of  the  pumping  system,  including  Al- 
giers, is  100,000,000  gallons  per  day;  the 
present  daily  consumption  averages  about 
20,000,000  gallons. 

The  Cost  and  Effect  of  the  Three  Systems. 
The  three  systems  combined  have  cost  about 
$26,000,000,  and  by  1917  will  have  cost  $4,000, 
000  more.  The  average  death  rate  prevailing 
before  the  new  drainage  system  went  into 
operation  was  27.2  i^er  1,000.  The  death  rate 
for  1913  was  19.8  per  1,000.  Malarial  infection 
has  ceased  to  exist;  the  city  has  improved  con- 
ditions of  living;  adequate  fire  protection;  use- 
less tide-level  swamps  have  been  developed  in- 
to beautiful  city  suburbs.  The  world  realizes- 
that  New  Orleans  is  now  a  healthful  city,  no 
longer  handicapped  by  unsanitarj^  conditions. 

TOPICS:  The  New  Orleans  Problem;  Inception  of  the 
Present  Develo])ment  in  Drainage  and  Sewerage  Systems; 
Effects  of  Improved  Drainage;  Capacity  of  the  Drainage 
System;  Operation  of  the  Sewerage  System;  The  Water 
Supply  Prol:)lem;  The  General  Operation  of  the  Plant. 

BEFEBENCES:  Reports  of  the  Sewerage  and  Water 
Board. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


Health  Conditions. 


SECTION  1.    EARLY  HISTORY  OF  SANITATION  IN  NEW  ORLEANS. 


Introduction.  The  excellent  health  con- 
ditions of  New  Orleans  are  due  largely  to  its 
natural  advantages.  There  were,  however, 
many  obstacles  to  be  removed  before  it  could 
become  a  healthful  city.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try was  nothing  but  swamp;  the  back  water 
from  crevasses  above  or  below  frequently 
flooded  the  town;  the  ground  was  too  flat  for  a 
natural  system  of  drainage;  year  after  year, 
yellow  fever  and  other  tropical  diseases  im- 
perilled the  lives  of  the  citizens.  The  conquest 
of  these  menaces  to  health  has  been  accom- 
plished; so  great  were  some  of  the  achieve- 
ments as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  whole 
world. 

First  Sanitary  Measures.  One  of  the  earliest 
sanitary  measures  was  the  cutting  of  the  trees 
between  the  river  and  the  lake  by  order  of  Gov- 
ernor Perrier,  so  that  the  fresh  lake  breezes 
might  sweep  the  settlement.  This  work  was  not 
finally  completed  until  during  the  Civil  War. 
It  was  Grovemor  Perrier,  also,  who  caused  the 
first  levee  to  be  built  before  the  city,  thus  saving 
it  from  annual  overflow  and  greatly  advancing 
the  work  of  sanitation. 

Drainage.  The  drainage  was  very  imper- 
fect.    There  were  open  ditches  along  some  of 


the  streets  and  a  wide  ditch  surrounded  the  city; 
but,  as  the  slope  of  the  land  was  very  slight,  the 
water  in  these  became  stagnant  and  ill-smelling 
and  the  banks  overgrown  by  grass  and  weeds. 
No  better  breeding  place  could  be  found  for  mos- 
quitoes, while  snakes,  frogs,  and  other  reptiles 
thrived  amidst  such  surroundings. 

Carondelet  Canal.  The  Spanish  governor, 
Carondelet,  strove  to  improve  conditions  by  con- 
structing a  canal  from  the  city  to  the  lake.  Work' 
was  begun  in  1794,  but,  as  so  many  of  the  labor- 
ers were  carried  off  by  the  ravages  of  yellow 
fever,  two  years  elapsed  before  it  was  completed. 
The  government  sought  to  interest  the  people  in 
land  improvement.  To  this  end,  lots  along  the 
canal  were  offered  at  very  low  rental  to  all  who 
would  drain  them  and  keep  the  property  in  good 
condition. 

Vaccination.  The  scourge  of  smallpox  fre- 
quently afflicted  the  colony.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Dr.  Jenner,  an  En- 
glish physician,  discovered  that,  hj  inoculating 
people  with  the  virus  of  cow-pox,  they  would 
be  protected  against  the  dread  disease.  This  was 
called  vaccination,  and  its  use  was  introduced  in 
Louisiana  in  1802.  Since  then,  smallpox  has  been 
held  in  check  and  is  now  little  to  be  feared. 


SECTION  2.    YELLOW  FEVER  AND  CHOLERA. 


Early  Traces  of  Yellow  Fever.  It  is  not  ex- 
actly known  when  yellow  fever  first  made  its 
appearance  on  the  continent.  Before  the  coming 
of  the  white  men,  the  Indians  were  decimated 
by  a  malignant  fever,  thought  by  those  familiar 
with  their  traditions  to  have  been  yellow  fever. 
French  settlers  from  the  West  Indies  brought 
this  fever  into  Louisiana  in  1701,  and  again  in 
1704,  in  which  latter  year  it  numbered  the 
famous  Tonti  among  its  victims.  Though  it 
was  present  in  the  colony  from  time  to  time 
thereafter,  no  record  of  cases  or  deaths  was 


kept  until  1796,  when  the  first  undeniable  epi- 
demic occurred.  The  population,  then  about 
six  thousand,  was  very  much  reduced  by  this 
epidemic. 

Epidemic  of  1853.  The  yearly  visitations  of 
the  disease,  brought  usually  from  Havana  or 
other  West  Indian  jjorts,  claimed  sometimes 
thousands  of  victims.  In  1853,  it  reached  the 
height  of  its  devastation.  The  epidemic  of  that 
year  was  the  most  severe  in  the  annals  of  yellow 
fever.  A  ship  from  Jamaica  brought  immigrants, 
infected  with  the  disease,  into  the  citj^.    From 


50 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


this  source  the  fever  spread  in  every  direction. 
Owing  to  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  mosquitoes 
carry  yellow  fever,  thousands  contracted  the 
disease.  By  the  early  part  of  December,  one  out 
of  every  nineteen  inhabitants  had  died  from  this 
cause.  The  open,  unflushed  gaitters,  the  stag- 
nant water  under  houses  and  in  vacant  lots,  the 
muddy,  filthy  streets,  the  lack  of  any  system  for 
the  removal  of  garbage,  created  conditions 
favorable  to  the  spread  of  any  epidemic  disease. 

The  first  death  from  yellow  fever  was  re- 
l^orted  May  28th,  which  was  unusually  early. 
The  disease  gained  such  strong  foothold  that  by 
July  2nd  twenty-five  succumbed  in  a  single  day. 

Like  some  terrible  monster  determined  to 
have  its  fill,  the  pestilence  fell  upon  the  city.  Eicli 
and  poor,  old  and  young  alike,  felt  the  awfulness 
of  its  presence.  People  fled  from  their  homes  in 
terror,  but  thousands,  carrying  the  infection 
with  them,  were  struck  down  in  their  flight. 

The  active  work  of  the  Howard  Association, 
organized  by  courageous  and  public-spirited 
citizens  to  fight  the  common  enemy,  succeeded 
in  improving  conditions  and  relieving  much 
suffering. 

By  the  middle  of  July,  the  admissions  to  the 
Charity  Hospital  averaged  sixty  to  one  hundred 
daily.  The  patients  were  so  numerous  that  even 
the  floors  were  covered  with  the  sick.  During 
the  first  week  in  August,  the  deaths  in  this  in- 
stitution alone  were  equal  to  one  every  half 
hour,  and  on  August  22nd,  the  total  number  of 
deaths  in  the  city  averaged  one  every  five 
minutes.  Whole  families  were  wiped  out.  People 
died  in  the  streets,  in  stores,  in  carriages,  in 
public  places;  others  were  found  in  their  beds, 
where,  unattended,  they  had  been  overtaken  by 
death.  To  add  to  the  horrors  of  the  situation, 
a  period  of  unremitting  rains  set  in,  two  months 
passing  without  a  single  cloudless  day.  The  soil, 
poorly  drained  at  best,  became  supersaturated, 
the  gutters  more  foul,  .the  streets  almost  im- 
passable. Even  the  hearses  were  halted  in  their 
grewsome  task.  So  great  were  the  numbers  to 
be  buried  that  funeral  trains  jostled  each  other 
at  the  cemetery  gates  and  quarrelled  for  pre- 
cedence. Many  others  were  carried  off  in  dead 
carts  by  drivers,  who  went  from  door  to  door 
asking  if  there  were  any  dead  to  be  buried.  A 
sufficient  number  of  grave-diggers  could  not  be 
hired  at  five  dollars  an  hour,  and  rows  of  coffins 
were  laid  in  furrows  with  a  few  shovelfuls  of 
earth  thrown  over  them.    The  pestilential  odors 


became  so  intolerable  that  the  city  officials 
authorized  the  shooting  of  cannon  and  the  burn- 
ing of  tar  to  purify  the  air.  The  discharge  of 
the  cannon  threw  the  sick  into  convulsions  and 
had  to  be  discontinued.  The  rate  of  mortality 
steadily  increased  until  August  22nd,  after 
which  there  was  a  slight  reduction  each  day.  It 
was  not  until  December,  after  six  months  of  de- 
vastation, that  the  stricken  city  was  free  of 
fevei'.  Crime,  always  more  evident  in  times  of 
disorder,  swelled  the  police  reports  ;l3ut  this  was 
more  than  offset  by  the  heroic  acts  of  humanity 
and  self-sacrifice  witnessed  on  every  hand. 

War  Times.  So  little  was  known  of  the 
causes  of  yellow  fever,  so  lax  were  the  methods 
of  quarantine,  that  almost  every  year  until  the 
Civil  War  deaths  from  this  source  numbered  in 
the  thousands.  The  mortality  from  contagious 
diseases  was  greatly  reduced  during  that  time, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
population,  the  blockade  of  the  Grulf  ports,  and 
the  rigid  quarantine  enforced  by  the  Federal 
authorities. 

Epidemic  of  1878.  In  1878,  some  officers  of 
the  Emily  B.  Souder,  a  ship  from  Havana,  died 
in  New  Orleans  of  yellow  fever.  No  other  cases 
were  reported  for  two  months,  but,  from  August 
to  November,  the  fever  raged.  A  peculiarity  of 
this  epidemic  was  that  so  many  children  died, 
whereas,  previously,  they  had  not  appeared  very 
susceptible  to  yellow  fever. 

There  was  a  recurernce  of  the  disease  from 
time  to  time,  but  no  serious  outbreak,  and  for 
many  years  no  cases  at  all  were  reported.  This 
was  due,  doubtless,  to  the  improved  methods  of 
maritime  quarantine  and  fumigation  of  ships, 
which  did  away  with  the  carriers  of  the  fever 
long  before  the  mosquito  theory  was  known. 

The  Mosquito  Theory.  It  is  now  an  estab- 
lished fact  that  diseases  are  transmitted  by  cer- 
tain insects;  typhoid  fever,  by  the  fly;  bubonic 
plagTie,  by  the  flea;  malaria  and  yellow  fever,  by 
the  mosquito.  This  does  not  mean  that  these  in- 
sects are  the  originators  of  the  disease;  they  are 
merely  carriers  of  the  germ,  which  must  have 
been  obtained  from  some  infected  source.  All 
this  has  been  proven,  beyond  the  possibility  of 
a  doubt,  by  investigations  and  tests  costing  vast 
sums  of  money  and  great  risk  of  life. 

During  the  Spanish-American  War,  more 
men  were  carried  off  by  fevers  than  by  actual 
conflict.  So  appalling  was  the  death  rate  from 
this  cause,  that  the  United  States,  GQ,vernment 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


51 


appointed  a  commission  to  investigate  the  causes 
of  yellow  fever,  and  to  give  exhaustive  tests  to 
the  different  theories  of  its  origin  and  transmis- 
sion, particularly  the  mosquito  theory,  which 
had  hut  lately  been  advanced  by  Dr.  Carlos 
Finlay  of  Cuba. 

Strange  to  say,  all  mosquitoes  are  not  equally 
capable  of  transmitting  a  disease.  The  spotted- 
winged  swamp  mosquito,  which  conveys 
malaria,  is  quite  different  from  the  striped- 
legged  stegomyia  fasciata,  the  cistern-bred  car- 
rier of  yellow  fever.  The  manifest  necessity  for 
destroying  these  tiny  enemies  of  humanity  has 
resulted  in  a  close  study  of  their  life-history.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  only  practical  means  of 
extenninating  them  is  to  prevent  their  breeding. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  water  and,  here,  the  larva, 
or  wiggle-tail  state,  is  passed.  By  pournig  oil 
over  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  wiggle-tails 
are  prevented  from  securing  the  necessary 
supply  of  air;  consequently,  their  death  follows. 

If  stagnant  water  were  not  allowed  to  remain 
on  premises  or  vacant  lots,  if  gutters  were  kept 
clean,  and  if  swamps  were  drained,  the  mosquito 
would  have  a  very  slim  chance.  The  wonderful 
work  accomplished  by  the  city's  improved 
system  of  drainage  has  reduced  the  multiplying 
of  the  swamp  mosquito,  resulting  in  a  steady 
decrease  of  malarial  fever.  The  stegomyia 
should  be  made  a  thing  of  the  past  through  the 
ordinance  requiring  the  screening  of  cisterns, 
seconded  by  care  on  the  part  of  the  householder. 
The  only  practical  method  of  destroying  the 
full-grown  mosquito  is  by  fumigation. 

Epidemic  of  1905.  The  work  of  the  Board  of 
Health  was  along  these  lines  during  the  epidemic 
of  1905.  An  army  of  about  four  hundred  men, 
under  the  personal  supervision  of  Dr.  Kohnke, 
the  City  Health  Officer,  was  set  to  work  oiling, 
screening,  fumigating,  and,  in  the  infected  dis- 
tricts, making  house-to-house  inspections. 

Isolation  Hospital.  An  isolation  hospital, 
located  near  the  originally  infected  district, 
bounded  by  St.  Ann,  Rampart,  Barracks  streets, 
and  the  river,  was  opened  July  26,  1905.  About 
eighty  patients  could  be  cared  for  at  one  time, 
and  these  received  the  services  of  many  eminent 
physicians.  Fathers  Parolli  and  Scotti,  Italian 
priests,  labored  among  their  countrymen,  who 
were  the  worst  sufferers.  They  ministered  to  the 
dying  and  persuaded  many,  who  were  ignorant 


of  the  English  language,  to  allow  their  sick  to 
be  taken  to  the  hospital,  where  they  would  re- 
ceive proper  attention. 

Campaign  Turned  Over  to  Federal  Authori- 
ties. Entire  control  of  the  work  of  eradication, 
begun  by  Dr.  Kohnke,  was  turned  over  to  Dr. 
Joseph  H.  White,  chief-in-command  of  this  dis- 
trict of  the  United  States  Public  Health  and 
Marine  Hospital  Service.  This  was  done  because 
of  the  greater  resources  at  the  command  of  the 
Federal  Grovernment,  and  the  proven  skill  of  the 
military  sanitary  ofli'cers,  experienced  in  fighting 
yellow  fever  elsewhere.  In  each  ward,  a  force 
of  inspectors,  oilers,  fumigators,  and  screners, 
supervised  by  a  competent  leader,  was  organ- 
ized. 

No  outside  aid,  except  the  services  of  govern- 
ment officials,  was  accepted;  the  state,  the  city, 
and  the  citizens  contributed  $.320,000,  four-fifths 
of  which  was  subject  to  Dr.  White's  order. 
About  $30,000,  over  and  above  this,  was  spent 
by  volunteer  organizations  formed  to  assist  in 
the  stupendous  task. 

The  fever  was  stamped  out  before  the  first 
frost  of  the  season.  This  was  an  achievement 
never  heard  of  before  in  the  history  of  yellow 
fever. 

Result  of  the  Work.  The  results  of  this 
epidemic  are  measured,  not  so  much  by  the 
deaths  ensuing,  as  by  the  improveirient  in  sani- 
tation. There  were  only  452  deaths,  and  ten  per 
cent  of  these  were  cases  brought  in  from  out- 
lying infected  localities.  This  seems  but  a  very 
small  number,  compared  with  the  7,849  deaths 
from  the  same  disease  in  1853.  Through  this 
campaign,  the  city  received  a  cleaning  such  as 
it  had  never  before  known ;  the  people  obtained 
knowledge  of  disease  prevention  and  hygiene; 
and  an  impetus  was  given  to  the  completion  of 
the  sewerage  and  drainage  system. 

Cholera  Epidemic,  1832.  The  darkest  year 
in  the  history  of  New  Orleans  was  1832,  when 
Asiatic  cholera  infested  the  city,  carrying  off 
one-sixth  of  the  entire  population.  This  disease, 
like  yellow  fever,  was  imported  from  tropical 
countries  and  appeared,  to  some  extent,  almost 
every  year.  It  was  never  so  terrible  as  in  1832, 
when,  with  deaths  from  yellow  fever  and  other 
causes,  it  raised  the  rate  of  mortality  to  the 
enormous  proportion  of  147.10  per  thousand. 


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SECTION  3.    MARITIME  QUARANTINE. 


Establishment  of  Quarantine  Station.    The 

quarantine  station  was  first  established  at  En- 
glish Turn  in  1821,  but  a  very  lax  system  was 
practiced,  as  was  evident  from  the  frequent 
visitations  of  yellow  fever  and  other  tropical 
diseases  foreign  to  this  country.  In  fact,  at 
times,  there  was  no  quarantine  at  all.  Alarmed 
by  the  experiences  of  1853  and  '54,  the  legisla- 
ture (1855)  appropriated  $50,000  for  a  new 
quarantine  station  about  seventy  miles  below 
the  city.  The  enforcement  of  quarantine  regu- 
lations was  spasmodic.  At  times,  it  was  applied 
in  the  strictest  sense  of  forty  days'  detention; 
again,  it  was  done  away  with  as  ineffectual  and 
useless  because  some  quarantinable  disease 
would  reach  the  port. 

Station  Sold  to  Federal  Government.  In 
1906,  the  quarantine  station  was  sold  to  the  Fed- 
eral Government  for  $100,000,  and  is  now  con- 
trolled by  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Service  under  the  Treasury  Department.  The 
station  forms  one  of  the  great  series  of  bulwarks 
against  the  enemies  of  public  health,  more  im- 
portant than  forts  or  outposts,  for  the  in- 
vasion of  an  armed  force  is  seldom  threatened, 
but  the  insidious  invasion  of  disease  is  a  con- 
stant menace. 

How  the  Federal  Government  Guards 
Against  the  Importation  of  Disease.  The  United 
States  Public  Health  Service  has  officers  in  all 
foreign  ports.  These  officers  send  to  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  complete  reports  of  health  conditions 
in  the  localities  where  they  are  stationed,  with 
special  reference  to  quarantinable  diseases. 
There  are  five  such  diseases,  namely,  yellow 
fever,  smallpox,  Asiatic  cholera,  bubonic  plagne, 
and  typhus.  The  Treasury  Department  issues 
weekly  bulletins  containing  these  reports,  be- 
sides which,  telegraphic  notices  of  any  special 
danger  are  sent  to  all  maritime  quarantine 
stations  in  the  United  States.  A  ship,  arriving 
from  an  infected  or  suspected  port,  is  thor- 
oughly fumigated  and  detained  long  enough  for 
any  possible  cases  to  develop.  The  time  of  de- 
tention varies  according  to  the  disease  quaran- 


tined against.  If  there  is  no  manifestation  of 
disease  after  the  required  number  of  days  have 
elapsed,  the  shiY>  is  allowed  to  proceed  on  her 
way. 

Time  and  Money  Saved  by  Modem  Method 
of  Quarantine.  Careful  fumigation  of  ships  sub- 
ject to  quai'antine,  and  examination  of  passen- 
gers, are  all  that  is  now  necessary,  if  there  are 
no  suspicious  cases  aboard.  Sometimes,  even 
tbe  fumigation  is  dispensed  with,  when  the 
authorities  have  sufficient  assurance  that  neither 
crew  nor  passengers  have  been  exposed  to  in- 
fection. Thus,  there  is  very  little  delay  or  added 
expense  to  interrupt  commerce,  as  opposed  to  the 
old  method,  which  indiscriminately  held  ships 
for  weeks,  proportionately  increasing  their  cost 
of  maintenance  and  crippling  trade.  On  account 
of  the  rigid  quarantine  enforced  at  one  time,  a 
large  proportion  of  commerce  was  diverted  from 
New  Orleans. 

Vigilance  Against  Yellow  Fever.  Any  ship 
coming  from  the  tropics  or  yellow,  fever  zone, 
during  the  months  when  that  disease  is  preva- 
lent, must  be  detained  six  days  after  fumigation. 
Yellow  fever  symptoms  become  evident  within 
six  days  after  a  person  has  been  exposed  to  the 
disease.  In  order  to  save  as  much  time  as  pos- 
sible, the  United  States  officer  in  the  foreign 
port  often  fumigates'the  vessel-at  the  hour  of 
leaving.  Her  time  at  sea  is  then  deducted  from 
the  six  days,  and  her  time  of  detention  at  the 
quarantine  station  will  be  equal  to  the  differ- 
ence. If  the  ship  is  four  days  at  sea,  she  will 
have  but  two  days  to  stay  at  quarantine.  The 
fruit  vessels,  on  account  of  their  perishable  car- 
goes, are  not  fumigated,  but  are  required  to 
carry  physicians,  who  are  responsible  for  the 
health  of  all  on  board,  and  for  the  enforcement 
of  quarantine  regulations. 

Other  Cities  Adopt  New  Orleans'  Method. 
New  Orleans  was  the  first  city  to  adopt  this 
system,  based  on  the  scientific  fact  that  certain 
diseases  take  a  specific  time  to  develop.  San 
Francisco  was  second  in  its  use,  and  was  soon 
followed  by  New  York. 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 
SECTION  4.     SANITARY  IMPROVEMENTS  SINCE  1803. 


53 


Sanitary  Improvements.  As  early  as  1817, 
Governor  Claiborne  suggested  quarantine.  He 
was  forced  to  abandon  his  plan  because  public 
opinion  was  so  bitterly  opposed  to  it.  Many 
eminent  physicians  of  the  day  did  not  believe 
in  importation  of  disease,  and  considered  quar- 
antine ridiculous.  Governor  Villere,  however, 
was  more  successful,  establishing  a  quarantine 
station  and  a  Board  of  Health,  in  1821.  Both 
enjoyed  a  very  checkered  career,  being  dis- 
solved and  re-established  many  times.  The  work 
of  the  Board  of  Health  has  been  more  or  less 
continuous  since  1855. 

Dr.  C.  B.  White,  who  was  president  of  the 
Board  of  Health  in  the  seventies,  inaugurated 
a  sanitary  campaign  in  New  Orleans  and  intro- 
duced the  disinfection  of  premises  with  carbolic 
acid. 

The  Auxiliary  Sanitary  Association  was  or- 
ganized after  the  epidemic  of  1878.  They  estab- 
lished a  system  of  flushing  the  gutters,  all  open 
at  that  time,  by  water  from  public  hydrants  and 


by  water  lifted  from  the  river  by  a  steam  pump 
erected  for  that  purpose.  They  also  furnished 
the  city  with  boats  for  the  removal  of  garbage. 
From  that  time  on  there  has  been  a  steady  im- 
provement in  sanitation,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
gradual  reduction  of  the  rate  of  mortality. 

Potent  Factors  in  Sanitation.  The  most 
powerful  factors  in  attaining  and  maintaining 
the  present  salubrity  of  New  Orleans  have  been: 

1.  Drainage  of  adjacent  swamps. 

2.  "Water  supply. 

3.  Sewerage  and  Drainage  Systems. 

4.  Effective  Quarantine. 

5.  Activity  of  the  State  and  City  Boards  of 

Health. 

6.  Paving  of  Streets. 

7.  Cleaning  of  city  and  removal  of  waste. 

8.  Enlightenment  of  masses  in  matters  of 

sanitation  and  personal  hygiene.  (1,  2, 
3,  and  4  have  already  been  explained; 
6,  considered  in  Chapter  XVI.) 


SECTION  5.    STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH. 


State  Board  of  Health.  With  the  wonderful 
progress  of  medical  science  and  with  the  realiza- 
tion that  most  diseases  are  preventable,  epidem- 
ics have  become  a  matter  of  history  in  all  mod- 
ernized communities.  Always  conservative,  Lou- 
isiana was  slow  to  adopt  preventive  measures 
until  the  weight  of  public  opinion  and  the  testi- 
mony of  sister  states  forced  upon  her  legislators 
the  necessity  for  an  effective  quarantine  and 
Board  of  Health.  A  State  Board  was  estab- 
lished in  1855,  but  reorganized  in  1898;  since 
then,  with  limited  resources,  it  has  steadily 
labored  to  improve  conditions  in  Louisiana. 
The  last  five  years  (1910-1915),  especially,  have 
marked  a  wonderful  advance  in  sanitation,  re- 
lieving Louisiana  of  the  stigma  of  insalubrity 
and  unprogressiveness.  People  do  not  live  in 
unhealthy  surroundings  through  preference,  but 
through  ignorance.  The  health  exhibit  car,  by 
teaching  people  how  to  live  and  how  to  guard 
against  disease,  has  accomplished  remarkable 
results.    This  work  has  been  supplemented  by 


laws  requiring  jDCople  to  care  for  their  health, 
such  as  the  regulations  regarding  public  drink- 
ing cups,  common  towels,  habit-forming  drugs, 
barber  shops,  and  others. 

Sanitary  Inspection.  In  order  that  all  sani- 
tary regulations  may  be  properly  enforced,  the 
Board  of  Health  has  a  regular  system  of  inspec- 
tion. Score  cards,  containing  questions  which 
may  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  place 
to  be  visited,  are  furnished  the  inspector.  This 
officer  fills  out  the  blanks,  points  out  violations 
of  regulations,  takes  samples,  and  makes  seiz- 
ures. All  cards  are  sent  to  the  head  offices, 
where  they  are  filed  and  graded.  Notices  are 
then  sent  to  owners  or  managers  with  a  time 
limit  set  for  improvement,  after  which,  if  the 
regulations  are  still  violated,  vigorous  prosecu- 
tion follows. 

In  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  the  state  and  city 
boards  cooperate  in  these  inspections.  Many 
places  have  been  closed  temporarily  and,  though 
this  crippled  their  business  for  the  time,  they 


54 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


were  recompensed  by  the  advertisement  gained 
on  reopening  under  the  approval  of  the  Board 
of  Health. 

This  rigid  inspection  has  caused  great  im- 
provement in  the  dairies  of  New  Orleans.  Nearly 
all  the  barn^  have  been  whitewashed  inside, 
milk-houses  screened,  barnyards  drained  and 
cleaned,  and  the  small-top  milk  pail  introduced. 
The  campaign  against  unsanitary  markets  has 
resulted  in  the  screening  ordinance  and  the  erec- 
tion of  several  "model"  markets,  such  as  the 
Dryades  and  the  renovated  portion  of  the  French 
Market. 

Food  and  Drug  Laws  and  Regulations,  and 
Ket  Weight  and  Measure  Laws.  In  1906,  the 
Legislature  passed  the  first  Food  and  Drug  Law, 
authorizing  the 
State  Board  of 
Health  to  make 
rule  s  governing 
the  manufacture, 
sale  and  inspec- 
tion of  foods, 
drugs,  liquors, 
and  waters,  in  so 
far  as  they  might 
affect  the  public 
health.  Further 
laws  have  since 
been  enacted 
against  mis- 
branding of  foods, 
drugs,  etc.,  and 
also  requiring  all 
foods  sold  in 
package  form  to 
bear  the  net  weight  or  measure  of  the  contents. 

The  Food  and  Drug  Department  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health,  therefore,  looks  into  food  adul- 
teration and  misbranding,  and  regulates  the  sale 
of  habit-forming  drugs.  Foods  are  adulterated 
if  any  substance  has  been  substituted  for  the 
article,  if  any  valuable  constituent  has  been 
taken  out,  if  any  substance  has  been  added  to 
reduce  or  lower  or  injuriously  affect  its  quality 
or  strength,  if  any  poisonous  or  deleterious  in- 
gredient has  been  added,  or  if  it  consists  in 


whole  or  in  part  of  a  filthy,  decomposed  animal 
or  vegetable  matter.  For  example,  milk  may 
be  adulterated  by  watering,  by  skimming,  by 
having  added  to  it  a  chemical  to  jsreserve  it, 
or  by  becoming  spoiled  or  putrid.  All  canned 
goods  having  puffed  or  swelled  ends  are  adul- 
terated, since  the  contents  are  nearly  always 
spoiled.  Food  and  drugs  are  misbranded  if  the 
label  contains  any  statement  regarding  the  in- 
gredients which  is  false  or  misleading  in  any 
particular.  For  example,  cotton  seed  oil  labelled 
"olive  oil,"  patent  medicines  bearing  false 
cui'ative  claims,  or  any  packages  labelled  with 
incorrect  weight  or  measure  are  misbranded. 

Habit-forming    drugs,    such    as    morphine, 
opium,  cocaine,  and  their  compounds,   cannot 

be    sold    except 


under  the  pre- 
scription of  a  phy- 
sician. The  sale  of 
poisonous  drugs 
is  also  regulated. 

The  food  and 
drug  department 
iias  an  inspection 
force,  a  labora- 
tory, and  analj'sts. 
It  makes  a  spe- 
cialty  of  the 
analysis  of  city 
water  supplies 
and  ]niblic  school 
supplies. 

The  State  Board 
of  Health  con- 
duets  a  bacterio- 
logical department.  The  Department  of  Vital 
Statistics  is  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of 
Health  and  is  conducted  by  the  State  Registrar. 
Besides  these  varied  activities,  there  is  a 
force  of  men  for  the  inspection  of  oils,  which, 
by  explosion  or  combustion,  might  endanger  life 
or  property.  No  burning  or  illuminating  oil 
that  would  ignite  below  125°  F.  can  be  sold  in 
Louisiana,  and  all  receptacles  containing  oil  to 
be  sold  must  bear  the  signature  of  a  Board  of 
Health  inspector. 


KRENUH   MARKET  BEFORE   RENOVATION. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Board  of  Health 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


55 


SECTION  6.     CITY  BOARD  OF  HEALTH. 


Organization.  The  City  Board  of  Health 
was  estabhshed  by  act  of  the  Legislature  in  1898, 
making  it  distinct  and  separate  from  the  state 
board.  The  act  establishing  the  commission 
form  of  government  for  the  City  of  New  Orleans 
provides  for  a  board  of  health  consisting  of  five 
members,  one  to  be  the  Mayor,  one  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Public  Safety,  and  three  other  mem- 
bers at  large  to  be  chosen  by  the  commission 
council,  at  least  one  of  whom  shall  be  a  physician 
licensed  to  practice  medicine  in  the  Parish  of 
Orleans. 

.  Maintenance.  This  board  is  maintained  by 
appropriation  by 
the  city  council, 
amounting,  in 
1913,  to  about 
$57,000  and  by 
revenues  obtained 
from  fees,  fines, 
etc.,  amounting  in 
the  same  year  to 
about  $45,700. 

Prevention  of 
Contagion.  One  of 
the  most  impor- 
tant activities  of 
the  guardians  of 
the  public  health 
is  the  care  of  com- 
municable dis- 
eases. Physicians 
are  required  by 
law  to  report  all 
such  cases  to  the 
office  of  the  Board  of  Health,  where,  by  a  care- 
fully planned  system,  the  exact  city  block  in- 
fected and  the  progress  o|  the  case  is  noted.  The 
house  occupied  by  the  patient  suffering  from  a 
contagious  disease  is  posted,  and  quarantine 
maintained  until  the  premises  have  been  fumi- 
gated by  officers  of  the  Board  of  Health.  During 
the  period  of  contagion,  health  inspectors  visit 
the  infected  pi-emises  to  ascertain  that  all  re- 
quirements as  to  disinfection  are  observed.  A 
house-to-house  inspection  of  the  nine  blocks  sur- 
rounding the  point  of  infection  is  made.  All 
Board  of  Health  inspectors  are  empowered  to 
arrest  those  who  violate  the  sanitary  ordinances. 


Food  Inspection.  As  a  large  proportion  of 
sickness  is  caused  by  poor  or  tainted  food,  the 
duty  of  inspecting  food  supplies  devolves  upon 
health  officers.  Dairies,  bakeries,  confection- 
eries, abattoirs,  markets,  restaurants,  and  hotels 
come  under  special  supervision.  Numerous  and 
detailed  ordinances  requiring  a  high  standard  of 
sanitation,  are  enforced  in  New  Orleans.  As  an 
illustration,  some  of  those  regulating  the  oper- 
ation of  a  dairy  will  be  given.  Before  a  dairy 
may  be  opened,  a  permit  must  be  obtained  from 
the  Board  of  Health,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
the  buildings  used  for  dairy  purposes  are  well 

lighted,  venti- 
lated, and  con- 
structed; that  the 
room  used  for 
storing  milk  is  not 
near  the  stable 
nor  living  room ; 
and  that  the  water 
supply  is  pui'e  and 
adequate.  Veteri- 
narians examine 
the  cows.  Samples 
of  milk  and  other 
dairy  products, 
taken  at  irregnilar 
intervals,  are  sub- 
jected to  chemical 
tests  to  ascertain 
the  iDresence  of 
adulterants,  pre- 
servatives, or  im- 
purities. (See 
Chapter  IX.  for  meat  inspection.) 

All  restaurants,  hotels,  and  other  places  of 
similar  character  are  subject  to  inspection  with- 
out notice.  Refrigerators,,  storerooms,  and 
kitchens  undergo  a  thorough  examination,  and, 
unless  they  meet  the  required  standard,  the 
Ijlaces  are  closed  until  they  have  received  a 
cleaning  satisfactory  to  the  health  authorities. 
The  owners  are  fined  for  violation  of  health 
ordinances. 

Bacteriological  Department.  Besides  a 
chemist,  the  board  employs  the  services  of  an 
expert  bacteriologist,  a  doctor  who  has  made 
the  study  of  germs  a  specialty.     Sometimes  a 


FRENCH   MARKET  AFTER  UEMOV  VTION 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Board  of  Health. 


56 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


l)liysieian  is  doubtful  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
disease,  for  many  germ  diseases  are  similar  in 
their  early  stages.  Suppose  he  suspects  a  case 
to  be  diphtheria;  he  takes  a  culture  from  the 
patient's  throat,  that  is,  wipes  it  out  with  a 
little  swab.  This  is  sent  to  the  bacteriologist, 
who,  by  a  microscopic  examination,  can  ac- 
curately diagnose  the  disease.  The  doctor  is 
then  enabled  to  jjroceed  with  suitable  treat- 
ment, instead  of  waiting  for  more  pronoimced 


symptoms  to  develop.  This  department  exer- 
cises constant  vigilance  over  the  city  water 
supply  that  there  may  be  no  contamination 
from  that  quarter. 

Department  of  Vital  Statistics.  This  depart- 
ment may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  barometer 
of  public  health,  whereby  we  are  enabled  to  com- 
pare conditions  of  past  years.  Such  a  compar- 
ison shows  a  steady  improvement  for  the  last 
half  century. 


MORTALITY  RATE, 

Showing  the  High  Death  Rate  of  Years  Ago,  the  Improved  Conditions  of  the  Past  Decade,  and  the  Constant  Decline  in 

Rate  in  Each  Decade. 

GENERAL  DEATH  RATE  PER  THOUSAND  OF  POPULATION. 


1809-'19 52.95 

1820-'29 48.55 

1830- '39 63.55 

1840- '49.. 51.59 

1850- '59 60.49 


1860-'69 40.22 

1870-'79 37.77 

1880- '89 27.62 

1890- '99 27.05 

1900- '09 21.04 


DEATH  RATE  OF  1913. 

White 14.94 

Colored 29.95 

White  and  colored 18.98 


13.56 
25.60 
16.82 


The  importance  of  such  records  seems  trivial 
to  the  average  person,  but  they  prove  of  in- 
calculable value  in  the  studj'  of  cause  and  effect, 


to  those  vested  with  the  care  of  public  health; 
hence,  the  registration  of  births,  marriages,  and 
deaths  has  been  made  compulsory  by  law. 


SECTION  7.    REMOVAL  OF  GARBAGE. 


Old.  System.  The  proj^er  disposal  of  waste 
matter  can  hardly  be  overrated  as  to  its  effect 
on  the  sanitary  conditions  of  a  community.  The 
old  method,  jDracticed  in  New  Orleans,  of  haul- 
ing all  garbage  to  the  river  front  to  be  loaded  on 
boats,  which  carried  it  to  a  point  below  the  city, 
there  to  be  dumped  into  the  river,  has  been  done 
away  with  by  national  legislation. 

System  in  Use.  The  system  adopted  and  at 
present  in  operation,  is  that  of  dumping  such 
refuse  into  the  outlying  lowlands.  All  garbage 
must  be  kept  in  tightly  closed  metal  cans,  which 
are  placed  ujDon  the  banquette  early  each  morn- 
ing, except  Sundays.  An  army  of  carts  carries 
it  from  individual  premises  to  the  Public  Belt 
by  which  it  is  transferred  to  cars  running  out 


into  the  swamps,  where  it  is  deposited  in  the 
vicinity  of  Bayou  Bienvenu. 

The  High  Temperature  Destructor.  Such  a 
system  is  necessarily  only  temporary  as  the 
lands  are  gradually  being  drained  and  occupied 
by  the  surplus  population  of  a  growing  city. 
This  is  duly  recognized  by  the  city  authorities 
who  have  made  a  careful  study  of  the  subject. 
They  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  use 
of  the  high  temperature  destructor  is  the  most 
economical  and  effective  method  in  every  way 
best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  situation.  This 
consists  of  a  hugh  receptacle  for  the  garbage, 
where,  by  forced  drafts,  the  temperature,  aver- 
aging from  1800°  Fahrenheit  to  2000°  Fahren- 
heit, destroys  everything  and  reduces  all  glass 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


57 


and  metals  to  a  clinker.  It  possesses  the  added 
advantage  of  consuming  all  obnoxious  odors,  so 
that  it  might  be  constructed  in.  the  heart  of  the 
city  without  causing  discomfort  to  the  populace. 


power  easily  converted  into  electrical  energy, 
can  be  produced.  This  method  has  been  ex- 
plained as  its  adoption  has  been  authorized  by 
an  act  of  the  legislature  and,  before  long,  it  will 


By    the    high    temperature,    enormous    steam     most  likely  be  in  operation. 


SECTION  8.     PRESENT  ACTIVITY  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH. 


Bubonic  Plague.  The  efficacy  of  modern  sani- 
tary and  ijreventive  measures  was  amply  proven 
in  the  summer  of  1914.  An  unknown  Scandi- 
navian was  taken  ill  at  the  home  of  the  Volun- 
teers of  America,  and  after  several  days,  re- 
moved to  the  Charity  Hospital,  where  his  malady 
was  pronounced  bubonic  plagxie.  There  had  been 
eases  of  the  plague  in  Havana  for  several  years, 
but  careful  quarantine  had  kept  it  out  of  New 
Orleans,  this  being  the  first  case  on  record. 

Prompt  Action  of  the  Boards.  Contrary  to 
the  concealment  policy  practiced  in  former 
years  and  responsible  for  epidemics  in  New 
Orleans,  all  facts  were  immediately  made 
known,  other  states  notified,  and  citizens  urged 
and  instructed  how  to  assist  in  the  work;  thus, 
not  only  the  lives  of  the  people  but  thousands  of 
dollars  were  saved,  for  the  sum  expended  in  rat 
extermination  would  have  been  but  a  drop  in  the 
bucket  had  the  contagion  been  allowed  to 
spread.  Other  cities  retained  their  confidence 
in  New  Orleans  and  business  was  uninterrupted. 
The  announcement,  which  a  few  years  ago 
would  have  caused  a  panic,  sent  but  a  slight 
tremor  of  fear  through  the  city,  and  this  was 
soon  quelled  by  the  prompt  and  decisive  action 
of  the  State  and  City  Boards  of  Health. 

Campaign  Against  Rats.    As  rats  have  the 


plague  and  rat  fleas  transmit  it  to  luiman 
beings,  there  had  to  be  a  war  on  rats.  Taking 
the  Home  of  the  Volunteers  of  America  as  a 
focus,  a  district  with  a  radius  of  four  squares  was 
marked  off  as  the  infected  area,  where  the  rat 
extermination  was  to  begin.  The  inmates  of  the 
Home  were  isolated  in  a  perfectly  rat  proof 
building  until  the  time  required  for  the  disease 
to.  develop  had  passed.  A  large  force  was  set  to 
work  in  the  district  marked  off,  catching  the 
rodents,  which  were  immersed  in  kerosene  to 
kill  the  fleas,  and  then  sent  to  the  Board  of 
Health  laboratories  for  bacteriological  exami- 
nation. As  the  matter  was  of  vital  importance, 
not  only  to  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  but  to  the 
entire  nation,  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  turn 
the  campaign  over  to  Surgeon  General  Rupert 
Blue  of  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service, 
who  had  made  a  deep  study  of  the  plague  and 
successfully  combated  it  in  Honolulu  and  San 
Francisco. 

Ratproofing.  An  ordinance  was  passed  re- 
quiring all  premises  to  be  ratproofed  that  is,  all 
buildings  must  be  so  constructed  that  rats  can- 
not Jive  in  the  walls  or  floors,  and  all  rubbish, 
where  they  might  find  shelter,  must  be  destroy- 
ed. This  has  resulted  in  cleaning  up  the  city  as 
well  as  reducing  the  number  of  rats. 


SECTION  9.  ENLIGHTENMENT  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


Legislatures  and  Boards  of  Health  can  accom- 
plish very  little  without  a  corresponding  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  people  for  a  decent,  hygienic 
way  of  living.    Such  a  condition  can  be  realized 


only  by  enlightening  the  masses  in  matters  of 
hygiene  and  sanitation,  a  work  already  under- 
taken by  public-spirited  physicians,  by  the  State 
and  City  Boards  of  Health,  and  by  the  schools. 


58 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


SECTION  10.    HOSPITALS. 


Charity  Hospital.  One  of  the  oldest  insti- 
tutions in  the  United  States  for  the  care  of  the 
sick  is  the  Charity  Hospital.     See  Chapter  XI. 

Hotel  Dieu.  The  nucleus  of  the  present 
Hotel  Dieu  was  the  Maison  de  Sante  opened  in 
1852  by  four  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Emmits- 
burg,  Maryland,  at  the  clinic  of  Dr.  Warren 
Stone.  He  befriended  them  during  his  lifetime 
and  left  them  in  possession  of  his  property  at 
death.  The  increasing  demand  upon  the  ser- 
vices of  the  gentle  Sisters  made  the  need  for 
larger  and  better  accommodations  imperative, 
which  resulted  in  their  removal  in  1858  to  the 
present  Hotel  Dieu.  With  the  growth  of  the  in- 
stitution and  advance  in  medical  science,  they 
have  steadily  enlarged  their  opportunities  of 
service  to  suffering  humanit3^  Here,  besides 
caring  for  the  sick,  they  conduct  a  most  success- 
ful training  school  for  nurses. 

Touro  Infirmary.  The  Touro  Infirmary  was 
the  gift  to  the  Hebrews  of  New  Orleans  of 
Judah  Touro,  a  Jewish  merchant  and  philan- 
thropist, who  by  his  industry  and  thrift, 
amassed  a  fortune,  the  bulk  of  which  was  de- 
voted to  charitable  purposes.  One  bequest  was 
$40,000  for  an  almhouse.    This  was  managed  by 


the  Touro  Infirmary  Society,  which  maintained 
a  small  hospital  at  Levee  and  Graiennie  streets. 
Later,  they  consolidated  with  the  Hebrew  Be- 
nevolent Association,  and  the  site  of  the  present 
hospital  was  purchased.  Here,  modern  build- 
ings with  excellent  equijament  have  been  con- 
structed, in  connection  with  which  a  home  for 
the  aged  and  infirm  was"built  by  Julius  Weis. 

Presbyterian  Hospital.  The  New  Orleans 
Sanitarium,  now  the  Presbyterian  Hospital,  was 
opened  in  1886  as  a  training  school  for  nurses, 
the  first  in  the  South. 


TOPICS:  1,  Early  History  of  Sanitation  in  New  Orleans; 
2,  Yellow  Fever  and  Cholera;  3,  Maritime  Quarantine; 
4,  Sanitary  Improvements  Since  1803;  5,  State  Board  of 
Health;  6,  City  Board  of  Health;  7,  Removal  of  Garbage; 
8,  Present  Activity  of  the  Board  of  Health;  9,  Enlighten- 
ment of  the  People;  10,  Hospitals. 

REFERENCES:  Waring  &  Cable,  History  and  Present  Con- 
dition of  New  Orleans,  1880;  Rightor  (editor),  Stand- 
ard History  of  New  Orleans;  Augustin,  History  of 
Yellow  Fever;  Biennial  Reports  of  the  Louisiana  State 
Board  of  Health;  Biennial  Reports  of  the  Board  of 
Health  of  the  City  of  New  Orleans;  Sanitary  Code  of 
the  State  of  Louisiana;  Laws  and  Ordinances  Relating 
to  Health  and  Sanitation  of  the  City  of  New  Orleans; 
Kohnke,  The  Problem  of  Mosquito  Destruction  in  New 
Orleans. 


CHAPTER  V. 


System  of  Communication. 


SECTION  1.  POSTAL  SYSTEM— POST  OFFICE. 


The  post  office  is  a  government  service  for 
the  dispatch  of  letters,  parcels,  etc.  The  proto- 
type of  the  modern  postal  system  existed  at  an 
early  date  among  the  Persians,  Romans,  Aztecs, 
Chinese,  and  other  peoples,  in  the  form  of  an 
organized  estahlishment  of  state  carriers.  In 
America,  the  first  step  in  the  organization  of  a 
postal  system,  was  the  appointment  in  1639,  in 
the  Massachusetts  colony,  of  an  official  to  take 
charge  of  the  delivery  of  letters.  The  American 
Congress,  in  July,  1775,  appointed  Benjamin 
■Franklin  as  the  first  postmaster-general. 

Beginning  of  the  Mail  System  in  New  Or- 
leans. Previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  mail 
system,  post  riders,  stage  coaches,  and  steam- 
boats carried  the  mail  to  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  A  mail  coach,  owned  by  -two  Orleanians, 
ran  in  1804-1805  from 
New  Orleans  to  Man- 
chac  Church  twice  a 
week.  A  post  office 
was  established  in  New 
Orleans  by  the  United 
States  soon  after  its 
acquisition  of  Lou- 
isiana. Blaise  Cenas 
was  the  first  post- 
master, his  commission 
being  dated  October, 
1803.  In  1804,  the  post- 
master made  the  an- 
nouncement that  the 
mail  would  arrive  in 
New  Orleans  every 
Monday  and  leave  on 
every  Tuesday.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1910,  the  mails 
began  to  arrive  and  de- 
part more  frequently. 
By  May,  1811,  New  Or- 
leans   boasted    of    the 


fast  time  made  by  the  mails.  It  took  twenty 
days  for  a  letter  to  reach  New  Orleans  from 
Washington  City;  to-day,  it  takes  about  thirty- 
four  hours. 

The  railway  mail  service  was  inaugurated 
in  1864,  after  a  successful  experiment  upon  a 
few  large  railroad  lines.  It  has  reached  a  per- 
fection, attainable  only  in  a  country  of  great 
extent.  This  service  is  one  of  the  earliest  ex- 
ponents of  classified  civil  service. 

Postage.  Originally,  postage  was  charged 
according  to  the  distance  that  a  letter  had  to  be 
carried.  At  first,  there  were  no  postage  stamps, 
and  the  cost  was  marked  across  the  face  of  the 
letter,  to  be  paid  by  the  person  receiving  it. 
Some  letters  cost  only  six  cents,  while  others 
cost  as  much  as  twenty  cents.     Heavy  letters 


UNITED    STATES    POST    OFFICE. 


60 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


often  cost  tliree  or  four  times  that  amount.  The 
use  of  adhesive  stamps  was  authorized  by  Con- 
gress in  March,  1847.  In  1856,  prepayment  by 
stamps  was  made  compulsory.  In  1863,  postage 
on  letters  was  three  cents  per  half  ounce,  but, 
then,  was  reduced  to  two  cents  per  ounce. 

The  system  of  registry,  adopted  in  1855,  did 
not  attain  any  degTee  of  excellence  until  after 
1860.  The  money-order  system  was  established 
in  1864.  Money-orders  are  exchanged  with  most 
of  the  important  countries  of  the  world  which 
have  money-order  systems  of  their  own.  The 
introduction  of  the  parcel  post,  January,  1913, 
was  the  result  of  many  years  of  agitation  for  the 
admission  to  the  mails  of  parcels  of  merchandise 
of  greater  weight  than  four  pounds,  and  for  a 
lower  rate  on  this  class  of  matter.  This  was  the 
first  time  the  Post  Office  Department  inaugu- 
rated a  new  service  and  put  it  into  immediate 
operation  without  trying  it  on  a  small  scale. 

Under  an  order  issued  at  Washington,  Octo- 
ber 1,  1914,  the  postmasters  of  New  Orleans  and 
fourteen  other  cities  are  directed  to  assist  in 
Imilding  up  the  farm-to-table  business  of  the  par- 
cel post.  The  way  is  thus  opened  for  direct  deal- 
ing between  consumers  and  producers.  The  only 
middleman  in  the  transaction  will  be  the  post 
office  and  the  only  tolls  will  be  the  cost  of  the 
stamps.  In  one  or  two  cities  where  the  plan  has 
been  tried,  newspaper  accounts  have  indicated 
its  partial  failure.  Whether  it  will  succeed  in 
New  Orleans,  with  its  numerous  suburban  ti'uck 
faiius,  public  markets,  and  wagon  peddlers,  re- 


mains to  be  seen.  The  wider  competition  it 
makes  possible  ought  to  discourage  any  tendency 
to  excessive  prices  in  the  local  markets,  just  as 
"water  competition"  discourages  unreasonably 
high  rail  rates. 

The  Postal  Savings  department  was  also 
established  in  1913.  The  deposits  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June,  1914,  amomited  to  nearly 
$105,000,  credited  to  795  depositors. 

Establishment  of  Sub-stations.  Two  sub- 
stations were  established  in  1882,  one  in  Carroll- 
roUton,  and  one  in  Algiers.  In  1890,  four  other 
stations  were  added,  and  at  present,  every 
neighborhood  has  a  convenient  station  within 
its  boundaries. 

The  free  delivery  system  has  been  extended 
to  tlie  suburbs  of  the  city  to  those  who  liave  pro- 
vided the  requirements  of  paved  sidewalks,  ex- 
tending from  the  former  line  of  delivery  service 
to  their  residences,  of  house  numbers,  and  of 
mail  boxes.  The  business  districts  now  have  five 
deliveries  a  day. 

The  Special  Delivery  system  was  put  into 
operation  in  1895.  The  collection  carts  were 
introduced  in  1899.  Since  1860,  the  post  office 
has  occupied  a  part  of  the  lower  floor  of  the 
Custom  House.  This  department  was  moved 
into  the  handsome  building  in  Camp  street, 
opposite  Lafayette  Square,  in  March,  1915. 

TOPICS:      Early  History  of  the  Postal  System;   The  Begin- 
ning of  the  Mail  System  of  New  Orleans;  Postage. 

REFERENCES:     Nelson's  Encyclopedia;  Newspaper  Piles. 


SECTION  2.    ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH. 


Early  Modes  of  Communication.  The  savage, 
who  lights  a  fire  so  that  the  smoke  may  be  seen 
from  afar  by  his  comrades,  is  using  a  telegraph 
such  as  all  men  used  once  upon  a  time.  The  sol- 
dier who  waves  two  flags  about  in  a  peculiar 
maimer,  is  also  telegraphing.  The  heliograph, 
a  mii'ror  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun,  flashes 
messages  to  those  who  can  read  the  signals. 
This  latter  method  is  used  to-day  in  some  parts 
of  California.  Electricity,  one  of  nature's  most 
powerful  forces,  carefully  kept  its  secret  for 
ages.  Now,  that  its  use  is  known,  man  is  able 
to  achieve  wonders. 

No  one  is  absolutely  certain  as  to  the  name 


of  the  man  who  first  suggested  the  electric  tele- 
gi'aph.  Many  clever  inventors  prepared  the 
way.  Among  these  are  Volta,  Humphrey  Davy, 
Michael  Faraday,  Francis  Eonald,  Sir  Charles 
Wheatstone,  and  Sir  William  Cooke.  The  last 
two  mentioned  made,  in  1838,  the  first  practical 
telegraph  used  in  England,  and  from  that  be- 
ginning her  whole  national  system  of  tele- 
gxaphic  communication  has  sprung. 

In  America,  when  there  arises  a  demand  for 
something  vital  which  shall  play  an  mportant 
part  in  national  development,  science  comes  for- 
ward to  meet  the  need.  When  a  swifter  mode 
of  communication  between  commercial  centers 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


61 


became  necessary,  Professor  Morse  was  able  to 
transform  into  a  messenger  boy  of  commerce 
that  mysterious  force  which  Benjamin  Franklin 
had  captured  from  the  clouds.  Morse's  alphabet 
and  method  of  telegraphing  are  used  through- 
out America. 

The  Growth  of  the  Telegraph  System.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  there 
was  not  a  line  of  electric  telegraph  in  the  United 
States.  To-day,  there  is  a  vast  mileage  travers- 
ing all  lands  and  all  seas.  ' '  God  and  man  have 
linked  the  nations  together."  The  growth  of 
the  system  is  bounded  by  less  than  seventy-five 
years,  most  of  it  by  the  last  thirty-five  years. 
Edison  invented  the  quadruplex  system  and  also 
a  means  of  sending  six  telegrams  simultaneously. 

First  Line  Into  New  Orleans.  The  Washing- 
ton and  New  Orleans  Telegraph  Company  was 
operated  in  1848,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
important  lines  in  the  country.  Four  other  com- 
panies operated  lines  into  New  Orleans  between 
1856  and  1866.  The  Western  Union,  organized 
in  Rochester,  New  York,  in  1851,  had  absorbed 
all  lines  South  and  Southwest,  by  1866.  Its  only 
formidable  rival  is  the  Postal  Telegraph,  which 
was  organized  in  1883. 

Telegraph  Offices  in  New  Orleans.  In  former 
years,  the  gravity  "bluestone"  batteries  were 
exclusively  used  and  are  still  used  in  small 
towns,  but  in  New  Orleans,  as  in  all  other  large 
cities,  these  have  been  replaced  by  the  dynamos. 
There  are  about  one  hundred  wires  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country  entering  the  Western 
Union  office  in  New  Orleans.  Single  lines  are 
used  along  the  railroad  routes,  but  trunk  lines 
are  employed  between  large  cities.  The  wires 
are  duplexed  and  quadruplexed,  hence,  two  or 
four  messages  can  be  sent  in  opposite  directions 
at  the  same  time.  The  duplex  system  consists 
of  a  receiving  and  sending  apparatus  at  each 
end,  which  are  worked  simultaneously  without 
interference  with  each  other.  For  example.  New 
Orleans  sends  a  message  to  Memphis  and  Mem- 
phis to  New  Orleans  at  the  same  time  without 


mixing  the  signals.  The  quadruplex  is  a  com- 
bination of  two  duplexes  of  different  designs  on 
which  New  Orleans  can  have  two  operators 
sending  messages  to  Memphis,  and  Memphis  to 
New  Orleans;  while  Memphis  can  connect  St. 
Louis  or  Chicago  by  the  automatic  repeating 
apparatus  on  one  side,  and  can  send  messages 
to  New  Orleans,  while  St.  Louis  or  Chicago  is 
using  the  wire.  The  wires  come  into  the  office 
by  a  switchboard,  an  apparatus  by  which  the 
chief  can  locate  trouble  on  the  wires  between 
stations,  and  give  the  necesasry  instructions. 

Ocean  Cables.  We  owe  this  remarkable 
means  of  communication  to  Cyrus  Field,  who, 
after  several  failures,  succeeded  in  putting  the 
New  World  on  conversational  terms  with  the 
Old.  New  Orleans  sends  her  cable  messages  for 
Europe  to  the  Western  Union  and  Postal  Tele- 
graph offices  in  New  York,  where  they  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  Atlantic  Cable  companies  for  trans- 
mission to  Liverpool  and  then  by  land,  in  most 
cases,  to  their  destination.  Dispatches  for  east- 
ern Asia,  Australia,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  points 
are  sent  for  transmission  to  the  Pacific  Cable 
Company  in  San  Francisco.  The  Mexican  and 
South  American  cable  service  is  handled  from 
Galveston,  Texas,  but  Mexico  can  also  be  reached 
by  land  lines  via  El  Paso  and  Laredo,  Texas. 
The  West  Indian  business  is  done  throijgh 
Tampa  and  Key  West. 

Wireless  Telegraph.  Marconi's  patent  was 
applied  for  in  England,  in  1896,  and  obtained  in 
1897.  Wireless  stations  are  now  operated  in  all 
seaports.  The  first  one  in  New  Orleans  was 
erected  by  the  United  Fruit  Company.  There 
are  now  three  wireless  stations  in  New  Orleans ; 
one,  on  the  Hotel  Grunewald,  operated  by  the 
Marconi  Company ;  another,  at  the  Naval  Station 
in  Algiers ;  and  the  third,  operated  by  the  LTnited 
Fruit  Company. 

TOPICS:  Early  Modes  of  Communication;  The  First  Tele- 
graphic Lines  into  New  .Orleans;  Ocean  Cables; 
Wireless. 

REFERENCES:     Archives  of  Cabildo. 


SECTION  3.    THE  TELEPHONE. 


History  tells  us,  as  early  as  1667,  that  Eobert 
Hooke  made  sound  travel  along  a  stretched  wire. 
Philip  Eeis  of  Frankfort,  Germany,  produced 
an  electric  telephone  in  1861.    In  1876,  two  tele- 


phones were  patented;  one  by  Elisha  Gray,  the 
other,  by  Alexander  Graham  Bell.  These  two 
men,  imknown  to  each  other,  applied  on  the 
same  day  at  the  Washington  office  for  their 


62 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


patents.  Bell 's  proved  the  better  instrument,  and 
with  many  improvements  is  still  in  use.  Thomas 
Edison  has  given  us  one  of  the  most  important 
things  in  the  telephone — the  carbon  transmitter. 

How  the  Sound  Carries.  We  use  the  tele- 
phone to  change  the  air  waves  into  electric 
waves,  which  travel  along  the  wire  quicker  than 
sound  travels  from  the  tongue  to  the  ear.  The 
words  strike  one  disc  and  become  electric  waves ; 
the  waves  strike  another  disc  and  become  words 
again,  because  both  discs  are  in  tune  and  give 
off  the  same  sound  when  the  wave  strikes  them. 

The  First  Telephone  in  New  Orleans.  The 
iirst  telei^hone  put  into  service  in  New  Orleans 
was  brought  from  the  Philadelphia  Exposition, 
1876,  by  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Horter  and 
Fenner,  manufacturers  of  saddleiy  and  harness. 
This  firm  connected  their  salesroom  on  Maga- 
zine and  Gravier  with  their  factory  on  Poydras 
and  Church  streets.  Shortly  after  this  intro- 
duction, the  Louisiana  Telephone  Company 
fitted  up  an  exchange  on  the  top  floor  of  the 
Denegre  Building.  Their  system  was  known  as 
the  Magneto  System.  They  employed  boys 
seventeen  to  twenty  years  of  age  as  operators. 
The  switchboards  were  different  from  the  ones 
used  at  the  present  time,  and  the  connections 
complicated  and  difficult  to  complete.  Both 
pevsons,  when  wishing  to  disconnect  their  lines, 
would  signal  the  operator  with  a  short  ring.  If, 
after  the  termination  of  a  conversation,  they 
failed  to  notify  the  operator,  the  connection 
would  remain  on  the  switchboard  until  some  one 
went  to  a  neighboring  telephone  and  asked  the 
operator  to  disconnect  the  lines.  The  first  con- 
versation held  over  the  telephones  of  this  com- 
pany was  in  the  nature  of  a  concert.  One  instru- 
ment was  installed  at  Camp  and  Gravier  streets 
and  the  other  at  the  Magazine  market.  Singers 
were  engaged  to  sing  into  the  receivers,  enter- 
taining those  at  the  other  end  of  the  line.  This 
company  soon  had  about  1100  subscribers. 

Great  Southern  Telephone  and  Telegraph 
Company.  In  1883,  the  Louisiana  Telephone 
Company  was  sold  to  the  Great  Southern  Tele- 
phone and  Telegraph  Company.  This  company 
removed  the  telephone  circuits  from  the  house- 
tops and  placed ^them  upon  cros-arms  on  poles. 
On  January  20,  188.3,  the  boy  operators  were  re- 
placed by  girls,  with  the  exception  of  the  chief 
night  operator  and  one  assistant.  The  style  of 
equipment  was  changed  and  the  first  Western 
Miiltiple  Switchboard  installed,  with  a  capacity 


for  1800  subscribers.  The  demand  for  service 
became  so  great  that  the  modern  building  now 
known  as  the  Main  Exchange,  was  constructed. 
The  first  private  branch  exchange  was  installed 
for  the  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition  of  1884. 

In  1897,  the  Cumberland  Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph Company  acquired  the  Great  Southern. 
They  have  made  such  a  success  that  to-day  they 
have  22,187  city  subscribers,  serving  them  through 
seven  exchanges  known  as  Main,  Hemlock,  Gal- 
vez.  Uptown,  Walnut,  Jackson,  and  Algiers. 

Description  of  an  Exchange.  The  exchange 
is  a  wonderful  sight.  The  walls  are  lined  with 
switchboards,  which  enable  one  to  talk  any  dis- 
tance. These  boards  are  covered  with  tiny  holes 
like  a  bee's  honeycomb,  each  having  a  number. 
On  them  are  dull  glass  knobs  no  larger  than  a 
shoe  button,  also  having  numbers.  In  front  of 
these  boards  are  the  clerks,  generally  women. 
At  their  ears  they  have  receivers,  the  part  of  the 
telephone  which  gives  the  message,  and  under 
the  lips  a  transmitter  which  sends  the  message. 
Both  are  fitted  so  as  to  leave  the  hands  free.  The 
moment  a  man  lifts  his  telephone,  one  of  the 
knobs  of  dull  glass  on  the  switchboard  lights  up. 
The  clerk  sees  the  light,  looks  at  the  number 
under  it,  and  puts  a  plug  in  the  hole  in  the 
honeycomb  having  the  same  number.  As  soon 
as  this  plug  is  put  in,  the  telephone  is  connected 
with  exchange  and  he  tells  the  clerk  he  wants 
to  speak  to  Main,  179.  Quickly,  she  lifts  another 
plug  joined  to  the  first  one  and  puts  it  into  the 
hole  having  the  number  the  man  wants.  When 
she  does  this,  a  bell  rings  at  Main,  179 ;  the  owner 
of  that  office  takes  up  his  telephone  and  talks  to 
the  man  who  has  called  him.  When  they  have 
finished  talking,  they  hang  up  the  receiver,  the 
little  light  goes  out,  the  clerk  removes  the  plugs, 
and  the  wires  are  disconnected. 

The  volume  of  telegraphic  communication 
has  been  enormously  lessened  by  the  telephone. 
This  reduction  in  telegraphic  business  results 
from  the  substitution  of  long-distance  calls.  The 
telegraph  remains  superior  for  long  distances, 
if  the  message  is  taken  as  a  unit,  but  on  the  base 
of  the  number  of  words  and  time  for  exchange 
of  messages,  the  telegraph  is  at  a  disadvantage. 
The  rates  for  the  two  methods  differ  little  for 
medium  distances. 

TOPICS:  The  Invention  of  the  Telephone;  The  Telephone 
in  New  Orleans;  Description  of  an  Exchange;  Bates 
of  Telephone  and  Telegraph. 

REFERENCES:  City  Aichivea;  Pamphlets  of  Telephone; 
Conjpany. 


SECTION  4.    STREET  RAILWAYS. 


63 


Early  History  of  Street  Oar  Lines.    As  a 

means  of  public  conveyance,  the  omnibus  was 
first  used.  The  first  line  of  street  ears  in  the 
United  States  was  the  one  established  by  the 
New  Orleans  and  CarroUton  Company,  Septem- 
ber 26,  1835.  It  ran  from  the  corner  of  Canal 
and  Baronne  streets  to  Carrollton,  the  same 
route  now  traversed  by  the  St.  Charles  Belt. 
The  charter  given  this  company  authorized 
them  to  lay  one  single  track  between  the  above 
named  points.  It  stated  that  if  the  majority  of 
the  inhabitants,  through  whose  property  it 
passed,  complained  of  it  as  a  nuis- 
ance, this  company,  after  receiving 
thirty  days  notice  from  the  mayor, 
had  to  remove  the  track  and  put  the 
street  in  the  same  order  as  Ijefore. 
In  1845,  steam  dummies  were  placed 
on  this  road  from  Carrollton  to  Lake 
Pontchartrain.  From  Lee  Circle  the 
cars  were  brought  down  by  means  of  animal 
power.  Rope  cables  were  tried  as  a  means  of 
propelling  the  cars,  but  owing  to  the  shrinking, 
of  the  rope  with  the  changes  of  the  barometer, 
had  to  be  given  up.  The  fare  was  I2V2  cents 
from  Canal  street  to  Lee  Circle,  18%  cents  from 
the  Circle  to  Jackson  avenue,  and  50  cents  from 
the  Circle  to  Carrollton. 

In  February,  1893,  electricity  was  adopted 
on  this  road.  In  1899,  the  track  was  rebuilt  and 
the  Canal  and  Claiborne  line  was  purchased  by 
them.  The  City  Eailroad  Company,  formed  in 
June,  1860,  commenced  to  run  their  cars  in 
June,  1861,  from  Canal  and  Eampart  via  Es- 
planade to  Bayou  Bridge.  These  cars  were  built 
in  omnibus  style.  By  June,  1864,  this  company 
ran  the  Magazine  and  Prytania  lines  to  Pleasant 
street;  the  Kampart  and  Dauphine  lines  to  the 
Barracks;  and  the  Canal  street  line  to  the  City 
Park  and  the  Cemeteries.  The  Levee  and  Bar- 
racks line  was  opened  in  1866.  This  same  com- 
pany purchased  the  New  Orleans  City  and  Lake, 
and  the  Crescent  City  railroad  companies.    The 


MIILH    TRACTION'. 


St.  Charles  Street  Railroad  Companies,  organ- 
ized in  1866,  built  the  Carondelet,  Dryades  and 
Clio  lines.  It  was  the  first  company  to  issue 
transfers.  The  Orleans  Railroad  Company  was 
organized  in  1869,  with  three  lines — Bayou  St. 
John,  Broad  Street,  and  French  Market.  Elec- 
tricity was  used  on  all  the  main  lines  by  1895. 

Present  System.  The  New  Orleans  Railway 
and  Light  Company,  organized  in  1905,  now 
operates  every  street  railway  in  New  Orleans, 
besides  an  electric  light  plant  and  a  gas  plant. 
It  controls  twenty-nine  distinct  lines,  pene- 
trating every  portion  "of  the  city. 
The  nominal  fare  is  five  cents  and 
a  imiversal  system  of  transfers  en- 
ables passengers  to  reach  long  dis- 
tances and  outlying  districts  with- 
out additional  cost.  There  are  206 
miles  of  single  track,  583  motor  and 
passenger  cars,  besides  work  cars, 
wreckers,  sprinklers,  etc.  This  plant  has  four 
genei'ating  stations  for  electricity;  twenty-eight 
generators  with  a  capacity  of  337,000  kilowatts. 
The  passenger  traffic  in  1913  was  87,058,951 
revenue  and  22,373,512  transfers,  making  a 
total  of  109,412,463  passengers.  It  furnishes 
the  electrical  current  for  lighting  and  power 
purposes.  The  gas  mains  run  everywhere,  gas 
being  used  for  fuel  and  heating  as  well  as  for 
lightihg. 

TOPICS:      Early   History    of    the    Car    Lines;    The    Present 
System. 

REFERENCES:     Rightor's  History;   City  Hall  Archives. 


LiTEST  MODEL  OF  ELECTRIC  CAE  IN  USE  IN 
NEW  ORLEANS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Trade. 


SECTION  1.     SHIPPING. 


Port.  The  word  "port"  comes  from  a  Latin 
word,  meaning  "gate."  The  term  is  used  to 
designate  a  place,  where  goods  brought  to  it  on 
land,  are  placed  on  boats  to  be  carried  over 
water,  or  taken  from  boats  to  be  carried  by  land. 

Tonna,ge.  The  amount  of  freight  a  ship  can 
carry  is  called  "tonnage."  Her  freight-carry- 
ing capacity  is  spoken  of  as  so  many  ' '  tons  regis- 
ter." This  is  because  every  ship  is  required  to 
have  a  home  port,  where  she  is  registered;  the 
number  of  tons  she  can  carry  is  part  of  her  de- 
scription; this  number  is  found  out  by  ascertain- 
ing how  many  cubic  feet  of  space  she  contains. 
A  tax  called  "tonnage  dues"  is  collected  on  her 
arrival  in  a  new  country. 

International  Regulations.  The  rules  were 
originally  made  for  sailing  vessels.  When  steam- 
ships were  built,  space  had  to  be  allowed  for 
boilers,  engines,  and  fuel,  which  space  could  not 
be  used  for  freight.  These  deductions  are  by 
agreement  among  nations,  practically  the  same 
everywhere,  and  amount  to  much  more  than  the 
actual  space  occupied  by  the  machinery,  etc. 
This  lessens  the  tonnage,  and  so  makes  the  run- 
ning of  the  ship  cheaper,  which  is  a  benefit  to 
commerce.  The  freight  on  a  ship  is  called 
"cargo."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  ships  can  usually 


take  cargo  equal  to  nearly  twice  their  registered 
tonnage.  Ordinarily,  a  3,000  ton  ship  will  take 
5,600  tons  of  cargo. 

Control  by  United  States  Government.  In 
the  United  States,  all  laws  and  rules  with  regard 
to  registration,  measurement,  tonnage  dues,  and 
navigation,  are  passed  by  Congress  and  are 
under  its  authority.  All  navigable  waters  are 
controlled  by  the  United  States  Government. 

Control  of  Wharves.  The  wharves  and  land- 
ings and  all  laws  and  rules  affecting  them,  are 
passed  by  the  State  Legislature  and  are  under 
its  authority.  "Wharves  are  constructed  with  the 
consent  of  the  United  States  G-overnment  at  the 
expense  of  those  to  whom  the  state  gives  such 
authority. 

Wharves.  A  ship  cannot  lie  alongside  the 
natural  shore,  because  when  she  has  cargo  on 
board  she  sinks  deep  into  the  water.  For  this 
reason,  in  some  places,  whai^es  are  built  straight 
out  so  that  when  a  ship  is  alongside  her  bow  is 
toward  the  shore.  These  are  called  piers.  Where 
piers  can  be  built,  much  less  "water  front"  is 
needed  for  the  same  number  of  ships  than  where 
piers  are  impracticable  or  impossible.  The  river 
current  is  too  swift  at  New  Orleans  for  piers,  so 
there  are  wharves  on  the  levees  along  the  river. 


SECTION  2.     SEAPORT  AND  RIVERPORT. 


Combined    Seaport    and    Riverport.     New 

Orleans  has  direct  water  comnmuicatiou  as  far 
as  Pittsburg  on  the  east,  Chicago  on  the  north, 
and  Kansas  City  on  the  west,  and  deep-sea  trade 
routes  to  all  the  principal  ports  of  the  world. 

Jetties.  Though  about  110  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  New  Orleans  is  rightly  consid- 
ered a  seaport,  for  the  largest  ship  afloat  can 
enter  the  Mississippi  and  ascend  beyond  New 
Orleans.    Until  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 


century,  sea  trade  was  interrupted  by  the  forma- 
tion of  sand  bars  at  the  mouth  of  the  River.  Silt, 
carried  seaward  by  the  strong  current,  was 
dropped  when  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  retarded 
those  of  the  river.  Constant  dredging  was  neces- 
sary to  maintain  a  channel.  This  was  expensive 
and  inadequate.  The  commercial  prosperity  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  was  hampered  by  this 
hindrance  to  navigation  and  several  disasters 
occasioned  actual  loss. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


65 


To  improve  these  conditions  the  jetties  were 
constructed  by  Captain  James  B.  Eads  in  tlie 
month  of  the  River,  called  the  South  Pass.  Con- 
gress appropriated  $1,000,000  for  the  work, 
which  was  begun  in  1875  and  completed  in  1878. 
The  jetties  are  walls  of  willow  mattresses 
weighted  with  stones  and  held  in  place  by  piling. 
Debris  and  silt  brought  down  by  the  River, 
gradually  filled  in  all  crevices,  making  firm, 
tight  walls.  These  walls  are  connected  with  the 
River  banks  by  dams  and  run  parallel  with  each 
other  1,000  feet  apart.  The  current  of  the  mighty 
River,  thus  reduced  *o  a  much  narrower  channel, 
becomes  swifter,  and,  instead  of  depositing  sedi- 
ment across  the  mouth  of  the  River,  carries  it 
far  into  the  deep  waters  of  the  Gulf.  The  force 
of  the  waters  scours  and  continually  deepens  the 
channel,  maldng  dredging  unnecessary. 


SECTION  3.     HARBOR. 


Size  of  Harbor.  When  vessels  arrive  at 
New  Orleans,  they  can  discharge  their  cargoes 
directly  upon  the  wharves,  as  the  depth  of  the 
water  ranges  from  twenty  to  seventy  feet  along- 
side of  the  wharves  and  up  to  170  feet  in  mid- 
stream. The  narrowest  portion  of  the  River 
opposite  New  Orleans  has  a  width  of  2,000  feet. 
The  distance  of  New  Orleans  from  the  open  sea 
is  an  added  protection  to  ships  in  the  harbor, 
for  the  severe  storms  of  the  Gulf  do  not  reach 
so  far  inland, 

Fresh  Water.  New  Orleans  possesses  an  ad- 
vantage over  most  seaports  in  the  fact  that  it 
has  a  fresh -Water  harbor.  In  salt  water,  the  hulls 
of  ships  become  covered  with  barnacles,  which 
injure  the  ship  and  retard  navigation.  As  the 
barnacles  die  and  fall  off  in  fresh  water,  a  trip 
to  such  a  harbor  saves  the  expense  of  having  the 
hull  cleaned. 

Naval  Station.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment maintains  a  Naval  Station  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  River  below  Algiers.  Political  differ- 
ences led  to  the  abandonment  and  subsequent 
reestablishment  of  this  station.  The  common 
opinion  is  that  New  Orleans,  the  nearest  United 
States  port  to  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  first 
city  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River,  is 
the  most  favorable  location  for  a  naval  base  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
Naval  Station  is  a  place  of  deposit  for  supplies, 


66 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


a  coaling  station,  and  a  repair  plant.  When  the 
hull  of  a  vessel  has  to  be  painted  or  repaired, 
the  vessel  must  be  raised  out  of  the  water.  This 
is  done  by  means  of  a  dry  dock.  A  dry  dock  is 
a  large  floating  platform  with  walls  along  two 
sides,  but  open  at  either  end.  These  walls  con- 
tain compartments  into  which  water  is  pumped 
to  lower  the  platform  below  the  water  surface. 
The  ship  enters  the  dry  dock  when  there  is  suf- 
ficient depth  of  water.  The  compartments  are 
then  emptied  and  the  platform  rises,  lifting  the 
vessel  out  of  the  water.  The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment dry  dock  at  the  Naval  Station  is  capable 
of  raising  out  of  the  water  a  vessel  of  18,000  tons 
displacement. 

Immigration  Station.    Below  the  Naval  Sta- 


tion is  the  United  States  luunigi'ation  Station, 
which  is  the  largest  south  of  Philadelphia.  Its 
purpose  is  to  exclude  from  the  country  undesir- 
able aliens.  Hence,  all  immigi'ants  are  sub- 
jected to  physical  and  mental  examinations,  and 
are  required  to  furnish  proof  of  good  character 
and  means  of  support.  An  immigi'ant,  who 
would  probably  become  a  burden  to  the  com- 
munity, is  returned  to  the  country  from  which 
he  came. 

Factories.  As  a  result  of  transportation  facil- 
ities to  be  had  near  the  River,  factories  have 
been  established  along  both  sides  of  the  harbor. 
Numerous  canning  factories,  breweries,  rice 
mills,  cotton  mills,  oil  and  fertilizing  plants,  are 
situated  on  or  near  the  River. 


SECTION  4.     PUBLICLY  OWNED  WHARVES. 


State  Ownership.    The  wharves  at  New  Or-     ovit,  but  this  plan  was  not  successful,  because 


leans  have,  for  the  most  part,  always  been  public 
property,  as,  by  the  Constitution,  are  all  land- 
ings in  the  state.  Formerly,  the  wharves  were 
under  the  control  of  the  city  and  were  leased 


the  lessees  did  not  keep  them  in  good  condition, 
and  charged  so  exorbitantly  for  their  use  that 
business  went  elsewhere. 

The  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of 


DRY  DOCKS  AND  UNITEO  Sf  ATES  GOVERNMENT  LANDINGS. 

«       '     '      "     '  — Courtesj' of  Bpard  of  Ck)mniissioners  of  the  Port  of  New 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


67 


New  Orleans.  When  it  was  determined  to  stop 
the  leasing  system,  all  of  the  wharves  were  in 
very  bad  condition  and  much  money  was  needed 
to  make  them  tit  for  use.  The  City,  restricted 
by  the  State  Constitution,  was  in  debt  for  the 
full  amount  allowed  by  law.  For  this  and  other 
reasons,  a  new  body  was  formed,  called  legally 
the  "Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of  New 
Orleans,"  but  spoken  of  always  as  "The  Dock 
Board." 

Power  of  the  Dock  Board.  To  this  Board 
was  given  by  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
and  by  act  of  the  Legislature  (Act  No.  70  of 
1896),  complete  control  of  the  wharves  and 
harbor.  It  passes  all  ordinances  for  harbor  pur- 
poses just  as  the  City  Council  does  for  the  city 
at  large. 

Work  of  the  Dock  Board.  The  Dock  Board 
took  charge  May  29,  1901.  The  members  are 
appointed  by  tlie  Grovemor  and  report  to  him. 
They  serve  without  pay  and  elect  all  their  offi- 
cers. The  financing  has  been  very  successful, 
and  there  have  been  built  nearly  eight  miles  of 
excellent  wharves,  most  of  which  are  covered  by 
steel  sheds. 

Terminal  Stations.  In  addition  to  these 
public  wharves,  there  are  several  terminal 
stations  controlled  by  different  railroad  lines. 
At  Westwego,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Eiver, 
the  Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad  has  two  grain 
elevators  and  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  of 
wharfage.  On  the  east  side,  at  Stuyvesant 
Docks,  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  has  4,800 
feet  of  river  front  occupied  by  wharf,  occupying 
the  distance  from  Napoleon  avenue  to  Louisiana 
avenue.     This    provides    berth-room    for    ten 


ships  at  once.  There  are  two  grain  elevators 
back  of  the  wharf.  The  Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville Railroad  has  a  berth  for  one  ship  at 
St.  Joseph  and  Calliope  streets.  At  the  Amer- 
ican Sugar  Refinery,  there  is  room  for  three 
ships  at  once. 

Port  Chalmette.  The  New  Orleans  Terminal 
Company,  which  is  owned  jointly  by  the  South- 
ern Railway  Company  and  the  "Frisco"  Rail- 
road Company,  has  Port  Chalmette,  about  six 
miles  below  Canal  street.  There,  a  gi'ain  elevator 
is  maintained  and  about  half  a  mile  of  wharf, 
besides  berth-room  for  several  pumping  plants 
handling  creosote  and  crude  petroleum. 

"Frisco  Slip."  This  company  also  owns, 
just  below  the  American  Sugar  Refinery,  what 
is  known  as  the  "Frisco  Slip,"  a  novel  departure 
for  the  provision  of  wharfage  and  berths.  Im- 
mense concrete  walls  form  a  huge  rectangle 
extending  back  into  the  land  and  open  on 
the  River  end.  Fine  freight  sheds  have  been 
constructed  along  the  three  closed  sides  of  the 
rectangle.  Between  the  walls,'  the  bottom  is 
dredged  so  that  ships  can  lie  against  the  con- 
crete walls. 

"Pumping  Stations."  In  addition  to  these 
wharves,  there  are  numerous  "pumping  sta- 
tions," where  petroleum,  oil  (both  crude  and  re- 
fined), creosote,  and  molasses  are  handled  both 
in  and  out. 

Power  of  the  Dock  Board  Over  Private  Ter- 
minals. Under  the  law,  the  Dock  Board  can  take 
possession  and  control  of  any  of  these  so-called 
"private  terminals"  at  any  time  it  thinks  the 
public  interest  so  requires,  by  paying  a  fair 
value  for  the  improvements. 


SECTION  5.    HANDLING  CARGO. 


Laborers.  The  men,  who  make  contracts 
with  ships  to  load  and  unload  them,  are  called 
stevedores.  The  laborers,  who  actually  do 
the  work,  are  called  longshoremen.  One  of 
the  advantages  of  New  Orleans  as  a  port  is 
that  the  longshoremen  do  their  work  better 
than  at  any  other  port.  They  load  more  cargo 
on  a  ship  and  store  it  better  than  elsewhere, 
so  that  voyages  from  New  Orleans  are  more 
profitable  to  the  ship. 


Liquid  Cargoes.  The  various  pumping 
stations  handle  bulk  cargoes  of  liquid  freight 
with  great  economy  and  speed,  especially  oils, 
creosote,  and  molasses.  A  tank  ship  bringing  a 
million  and  a  quarter  gallons  of  molasses  has 
been  discharged  in  sixty  hours. 

Grain  Elevators.  The  grain  elevators  are 
large  structures,  where  quantities  of  grain  are 
stored.  By  mechanical  devices,  the  grain  is 
rapidly  arid  economically  loaded  upon  ships, 


68 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


Banana  Cargoes.  The  liandliug  of  banana 
cargoes  can  hardly  be  improved  upon.  The 
system  of  mechanical  conveyors  taking  bananas 
out  of  the  ship  and  delivering  them  on  the  wharf, 


works  so  that  nearly  ten  thousand  bunches  an 
hour  can  be  taken  out  of  a  ship  working  four 
hatches.  Cars  are  loaded  at  an  average  rate  of 
one  every  four  or  five  minutes. 


SECTION  6.    PUBLIC  BELT. 


Size  of  Modem  Cargo.  Not  very  many  years 
ago,  when  ships  were  built  of  wood  and  a  1,000- 
ton  ship  was  a  large  one,  the  wharf  could  easily 
hold  all  the  cargo  of  a  ship.  Now,  when  a  3,000- 
ton  ship  is  a  small  one,  there  is  not  room  on  any 
wharf  for  a  whole  cargo.  Consequently,  it  has 
become  necessary  for  the  freight  to  be  moved  to 
and  from  the  wharf  quickly  to  prevent  conges- 
tion when  the  ship  is  discharging,  and  loss  of 
time  when  the  ship  is  loading. 

Need  for  Promptness  in  Moving  Cargo.  As 
a  comparatively  small  ship  costs  $500  a  day,  she 
loses  money  very  rapidly  if  idle.  If  the  ship 
owner  is  not  to  lose,  the  cost  of  her  idle  time  has 
to  be  added  to  her  freight  charges.  To  over- 
come this  disadvantage,  it  is  necessary  to  have 


abundant  means  for  moving  cargo  quickly  to 
and  from  the  wharves  on  the  land  side. 

The  Public  Belt  Railroad.  The  municipally 
owned  Pul)lic  Belt  Eailroad,  which  has  been  in 
operation  since  1908,  meets  this  necessity.  The 
Public  Belt  tracks  make  a  complete  circuit  of 
the  city,  connecting  all  trunk  lines,  all  whai-ves 
and  landings,  and  all  important  industries.  Be- 
fore the  operation  of  this  system,  switching 
charges  ranged  from  eight  dollars  to  twenty-two 
dollars  per  car.  Now,  engines,  owned  by  the 
Public  Belt  Commission,  carry  goods  from  rail- 
road to  railroad,  from  ship  to  railroad,  from 
factory  to  ship  or  railroad,  for  the  nominal  sum 
of  two  dollars  a  car.  This  includes  the  hauling  of 
the  emj^ty  car  lief  ore  loading  or  after  unloading, 


BANANA  CONVEYORS.  — Courtesy  of  Board  of  Commissioners  of  tlie  Port  of  New  Orleans. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


69 


for  the  Public  Belt  does  not  own  the  cars.  Over 
15,000  cars  a  mouth  are  haudled  by  the  Public 
Belt,  and  its  business  is  constantly  increasing. 

The  route  of  the  Public  Belt  is  shown  on  the 
present-day  map  of  the  city. 

Necessity  for  Co-operation  Between  Dock 
Board  and  Public  Belt.  The  necessity  will  be 
understood  when  it  is  remembered  that  a  ship 
a  little  over  300  feet  long,  will  carry,  in  round 
figures,  about  6,000  tons  of  cargo,  while  one  500 
feet  long  will  carry  15,000  tons.  iSix  thousand  tons 
of  cargo  are,  on  an  average,  400  car  loads,  while 
15,000  tons  are  1,000  car  loads.  No  wharf  at  a 
ship  berth  can  hold  much  over  150  car  loads  at 
one  time.  The  need,  then,  of  having  cars  con- 
veniently placed  and  rapidly  handled  is  ab- 
solute, if  the  ship  is  not  to  wait  or^be  carried  to 
another  berth  for  part  of  her  cargo.     The  ex- 


pense of  moving  is  several  hundred  dollars. 
Therefore,  it  will  be  a  very  great  advantage 
when  the  ship  can  discharge  and  receive  her 
cargo  at  one  berth  without  any  idle  time. 

Necessity  for  Many  Miles  of  Trackage  to  One 
Mile  of  River  Front.  As  a  freight  car  is  about 
forty  feet  long,  the  thousand  cars  needed  to 
carry  a  15,000-ton  cargo  will  occupy  40,000  feet 
of  railroad  track,  or  seven  and  one-half  miles. 
The  Illinois  Central  Eailroad,  at  Stuyvesant 
Docks,  has  twenty  miles  of  trackage  for  one 
mile  of  wharfage,  and  is  finding  it  necessary  to 
put  in  additional  tracks.  To  enable  the  Dock 
Board  to  get  the  greatest  use  out  of  its  wharves, 
it  is  not  only  necessary  to  have  perfect  cooper- 
ation with  the  Public  Belt  Railroad,  but  it  is 
also  necessary  for  that  organization  to  greatly 
increase  its  trackage. 


SECTION  7.    WATERWAYS. 


Water  Route  of  Mississippi  River  System. 

.One  of  the  greatest  advantages  enjoyed  by  New 
Orleans  is  that  the  Mississippi  Eiver  and  its 
tributaries  furnish  more  than  16,000  miles  of 
navigable  waterway,  extending  into  twenty-two 
of  the  forty-eight  states  of  the  Union,  included 
between  the  AUeghanies  on  the  east,  the  Rockies 
on  the  west,  and  Canada  on  the  north. 
These  are: 

Louisiana  Wisconsin 

Mississippi  Minnesota 

Alabama  North  Dakota 

Tennessee  South  Dakota 

Kentucky  Montana 
West  Virginia  Nebraska 

Pennsylvania  Iowa 

Ohio  Missouri 

Indiana  Arkansas 

Illinois  Oklahoma 

Kansas  Northern  Texas 

Navigable  rivers  reach  from 
New  Orleans  to  Pittsburg  on 
the  east,  to  Chicago  on  the 
north,  and  to  Kansas  City  on 
the  west.  The  new  impetus 
given  to  water-borne  commerce 
by  the  improvement  of  water- 


ways, by  the  construction  of  modern  inland 
water  craft,  and  by  the  provision  of  suitable 
terminals,  will  make  New  Orleans  a  port  of  de- 
posit and  distribution  for  all  the  states  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley. 

Volume  of  Mississippi  Valley  Trade.  Tlie 
commerce  originating  in  these  states  is  more 
than  half  the  commerce  of  the  Union.  Notwith- 
standing   their    continual    expansion,  the  rail- 


MAP  SHOWING  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM  OP  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum. 


70 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


roads  cannot  always  handle  it  entirelj^  The 
history  of  railroad  transportation  shows  that 
the  volume  doubles  about  every  ten  years.  It 
is  a  matter  of  absolute  necessity  that  the  water- 
ways shall  soon  come  into  general  use.  Already 
the  movement  is  on  foot  to  build  and  operate 
economical  barges  and  boats,  so  that  freight  can 
be  handled  to  advantage  and  profit  on  these 
waterways. 

River  Traffic.  The  volume  of  river  traffic  is 
not  realized,  because  so  few  people  see  it.  One 
towboat,  now  on  the  Mississippi,  can  bring  from 
Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  in  thirty  days,  twenty 
barges  of  coal  of  1,000  tons  each.  This  is  equal 
to  eighty  trains  of  fifty  cars  each;  nearly  four 
miles  of  train.  Such  a  large  quantity  of  coal 
would  not  come  as  quickly  by  rail. 

Much  sugar,  cotton,  rice  and  general  produce 
are  brought  by  river  boats  now.  Thei'e  are  at 
present  within  the  State  of  Louisiana  nearly 
5,000  miles  of  navigable  streams  and  canals  con- 
nected with  the  port  of  New  Orleans. 

During  1914  the  arrivals  were: 

Steamboats 1,640 

I            Luggers  and  gasoline  boats .  . .   2,245 
Miscellaneous 298 

Total 4,183 

Steamboat  Landing.  Just  below  Canal  street 
is  the  steamboat  landing,where  river  boats  of 
every  size  and  description  may  be  seen  unload- 
ing their  cargoes  of  sugar,  rice,  cotton,  molasses, 
and  general  produce.  On  their  return  trips,  mis- 
cellaneous cargoes  are  carried  to  different  points 
at  which  the  boats  touch. 

LaJce  Trade.  The  trade  on  Lake  Pontchar- 
train,  while  small  in  comparison  with  the  rail- 
road or  sea  trade,  is  by  no  means  insignificant, 
either  in  volume  or  in  its  effect  upon  the  cost  of 
many  necessities.  Small  boats,  schooners,  luggers, 
gasoline  boats,  and  barges  bring  lumber,  shingles, 
staves,  cordwood,  lathes,  rosin,  charcoal,  sand, 
gravel,  and  shells,  besides  numerous  other 
products  of  the  countiy  around  the  Lakes. 
There  are,  altogether,  about  4,000  arrivals 
during  the  year,  and  the  number  is  steadily  in- 
creasing. When  Lake  Pontchartrain  is  connected 
with  the  Intercoastal  Canal  system,  the  volume 
and  variety  of  the  business  will  very  greatly  in- 
crease. The  Lake  trade  finds  its  way  into  the 
commercial  part  of  the  city  by  Spanish  Fort 
through  Bayou  St.  John,  which  joins  the  Caron- 


delet  or  Old  Basin  Canal,  and  by  West  End 
through  the  New  Basin  Canal. 

The  Old  Basin  Canal.  The  Carondelet  or  Old 
Basin  Canal  was  cut  in  colonial  times  (See  Chap. 
II.).  It  came  under  the  control  of  the  railroad 
companies  and,  as  its  efficiency  was  thereby 
greatly  impaired,  the  state  is  suing  for  its  con- 
trol. The  Old  Basin  enjoys  a  monopoly  of  the 
Lake  oyster  trade  because  of  its  nearness  to  the 
markets. 

The  New  Basin  Canal.  In  1831,  the  New  Or- 
leans Canal  and  Banking  Company  was  char- 
tered for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a  naviga- 
tion canal  above  Poydras  street  from  the  city  to 
Lake  Pontchartrain.  Despite  the  terrible  death 
rate  caiised  by  cholera  and  yellow  fever  during 
the  year  1832,  the  work  progressed  rapidly, 
being  completed  at  a  much  less  cost  than  had 
been  estimated.  The  Canal  and  Banking  Com- 
pany were  eventually  separated.  The  canal, 
known  as  the  New  Basin  Canal,  was  turned  over 
to  the  state  in  1838.  The  bank,  however,  has 
continued  in  business  until  the  present  day.  The 
New  Basin  Canal  is  operated  by  a  board  and 
superintendent  appointed  by  the  Governor.  This 
canal  is  in  a  prosperous  condition,  doing  about 
three  times  as  much  business  as  the  old;  the 
plan  to  deepen  the  New  Basin  to  eleven  feet  will, 
if  carried  out,  further  increase  this  advantage. 
Along  the  bank  of  the  canal,  the  board  main- 
tains a  shell  road,  which  has  long  been  noted  as 
one  of  the  finest  driveways  in  the  country. 

Lake  to  the  River  Canals.  Below  New  Or- 
leans, the  Lake  Borgne  Canal  extends  from  Lake 
BorgTie  to  the  Mississippi  River.  While  very 
useful,  it  has  two  disadvantages:  it  can  be  used 
only  by  small  vessels  and  it  is  not  under  public 
control.  A  Lake  to  the  River  canal,  to  be  pub- 
licly owned  and  operated,  is  now  under  consider- 
ation. It  will  extend  from  Lake  Pontchartrain 
to  the  River  and  will  be  deeper  than  the  Lake 
Borgne  Canal.  The  preferred  route  is  through 
the  lower  part  of  the  city,  where  there  will  be 
less  interruijtion  to  land  traffic.  The  plan  is  to 
make  the  land  on  either  side  of  the  canal  avail- 
able for  factory  sites,  private  warehouses,  and 
other  industries. 

Intercoastal  Canal.  The  Intercoastal  Canal, 
now  under  construction  by  the  United  States 
Government,  will  furnish  an  inland  waterway 
from  the  Rio  Grande  to  Boston.  It  will  eliminate 
much  of  the  loss  from  storms  encountered  by 
ships  in  the  open  gulf  or  sea.    A  plan  has  been 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


71 


approved  for  the  Intercoastal  Canal  to  join  the 
Mississippi  River  at  a  point  opposite  New  Or- 
leans. The  canals  now  leaving  the  Mississippi 
near  New  Orleans  will  likely  become  parts  of 
the  system,  as,  wherever  possible,  lakes,  streams, 
and  existing  canals  are  being  utilized.  This  link- 
ing together  of  the  waterways  into  one  con- 
nected system  will  inevitably  stimulate  watei'- 
borne    commerce.     In    Louisiana,    many    large 


streams  will  be  intersected  by  this  canal ;  among 
them,  the  Atchafalaya,  navigable  for  its  entire 
course ;  the  Vermilion ;  the  Mermentau ;  the  Cal- 
casieu, on  which  is  situated  Lake  Charles ;  and  the 
Sabine.  It  will  open  up  for  development  the  valu- 
able coast  lands  with  their  rich  deposit  of  allu- 
vium; it  will  solve  the  problem  of  transportation 
through  an  isolated  section,  and  it  will  assist  in 
solving  the  drainage  question  in  the  marsh  lands. 


SECTION  8.     PORT  IMPROVEMENT. 


Port  Improvement  Planned.  Realizing  the 
necessity  for  the  rapid  and  economical  handling 
of  freight,  the  Dock  Board,  in  1913,  employed 
eminent  engineers  to  make  a  thorough  investi- 
gation of  conditions  at  New  Orleans.  All  com- 
mercial organizations,  shippers,  and  others  were 
called  upon  to  make  known  their  needs  and  offer 
suggestions.  The  result  has  been  the  creation 
of  a  symmetrical  plan  for  continuous  develop- 
ment and  improvement  of  the  facilities  of  the 
port  of  New  Orleans. 

Mechanical  Devices.  The  Dock  Board  has 
begun  extensive  experiments  to  test  and  try  out 
all  kinds  of  machinery  for  the  handling  of 
various  kinds  of  goods,  so  as  to  give  quick 
service  to  ships,  both  loading  and  unloading. 

Warehouses.     The   Dock   Board  is   having 


warehouses  and  sheds  erected,  where  freight  can 
be  brought  together  for  the  ships  or  c|uickly 
transferred  to  the  wharves  to  await  distribution. 
In  other  words,  it  will  make  New  Orleans  a 
"port  of  deposit"  instead  of  a  mere  transfer 
station.  The  erection  of  the  great  cotton  ware- 
house has  been  the  first  step  in  this  direction. 
Hei'etofore,  the  world 'ssm'plus  has  been  handled 
and  kept,  for  the  most  part,  at  Liverpool,  and 
any  brought  back  to  America  required  the  pay- 
ment of  double  freight  charges.  (See  Chapter 
VIL,  Section  1.) 

Similar  facilities  will  be  jorovided  for 
lumber,  coffee,  and  any  other  uniform  com- 
modity, that  can  be  brought  to  New  Orleans, 
and  even  general  merchandise  may  be  so  cared 
for  in  time. 


SECTION  9.    RAILROAD  COMMUNICATION. 


Western  Communication,    The 

cific  Railroad,  the  Texas  Pacific 
Louisiana  Railway  and 
Navigation  Company, 
and  the  New  Orleans, 
Texas,  and  Mexico  Rail- 
road Company,  now  fur- 
nish the  medium  of  traffic 
with  the  west  side  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Re- 
cently-made arrange- 
ments will  also  number 
the  Iron  Mountain-Mis- 
souri Pacific  System 
amongst  the  west  bank 
lines.     These    give    two 


Southern  Pa- 
Railroad,  the 


through  routes  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  all  the 
states  between,  besides  reaching  all  the  cities 
west  of  the  Mississippi 
River  as  far  as  St.  Louis 
and  Omaha. 

Eastern  Communica- 
tion. On  the  east,  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville, 
the  New  Orleans  and 
North  Eastern,  the  Illi- 
nois Central,  the  Yazoo 
and  Mississippi  Valley, 
;iud  the  New  Orleans 
Grreat  Northern,  directly 
or  indirectly  give  rail- 
road connection  with  all 


FERRYING  OARS   ACROSS  THE   RIVER. 

— Courtesy  of  Southern  Pacific  R.  R, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


the  United  States.  The  Illinois  Central  has  a 
double  track  to  Chicago  and  reaches,  with  con- 
necting branch  lines,  Birmingham,  Louisville, 
Indianapolis,  Omaha,  and  Sioux  City. 

Extent  of  Systems.    These  roads  each  have, 
or  belong  to  systems  that  have,  thousands  of 


miles  of  track,  and  nearly  all  the  larger  cities 
may  be  reached  over  the  lines  of  more  than 
one — as,  for  instance,  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
New  Orleans  and  North  Eastern,  and  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville,  run  through  sleeping  cars  to 
New  York,  as  well  as  through  freights. 


SECTION  10.    FOREIGN  TRADE. 


Lack  of  American  Ships.  The  sea  trade  of 
New  Orleans,  like  that  of  all  other  American 
ports,  except  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia,  is 
carried  for  the  most  part  in  foreign  shijos.  At 
Baltimore  and  Philadelphia,  the  coastwise  trade 
exceeds  the  foreign  trade  and,  as  no  foreign 
ships  are,  under  our  laws,  permitted  to  carry 
goods  or  passengers  from  one  port  to  another, 
those  ports  have  more  American  than  foreign 
ships. 

Ships  Under  American  Register.  Hereto- 
fore, the  only  regular  sailings  of  American  ships 
to  foreign  ports,  were  the  Southern  Pacific  lines 
to  Havana.  Under  the  laws  passed  in  Septem- 
ber, 1914,  the  United  Fruit  Company  is  regis- 
tering as  American  the  ships  which  were 
formerly  under  the  British  flag. 

Southern  Pacific  Lines.  The  Southern  Pa- 
cific operates  two  steamship  lines  from  New  Or- 
leans, namely,  to  Havana,  Cuba,  and  New  York 
City.  The  ships  carry  general  merchandise  to 
Havana  and  bring  return  cargoes  of  raw  sugar, 
pineapples,  etc. ;  general  cargoes,  including  some 
cotton,  are  taken  to  New  York,  and  general  mer- 
chandise brought  back. 

The  United  Fruit  Company's  Lines.  These 
ships  visit  Havana  and  Central  American  ports, 
taking  cargoes  of  provisions,  machinery,  lumber, 
and  structural  iron,  bringing  from  all  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  bananas,  chicle  for 
chewing  gum,  rubber,  coffee,  and  sarsaparilla. 

Ports.  The  principal  ports  visited  by  these 
ships  are  Colon  and  Bocas  del  Toro  in  Panama, 
Port  Limon  in  Costa  Rica,  Cortez  in  Honduras, 
Barrios  in  Guatemala,  and  Belize  in  British  Hon- 
duras. The  smaller  independent  fruit  companies 
visit  also  Bluefields  and  Cape  Gracias,  Nica- 
ragua, Ceiba,  Honduras,  Fontera,  Mexico,  and 
some  lesser  ports  in  these  countries. 

Trade  With  Mexico.  The  trade  with  Mexico 
is  liy  British  ships  chartered  to  a  Mexican  Com- 


pany, bringing  sisal  from  Progresso  and  taking 
back  corn,  provisions,  and  lumber.  A  Mexican 
Company  runs  Mexican  ships  from  Vera  Cruz 
and  Tampico  to  New  Orleans,  bringing  coffee, 
hats,  and  miscellaneous  merchandise  and  taking 
down  provisions,  lumber,  and  machinery  of  all 
sorts,  as  well  as  railroad  supplies  and  material. 
Tank  ships  of  all  nations  bi'ing  crude  petroleum 
from  Tampico  and  Tuxpan. 

Trans-Oceanic  Lines.  The  trans-Atlantic 
trade  is  wholly  in  foreign  ships,  chiefly  British. 
There  are  seven  British  lines,  two  German,  two 
Spanish,  one  French,  two  Dutch,  and  one  Danish 
sailing  regularly.  An  American  line  and  a  Jap- 
anese line  will  run  ships  to  the  Pacific  through 
the  Panama  Canal.  The  New  York  and  Porto 
Rico  line  has  a  weekly  ship  to  Porto  Rico.  Be- 
sides these  regTilar  lines,  the  port  is  visited  by 
many  "tramp"  ships,  mostly  British,  chartered 
by  local  ship  agents  to  carry  cargoes  princi]ially 
to  British  ports. 

Ports  of  Trans -Atlantic  Trade.  The  chief 
ports  to  which  ships  from  New  Orleans  run,  are 
Belfast,  Ireland;  Glasgow,  Scotland;  Liverpool, 
Manchester,  and  London,  England;  Rotterdam, 
Holland;  Copenhagen,  Denmark;  Antwerp,  Bel- 
gium; Havre  and  Marseilles,  France;  Bilboa, 
Cadiz,  and  Barcelona,  Spain;  Genoa,  Florence, 
Naples,  and  Palermo,  Italy;  Trieste,  Austria; 
and  Hamburg  and  Bremen,  Germany. 

Exports.  In  1914,  New  Orleans  was  the  sec- 
ond port  of  tite  United  States,  being  outranked 
only  by  New  York.  The  combined  value  of  exports 
and  imports  aggregated  $283,938,066.  Practically 
everj^  state  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  sends  some 
products  through  the  port  of  New  Orleans.  Corn, 
wheat,  and  other  grains  come  from  the  Central 
States.  The  Southern  States,  especially  Louisi- 
ana, Mississippi,  and  Arkansas,  send  cotton  and 
cotton  seed  products,  oil  cake  and  meal.  Okla- 
homa and  Texas  supply  some  cotton,  but  the  bulk 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


73 


of  the  crop  from  those  states  is  shipped  from  Gal- 
veston. As  a  lumber  port,  New  Orleans  stands 
first  among  American  cities.  In  the  heart  of  the 
cypress  region,  it  exports  both  lumber  and  man- 
ufactured articles.  The  Southern  yellow  pine 
and  naval  stores  obtained  from  it,  pass  through 
New  Orleans  en  route  to  points  in  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  South  America.  Nearly  all  the 
1  staves  used  in  harvesting  the  wine  crop  of 
'.Europe  are  supplied  by  this  port,  while  quan- 
tities of  oak,  walnut,  and  poplar,  as  logs  or 
lumber,  are  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Linseed  i^roducts  from  Minnesota;  tobacco  from 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Indiana;  iron 
frtm  Alabama;  farm  machinery  from  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Wisconsin;  boots,  shoes,  and 
mi&cellaneous  products  from  the  vast  area  con- 
nec\ed  with  New  Orleans  by  a  network  of  water- 
wayt  and  railroads,  swell  the  export  trade. 

Inports.  The  principal  articles  of  import 
are  e\)ffee,  sugar,  sisal  grass,  burlaps,  bananas, 
nitrat?  of  soda,  mineral  oil,  creosote  oil,  mahog- 
any l(tes,  drugs  and  chemicals,  fertilizers,  mo- 
lasses, ferro-manganese,  sugar  beet  seed,  fruits 
and  nufe,  manufactures  of  fibers,  and  manufac- 
tures ofiiron  and  steel.  Each  of  these  items  ex- 
ceeds a  \alf  million  dollars  in  value.    From  far- 


away India,  British  ships  bring  burlaps,  which 
is  fourth  in  value  on  the  list-  of  imports,  and  a 
coarser  kind  of  bagging  made  from  the  pieces 
of  jute  unfit  for  burlaps.  British  liners  carry 
salt,  ferro-manganese,  which  is  used  in  making 
Bessemer  steel,  and  textiles  from  the  world- 
famed  looms  of  England,  besides  manufactured 
articles  of  every  description.  Fuller's  earth, 
carried  sometimes  as  ballast,  is  brought  in  great 
quantities;  it  is  used  for  bleaching  and  cleaning 
cloth  and  for  filtering  oils.  Most  of  it  goes  to 
the  cottonseed  and  linseed  oil  mills.  One  of  the 
curious  paradoxes  of  commerce  is,  that  the  same 
British  ship  that  brought  8,000  sacks  of  salt 
from  Liverpool,  carried  to  Liverpool  on  her  re- 
turn voyage  5,000  sacks  of  salt  from  Louisiana 
mines.  Notwithstanding  the  unlimited  resources 
for  food  production  within  the  United  States, 
many  articles  for  table  use  are  brought  from 
European  ports.  Unexcelled  wines  and  liquors, 
the  secret  of  whose  manufacture  is  jealously 
guarded ;  cheese,  unequaled  by  American  makes, 
from  France,  Holland,  and  Switzerland;  olive 
oil  from  southern  France,  Italy,  and  Spain ;  cur- 
rants from  Patras,  Greece;  lemons  and  even 
garlic  all  the  way  from  Italy,  are  unloaded  upon 
New  Orleans  wharves.    Diverse  minerals,  such 


74 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


as  marble  from  Italy,  magnesite  from  Austria, 
and  ferro-manganese  from  Luxemburg,  are  im- 
ported. Every  kind  of  manufactured  article — 
fine  china,  porcelains,  and  toilet  articles  from 
France;  plate  glass  and  baskets  from  Belgium; 
toys  and  trinkets  of  every  description  from 
Germany,  tbe  land  of  ingenuity,  are  brought  to 
New  Orleans  to  be  distributed  over  many  states. 
Triangular  South  American  Trade.  The 
value  of  coffee  far  exceeds  that  of  any  other  im- 
port, being  over  thirty-two  and  a  half  million 
dollars.  Three  British  lines  bring  nine-tenths 
of  the  coffee  imported  to  New  Orleans  from 
Brazil.  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos  are  the  ports 
of  origin.  These  same  ships  take  cargoes  from 
New  Orleans  to  European  ports,  and  there  get 
cargoes  for  Argentina  and  Brazil,  making  a  tri- 
angular run  always  in  the  same  direction.  It 
is  a  fact  that  great  quantities  of  American  goods 
find  their  way  to  South  America  through  Euro- 
pean ports.  Though  several  efforts  have  been 
made  to  establish  direct  lines  from  New  Orleans 
to  Brazil  and  Argentina,  it  has  so  far  been  found 
that  the  existing  European  lines,  especially  the 
■British,  were  too  strongly  established  in  that 
trade  for  the  new,  weak  lines  to  break  into  it. 


While  cargoes  from  New  Orleans  could  easily  be 
obtained,  no  return  freight  could  be  had. 

Cuban  Trade.  Great  quantities  of  the  world- 
famed  Havana  cigars  are  brought  from  Cuba  to 
New  Orleans,  not  for  local  consumption  alone, 
but  to  be  forwarded  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
From  Cuba,  also,  comes  the  raw  sugar  by  hun- 
dred thousand  tons  for  refineries  in  New  Or- 
leans and  elsewhere.  Other  imports  from  Cuba 
are  thousands  of  crates  of  pineapples,  gi'ape- 
fruit,  oranges,  and  other  tropical  fruits.  Al- 
ligator pears,  and  many  other  vegetables,  sucli 
as  tomatoes,  okra,  egg-plants,  peppers,  and  tie 
like,  are  shipped  north  by  the  carload  before  any 
part  of  the  United  States  can  produce  them. 

Panama  Canal.  The  Panama  Canal  opens 
the  door  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  port  of  Lew 
Orleans,  as  the  nearest  port  of  the  United  States 
to  the  Atlantic  end  of  the  canal.  The  oppor- 
tunity is  boundless  in  its  possibilities.  The 
trade  of  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  of 
much  of  the  west  coast  of  North  Ame'ica,  a 
great  part  of  the  trade  of  Australia,  Japm,  and 
China,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  j^arther 
India,  as  well  as  the  East  Indian  Islaids,  will 
pass  through  New  Orleans. 


SECTION  11.     THE  UNITED  STATES  CUSTOM  SERVICE. 


The  Custom  House.  The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment collects  annually  about  three  hundred 
million  dollars  in  tariff,  or  what  are  called  Cus- 
toms Duties.  To  look  after  this  business,  as  well 
as  to  attend  to  all  the  business  in  connection 
with  boats  and  shipping,  it  built  the  Custom 
House  in  Canal  street, 
between  Decatur  and 
North  Peters  streets.  It 
is  a  noble  granite  struc- 
ture of  gi'aceful  and  dig- 
nified proportions.  The 
large  hall  in  the  center 
of  the  building,  com- 
monly called  the  Marble 
Hall,  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest rooms  in  the 
country.  The  walls  are 
of  brick,  faced  with 
granite,  and  in  parts,  on 
the  inside,  with  marble. 


They  are  very  massive  and  are  fasteifid  together 
with  heavy  bars  of  iron  built  iato  tin  brickwork. 
The  building  has  settled,  and  will  jTobably  con- 
tinue to  do  so,  but  the  constructionis  so  fine  and 
it  is  so  well  balanced  that  no  danage  has  been 
done  by  what  settling  has  taken  place.  It  was 
finished  about  1880. 
General  Beauregard  at 
one  tinti  had  charge  of 
the  wok  as  an  officer  of 
the  Eigineer  Corps  of 
the  Amy. 

Duies  of  Collector. 
The  Custom  House  is  in 
char,e  of  the  Collector 
of  'Customs,  who  has 
contol,  not  only  of  the 
pot  of  New  Orleans, 
br.  of  all  the  State  of 
L'uisiana  and  Western 

—Courtesy  of  Southern  Pacific  R.  K.       MSSlSSippi.      All       SllipS 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


75 


that  arrive,  are  required  to  report  at  the  Custom 
House  to  the  Collector  and  file  a  list  of  what 
they  have  on  board,  called  a  "manifest."  This 
is  called  "entering."  A  ship  is  not  allowed  to 
leave  port  without  filing  a  manifest  of  what  she 
carries  away,  and  getting  permission  from  the 
Collector.    This  is  called  "clearing." 

Duties  of  Surveyor  ajid  His  Officers.  The 
Collector  has  under  him  an  officer  called  the  Sur- 
veyor, whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  ships  and 
everything  pertaining  to  the  government  rev- 
enue outside  the  Custom  House.  The  Surveyor 
has  under  him  Inspectors,  who  do  the  actual 
work  of  executing  the  law  and  the  orders  of  the 
Collector.  Every  ship  that  comes  in  is  in  charge 
of  an  inspector,  who  makes  a  return  of  every- 
thing she  brings  in.  On  that  return,  the  duties 
are  settled  and  paid.  No  man  can  get  his  own 
freight  until  he  gets  a  "permit"  from  the  Col- 


lector after  having  deposited  cash  for  the  duties. 
No  ship  is  allowed  to  discharge  freight,  unless 
there  is  an  inspector  present.  The  Customs 
Inspectors  also  search  the  baggage  of  passen- 
gers coming  from  foreign  countries.  In  fact, 
nothing  can  come  lawfully  from  any  country 
without  passing  under  the  supervision  of  a 
Customs  Inspector.  There  are  forty-five  of 
these  officers  at  New  Oi'leans,  and  over  thirty 
million  dollars  of  duties  are  collected  on  their 
returns. 


TOPICS:  Section  1,  Shipping;  Section  2,  Seaport  and  River- 
port;  Section  3,  Harbor;  Section  4,  Publicly  Owned 
Wharves;  Section  5,  Handling  Cargo;  Section  6,  Public 
Belt;  Section  7,  Waterways;  Section  8,  Port  Improve- 
ment; Section  9,  Railroad  Communication;  Section  10, 
Foreign  Trade;  Section  11,  The  United  States  Customs 
Service. 

REFERENCES:  Standard  History  of  New  Orleans,  Eightor; 
Reports  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of 
New  Orleans. 


,  .^lA 


PANORAMIC  VIEW  OF  THE  HARBOR. 

— Courtesy  of  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of  New  Orleans. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Industries. 


SECTION  1.    COTTON. 


The  Cotton  Plant.  Cotton  belongs  to  the 
mallow  family,  which  includes  not  only  cotton, 
but  also  okra,  hollyhocks,  and  a  number  of 
common  weeds.  There  are  three  main  kinds  of 
cotton  grown  in  the  United  States,  namely, 
short  stajDle,  long  staple,  and  Sea  Island  cotton. 
The  four  leading  cotton  parishes  of  Louisiana 
are  Tensas,  Point  Coupee,  St.  Landry,  and  More- 
house. Cotton,  however,  can  be  grown  in  every 
parish.  By  scientific  methods  of  planting  and 
cultivation,  the  farmer  now  makes  his  cotton 
crop  in  eight  or  nine  months,  where  formerly  it 
took  a  year. 

Every  nation  depends  largely  upon    

the  southern  part  of  the  United  States 
for  cotton.  It  is  the  crop  which  has  a 
staple  value  in  the  markets  of  the  world, 
its  bill  of  lading  being  iini  vers  ally 
negotiable.  The  powerful  influence  it 
exerts  on  trade,  its  absorjotion  both  as 
product  and  manufacture,  place  it  high 
in  the  scale  of  commercial  economics. 

The  New  Orleans  Cotton  Market. 
New  Orleans  has  always  been  the  largest 
market  for  the  sale  of  cotton.  Up  to  a 
recent  date,  it  ranked  first  in  point  of  re- 
ceipts in  the  United  States.  The  increase 
in  the  Texas  crop  and  the  drastic  regula- 
tions of  the  Texas  Railroad  Commission 
have  forced  the  bulk  of  the  crop  of  that 
State  through  the  port  of  Galveston, 
making  that  place  the  largest  cotton  re- 
ceiver. The  source  of  the  cotton  supply 
of  New  Orleans  is  principally  from  Ar- 
kansas, Louisiana,  and  Mississippi.  A 
small  part  of  the  products  of  Texas, 
Georgia,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama  finds 
a  market  through  this  port.  An  immense 
cotton  warehouse  has  been  erected,  and 
New  Orleans  has  great  prospects  of  be- 
coming the  center  for  the  storage  of 
cotton,  subject  to  the  wants  of  the  spin- 
ners in  America  and  abroad. 


The  New  Orleans  Cotton  Exchange.  The 
Cotton  Exchange,  whose  membership  and  visit- 
ing membership  embraces  between  .500  and  600, 
ranks  as  one  of  the  three  great  contract  markets 
in  the  world.  Through  this  mediimi,  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States, 
marketed  through  various  ports,  is  controlled 
by  the  merchants  of  the  Crescent  City.  The 
business  of  the  membership  of  the  New  Orleans 
Cotton  Exchange  embraces  the  filling  of  orders 
from  every  state  in  the  Cotton  Belt  and  the 
cotton  manufacturing  centers  of  the  North,  East, 
and  West,  as  well  as  all  the  great  markets  and 


NEW  ORLEANS  COTTON  EXCHANGK. 

— Courtesy  of  Southern  Pacific  R.  R. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


77 


the  manufacturing  centers  of  Europe.  The  daily 
transactions  on  the  floor  of  the  local  Exchange 
reflect,  and,  in  a  great  measure,  govern,  the 
world's  sentiment  in  reference  to  the  values  of 
the  great  southern  staple. 

The  Advantage  of  Cotton  Futures.  The 
system  of  dealing  in  "cotton  futures"  gives 
manufacturers  of  small  means  equal  advantages 
with  those  possessing  large  capital  in  selling 
their  product  far  into  the  future.  Without  the 
aid  of  the  "futures"  system,  it  is  very  evident 
that  manufacturers  having  small  or  moderate 
capital,  would  be  at  a  very  serious  disad- 
vantage. 

Manufacture  of  Cotton.  The  first  successful 
venture  in  cotton  manufacturing  was  made  in 
1864,  by  N.  L.  Lane.  The  Lane  Mills  have  grad- 
ually increased  in  size.  They  still  retain  the 
name  of  their  foimder,  although  they  have  passed 
into  other  hands.  These  mills  are  now  equipped 
with  modern  machinery,  and  the  most  improved 
methods  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  colored 
cotton  goods. 

The  Maginnis  Mill  No.  1  was  established  in 
1881,  and  a  second,  called  No.  2,  in  1888.  These 
mills,  which  were  closed  in  1910,  and  reopened 
July,  1914,  make  sheeting,  drill,  duck,  and  are 
specializing  in  cement  bags. 

Although  there  have  been  no  large  cotton 
mills  established  in  New  Orleans  in  the  last 
twenty  years,  there  are 
a  number  of  knitting 
mills  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  hosiery,  jerseys, 
knitted  underwear,  twine, 
carpet  yarns,  and  reeler 
yarns. 

Cotton  Seed  Oil — Cake. 
The  cottou  seed  oil  industry 
depends  upon  the  state's 
annual  production  of  cot- 
ton. The  use  of  cotton 
seed  is  entering  into  the 
economic  life  of  the  people, 
and  the  by-products  manu- 
factured from  cotton  seed, 
have  added  millions  to  the 
productive  value  of,  the 
cotton  lands  of  Lou- 
isiana. 

The  Cotton  Warehouse. 
Realizing  the  necessity  of 
modern  terminal  and  stor- 


age facilities,  the  Board  of  Port  Commissioners 
has  had  the  huge  cotton  warehouse  erected,  cover- 
ing an  area  of  100  aci'es.  The  annual  capacity  of 
the  warehouse  is  at  present  2,000,000  bales,  which 
will  ultimately  be  increased  to  4,000,000  bales. 
Fire  insurance  companies  have  agreed  to  a  rate 
of  fifteen  cents  per  $100  on  all  cotton  stored  in 
these  reinforced  concrete  structures.  Some  of 
the  most  up-to-date  features  of  the  new  ware- 
house are  the  automatic  weighing  machines, 
electric  trucks,  internal  concrete  runways,  and 
"bale-puller";  this  last  relieves  the  strain  of 
the  pile  from  the  bale  wanted,  and  then  with- 
draws the  bale  without  disturbing  the  pile.  The 
warehouse  will  issue  a  receipt  for  a  bale  of 
cotton,  which  will  be  recognized  and  accepted 
for  full  value  anywhere  in  the  world.  Thus,  New 
Orleans  may  become  a  point  of  deposit  for  the 
world's  surplus  cotton,  as  well  as  the  point  of 
export  for  a  large  part  "of  the  cotton  crop  of  the 
United  States. 

In  connection  with  this  enterprise,  another 
great  piece  of  engineering  work  is  to  be  accom- 
plished, namely,  the  reclamation  of  250  feet 
from  the  Mississippi  River  in  front  of  the  cotton 
Avarehouse.  This  work  will  be  both  difficult  and 
costly;  but  the  acreage  reclaiiued  and  the  ad- 


i  COTTON 


— Courtesy   of   Board    of   Commissioners   of  the  Port  of  New  Orleans, 


78 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


vantage  of  having  the  warehouse  along  the  deep 
water  channel  of  the  river,  will  more  than  offset 
the  work  and  exj^ense. 

Note. — The  Mexican  boll-weevil  came  into  Texas  from 
Mexico  about  1892,  and  has  since  spread  throughout  most  of 
the  cotton-growing  sections  of  the  adjoining  states.  The 
most  important  step  in  fighting  the  boll-weevil  is  to  hasten 
the  maturity  of  the  cotton  plant,  so  that  the  bolls  formed 
early  in  the  summer  are  well  grown  by  the  time  weevils  be- 
come very  numerous,  which  is  about  the  middle  of  July  or 


the  first  of  August.  The  boll-weevil  does  not  do  much  damage 
to  well-grown  bolls,  while  there  is  an  abundance  of  squares 
in  which  eggs  have  not  already  been  laid.  Safety  lies  in 
diversified  farming  and  intensive  cotton  culture.  The  history 
of  the  Whitney  cotton  gin  is  familiar  to  every  boy  and  girl. 
However,  few  are  aware  that  to  Louisiana  belongs  the  intro- 
duction of  the  first  cotton  gin  in  1742  by  M.  Dubreuil. 

TOPICS:     The  Cotton  Plant;  New  Orleans  Cotton  Eeceipts; 
Financing  the  Cotton  Crop;   Manufactures. 

BEFEBENCES:     Duggar's  Agriculture  for  Southern  Schools; 
Leigh's  Book  on  Cotton;  United  States  Census,  1910. 


SECTION  2.    CORN. 


Coi-n  belongs  to  the  grass  family.  Some  of 
the  plants  to  which  it  is  related  are  true  grasses, 
as  sugar  cane  and  rice.  Corn  differs  from  most 
of  its  relatives,  in  having  both  a  tassel  and  an 
ear,  and  in  having  these  located  on  different 
parts  of  the  plant. 

Races  of  Corn.  There  are  only  a  few  races 
of  corn,  the  most  important  being  pop,  sweet, 
dent  (or  common),  and  flint.  In  each  race,  there 
are  many  varieties.  Corn  is  planted  either  in 
elevated  ridges  or  beds,  in  depressions  or  water 
furrows,  or  in  level  gi'ound,  according  to  the  soil 
and  the  farmer's  judgment. 

Corn  Crop  of  Louisiana.  Ijouisiana  is  fast 
taking  a  ranking  place  among  the  leading  corn 
states.  The  yield  is  increasing  steadily,  due  to 
fertilization,  deep  plowing,  adequate  cultiva- 
tion, and  systematic  rotation  of  crops.  Splen- 
did work  is  being  accomplished  by  the  Boys' 
Corn  Clubs,  an  important  branch  of  the  Farm 
Demonstration  Bureau,  which  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Louisiana  corn  is  harvested  at  a  time 
of  continued  sunshine,  and,  if  dried  in  a  way  to 
preclude  deterioration,  is  preferred  by  the  mar- 
kets at  home  and  abroad. 

According  to  the  last  report  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  AgTicultiu-e,  cotton,  without  counting 
its  seed,  still  leads,  with  corn  a  close  second. 
The  corn  product  of  1,963,698  acres  amounted  to 
34,087,062  bushels  valued  at  $21,063,484.     The 


parish  of  St.  Landry  leads  with  100,000  acres  in 
cultivation,  valued  at  $1,200,000. 

TOPICS:     Corn  Family;  Louisiana  as  a  Corn  State. 

BEFEBENCES:     Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
for  February,  1914. 


CORN  CROP  ON  RECLAIMED  If-^ND, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 
SECTION  3.  SUGAR. 


79 


Sugar  Cane.  Sugar  cane  belongs  to  the  grass 
family.  Under  the  tube-like  lower  portions  of 
each  leaf  are  buds,  one  at  each  joint.  These  serve 
instead  of  seed  to  multiply  the  plant.  Sugar  cane 
first  grew  in  the  countries  warmer  than  the 
Southern  States,  but  has  greatly  changed  its 
habit  of  growth  as  it  has  been  carried  north- 
ward. In  the  tropics,  it  continues  to  grow  fifteen 
months  or  more,  before  being  cut. 

Sugar  cane  was  introduced  into  Louisiana 
from  San  Domingo  in  1751,  by  the  Jesuit 
Fathers.  The  cane  grew  well,  but  all  attempts 
to  manufacture  sugar  failed,  until  1791,  when 
Don  Antonio  Mendez  succeeded  in  extracting 
sugar  from  cane.  Three  years  later,  Etienne  de 
Bore  made  such  a  large  crop  of  sugar  that  many 
were  induced  to  go  into  the  industry. 

Preparation  and  Cultivation.  In  Louisiana, 
a  field  to  be  planted  in  cane  the  next  year,  is 
planted  the  preceding  year  in  corn,  with  cow 
peas  sown  thickly  among  the  corn.  The  entire 
growth  of  cow  peas  is  turned  under  by  the  use 
of  immense  plows.  This  enriches  the  land  by 
furnishing  vegetable  matter  and  nitrogen.  Sugar 
cane  is  then  grown  on  that  field  for  two  or  three 
years.  A  good  average 
yield  in  Louisiana  is 
twenty  to  thirty  tons  of 
cane  per  acre.  The  tops 
cannot  live  through  the 
winter,  but  the  stubble 
and  roots  remain  alive 
and  furnish  a  supply  for 
a  second  and,  some- 
times, for  a  third  crop. 
Planting,  therefore,  is 
necessary  only  every 
second  or  third  year. 
The  sugar  belt  em- 
braces twenty-four  par- 
ishes, St.  Mary  leading. 

Sugar  Maidng.  As 
the  cane  is  cut,  it  is 
loaded  by  mechanical 
loaders  into  wagons  of 
about  two  tons  ca- 
pacity. These  wagons 
are  driven  to  the  hoist- 
ing derricks,  which  load 
the  cane  on  the  ears.  At 


the  sugar  house,  these  discharge  the  cane  into  a 
patented  carrier.  The  cane  is  passed  through 
large  mills  which  crush  it,  and  thus  separate  the 
juice  from  the  woody  matter  or  bagasse.  From 
here,  the  juice  runs  through  the  sulphur  tanks, 
where  sulphur  dioxide  is  absorbed.  The 
bagasse  is  carried  to  the  furnaces.  IIere,_  it  is 
mixed  with  a  little  crude  oil  and  furnishes  the 
source  of  fuel  for  operating  the  mill.  After  the 
juice  is  sulphured,  it  is  pumped  to  other  tanks, 
where  lime  in  solution  is  added  and  the  juice 
brought  to  a  boil.  The  clear  part  is  drawn  off 
to  settling  tanks.  The  precipitate  or  solid  sub- 
stance which  has  been  deposited,  is  sent  through 
the  filter  press,  separating  the  juice  from  what 
is  called  the  filter  presscake  or  solid  matter.  (A 
filter  press  is  a  cast  iron  frame  with  heavy 
sheets,  through  which  the  juice  is  pumped.)  The 
juice  remains  in  the  settling  tank  for  half  an 
hour;  then,  all  the  clear  juice  is  drawn  off  and 
mi'xed  with  juice  from  the  filter  press.  The 
whole  is  passed  through  the  evaporators,  oper- 
ated under  vacuum,  to  make  sugar  house  syrup. 
This  syrup  is  then  boiled  in  the  pan  to  make 
"massecuite,"  or  sugar  crystallized.     This  is 


A  CANE  CROP  ON  RECLAIMED  LAND. 


80 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


run  through  the  centrifugals,  which  separate 
the  sugar  and  molasses.  Generally,  the  sugar  is 
washed  with  water  before  it  is  taken  out  of  the 
centrifugals.  The  molasses  and  wash-waters  are 
reboiled  to  make  second  sugar.  The  molasses  in 
this  is  used  for  stock-feed  and  is  also  sold  to 
distilleries. 

Refining  Process.  Sugar  is  mixed  with  water 
to  make  a  thick  magma,  when  it  is  run  into  the 
centrifugals.  It  is  again  washed  with  water  to 
remove  the  outer  coating  of  the  crystals.  The 
remaining  part  of  the  sugar  is  dissolved  sep- 
arately, reclaritied,  and  put  through  the  bone 
black  filter.  The  liquor  is  again  evaporated 
into  syrup,  and  finally  into  "massecuite."  When 
it  comes  out  of  the  centrifugals,  it  is  put  through 
the  driers  and  granulators. 

LouisiaJia  Sugar  Crop.  Sugar  made  in  Lou- 
isiana from  the  crop  of  cane  harvested  in  1913- 
'14,  according  to  an  enumeration  just  completed 
by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  amounted  to  480,- 
346,707  pounds,  valued  at  $16,888,509. 

The  Chalmette  Sugar  Refinery.  This  refinery 
is  a  mighty  tribute  to  the  greatness  of  the  sugar 
industry  of  Louisiana.  It  represents  the  very 
best  in  steel  and  concrete  construction  engineer- 
ing.    The  steel  docks  permit  three  large  ships 


to  discharge  their  cargoes  simultaneously.  The 
shipping  facilities  permit  the  loading  and  un- 
loading of  fifty  cars  at  the  same  time.  The  filter- 
ing plant  has  a  capacity. of  6,000,000  gallons  a 
day;  the  huge  boiler  plant  generates  11,000 
horse-power,  and  is  fitted  with  gravity  coal  bins 
of  7,000  tons  capacity  and  with  mechanical 
stokers.  The  cooperage  is  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  South.    The  machinery  is  electrically  driven. 

The  refinery  has  an  annual  capacity  of 
600,000  tons.  More  than  one-third  is  Louisiana 
sugar,  the  remainder  being  imported  from  Cuba, 
Java,  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  Sugar  Experiment  Station.  The  Sugar 
Experiment  Station  was  moved  about  thirtj^ 
years  ago  from  Kenner  to  its  present  location 
in  Audubon  Park.  The  station  experiments  in 
the  field,  laboratory,  and  sugar  house,  publish- 
ing its  results  in  bulletins.  It  has  aided  in  every 
development  of  the  sugar  industry. 

The  Sugar  Exchange  of  New  Orleans  is  the 
place  where  buyers  and  sellers  meet  daily  for  the 
purpose  of  trade  in  sugar,  syrup  and  molasses. 

TOPICS:  Introduction  into  Louisiana;  Preparation  and 
Cultivation;  Sugar-Malfing;  Refining  Process;  Louisiana 
Sugar  Crop. 

REFERENCES:  United  Stfttes  Census  Reports;  Crop  Re- 
ports of  1914. 


tllALMETTB  SUGAR  REFINERY. 


-Courtesy  of  BoarJ  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of  New  Orleans. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 
SECTION  4.    RICE. 


81 


The  History  of  Rice.  The  history  of  Asia  from 
the  beginning  records  rice  as  a  staple  human  food 
product.  When  we  refer  to  the  intrinsic  value 
of  rice  as  a  human  edible,  we  have  the  emphasis 
of  centuries  of  use  and  the  development  of  the 
Asiatic  peoples,  esioecially  the  Japanese,  for 
proof.  The  first  rice  planted  in  the  United 
States  was  in  Virginia,  in  1647.  The  experiment 
was  a  failure,  this  state  being  too  far  north.  In 
1694,  a  vessel  from 
Madagascar,  owing 
to  a  storm,  entered 
Charleston  Harbor. 
The  captain  gave  a 
planter  some  rough 
rice,  from  which  a 
successful  crop  was 
grown  and  the  seed 
from  this  was  dis- 
tributed. 

Rice  in  Lou- 
isiana. Kice  was 
first  raised  in  Lou- 
isiana in  an  attempt 
to  offset  the  ill  ef- 
fects experienced 
by  the  wanton  de- 
struction of  the 
Carolina  industry. 
Owing  to  the  responsive  soil,  rice  soon  became  a 
recognized  staple  in  Louisiana. 

When  rail  lines  were  built  through  the 
prairie  parishes  of  Southwest  Louisiana,  the 
Western  farmers  (about  1884)  made  their  ad- 
vent into  that  section.  Primitive  methods  of 
sowing,  binding,  and  threshing,  soon  gave  way 
to  modern  mechanical  appliances.  The  most 
important  era  of  the  rice  industry  was  in  1896 — 


the  year  in  which  the  irrigation  canal  was  in- 
troduced. In  commencing  operations,  a  canal 
company  first  makes  a  thorough  topographical 
survey,  which  makes  possible  the  construction 
of  the  main  canal  and  laterals  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  allow  the  water  to  go  on  at  the  higher 
levels,  and  inundate  by  gravitation  the  lower 
levels.  All  the  rice  in  Louisiana  is  irrigated  by 
pumping,  the  exception  being  the  alluvial  sec- 
tions where  the 
^^  water  is  syphoned 
^     ^}        '"    ''         •        from  the  river. 

,"■..  Rice  Culture.  The 

ground  is  well 
lu'oken  with  riding 
|)lows  and  pulver- 
ized with  large  har- 
rows. As  a  rule,  the 
seed  is  planted  by 
drills,  although  in 
the  alluvial  lands  a 
great  many  grow- 
ers cling  to  the  old 
method  of  broad- 
casting. Unless  the 
ground  is  very  wet, 
water  is  turned  on 
immediately  after 
seeding.  It  is  turned 
off  again  until  the  grain  has  attained  a  growth  of 
four  or  five  inches,  when  it  is  reflooded  to  about 
the  same  depth  until  a  week  before  harvesting. 
This  commences  about  the  latter  part  of  July, 
according  to  locality,  and  extends  to  about  the 
fifteenth  of  November.  After  being  threshed, 
the  rice  is  either  sold  in  the  field  to  the  agent 
of  a  mill,  or  consigned  to  one  of  the  central  rice- 
milling  points.    About  one-third  of  the  milling 


IRRIGATION  PUMPING  PLANT  IN  WEST  LOUISIANA. 

— ^Courtesy  of  S.  Locke  Breaus. 


PUEPAEATION  OF  SOIL  FOB  KICE  PLANTING  IN  WEST  LOUISIANA. 


— Courtesy  of  S.  Locke  Breaux. 


82 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


crop  is  disposed  of  througli  the  factor  on  the 
floor  of  the  New  Orleans  Board  of  Ti'ade,  which 
organization  controls,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
prices  of  rice  for  the  entire  country.  Most  of 
the  rice  disposed  of  on  the  Board  of  Trade  is 
sold  to  local  mills,  the  balance  being  shipped  to 
the  South  Atlantic  markets.  Eice  find  its  chief 
use  as  a  staple  article  of  food.  Ten  per  cent  of 
the  Louisiana  crop  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  beer. 

Description  of  a  New  Orleans  Rice  Mill.  The 
rice  is  received  at  the  warehouse  in  sacks  weigh- 
ing 180  pounds  each.  These  sacks  are  unloaded 
from  the  cars  and  elevated  into  bins  by  belt-con- 
veying machinery.  From  the  bins,  the  rice  is 
run  through  the  separators,  which  remove  all 
f oreig-n  substances.  It  is  then  fed  into  the  center 
of  the  hulling  stones,  where  it  is  revolved  at  the 
rate  of  250  revolutions  a  minute,  and,  through 
centrifugal  action,  the  rice  is  forced  through  the 
perforated  ends  of  the  upper  and  lower  stones. 
This  process  removes  the  hull  from  the  grain. 


It  is  then  passed  through  the  fanning  machines, 
which  remove  the  hull  by  suction.  A  separator 
then  turns  back  the  unhulled  grains  to  another 
set  of  stones,  for  about  twenty-five  per  cent  of 
the  rice  is  still  unhulled.  The  huller  is  a  cylin- 
der within  a  metal  case,  which  removes  the  oily 
cuticle  that  covers  the  grain.  This  oily  cuticle 
is  known  as  the  rice  bran.  From  here,  the  rice 
goes  to  the  brushes,  which  are  upright  cylinders 
covered  with  leather.  These  polish  the  rice 
against  a  wire  screen,  leaving  behind  a  white 
powder  known  as  rice  polish.  The  polishing 
drum,  through  friction,  gives  the  highly  polished 
appearance  which  is  found  in  nearly  all  finished 
rice.  The  rice  is  then  put  into  the  clean  rice 
separators,  where  the  broken  grains  are  sep- 
arated from  the  whole  grains  and  the  various 
commercial  grades  packed. 

TOPICS:      The   History   of   Eice;    Eiee   in   Louisiana;    Eice 
Culture;  A  Description  of  a  New  Orleans  Eice  Mill. 

REFERENCES:     Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


SECTION  5.    TOBACCO. 


The  crop  report  for  the  year  1913- '14  shows 
that  600  acres  of  tobacco,  producing  250,000 
poimds,  valued  at  $50,000,  were  planted  in  the 
jmrish  of  St.  James.  The  same  report  also  shows 
that  a  few  acres  were  planted  in  the  parish  of 
Evangeline,  and  that  Ouachita  parish  raised 
some  tobacco  for  home  use. 

The  Perique  Tobacco.  The  Perique  tobacco 
was  first  grown  many  years  before  the  Civil  "War 
by  an  Acadian  whose  name  the  tobacco  now 
bears.  This  industry  has  been  kept  up  continu- 
ously by  the  lineal  descendants  of  Perique,  and 
is  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as  any  other 
sun  tobacco.  It  is  sown  in  the  early  part  of 
January,  replanted  in  March  or  April,  the  crop 
being  harvested  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  or 
the  beginning  of  July.  After  harvesting,  the 
tobacco  is  hung  in  sheds  to  dry.  It  is  then 
stripped  and  placed  in  presses  until  the  follow- 
ing March  or  April,  when  it  is  ready  for  the 
market.  Sometimes  it  is  not  sold  until  three  or 
four  years  old,  as  it  improves  with  age.  Perique 
finds  its  chief  use  as  a  seasoner  for  mixtures,  it 
being    an    exceedingly    strong    tobacco.     It    is 


shipped  to  all  American  tobacco  markets,  to 
Canada,  and  to  England. 

Manufacture  of  Tobacco  in  New  Orleans.  The 
first  factory  was  established  in  1857.  New  Or- 
leans has  always  handled  a  large  part  of  the 
cigarette  business  of  the  South.  At  present, 
there  are  two  immense  jDlants  operating  here. 
The  value  of  the  output  of  cigars,  cigarettes, 
and  tobacco  in  1913- '14  was  $6,301,725.  New 
Orleans'  is  a  meeting  point  of  the  Havana  and 
the  domestic  tobacco  from  the  tobacco-growing 
states  of  Kentucky  and  Ohio.  The  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  records  show  that  the 
climatology  of  New  Orleans  is  most  favorable  to 
the  working  of  tobacco ;  its  atmospheric  moisture 
is  almost  equable  throughout  the  year,  the 
changes  being  gradual.  New  Orleans,  because 
of  its  very  successful  factories,  is  widely  known 
as  a  cigar  center. 


TOPICS:     Annual  Production;  The  Perique  Tobacco;  Manu- 
factured Tobacco. 

REFERENCES:     Agricultural  Eeport  for  1913;   Pamphlets 
of  the  Association  of  Commerce. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


83 


SECTION  6.    LUMBER. 


Louisiana's  Lumber.  Louisiana  is  the  second 
largest  lumber-producing  state  in  the  Union 
(Washington,  first),  the  annual  value  of  the 
product  being  over  $50,000,000.  Including  by- 
products, the  annual  value  exceeds  $60,000,000. 
The  state  has  standing  timber  to  the  amount  of 
120  billion  feet,  valued  at  $600,000,000.  It  also 
has  over  5,500,000  acres"  in  cut-over  lands,  eighty 
per  cent  of  which  is  now  suited  for  agriculture. 
Yellow  pine  occurs  in  thirty-one  parishes.  In 
the  middle  and  southern  sections  are  the  im- 
mense forests  of  long  leaf  pine  which  furnish  a 
large  industiy  for  the  adjoining  states.  The 
short  leaf  pine  is  found  in  the  northern  section, 
in  the  region  of  the  oak  uplands.  Almost  every 
known  variety  of  oak,  hickory,  gum,  pecan, 
cotton-wood,  ash,  magnolia,  maple,  and  the 
largest  variety  of  the  elm  are  found.  The  state 
has  about  154  species  of  trees  within  its  borders. 

Cypress.  In  Egypt,  long  before  Abraham 
climbed  the  desert  mountains  that  separate 
Chaldea  from  Canaan,  cypicss  was  the  ■wood  of 
royalty.  Gropher  wood, 
from  which  Noah  builded 
the  Ark,  was  no  other  than 
cypress.  In  polytheistic 
Greece,  in  pagan  Eome, 
and  in  Egypt,  the  wood 
of  the  cypress  tree  was 
treated  with  religious  ven 
eration,  and  from  it  were 
carved  the  hideous  faces 
of  their  heathen  gods.  In 
point  of  quality  and  value, 
the  unparalleled  forests  of 
cypress  surpass  all  others, 
and  Louisiana  possesses 
75  per  cent  of  this  forest 
product  of  the  United 
States.  CjToress  is  adapt- 
able to  many  uses  in  build- 
ing, inside  and  outside, 
having  wonderful  powers 
of  duration.  In  all  alluvial 
deposits  of  Louisiana,  per- 
fect cypress  logs,  hundreds 
of  feet  below  the  present 
level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
have  been  uncovered.  In 
1810,  pipes  for  the  water 
system    were    made    of 


hewn  cypress  trees.  Forces  of  the  present 
Sewerage  and  Water  Board  have,  in  excavating, 
found  these  pipes  iti  a  splendid  state  of  reserva- 
tion. 

Millions  of  dollars  have  been  invested  in  the 
timber  resources.  The  movement  for  the  utiliza- 
tion of  waste  accumulating  in  the  manufacture 
of  lumber,  is  destined  to  create  an  immense  and 
important  industry.  Unregulated  methods  of 
lumbering  and  the  turpentine  industry  are  the 
chief  causes  of  this  waste,  which  can  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  charcoal  and  of  paper. 

Lumber  Industry  in  New  Orleans.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  lumber  bought  and  sold  in  the 
New  Orleans  market  is  used  for  building  by  fac- 
tories for  making  boxes,  furniture,  coffins,  doors, 
sash,  blinds,  and  similar  manufactured  products. 
Many  of  .these  factory  products  are  shipped  to 
the  surrounding  territory  and  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  lumber  that  is  shipped  to  New  Or- 
leans to  be  treated  with  creosote  and  other  pre- 
sonatnes,  i^  A\idol\  distributed.  The  im- 
l)ortance  of  New  Orleans 
as  a  liTmber  market  con- 
sists largely  in  its  export- 
ing to  a  great  number  of 
foreign  countries.  New 
Oi  leans  is  situated  close 
to  the  principal  lumber- 
])ioducing  sections.  It  is 
■well  supplied  with  rail- 
road lines  and  waterways, 
and  draws  shipments  for 
export  from  a  wide  ter- 
ritory. 

In  the  export  of  yellow 
pine,  New  Orleans  is  in- 
ferior to  Gulfport,  Mobile, 
and  Pensacola.  In  the  ex- 
port of  hardwoods,  such 
as  oak,  gum,  cotton-wood, 
ash,  poplar,  and  other 
woods  of  that  character, 
it  far  exceeds  these  three 
ports  combined.  If  the 
shipment  of  logs, 
staves,  headings,  rail- 
road ties,  and  miscel- 
laneous forms  of  lum- 
ber partly  manufac- 
tured   for    special    uses,, 


CYPRESS  S\\  \MV 

-^Courteby  uf  the  (.  oiit-ei  vdtion  CommissioiJ, 


84 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


be  added  to  the  export  of  hard  woods,  New  Or- 
leans far  exceeds  any  other  port  in  the  country; 
such  export  is  almost  as  great  as  that  of  all  the 
Atlantic  ports  combined.  Its  export  of  staves 
varies  yearly,  from  a  little  under  to  a  little  over 
half  in  numljer  of  the  amount  exported  from  the 
entire  country.  Great  yards  are  maintained,  in 
which  are  stored  millions  of  staves  awaiting 
shipment.  A  large  proportion  of  these  are  sent 
abroad  in  full  ship  loads;  many  of  these,  as  parts 
of  wine  casks,  have  the  pleasure  of  returning 
home. 

The  financing  of  the  lumber  industry  is 
largely  centered  in  New  Orleans.  The  ofl&cial 
figiires  for  the  year  show  the  city  handled 
$20,208,697  in  forest  products. 

Law  Protecting  Louisiana  Forests.  A  law 
has  been  passed  for  the  prevention  of  forest  fires, 
making  it  a  misdemeanor  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonnient.  to  negligently  and  wilfully  set  on 


fire  any  forest,  brush,  or  grass  land.    Eailroad 

companies,  operating  through  forest  lands,  are 
required  to  keep  their  right  of  way  clear  of  all 
combustible  materials. 

At  present,  there  is  very  little  reforestation 
in  Louisiana.  Acting  under  authority  of  Act 
261  of  1910,  the  Conservation  Commission  en- 
tered into  an  agreement  with  the  owners  of  de- 
nuded forest  lands  for  the  purpose  of  encourag- 
ing its  reforestation.  The  Commission  agreed 
on  behalf  of  the  state  to  protect  and  supervise 
28,000  acres  of  denuded  lands,  set  aside  for  the 
gi'owth  of  trees,  for  a  period  of  forty  years.  This 
land  is  situated  in  the  Parishes  of  La  Salle, 
Winn,  and  Caldwell. 

TOPICS:  Louisiana  Lumber;  Capital  Invested;  Laws  Pro- 
tecting Forests;  Reforestation. 

BEFEBENCES:  Annual  Reports  of  Lumbermen's  Associa- 
tion; Lumbermen's  Trade  Journals;  Report  of  April, 
1914,  of  Conservation  Commission. 


SECTION  7.    MINERALS. 


I.     SULPHUR. 


Nature  has  endowed  Louisiana  with  many 
wonderful  natural  resources.  Inexhaustible  de- 
posits of  sulphur,  salt,  oil,  natural  gas,  many 
fine  kaolins,  and  clays,  can  be  found  within  its 
borders.  Throughout  the  tertiary  strata,  there 
occur  in  varying  quantities,  marble,  sandstone, 
limestone,  iron,  gypsum.  Fuller's  earth,  green 
sand,  and  other  less  important  minerals.  Of 
these,  sulphur,  salt,  oil,  and  natural  gas  are  the 
only  ones  that  have  been  commercially  de- 
veloped. 

Sulphur.  The  magnificent  sulphur  deposits 
in  Calcasieu  Parish  were  discovered  in  1858,  in 
one  of  the  unsuccessful  attempts  to  tap  the  oil 
deposits  of  Southwest  Louisiana.  The  sulphur, 
covering  an  area  of  sixty-two  acres,  is  supposed 
to  be  from  a  sunken  volcano,  several  hundred 
feet  underground,  lying  immediately  below  a 
quicksand.  Vain  attempts  were  made  from  time 
to  time  to  utilize  this  wonderful  gift  of  Nature. 

Attempted  Developments.  A  French  syndi- 
cate leased  this  property  from  1886  until  1870. 
They  imported  their  machinery  and  eastings 
from  France  and  expended  over  a  million  and 
a   half   dollars   on   their  project,   before    they 


abandoned  what  at  last  proved  to  be  a  fruitless 
undertaking.  In  1889,  a  New  York  company 
tried  to  develop  the  mines,  but  failed.  In  1902, 
Herman  Frasch,  a  scientist,  found  a  practical 
solution  to  the  problem,  which  not  only  de- 
veloped the  mines  of  Louisiana,  but  revolution- 
ized the  sulphur  industry  of  the  world. 

The  Frasch  System.  The  Frasch  system 
melts  the  sulphur  from  the  sulphur-bearing  rock 
by  the  application  of  hot  water  and  steam,  and 
the  pumping  by  compressed  air  of  the  con- 
sequent liquid  sulphur  to  the  surface,  where  it 
is  run  into  wooden  tanks  and  allowed  to  congeal. 
As  each  layer  of  sulphur  congeals,  the  operation 
is  repeated,  until  the  piles  have  attained  the 
height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet  and  become  solid 
mountains  of  sulphur,  which  are  broken  up  by 
means  of  explosives.  The  famous  sulphur  mines 
of  Sicily,  owned  by  the  Italian  government,  are 
operated  on  the  shaft  and  tunnel  principle,  the 
consequent  loss  of  life  being  very  great.  By  the 
Frasch  system,  a  workman  never  goes  beneath 
the  surface,  every  operation  being  carried  on 
above  the  ground. 

Annual  Production.    The  annual  production 


THfi   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


85 


of  the  sulphur  mines  for  1913- '14  was  700,000 
tons,  almost  chemically  pure,  analyzing  99.9%, 
and  was  valued  at  $14,000,000.  About  50,000 
tons  were  exported ;  the  remainder  of  the  output 
is  used' in  the  United  States,  70%  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper.  (See  Note.)  Sulphur  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  explosives  and  for 
agricultural  purposes.  It  is  a  strong  aid  in  the 
making  of  white  sugar,  without  the  use  of  bone 
black.  Sulphuric  acid  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant acids  known  to  the  chemist.  The  actual 
waste  of  this  great  natural  resource  is  estimated 
not  to  exceed  one  per  cent  of  the  production. 

.  Shipment  of  Sulphur.    Most  of  the  sulphur  is 
shipped  by  the  company's  steamers  from  Port 


Sabine,  Texas,  to  North  Atlantic  seaports  for 
distribution  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  National  Sulphur  Company, 
located  in  New  York,  is  the  largest  sulphur  re- 
finery in  the  world. 

Note. — In  the  manufacture  of  paper,  sulphur  is  burned 
into  into  gas  and  passed  through  a  tank  containing  milk  of 
lime,  and  then,  finely  chopped  wood,  usually  spruce,  is  mixed 
with  the  resultant  fluid,  which  induces  the  pirocess  of  de- 
composition in  the  wood,  and  converts  it  into  what  is  known 
as  wood  pulp.  This  industry  is  now  confined  chiefly  to  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  Maine,  Pennsylvania,  and  Wisconsin. 

TOPICS:  The  Sulphur  Deposits  of  Louisiana;  Attempted 
Developments;  The  Frasch  System;  Annual  Production; 
Shipment  of  Sulphur. 

BEFEBENCES:  Report  of  Conservation  Commission;  Report 
of  United  States  Geological  Survey,  1913. 


■M-^ 


TONS   OF   SULPIIIU;    lU'^.MtV    KOlt.  SillI'>rKNT. 


uiiservation  Commission. 


II.     SALT. 


Louisiana  has  the  greatest  rock  salt  deposits 
in  the  United  States.  Geologists  have  never 
been  able  to  solve  the  mystery  of  these  deposits. 
Some  claim  them  to  be  of  volcanic  origin ;  some, 
to  the  action  of  the  wind  and  waves ;  while  others 
say  they  are  due  to  the  imprisonment  of  an  arm 
of  the  sea,  through  alluvial  deposits,  and  the 
consequent  evaporation  of  the  salt  water,  so  en- 


closed. Louisiana's  rock  salt  mines  have  been 
confined  up  to  the  present  time  to  Avery's 
Island,  Weeks'  Island,  Jefferson's  Island,  and 
Belle  Isle,  the  last  named  known  as  the  rendez- 
vous of  Jean  Lafitte. 

■  Louisiana  Salt  Industry.  The  production  of 
Salt  is  Louisiana's  oldest  industry,  the  first 
white  settlers  having  reported  meeting  Indian 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


salt  ti-aders.  ■  Evaporated  salt  made  from  the 
brine  springs,  was  quite  an  important  industry 
from  the  time  of  the  first  settlement  until  after 
the  Civil  War.  It  was  then  carried  on  intermit- 
tently, until  1894,  when  it  died  out  altogether, 
owing  to  the  more  economic  methods  of  making 
salt. 

Rock  Salt  Deposits.  The  inexhaustible  rock 
salt  deposits  of  Louisiana  were  discovered  in 
May,  1862.  Salt  was  very  scarce  at  that  time, 
and  Mr.  Avery  of  Avery's  Island  determined  to 
bore  for  it.  A  negro  workman,  after  going  down 
sixteen  feet,  told  Mr.  Avery  that  he  had  struck 
a  sunken  log  and  could  proceed  no  further.  Mr. 
Avery  found  upon  investigation  that  it  was  not 
a  log,  but  the  great  rock  salt  deposits  that  have 
made  Louisiana  famous.  Avery's 
Island  was  the  only  active  salt 
mine  in  the  state  until  1903,  when 
mining  operations  were  com- 
menced at  Week's  Island  deposit. 
The  mine  at  Belle  Isle  was  worked 
for  some  time,  but  the  shaft  was 
destroyed  by  water. 

Mining  of  Salt.  Rock  salt  is 
mined  in  very  much  the  same 
manner  as  all  the  baser  minerals. 
The  first  operation  is  the  drilling 
of  the  holes  for  the  insertion  of 
the  dynamic  charges,  rock  salt 
having  the  resisting  power  of 
5,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
This  is  accomplished  by  eleven- 
foot  drills.  The  salt  is  cut  out  in 
tunnel  form,  arched  columns 
being  left  to  prevent  a  collapse. 
These  tunnels  are  750  to  1,000  feet 
long  and  80  to  100  feet  wide,  and 
of  about  the  same  height.  The 
blasting  is  sometimes  done  at 
night  to  prevent  accident,  and  to 
allow  the  atmosphere  to  clear  for 
the  next  day's  work.  The  salt  is 
loaded  on  narrow-gauge  mule 
trains,  which  carry  it  to  the  foot 
of  the  shaft.  There,  it  passes 
through  a  great  forty-horse-power 
electric  motor-driven  crusher  in 
the  Myles '  mine,  but  in  the  Avery's 
works  the  crushing  is  done  at  the 
top.  After  being  crushed,  the  salt 
is  fed  by  gravitation  into  the  cage 
and  carried  to  the  mill,  where  it  is 


fed  automatically  into  screens  and  separated  into 
the  various  commercial  grades.  If  it  is  shipped 
in  bulk,  it  is  deposited  by  gravity  into  the  cars, 
and  if  in  small  quantities,  automatically  fed  into 
sacks. 

Annual  Output.  The  annual  output  for 
1913- '14  was  about  400,000  tons,  valued  at 
$1,000,000.  Of  this  annual  production,  only 
500  tons  a  month  were  actually  consumed  in 
New  Orleans,  this  amount  being  sold  wholesale 
to  jobbers.  The  coarser  quality  is  used  in  all 
forms  of  refrigerating,  curing  of  hides,  preserv- 
ing of  meat  and  fish,  and  the  making  of  ice  and 
ice  cream.  Salt  is  also  used  in  glazing  sewer 
pipes,  as  the  lustrous  enameling  can  be  obtained 
in  no  other  way. 


MINII7G  SALT  UNDER  GROUND. 

— Courtesy  of  the  Conservation  Commission. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


87 


The  shipment  of  both  mines  originate  on  tlie 
Southern  Pacific  road,  and,  naturally,  the 
volume  of  the  business,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Western  shipments,  come  through  New  Or- 
leans. Some  of  the  salt  goes  to  the  West  Indies, 
Central,  and  South  America,  Liverpool,  and 
small  shipments  have  been  made  to  Copenhagen. 
The  remainder  is  distributed  over  the  United 


States  and  Canada.  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Boston  shipments  are  routed  from  New  Or- 
leans by  water. 

TOPICS:      Louisiana's  Salt  Industry;   The  Mining  of  Salt; 
The  Annual  Output;  The  Shipment. 

REFEKENCES:       Report    of    Conservation    Commission    of 
April,  1914;  Agricultural  Report  of  1914. 


III.     OIL. 


This  valuable  substance,  like  sulphur  and  salt, 
occurs  in  proximity  with  the  older  rocks  of  Lou- 
isiana. Greologically,  the  oil  is  believed  to  be  ob- 
tained from  quaternary  sands.  Louisiana  now 
stands  sixth  among  the  great  oil-producing  states 
of  the  Union.  Oil  was  prospected  for  before  the 
Civil  War,  but  the  Gulf  Coast  country  did  not  at- 
tract the  attention 
of  the  great  oil  op- 
erators uniil  1901, 
when  the  Spindle 
Top  gusher  in  the 
Beaumont  district 
caused  a  gTeat  rush 
to  that  section. 

Annual  Produc- 
tion. The  oil  output 
for  the  year  1914  in 
Louisiana  was  14,- 
309,435  barrels; 
valued  at  $12,886,- 
897,  being  an  in- 
crease of  nearly  2,- 
000,000  barrels  over 
1913  (1,810,607  bar- 
rels). The  Caddo 
field,  which  was  one 


of  the  most  important  oil-producing  sections  of 
Louisiana,  declined  in  1914,  and  was  overtopped  by 
the  great  wells  discovered  in  tha  Red  Eiver  sec- 
tion. This  section  produced,  in  1914,  nearly  four 
million  barrels  of  oil,  valued  at  over  three  and 
a  half  million  dollars.  The  new  fields  at  Anse 
la  Butte  and  Edgerly,  in  the  coastal  sections, 
helped  swell  Lou- 
isiana's 1914  out- 
put and  put  it  in 
the  fifth  place 
among  the  oil-pro- 
ducing states  of  the 
Union,  being  ex- 
ceeded by,  in  the 
order  named,  Cali- 
fornia, Oklahoma, 
Illinois  and  Texas. 
The  recent  decline 
in  the  Illinois  fields 
seems  to  indicate 
that  that  state  will 
be  surpassed  soon 
by  both  Texas  and 
Louisiana;  thus 
making    fourth    in 

OIL  FIELD.  trmt 

'  —Courtesy  of  Southern  Pacific  R.  K.    OUipUt. 


IV.    GAS. 


The  gas  fields  of  Caddo  and  De  Soto  Parishes, 
according  to  the  last  Government  Survey  report, 
are  the  greatest  gas  fields  in  the  United  States. 
The  production  from  the  eighty-four  gas  wells 
in  the  Caddo  and  eight  in  the  De  Soto  fields  was 
22,000,000  feet,  valued  at  $2,550,000. 

It  is  believed  that,  through  strict  measures 
of  conservation,  these  fields  will  continue  to  pro- 
duce unlimited  quantities  for  a  great  period  of 


years.  The  Caddo  field  supplies  thirty-eight 
surrounding  cities  and  towns  in  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  and  Texas,  with  gas  for  fuel,  lighting, 
and  manufacturing  purposes.  A  movement  is 
being  made  to  pipe  gas  into  New  Orleans  from 
this  field. 

TOPICS:     History  of  Oil  and  Gas;  Annual  Production. 

REFERENCES:     United  States  Government  Survey  Report 
of  1913. 


CHAPTER  VIIl. 


Manufactures. 


Early  History  of  This  Industry.  In  the  early 
French  and  Spanish  days,  New  Orleans  de- 
pended upon  the  mother  countries  for  manu- 
factured goods.  After  Louisiana  became  a  part 
of  tlie  United  States,  there  was  little  change  in 
the  conditions  prevailing  in  manufacturing,  he- 
cause  the  city  lacked  skilled  operatives,  and 
commerce  was  more  profitable.  The  few  fac- 
tories in  New  Orleans  owed  their  origin  to  the 
absolute  necessities,  and  were  for  such  repair 
work  as  could  not  be  done  anywhere  else.  The 
foundry,  designed  for  the  repair  of  machinery, 
led  for  many  years  in  this  industry,  and  from 
this  business  grew  the  manufacture  of  machin- 
ery, agricultural  implements,  boilers,  etc.  The 
development  of  the  sugar  industry  jaroved  a 
great  stimulus  to  such  manufactures.  The  iron 
industry  of  Alabama  of  recent  years  has  also 
been  an  advantage.  Gas  was  used  as  an  illumi- 
nant  here  in  advance  of  most  of  the  Western 
cities;  its  manufacture  dated  back  to  1833. 

The  census  of  1850  showed  the  weakness  of 
New  Orleans  in  manufactures,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing decade  there  was  a  still  further  decline. 
After  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  manufacturing 
began  to  receive  more  attention.  The  disap- 
pearance of  slavery,  the  enemy  of  free  labor,  had 
a  beneficial  effect,  and  there  was  a  large  supply  of 
labor,  though  somewhat  unskilled.  The  year  1885 
marked  a  period  of  prosperity  in  this  industry. 
The  census  of  1900  showed  that  New  Orleans  was 
the  largest  manufacturer  of  cotton  seed  oil  in  the 
world;  the  largest  cleaner  and  preparer  of  rice 
and  molasses,  and  of  various  canned  goods.  It 
held  a  high  position  in  the  refining  of  sugar,  the 
manufacturing  of  clothing,  cigars,  and  a  number 
of  other  commodities. 

New  Orleans  in  1914.  New  Orleans  now 
ranks  thirty-fifth  as  a  manufacturing  city.  Gov- 
ernment statistics  show  that  in  the  last  five 
years,  New  Orleans  has  increased  in  manufac- 
tures more  than  any  other  city  in  the  South. 
The  center  of  population  is  now  drifting  south- 
ward, and  the  Panama  Canal  will  increase  this 
movement  one  hundredfold.    At  present,  there 


are  848  factories  in  this  city,  80,000  wage-earn- 
ers, and  the  annual  production  in  monetary 
value  is  $78,000,000.  This  is  greater  than  the 
combined  manufactures  of  Atlanta  and  Birming- 
ham, or  Dallas  and  Houston.  If  we  include  in 
this  list,  the  American  Sugar  Refinery  and  the 
various  factories  of  St.  Bernard  and  Jefl'erson 
Parishes,  which  may  properly  be  done,  since  the 
freight  movement  is  from  New  Orleans,  and 
most  of  the  factories  have  their  general  offices 
established  in  the  city,  the  value  of  the  goods 
manufactured  in  the  territory  would  easily  total 
$150,000,000.  This  is  greater  than  Atlanta, 
Birmingham,  and  Memphis  combined.  Within 
the  ijrecise  boundaries  of  New  Orleans,  the  lead- 
ing commodity  in  value  is  burlap  and  cotton 
bags,  rice  (polished),  ranking  second.  The  real 
strength  of  New  Orleans  as  a  manufacturing 
city  is  in  the  diversity  of  goods  made.  The 
number  of  factories  is  less  to-day  than  twenty 
years  ago,  because  larger  factories  have  been 
installed,  and  many  smaller  ones  have  been 
amalgamated.  The  amount  of  money  invested, 
the  number  of  employees,  and  the  value  of  the 
finished  products,  are  far  greater. 

New  Orleans  as  a  Manufacturing  Center. 
This  city  is  excellently  located  as  a  manufactur- 
ing center,  and  is  the  distributing  point  for 
eleven  Southern  States.  Statistics  show  that  62 
per  cent  of  the  raw  materials  for  manufacturing, 
are  found  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  New  Or- 
leans is  the  gateway  of  the  Valley.  Many  raw 
materials  are  shipped  to  and  through  New  Or- 
leans from  Cuba,  Central  America,  and  Mexico. 

Cotton,  woolen  goods,  and  tobacco  products 
can  be  made  to  the  best  advantage  in  New  Or- 
leans, because  of  the  equability  of  the  humidity. 
The  water,  which  is  now  pumped  out  by  the 
modern  water  plant  of  the  city,  is  excellent  for 
dyeing  purposes,  and  for  that  reason  colored 
woolen  and  cotton  goods  may  easily  be  made 
here.  For  woolen  goods,  the  raw  material  can 
be  brought  frons  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Ari- 
zona, or  from  the  Western  South  American 
countries  by  means  of  the  Panama  Canal.    The 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


89 


mauufacture  of  pants  and  ready-made  elotliing 
already  eonstitntes  a  large  industry. 

Raw  Materials  Now  Used  in  New  Orleans. 
The  principal  raw  materials  now  used  in  New 
Orleans  by  factories  are  hard  and  soft  woods, 
cabinet  woods,  metals,  wool,  cotton,  chemicals, 
hides  and  skins,  sand  and  glass  for  building, 
brick  and  tile,  fresh  and  salt  shells. 

The  hard  and  soft  woods  are  found  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  New  Orleans.  The  lumber 
industry  is  one  of  the  oldest,  the  reason  being 
the  ease  with  which  lumber  can  be  marketed. 
There  are  many  finely  equipped  plants  on  the 
river  front  and  on  or  near  the  two  basins.  One 
firm  is  the  largest  exporter  of  lumber  in  the 
world.  The  approximate  figures  for  1913- '14  of 
the  lumber  industry  in  New  Orleans  were  about 
32,000,000  feet  of  cypress,  3,500,000  to  5,000,000 
feet  of  pine,  and  15,000,000  feet  of  mahogany. 
The  amount  paid  in  salaries  and  wages  in  the 
wood-working  industries,  furniture  excluded, 
was  $250,000.  The  capital 
invested,  furniture  fac- 
tories excluded,  was 
$4,582,000.  Doors,  sash, 
and  blinds  manufactures 
amounted  to  $650,000,  and 
the  box  and  box  shooks  to 
about  $750,000.  One  plant 
makes  a  specialty  of  the 
' '  Standard  Fold-Up  Box, ' ' 
which  saves  time,  labor, 
and  money,  and  for  these 

reasons  it  has  been  adopted  by  'many  large  fac- 
tories throughout  the  country. 

New  Orleans  is  well  supplied  with  cooperages 
of  large  capacities.  These  plants  have  modern 
machinery  for  making  barrels,  half -barrels,  and 
kegs  of  all  descriptions,  principally  for  oil,  mo- 
lasses, lard,  liquor,  sugar,  produce,  and  fish. 

Mahongany,  Ebony,  and  Rosewood.  These 
woods  are  imported  from  Central  America,  and 
in  1913- '14,  one-third  of  the  entire  amount  used 
in  the  United  States,  amounting  to  about  $1,000,- 
000,  passed  through  New  Orleans.  The  largest 
mahogany  plant  in  the  United  States  is  located 
here,  giving  employment  to  several  hundred 
men.  New  Orleans,  because  of  her  age,  is  recog- 
nized as  a  center  of  antique  furniture,  and  sev- 
eral plants  are  turning  out  copies  of  the  old 
styles  in  solid  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  walnut 
furniture  of  the  highest  grade.  There  are  thirty 
plants  making  case  goods,  chairs  of  medium 


grade,  brass  and  iron  beds,  mattresses  of  felt 
and  hair,  springs,  etc. 

Copper  and  Brass  Works.  The  copper  and 
brass  works  manufacture  turpentine  stills,  an 
apparatus  for  the  preparations  of  the  South 's 
naval  stores  for  market,  alcohol  and  vinegar 
stills,  steam  jackets  and  candy  kettles.  There 
are  manufactories  of  tanks  for  all  purposes, 
towers,  stacks;  in  fact,  all  kinds  of  sheet  metal 
works  give  employment  to  boiler-makers,  pipe- 
fitters, copper,  and  iron  workers. 

Manufacture  of  Boots  and  Shoes.  The  manu- 
facturers of  boots  and  shoes  obtain  their  raw 
material  from  the  leather  tanneries  north  of  the 
Ohio  River.  As  early  as  1850,  New  Orleans 
manufactured  nearly  all  the  shoes  used  in  the 
city  and  surrounding  country.  These  shoes  were 
then  custom-made,  but  for  many  years  modern 
machinery  has  been  used. 

Manufacture  of  Ice.  Ice  was  introduced  into 
New  Orleans  in  1826,  and  was  regarded  as  a 
luxury.  It  came  from 
Maine  in  sailing  vessels, 
and,  as  a  large  part  of  the 
cargo  was  lost  in  the  long 
voyage,  the  remainder 
commanded  a  high  price. 
The  supply  was  uncer- 
tain and  the  city  was  fre- 
quently without  ice  in 
the  hottest  months  of 
summer.  Gayarre  says, 
"The  first  cargo  of  ice 
was  dumped  into  the  Mississippi  River  by  the 
order  of  Mayor  Macarty,  who,  backed  by  public 
opinion,  declared  that  iced  drinks  would  make 
consumptives  of  the  people."  The  importation 
continued  until  1868,  when  the  manufactories  of 
artificial  ice  drove  out  the  New  England  product. 
The  process,  at  first,  was  very  expensive,  but 
since  1898  has  been  improved  and  simplified. 
At  present,  there  are  many  splendid  ice  plants, 
and  the  manufactured  product  is  so  cheap,  that 
it  is  within  the  reach  of  the  poorest  families. 

Cotton  Seed  Oil  Industry.  The  cotton  seed 
oil  industry  owes  its  origin  to  New  Orleans,  be- 
cause the  process  of  manufacturing  oil  from  the 
seed  was  discovered  here.  It  has  always  been 
the  center  of  this  industry,  and  many  of  the 
mills  in  the  surrounding  country  manufacture 
crude  oil  and  ship  it  to  New  Orleans  to  be  re- 
fined. Outgrowths  of  this  industry  are  the  soap 
mills,  fertilizers,    and    acid    factories.     Large 


OTIS  MAHOGANY  PLANT, 


90 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


quantities  of  this  oil  are  shipped  to  Southern 
Europe.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
lard  in  the  Western  packing  houses.  The  mills 
manufacture  cotton-seed  cake  and  meal,  which 
are  excellent  as  a  food  for  cattle.  Thousands  of 
tons  are  exported  to  Europe  each  year  for  feed- 
ing stock.  These  by-products  enter  into  the 
manufacture  of  nearly  all  the  commercial  fertil- 
izers now  produced  in  the  South. 

Manufacture  of  Beer.  The  manufacture  of 
beer  is  one  of  the  more  recent  industries,  the  first 
company  being  organized  in  1882. 

Canning  Factories.  Canning  is  the  greatest 
utility  industry  of  the  age.  Were  it  not  for  the 
canneries,  our  present  great  centers  must  need 
have  been  small  cities — for  the  good  reason  that 
a  great  city  could  not  be  fed  without  the  help  of 
canneid  goods.  It  is  estimated  that  50  per  cent 
of  all  the  fruits  and  vegetables  in  the  United 
States  would  go  to  waste  except  for  the  can- 
neries. It  is  possible  to  save  the  over-produc- 
tion of  a  good  year  for  the  famine  that  may  come 
another,  proving  that  the  industry  is  a  mighty 
economy  and  the  largest  conserver  of  foods  ever 
discovered.  The  canneries  in  and  near  New  Or- 
leans buy  many  of  their  fish,  vegetables,  and 
fruits,  etc.,  in  the  New  Orleans  markets.  New 
Orleans,  as  a  distributing  point  for  the  can- 
neries, sends  canned  goods  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  Europe.  Thousands 
of  cans  of  dried  shrimp  are  sent  annually  to 
China,  where  they  are  considered  a  great  table 
delicacy. 

The  Future  of  New  Orleans.  New  Orleans, 
the  second  largest  seaport  in  the  country,  is 
destined  to  become  a  great  manufacturing- 
center.  The  mighty  Mississippi,  on  which  ply 
manj^  steamboats,  the  steamship  lines,  the  barge 


lines  through  canals,  and  the  eleven  trunk  lines 
that  have  their  terminals  here,  afford  the  manu- 
facturer every  facility.  The  Public  Belt  Line, 
owned  and  operated  by  the  city,  has  over  twenty- 
eight  miles  of  trackage,  crossing  every  railroad, 
and  covering  a  greater  portion  of  the  water 
front,  giving  direct  touch  to  the  steamboats  and 
the  steamships.  As  a  center  of  distribution. 
New  Orleans  cannot  be  excelled.  Skilled  labor 
is  plentiful,  and  the  Immigration  Station  is  now 
receiving  large  numbers  of  northern  Europeans. 
Many  of  these  are  efficient  laborers,  anxious  to 
secure  employment.  The  maintenance  of  a  fac- 
tory is  not  expensive,  as  coal  and  fuel  oil  can  be 
obtained  at  moderate  prices.  Electricity  for 
power  made  by  the  plants  in  New  Orleans  is 
often  used,  being  more  economical  in  some  cases. 
Wood,  if  necessary,  can  be  obtained  from  the 
yellow  pine  and  cypress  mills,  from  waste  in  the 
furniture  factories,  and  also  from  cord  wood 
obtained  in  the  nearby  yellow  pine  forests.  The 
location  of  New  Orleans  gives  a  delightful 
equability  of  temperature  and  there  are  few 
days  in  winter,  when  factory  doors  cannot  be 
opened. 

The  advancement  of  New  Orleans  in  the  last 
few  years  is  due  to  the  men  who  realize  the  pos- 
sibilities of  their  city,  and  have  succeeded  in 
putting  it  in  the  front  rank,  where  it  rightfully 
belongs.  To  the  future  citizens  of  New  Orleans 
will  be  given  the  task  of  keeping  up  this  great 
work  of  civic  advancement. 

TOPICS:  Early  History  of  Manufacture;  New  Orleans  in 
1914;  New  Orleans  as  a  Manufacturing  Center;  Mahog- 
any, Ebony,  Eosewood;  Manufacture  of  Furniture; 
Copper  and-  Brass  Works;  Boots  and  Shoes;  lee;  Cotton 
Seed  Oil  Industry;  Canning  Factories;  The  Future' of 
New  Orleans. 

REFERENCES:  Archives  of  City  Hall  and  Cabildo; 
Pamphlets  of  the  Association  of  Commerce. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Foodstuffs. 


SECTION  1.    TRUCK  FARMING. 


Development  of  the  Truck  Farm  in  Lou- 
isiana. On  account  of  the  semi-tropical  climate 
of  tlie  state  and  the  varied  altitudes,  from  the 
high  hills  of  northern  Louisiana,  the  foothills  of 
the  Ozark  Mountains,  to  the  alluvial  soil  of  the 
lowlands  along  the  network  of  prairies  and 
bayous,  Louisiana  is  enabled  to  produce  a  greater 
variety  of  fruit  and  vegetables  than  any  other 
state  in  the  Union.  Fifty  years  ago,  there  was 
little  truck  raised  around  New  Orleans  and 
most  of  it  was  consumed  locally,  because  the 
methods  of  packing  and  shipping  were  crude. 
The  first  shipment  of  truck  from  New  Orleans  to 
the  North  was  about  1866,  being  sent  by  boat  to 
Memphis  and  St.  Louis.  When  the  railroads 
and  express  companies  furnished  adequate  facil- 
ities for  forwarding  shipments  to  northern  and 
western  markets,  truck  farms  sprang  up  like 
mushrooms.  Though  the  methods  of  handling  and 
packing  were  poor,  the  farmers  made  a  great 
deal  of  money,  and  New  Orleans  soon  became  the 
center  of  an  intensive  agriculture.  There  were  no 
refrigerator  cars,  ice  factories,  or  box  factories. 
About  thirty-five  years  ago,  ship- 
pers began  using  refrigerator 
cars,  and  box  factories  were  built 
to  supply  the  containers  for  these 
products.  Up  to  that  time,  many 
used  second-hand  sugar  barrels, 
cutting  holes  in  them  for  ventila- 
tion. This  was  unsatisfactory,  as 
the  vegetables  often  reached  their 
destination  in  an  unsalable  con- 
dition. About  twenty-five  years 
ago,  shippers  began  to  use  ice  on 
vegetables  packed  in  barrels,  and 
this  is  still  practiced.  This  busi- 
ness has  increased  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  there  are  now  several  ice 
companies  and  cooperages  that 
supply  ice  and  bai'rels  to  the  ship- 
pers. Methods  of  barreling  and 
packing    are    so    improved    that 


vegetables  sent  great  distances,  reach  their  des- 
tination in  perfect  condition.  In  1914,  New  Or- 
leans sent  out  about  1,300  carloads  of  truck. 

Change  from  Plantation  System  to  Truck 
Farming..  For  many  years,  vast  plantations 
were  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  sugar, 
and  rice,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  products. 
These  plantations  were  expensive  to  maintain, 
and  often  an  overflow  would  leave  a  rich  man 
bankrupt.  Of  late  years,  however,  conditions 
have  changed,  and  many  of  these  large  planta- 
tions have  been  cut  up  into  truck  farms;  this  has 
so  increased  the  trucking  industry,  that  to-day 
it  is  valued  at  millions  of  dollars  annually,  and 
is  growing  in  importance  each  year.  The  result 
is  greater  prosperity  to  many. 

Principal  Trucking  Sections.  In  trucking, 
so  increased  the  trucking  industry,  that  to-day, 
ductivity,  it  being  possible  to  raise  four  crops 
of  vegetables  on  the  same  land  in  the  same  year, 
without  any  fertilization.  These  vegetables  com- 
mand a  higher  price  than  those  of  any  other 
parish,  on  account  of  its  contiguity  to  the  City 


PRODUCTS  OF  A  TRUCK  FARM  ON  RECLAIMED  LAND. 


92 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


of  New  Orleans,  whose  railroads  lead  to  the 
great  centers  of  the  country.  Plaquemines  and 
Jefferson  Parishes,  as  well  as  St.  Bernard  Parish, 
furnish  the  city  with  vast  supplies  for  home  con- 
sumption and  for  shipment.  Among  the  latter 
are  lettuce,  cabbages,  onions,  tomatoes,  beans, 
peas,  eggi^lants,  spinach,  radishes,  carrots,  shal- 
lots, and  kohlrabi.  Cucumbers  are  grown  in  hot- 
beds and  in  the  open,  and,  when  sent  North, 
bring  good  prices. 

Products  of  the  Louisiana  Truck  Farm.  Few 
are  aware  of  the  extent  of  the  commercial  truck 
sections  in  Louisiana.  Along  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral, which  leads  from  New  Orleans,  are  farms 
on  which  are  grown  beans,  cucumbers,  canta- 
loupes, cabbages,  eggplants,  sweet-peppers,  to- 
matoes, and  potatoes.  Not  only  do  these,  and 
most  of  the  vegetables  raised  in  the  northern 
states  grow  well  here,  but  there  are  many  others 
which  belong  peculiarly  to  the  South,  as  okra, 
lima  beans,  and  globe  artichokes.  Such  vege- 
tables as  lettuce  and  turnips  are  often  raised  in 
kitchen  gardens  without  any  trouble  to  the 
householder.  Mustard,  cauliflower,  and  English 
peas  gi'ow  throughout  the  winter.     Oats,  rye, 


and  barley  make  very  profitable  crops,  while, 
owing  to  the  extreme  fertility  of  the  soil,  many 
kinds  of  grasses,  valuable  as  cattle  feed,  may  be 
harvested  at  a  great  profit.  The  cities  and  towns 
are  cooperating  with  the  country  districts  in  a 
widespread  movement  for  the  improvement  of 
farm  lands,  and  the  introduction  of  modern 
methods  of  farming. 

School  Grardening.  The  school  garden,  as 
well  as  the  home  garden,  can  direct  attention  to 
the  advantages  of  the  cultivation  of  the  soil;  for 
gardening  is  applied  nature  study.  Economists 
teach  that  a  greater  production  of  foodstuffs  is 
imperative.  Gardens  near  to  or  within  the  city 
are  a  possible  means  of  obtaining  this  result. 
If  the  public  schools  are  to  adapt  themselves  to' 
the  needs  of  the  children,  an  occupation  based 
on  human  welfare  should  be  a  subject  of  instruc- 
tion. The  tilling  of  the  soil  is  a  fundamental  neces- 
sity. In  1914,  The  Nature  Study  Club  of  the  Nor- 
mal School  decided  to  try  to  promote  interest  in 
■  gardening  by  conducting  a  school  garden  contest. 
A  highly  creditable  exhibit  was  made  by  several 
schools.  This  so  encouraged  the  Club  that  it  de- 
termined to  carry  on  the  work  in  a  broader  way. 


SECTION  2.    FRUITS. 


Different  kinds  of  soil  produce  different 
kinds  of  fruit.  Louisiana,  having  such  a  varied 
soil,  naturally  admits  of  the  cultivation  of  a 
great  variety  of  fruit.  There  are  some  fruits, 
however,  which  grow  in  all  sections  of  the  state. 
Among  these  are  the  strawberry,  blackberry, 
dewberry,  sand  pear,  and  fig.  The  last  men- 
tioned, being  so  perishable,  must  be  canned  be- 
fore it  is  shipped.  On  account  of  this,  few  per- 
sons outside  of  the  fig-growing  section,  are 
familiar  with  the  delicious  flavor  of  the  fresh 
fruit.  Many  varieties  of  plum  are  raised,  and 
the  Japanese  persimmon  bears  well.  Grrapes 
succeed  best  in  the  uplands.  Bananas  may  be 
grown  on  Louisiana  soil,  but  are  not  cultivated 
to  any  extent.  New  Orleans  does  a  thriving 
business  in  importing  bananas  from  the  tropics 
and  sending  them  to  all  parts  of  the  Union. 

The  apple  represents  the  greatest  undevel- 
oped industry  in  the  United  States.  A  cold 
storage  and  ice  refrigerating  plant  has  been 
established  in  New  Orleans  with  the  view  of 
making  this  port  the  greatest  distributing 
center  for   the   shipment   of   apples   to   South 


and  Central  America,  and  through  the  Panama 
Canal. 

The  Strawberry  Industry.  In  Tangipahoa 
Parish,  are  immense  strawberry  farms,  that  have 
a  world-wide  fame.  The  annual  shipment  of 
this  berry  amounts  to  millions  of  dollars,  from 
a  district  which,  thirty  years  ago,  was  an  in- 
definable forest. 

History  of  the  Citrus  Fruits.  .  Centuries  ago, 
there  grew  in  the  wilds  of  southeastern  Asia  and 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  a  ragged  shrulj,  which 
produced  a  small  berry  full  of  seeds  and  bitter- 
ness. After  many  generations  of  patient  culti- 
vation and  innumerable  experiments,  there  have 
been  evolved  from  this  humble  beginning,  the 
monarchs  of  the  fruit  kingdom,  the  orange,  the 
grape-fruit,  and  their  satellites.  China  is  the 
original  home  of  the  orange. 

The  Citrus  Fruits  in  Louisiana.  The  rich, 
alluvial  lands  of  Southern  Louisiana  are  the 
most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  citrus 
fruits,  which  are  the  orange,  the  mandarin,  the 
grape-fruit,  the  lemon,  and  the  kumquat.  It  is 
impossible  to  ascertain  in  what  year  these  fruits 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


93 


were  introduced  into  Louisiana,  but  it  is  gener- 
ally accepted  that  oranges  were  first  brought  to 
New  Orleans  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  in  1727. 
Later,  seedling  oranges  became  plentiful  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  State. 

First  Louisiajia  Orajige  Grove.  The  first  Lou- 
isiana orange  grove,  of  which  there  is  any  record, 
was  planted  by  Florentine  Buras  in  1860,  and 
traces  of  this  place  still  remain.  About  1867,  an 


and  afford  a  livelihood  for  a  large  number  of 
people. 

Life  of  the  Citrus  Tree.  The  citrus  trees  live 
to  a  great  age.  Trunks  of  large  trees  which  have 
been  lying  for  ballast  in  the  holds  of  vessels, 
have,  when  j)lanted  and  properly  tended,  taken 
root  and  renewed  their  lives. 

Medicinal  Virtues.  The  orange  has  many 
medicinal  virtues,  and  the  Creole  mothers  have 


ORANGE  GROVE. 


orange  grove  of  125,000  seedling  trees  was 
planted  fifty  miles  below  New  Orleans,  and  for 
some  years  was  operated  on  a  large  scale,  al- 
though modei'n  horticultural  methods  were  un- 
known. The  grove  is  at  present  being  culti- 
vated in  a  small  way.  The  numerous  commer- 
cial orange  groves  located  in  the  district  below 
New  Orleans,  cover  from  5,000  to  7,000  acres 


always  recognized  orange-flower  water  as  a 
remedy  for  fevers.  In  recent  operations  in  the 
Brooklyn  Navy  Hospital,  the  Essence  of  Oranges 
was  used  as  an  anaesthetic  in  conjimction  with 
ether.  This  was  so  satisfactory  that  physicians 
loredict  its  adoption  for  both  Navy  and  Army, 
as  it  is  much  safer  and  less  costly  than  the  use 
of  ether  alone. 


SECTIONS.    FISH. 


Fisheries.  The  principal  fish  resources  of 
the  state  are  the  large  fresh-water  fish  such  as 
spoon-bill  cat,  buffalo  fish,  and  catfish,  which 
are  usually  brought  into  New  Orleans  by  ex- 
press, packed  in  barrels  with  ice.  The  salt  water 
fish  such  as  sheephead,  sea  trout,  pompano, 
Spanish  mackerel,  red  fish,  etc.,  are  found  along 
the  Gulf  Coast  from  the  Pearl  to  the  Sabine 
Rivers,   and   are   brought  to  New  Orleans  by 


schooners  and  luggers.  New  Orleans  also  buys 
salt  water  fish  from  Mississippi  and  Florida.  All 
fish  are  bought  by  wholesale  dealers,  who  sell  to 
the  markets.  Some  firms  handle  both  salt  and 
fresh  water  fish,  while  others  only  the  former. 
The  fresh  water  fisheries  are  valued  at  $2,000,000 
annually,  and  the  value  of  fish  received  in  New 
Orleans  amounts  to  several  hundred  thousand 
dollars.    River  shrimp  is  considered  a  delicacy. 


94 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


Salt  water  shrimi:)  are  usually  brought  to 
New  Orleans  in  the  same  manner  as  salt  water 
fish,  but  some  of  the  shrimp  fishermen  are  now 
using  power  boats.  Most  of  these  shipments 
are  well  iced,  unless  the  weather  is  such  as 
to  make  this  unnecessary.  The  annual  shrimp 
catch  is  valued  at  not  less  than  half  a  million 
dollars.    Seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  product 


is  canned  in  the  canneries  in  New  Orleans 
atfd  along  the  Gulf  Coast.  There  are  several 
colonies  of  Chinese  in  Barataria  Bay,  whose 
chief  occupation  is  the  drying  of  shrimp.  The 
largest  platform  is  "Manila  Village,"  the 
shrimpers,  however,  being  a  mixed  popula- 
tion, representing  almost  every  country  of 
the  globe. 


SECTION  4.    OYSTER  INDUSTRY. 


Oyster  Resources.  The  oyster  industry  of 
Louisiana,  at  present,  is  dependent  on  60,000 
acres  of  natural  reefs  on  which  oysters  are 
found  growing  freely  without  any  cultivation; 
and  on  about  20,000  acres  df  leased  bottoms,  on 
which  special  methods  are  used  by  the  lease- 
holder in  order  to  promote  the  growth  of  oysters. 

Method  of  Oyster  Cultivation.  The  method 
of  oyster  cultivation  is  to  provide  a  surface  to 
which  young  oysters  or  spats  may  attach  them- 
selves. If  such  a  surface  is  established  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  natural  reef,  the  spats  from 
the   latter   will   become   attached   to   the  new 


location  and  grow  there.  Otherwise,  seed  oysters 
must  be  placed  where  the  new  bed  or  reef  is  to 
be  formed,  so  that  in  the  spawning  season,  a 
supply  of  spats  will  be  provided  for  the  stocking 
of  the  new  bed.  Oyster  shells  and  other  hard 
substances,  called  "cultch,"  are  the  materials 
used  in  making  a  new  oyster  bed. 

Value  of  the  Oyster  Industry.  The  oyster  in- 
dustry is  value  at  about  $5,000,000.  New  Or- 
leans receives  annually  about  250,000  barrels, 
worth  about  $560,000.  Oysters  are  brought 
generally  in  sacks  by  lugger  and  other  craft. 
Small  shipments,  however,  of  opened  oysters 


LOADIVG  OYSTERS  ON  A  TRANSPORT. 


— Courtesy  of  the  Conservation  Commissiou. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


95 


in  containers,  are  also  received.  Oysters  are 
bought  principally  by  wholesale  dealers,  who 
sell  to  the  local  markets  and  ship  to  other 
points. 

Small  shops  sometimes  buy  from  the  oyster- 
men  of  St.  Bernard  Parish.  Counter  oysters 
come  from  the  Bayou  Cook  district  in  Plaque- 
mines Parish,  and  cooking  oysters  from  the 
Timbalier  field  in  Lafourche  Parish. 


It  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  the  best  oyster 
gi'ound.  Some  sections  are  better  at  one  season 
and  others  at  another,  everything  depending  on 
the  condition  of  the  water,  especially  the  degree 
of  salinity.  The  Timbalier  territory  promises 
to  be  one  of  the  leading  sections  in  a  few  years. 
Fine  oysters  come  from  Bayou  Chaland,  but  the 
supply  is  limited,  as  they  do  not  multiply  rapidly 
on  these  beds. 


SECTIONS.    GAME— BIRDS. 


As  a  duck  ground  in  winter,  the  coastal  sec- 
tion of  Louisiana  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
in  America.  About  fifteen  species  of  duck  are 
present  in  more  or  less  abundance  during  the 
periods  of  migration,  in  late  fall  and  early 
spring  and  varying  periods  in  mid- winter.  The 
principal  species  are  the  mallard,  pin-tail,  grey 
duck,  teal,  canvas-back,  black,  and  lesser  scaup, 
or  "dos-gris";  six  species  of  geese,  including 
the  Canada  goose,  are  also  found.    Other  game 


birds  are  the  coot  or  "poule  d'eau,"  snipe,  wood- 
cock, and  rail.  The  upland  birds  are,  wild 
turkey,  quail,  and  dove. 

Game  reaches  New  Orleans  by  express. 
During  the  season  of  1913-1914,  the  game  deal- 
ers of  this  city  received  more  than  200,000  ducks, 
geese,  snipe,  and  poule  d'eau,  the  value  of  which 
exceeded  $100,000. 

Note. — See  bird  exhibit  at  Louisiana  State  Museum. 


SECTION  6.    GAME— ANIMALS. 


The  i^rincipal  game  animal  is  the  Louisiana, 
or  white-tailed  deer,  which  is  found  in  well- 
wooded  sections.  The  sale  of  deer  is  pro- 
hibited by  the  laws  of  Louisiana.  Three 
species  of  hare  abound — the  Southern  cotton- 
tail, marsh  hare,  and  water  hare.  Few  native 
hares  or  "rabbits"  are  received  in  New  Or- 
leans. The  killing  of  these  animals  for  market- 
ing in  this  state  is  not  an  occupation  of  any  con- 
sequence. 

The  Conservation  Commission.  Eealizing 
the  value  of  the  fish  and  game  preserves  of  Lou- 
isiana, the  legislature  of  1912  established  a  Con- 


servation Commission  for  their  control  and  pro- 
tection. This  CoixQuission  has  its  offices  in  the 
New  Orleans  Court  Building  in  New  Orleans, 
and  has  varied  duties  and  powers.  It  has  armed 
patrols  on  the  boundary  lines  between  the  waters 
of  Louisiana  and  Mississippi  and  throughout  the 
state,  to  prevent  the  violation  of  any  of  these 
laws.  Their  officers  have  the  power  to  search 
or  examine  any  cold  storage,  warehouse,  boat, 
store,  conveyance,  or  fish  basket,  when  they  have 
cause  to  believe  that  the  law  of  protection  is 
being  violated.  The  State  of  Louisiana  has  over 
forty  species  of  mammals. 


SECTION  7.    FUR-BEARING  ANIMALS. 


The  State  of  Louisiana  is  particularly  rich 
in  fur-bearing  animals,  and  the  trapping  in- 
dustry has  reached  such  proportions  as  to 
make  it  a  resource  of  large  revenue  and 
means  of  livelihood  to  a  considerable  per- 
centage of  the  population  of  the  state.     The 


principal  fur-bearers  of  Louisiana,  from  which 
are  taken  about  five  million  pelts  a  year,  are 
otter,  mink,  muskrat,  raccoon,  opossum,  skunk, 
fox,  wolf,  beaver,  and  civet-cat.  In  1913,  the 
trappers  of  the  state  earned  $1,305,000  by  their 
work.. 


96 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


SECTION  8.    MEATS. 


In  no  state  of  the  Union  can  live  stock  be 
more  easily  raised  than  in  Louisiana,  and  many 
farmers  are  turning  their  attention  to  this  in- 
dustry. Cattle  are  fattened,  not  only  on  ample 
pasturage  and  forage  crops,  but  also  on  the 
cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls,  rice  bran,  polish,  and 
shorts  from  the  rice  mills,  and  cheap  molasses 
from  the  sugar  factories.  Thousands  of  these 
cattle  are  shipped  annually  to  the  Northern  and 
Western  markets.  Sheep-raising  is  carried  on 
very  profitably, — the  cut-over  pine  lands  afford- 
ing splendid  ranges.  Hogs  are  easily  raised, 
and  great  interest  is  now  being  manifested  in 
this  kind  of  farming. 

The  Abattoir  Companies.  There  are  two 
large  slaughter-houses  from  which  the  people  of 
New  Orleans  obtain  their  supply  of  meat.  The 
live  stock  reaches  the  yards  by  rail  when  shipped 
from  points  in  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama, 
Arkansas,  and  Tennessee.  Stock  shipped  from 
points  on  the  east  side  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver 
is  transferred  by  boat  from  the  railroad  ter- 
minals. 

How  Purchased.  All  live  stock  is  consigned 
to  commission  merchants,  whose  offices  are 
located  on  the  stockyard  grounds,  and  who,  here 
sell  direct  to  the  butchers.  The  slaughtering  is 
done  by  the  abattoir  companies,  and  the  beef, 
veal,  pork,  and  mutton  are  stored  in  refriger- 
ators until  called  for  by  the  butchers. 

Inspection  —  Slaughtering.  Before  being 
slaughtered,  all  stock  is  examined  by  inspectors 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  of  the  United 
States  Government.     After  being  killed,  they 


are  dressed  and  are  ready  for  the  refrigerators. 
While  they  are  being  dressed,  inspection  is  made 
by  a  representative  of  the  City  Board  of  Health 
and  by  a  United  States  inspector.  All  carcasses 
found  unfit  for  food  are  condemned  and  tanked 
for  by-products — grease,  tallow,  and  fertilizer, — 
which  are  manufactured  by  the  company. 

Refrigerators.  The  refrigerators  are  of  the 
direct  expansion  system  and  are  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature from  30°  to  35°  Fahrenheit.  The  meat, 
as  a  rule,  remains  in  the  cooler  from  three  to 
twenty  days,  according  to  the  size  and  quality. 

Means  of  Delivery.  The  meat  is  delivered  by 
means  of  wagons  and  auto  trucks  ( owned  by  the 
slaughter-house  company)  between  the  hours  of 
12M  and  6  A.  M. 

Western  Packing  House.  Four  large  branches 
of  Western  packing  companies  are  located  in 
New  Orleans,  and  do  an  immense  wholesale  busi- 
ness with  markets,  hotels,  and  steamships.  The 
meat  is  sent  here  in  refrigerator  cars,  having 
had  both  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspec- 
tion. It  is  inspected  here  by  the  city  and  the 
United  States  inspectors. 

TOPICS:  History  of  Trucking;  Sources  of  the  New  Orleans 
Supply;  Co-Operation  of  the  City  and  the  Country  Dis- 
tricts. 

Louisiana  Fruits;  Strawberry  Industry;  History  of 
the  Citrus  Fruits;  Louisiana  Orange  Groves. 

Fisheries;  Oyster  Eesourees;  Oyster  Cultivation; 
Value  of  the  Oyster  Industry. 

Game-Birds  and  Animals;  The  Conservation  Com- 
mission. 

The  Live  Stock  of  Louisiana;  The  Abattoir  Com- 
panies;  Western  Packing  Houses. 

EEFERENCES:  Agricultural  Report  of  February,  1914; 
Eeport  of  Conservation  Commission,  April,  1914;  News- 
paper Files. 


CHAPTER  X. 


Professions — Trades. 


SECTION  1.    THE  BENCH  AND  BAR. 


Louisiana  Laws.  The  Louisiana  laws  are 
all  that  is  best  of  two  great  systems  built  up  by 
the  genius  of  man  and  tested  by  the  experience 
of  generations.  Their  fundamental  principles 
approach  as  near  the  ideal  as  possible,  for  they 
are  a  texture  composed  of  the  best  material  from 
both  the  Common  and  the  Eoman  Civil  Laws. 
The  Common  Law  of  England  inspires  men  with 
the  knowledge  that  the  power  of  government 
must  never  overshadow  the  rights  of  man.  The 
Civil  Law  of  Rome,  modified  by  the  noblest 
thoughts  of  France  and  Spain,  teaches  that  the 
lasting  foundation  for  right  and  justice  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Golden  Rule.  The  Civil  Law  will 
always  receive  the  homage  of  scholars  as  a  sin- 
gular monument  of  wisdom. 

Early  History.  In  the  early  days  of  Amer- 
ican domination,  it  was  a  question  whether  the 
laws  of  Louisiana  were  the  laws  of  France  or  of 
Spain.  Until  1769,  when  Don  O'Reilly  took 
possession  of  the  colony,  the  laws  were  those  of 
France,  but  he  issued  an  edict  proclaiming  the 
laws  of  Spain.  After  the  cession  to  the  United 
States,  the  question  arose  as  to  whether  this 
edict  had  repealed  the  laws  of  France.  This 
point  has  never  been  settled,  but  as  both  systems 
took  their  origin  from  the  same  source,  the 
dilf'erence  was  not  great. 

The  Courts  After  the  Cession.  For  a  long 
while  after  the  cession  of  Louisiana,  it  was  an 
absolute  necessity  for  the  judges  to  understand 
both  the  French  and  the  English  language.  In 
every  court,  there  was  a  permanently  employed 
interpreter,  who  translated  the  evidence,  and, 
when  necessary,  the  charge  of  the  judge  to  the 
jury.  The  juries  were  composed  of  men,  some 
of  whom  did  not  understand  one  word  of  French, 
while  others  were  equally  as  ignorant  of  En- 
glish, The  litigants  had  to  employ  two  lawyers, 
one  speaking  French  and  the  other  English.  All 
writs  were  in  both  languages.  Trial  by  jury  was 
new  to  the  Louisianians.  While  the  American 
lawyers  were  speaking,    the   French   jurymen 


were  excused.  The  English-speaking  members 
were,  in  turn,  excused  to  enjoy  their  cigars  and 
promenade  in  the  arcades.  After  the  argument, 
the  jury  met  in  their  chamber  to  decide  the  case, 
and  in  most  instances  came  to  a  satisfactory 
agreement. 

The  Code  of  1808  and  1825.  The  original 
Code  of  1808  was  founded  on  the  projet  of  the 
Code  Napoleon.  The  Code  of  1825  was  revised 
in  1870,  and  is  the  pi-esent  Louisiana  Civil  Code. 
Many  of  its  articles  are  but  translations  of  that 
Code,  but  there  are  amendments  by  different 
legislatures  to  many  parts  of  it.  An  act  of  1828 
abolished  the  Roman,  French,  and  Spanish  laws 
that  were  not  reprinted  in  the  Code  of  1825. 

Distinguished  Jurists  and  Lawyers.  The 
Bench  and  Bar  have  always  stood  deservedly 
high,  but  it  would  far  exceed  the  limits  of  this 
chapter  to  attempt  to  record  the  individual 
achievements  of  all  the  jurists  and  lawyers  who 
have  left  the  impress  of  their  worth  on  every 
page  of  the  statutes  and  in  every  volume  of  the 
law  reports.  The  sons  of  Louisiana  thrill  with 
pride  when  they  hear  the  names  of  Francois  A. 
Martin,  John  R.  Grymes,  Edward  Livingston, 
Alfred  Hennen,  Christian  Roselius,  Pierre  Soule, 
Etienne  Mazureau,  Judali  P.  Benjamin,  Thomas 
J.  Semmes,  and  Ernest  B.  Kruttsclmitt. 

Frangois  X.  Martin.  Genius  such  as  his  re- 
quires neither  brass  nor  stone  to  preserve  his 
memory,  for  he  built  for  himself  an  imperishable 
monument  in  the  jurisprudence  of  the  state.  He 
was  the  first  Attorney-General  and  a  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  for  thirty-one  years.  The 
legal  reputation  of  Louisiana  was  founded  on 
the  genius  of  Judge  Martin,  whose  decisions 
were  able  and  authoritative  and  read  like  the 
Code.  Judge  Martin  left  a  large  fortune.  He 
became  blind  about  eight  years  before  his  death. 
His  will  was  contested  on  the  ground  that  a 
blind  man  could  not  make  a  valid  olographic 
will.  The  Supreme  Court,  however,  upheld  the 
will,  which  left  his  estate  to  his  brother, 


98 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


John  R.  Grymes.  John  Randolph  Grymes 
came  to  New  Orleans  not  long  before  the  Battle 
of  New  Orleans,  in  which  he  served  as  an  aide 
to  General  Jackson.  In  the  latter 's  dispatches 
to  "Washington,  the  name  of  John  R.  Grymes  was 
mentioned  in  complimentary  terms.  Colonel 
Gr^nnes  was  counsel  for  General  Jackson  in  the 
United  States  Bank  case.  He  was  opposed  to 
Daniel  Webster  in  the  Gaines  case.  He  was  also 
attorney  for  the  Baratarian  pirates.  On  one 
occasion  he  went  to  their  lair  on  the  Gnlf  Coast 
to  collect  his  fee.  He  remained  for  a  week,  and 
said  his  stay  was  most  enjoyable. 

Edward  Livingston.  Edward  Livingston 
arrived  in  New  Orleans  in  1804,  just  after  his 
brother  Robert  had  completed  negotiations  for 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  He  was  a  profound 
jurist  and  an  accomplished  scholar.  He  repre- 
sented Louisiana  in  the  Senate,  was  Secretary 
of  State  under  General  Jackson,  and  Minister 
to  France. 

Alfred  Hennen.  Alfred  Hennen  was  one  of 
the  most  distingaiished  lawyers  of  the  first  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  came  to  New  Or- 
leans in  1808.  Many  members  of  the  bar  re- 
ceived their  legal  education  in  the  office  of 
Alfred  Hennen,  or  attended  his  lectures  at  the 
Law  School. 

Christian  Roselius.  Christian  Roselius  came 
to  New  Orleans  in  1819  as  a  "redemptioner," 
that  is,  he  hired  his  services  for  a  stated  period 
in  payment  for  his  transportation.  Mr.  Roselius 
was  first  a  printer,  but 
later  studied  law  and 
gradually  rose  to  promi- 
nence, becoming  Attorney- 
General  of  the  State.  His 
legal  reputation  was  so 
great  that  he  was  oifered 
a  partnership  by  Daniel 
Webster,  which  he  de- 
clined. It  is  said  he  pos- 
sessed a  voice  of  immense 
volume  and  great  carrying- 
power. 

Judah  P.  Benjamin. 
Judah  P.  Benjamin  studied 
law  in  New  Orleans  in  a 
notary's  office  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1832. 
At  first,  he  met  with  small 
success  and  devoted  him- 
self to   teaching,   mean- 


while, keeping  up  his  legal  studies  by  taking 
notes  from  the  law  reports.  He  finally  estab- 
lished a  good  practice,  and  about  1847,  his  repu- 
tation became  national.  Louisiana  histories  tell 
of  his  brilliant  career  before  and  during  the 
Civil  War.  Northern  writers  speak  of  him  as 
the  ' '  brains  of  the  Confederacy. ' '  After  the  war 
was  over,  Benjamin  escaped  to  England  through 
perils  enough  to  make  a  romance.  He  read  for 
the  English  bar  and  was  admitted  to  practice  in 
1866,  supporting  himself,  meanwhile,  by  news- 
paper writing.  It  was  only  after  his  "Book  on 
Sales"  appeared  that  his  reputation  as  a  lawyer 
became  established.  When  he  retired  in  1888, 
he  was  one  of  the  greatest  lawyers  of  England. 

Thomas  J.  Semmes.  Thomas  J.  Semmes,  a 
brother  of  Admiral  Raphael  Semmes,  is  a  name 
familiar  to  every  Orleanian.  He  was  Attorney- 
General  of  Louisiana,  and  a  Confederate  State 
Senator.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he  resumed 
practice  in  New  Orleans,  and  soon  became  the 
undisputed  head  of  the  Louisiana  bar,  rankiiig 
among  the  greatest  lawyers  of  his  own  or  of  any 
other  time.  He  was  the  very-  incarnation  of  legal 
learning,  and  intellectually  a  giant  before  whom 
few  could  stand. 

Ernest  B.  Kruttschuitt.  Ernest  Benjamin 
Kruttschnitt,  a  nephew  of  Judah  P.  Benjamin, 
was  born  in  New  Orleans,  April  17,  1852,  and 
died  on  his  birthday,  at  fifty-four  years  of  age. 
Mr.  Kruttschnitt  entered  Washington  and  Lee 
College  at  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  graduated 


m:w  okleaxs  court  building. 

— Courtesy  of  Southern  Pacific  R.  ^, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


99 


with  the  highest  honors  in  1870.  He  accepted 
the  chair  of  History  and  Literature  at  this 
university,  and  at  the  same  time  studied  law. 
He  returned  to  New  Orleans  in  1873  and  began 
the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  was  soon 
recognized  as  one  of  the  leading  lawyers.  His 
brilliancy  of  mind  and  executive  ability  made 
him  the  leader  of  the  Democratic  party.  His 
advice,  legal  and  otherwise,  was  usually  sought 
when  matters  of  great  moment  were  in  question. 
His  services  for  nineteen  and  a  half  years  as  a 
member  and  president  of  the  School  Board  were 
most  valuable.  He  was  the  moving  spirit  in  plac- 
ing the  school  work  on  a  civil  service  basis  and  in 
establishing  the  Board  as  a  business  corporation. 
He  was  president  of  the  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion of  1898,  and  guided  that  body  through  its 
strenuous  sessions.  His  life  is  written  in  the  laws 
of  Louisiana  and  in  its  historic  court  records. 
The  Bench  and  Bar  of  To-Day.    The  New 


Orleans  Bench  and  Bar  of  to-day  rank  among 
the  foremost  in  this  great  land,  and  many  of  its 
brilliant  members  have  compiled  editions  of  the 
Codes  and  Digests.  The  Louisiana  Law  Associ- 
ation, incorporated  in  1847,  was  reorganized  in 
1899,  and  its  name  changed  to  the  Louisiana  Bar 
Association.  In  the  thirty-seven  years  of  its  ex- 
istence, the  American  Bar  Association  has  three 
times  honored  Louisiana  with  the  presidency  of 
that  eminent  body.  A  Louisiana  lawyer  holds, 
through  merit,  the  exalted  office  of  Chief  Justice 
of  the  LTnited  States.  The  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Courts  are  required  by  law  to  belong  to  the  legal 
profession. 

TOPICS:  The  Louisiana  Laws;  Early  History';  The  Code  of 
1808  and  1825;  Distinguished  Jurists  and  Lawyers;  The 
Bench  and  Bar  of  To-Day. 

REFERENCES:  The  New  Orleans  Book  of  1851;  Foote's 
Bench  and  Bar  of  the  South  and  Southwest;  The  Amer- 
ican (after  1875,  Appleton's)  Annual  Encyclopedia, 
1861-1902. 


SECTION  2.     HISTORY  OF  MEDICINE. 


Tlie  demand  for  men  possessing  or  claiming 
to  possess  the  art  of^  healing  or  alleviating  the 
diseases  and  suffering  of  frail  humanity,  must 
have  been  coeval  with  the  appearance  of  man  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Indian  Medicine  Men.  In  America,  long  be- 
fore its  discovery  and  colonization  by  the  Euro- 
]ieans,  the  Indians  had  their  medicine  men.  The 
Natchez,  so  familiar  to  every  student  of  Lou- 
isiana history,  were  superior  to  the  tribes  that 
dwelt  around  them.  Their  physicians  claimed 
a  knowledge  of  more  than  three  hundred 
medicinal  plants  native  to  Louisiana  soil,  and 
taught  the  colonists  the  use  of  them.  The 
curative  powers  of  these  plants  so  impressed 
De  La  Chaise  that  he  sent  a  collection  of  them 
to  France,  with  a  memoir  written  by  La  Page 
du  Pratz.  The  Natchez  understood  the  art  of 
lilood-letting,  and  the  water  cure  was  familiar 
to  them.  It  is  to  these  Indians  that  the 
Louisianians  owe  their  acquaintance  with  the 
medicinal  qualities  of  sassafras,  sarsaparilla, 
and  maiden  hair.  They  discovered  the  balsam 
of  the  copal-tree  to  be  an  excellent  remedy  for 
fever,  and  astonished  the  French  by  their  rapid 
cures  of  the  most  dreadful  wounds  produced  by 
fire-arms.     Their  physicians  ranked  very  high 


and  were  looked  upon  as  inspired.  The  Natchez 
believed  that,  for  every  disease,  the  Great  Spirit 
had  provided  a  remedy  in  the  shape  of  a  plant, 
and,  if  supplicated  in  the  proper  manner,  would 
point  it  out  to  the  physician.  They  paid  most 
liberal  fees  to  the  physician  in  case  of  success, 
but  frequently  put  him  to  death  if  the  patient 
died,  believing  that  it  was  the  doctor's  fault  if 
he  did  not  find  the  remedy. 

Early  History  of  Medicine.  Very  little  is 
known  of  the  history  of  the  practice  of  medicine 
in  the  early  colonial  days,  as  the  documents  of 
public  interest  were  written  in  foreign  tongTies 
and  have  been  hopelessly  entombed  in  the 
archives  of  distant  lands.  Many  physicians  who 
came  to  this  colony  had  the  sole  object  of  acquir- 
ing a  fortune  and  then  returning  to  their  Euro- 
pean homes.  The  gradual  development  of  medi- 
cine in  New  Orleans  is  of  peculiar  interest.  The 
first  physicians,  who  came  with  Iberville,  were 
army  surgeons.  In  1722,  when  New  Orleans 
became  the  capital,  civilian  physicians  from 
various  parts  of  France  became  residents  of  the 
colony  and  were  the  first  to  establish  the  con- 
tract system  of  annual  payment.  When  Don 
O'Reilly  took  possession,  his  troops  were  pro- 
vided with  Spanish  army  surgeons.     Shortly 


100 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


after,  Spanish  pliysicians  came  to  the  colony, 
and,  like  the  Frenchmen,  entered  into  the  con- 
tract practice,  which  was  continued  long  after 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  This  contract  system 
has,  within  the  last  fifty  years,  been  almost 
superseded  by  the  "Mutual  Benevolent  Society" 
practice,  which  exists  to  this  very  day  in  New 
Orleans.  When  their  means  permitted  it,  the 
first  white  residents  of  New  Orleans  sent  their 
sons  to  Europe  to  acquire  an  education.  A 
number  of  them  studied  medicine  in  the  most 
celebrated  schools  and  returned  to  practice  in 
their  native  land.  Later,  some  of  the  sons  of 
Louisiana  attended  the  schools  of  the  East  to 
acquire  the  English  language,  and  while  there 
obtained  their  medical  education.  After  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana,  many  physicians  from 
other  states  and  from  various  European  coun- 
tries came  to  New  Orleans,  and  entered  perma- 
nently into  the  ranks  of  the  profession,  proving 
an  honor  to  it. 

The  First  Medical  College.  In  1834,  a  Medical 
College  was  founded  liy  Doctors  Luzenberg, 
Mackie,  Barton,  Htmt,  Cenas,  and  Harrison, 
these  talented  men  having  for  a  clinic  the  gTeat 
Charity  Hospital.  They  soon  rendered  it  un- 
necessary for  medical  students  to  visit  other 
states  and  foreign  lands  to  acquire  the  qualifica- 
tions and  title  of  Doctor  of  Medicine.  A  few 
years  previous  to  the  Civil  War,  the  New  Or- 
leans School  of  Medicine  entered  into  the  field 
of  education,  but  the  war  and  financial  troubles 
resulting  therefrom  caused  the  school  to  close 
after  a  short  but  brilliant  career.  During  the 
war,  many  of  the  physicians  proved  their 
patriotism  by  abandoning  their  practice  to 
follow  the  Confederate  Army  as  surgeons.  Their 
skill  and  the  success  of  their  operations  will 
never  be  forgotten  by  the  soldiers  who  wore  the 
gray.  The  alumni  of  the  schools  of  medicine  of 
New  Orleans  have  deservedly  obtained  such  a 
reputation,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  that  there 
is  no  longer  need  to  seek  outside  their  ranks  for 
professors  to  fill  any  vacancy  in  the  Medical 
Department  of  Tulane. 

The  Homeopathic  School.  The  School  of 
Hahnemann  has  been  represented  in  New  Or- 
leans since  18-H.  The  pioneer  was  Doctor  Taxile 
of  Toulon,  France.  Dr.  Jules  Matthieu  was  the 
first  American  member  of  this  school.  Doctor 
W.  H.  Holcombe  was  its  most  prominent  repre- 
sentative in  recent  years. 

Eminent  Physicians.    Physicians  of  the  past 


and  the  present  have  contended  with  the 
gigantic  forces  of  disease  and  devoted  their 
scientific  attainments  to  the  preservation  of  the 
health  of  the  community.  Pages  could  be  written 
of  their  noble  lives.  Doctor  C.  A.  Luzenberg 
came  to  New  Orleans  in  1829  and  revolutionized 
medical  practice  of  that  time  in  Louisiana. 
Doctor  Warren  Stone  was  the  first  physician  in 
New  Orleans  to  use  chloroform  for  the  allevia- 
tion of  human  suffering.  Doctor  T.  Gr.  Richard- 
son was  one  of  the  most  prominent  physicians  in 
New  Orleans.  He  served  as  surgeon  of  General 
Bragg 's  staff  during  the  Civil  War.  From  1865 
to  1885,  he  was  dean  of  the  medical  department 
of  Tulane  University.  After  his  death  in  1892, 
his  wife  erected  to  him  a  noble  memorial  in  the 
splendidly  fitted  medical  college  on  Canal  street. 
Doctor  Quitman  Kohnke  was  one  of  the  pioneers 
of  the  modern  doctrine  of  the  transmission  of 
yellow  fever  by  the  mosquito.  He  illustrated 
his  lectures  on  the  subject  by  lantern  slides. 
Had  his  labors  in  this  direction  received  fuller 
recognition  at  the  time,  the  experience  of  1905 
would  have  been  impossible.  He  lived  long 
enough  to  see  the  universal  acceptance  of  this 
doctrine,  and  quarantine  practice  modified  in 
obedience  to  its  teachings. 

Medical  Societies.  The  Orleans  Parish  Med- 
ical Society,  which  has  a  large  membership,  was 
organized  in  1878,  by  a  number  of  physicians 
who  were  desirous  of  affiliating  with  the  State 
and  National  Associations.  The  Pan-American 
.Medical  Society  was  organized  in  March,  1914, 
to  promote  a  high  standard  of  professional 
efficiency  and  to  develop  a  more  thorough  under- 
standing among  the  laity,  of  the  study  and 
knowledge  of  preventive  medicine. 

Medicine  To-Day.  To-day,  New  Orleans 
boasts  of  a  gi'eat  number  of  eminent  surgeons 
and  physicians,  whose  reputations  are  inter- 
national. Many  of  them  are  recognized  as 
authorities  on  medical  topics,  and  the  gold 
medal  for  the  greatest  achievement  in  scientific 
research  in  1913  was  awarded  to  a  New  Orleans 
physician. 

TOPICS:  Inilian  Medicine  Men;  Early  History  of  Medicine; 
Development  of  Medicine;  The  Homeopathic  School. 

REFERENCES:  Mumf ord 's  Narrative  of  Medicine  in 
America;  Parks 's  History  of  Medicine;  Dr.  Joseph 
.Jones's  Medical  and  Surgical  Memoirs;  J.  C.  Warren's 
History  of  Medical  Education  from  the  Most  Remote  to 
the  Most  Recent  Times;  American  Medical  Association 
Journals;  Department  of  Archives. 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


101 


SECTION  3.    BANKING. 


History  of  Banking.  Louisiana  owes  its 
foundation  to  a  bank,  the  Mississippi  Company, 
wliicli  was  tlie  Royal  Bank  of  France.  Tlie 
failure  of  John  Law's  scheme  caused  great 
financial  distress  among  the  colonists.  Banking 
in  Louisiana-  under  the  French  domination 
proved  a  failure,  but  after  the  transfer  to  Spain, 
the  system  somewhat  improved.  When  the 
United  States  took  possession  of  Louisiana,  Gov- 
ernor Claiborne,  recognizing  the  poor  financial 
conditions,  established  the  Louisiana  Bank  in 
1804.  Julian  Poydras  was  its  president  and 
John  McDonogh  a  director.  Two  banks  were 
established  in  1811.  One  of  these,  the  Louisiana 
Planters'  Bank,  was  organized  for  the  con- 
venience and  advancement  of  the  agricultural 
interests  of  the  Territory.  The  success  of  this 
plan  of  raising  money  for  the  development  of 
the  planting  interests  of  Louisiana  led  to  the 
formation  of  a  number  of  improvement  banks. 
Among  these  was  the  Gas  Company  Bank, 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  gas  into 
New  Orleans.  The  Canal  Bank  was  chartered 
for  the  construction  of  a  canal  in  the  American 
portion  of  the  city,  and  the  Carrollton  Bank  for 
the  building  of  the  New  Orleans  and  Carrollton 
street  railway.  The  Commercial  Bank  was  or- 
ganized for  the  purpose  of  providing  New  Or- 
leans with  waterworks.  The  Mechanics  and 
Traders '  Bank  was  formed  for  the  benefit  of  the 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  interests. 

When  the  panic  of  1837  struck  New  Orleans, 
fourteen  out  of  the  fifteen  banks  suspended 
specie  payment,  thereby  forfeiting  their  char- 
ters. In  1839,  the  Legislature,  recognizing  the 
fact  that  the  suspension  of  the  banks  was  due 
to  the  general  derangement  of  the  monetary 
system,  reinstated  them  in  their  charter  rights. 
Poor  financial  conditions  continued  until  1845.' 
The  banking  history  from  1845  until  1860  was 
devoid  of  incident.  In  1860,  Louisiana  stood 
fourth  in  banking  capital  and  second  in  specie 
holdings. 

During  the  Civil  War,  deposits  shrunk  and 
the  banks  had  to  accept  Confederate  notes.  Gen- 
eral B.  F.  Butler  insisted  that  the  banks  had 
violated  their  charter  by  suspending  specie  pay- 
ment, and  introducing  Confederate  notes  as  cur- 
rency.   During  his  and  Banks'  administration, 


there  were  frequent  quarrels  between  the  bank 
officials  and  the  military  authorities.  A  large 
number  of  claims  resulted,  and  much  litigation 
grew  out  of  them.  In  1877,  in  1893,  and  in  1907, 
New  Orleans  suffered  from  the  general  depressed 
conditions  of  the  money  market. 

The  New  Orleans  Clearing  House.  The  New 
Orleans  Clearing  House  was  organized  in  May, 
1872.  In  all  eases  of  financial  trouble,  the  Clear- 
ing House  has  proved  a  great  advantage  to  the 
banks  and  the  business  community,  for  its  cer- 
tificates are  accepted  everywhere,  thereby  re- 
lieving strained  financial  conditions. 

The  Present  Banking  System.  There  are 
now  twelve  banks  in  New  Orleans.  The  Whit- 
ney-Central leads  with  assets  of  $26,476,776.92. 
The  Hibernia  is  second  with  $20,981,244.13. 
The  oldest  bank  is  the  Canal  Bank  and  Trust 
Company,  established  in  1831.  It  went  into 
liquidation  in  1843,  but  reorganized  shortly 
afterwards. 

The  contribution  of  the  banking  business  to 
public  wealth  is  measured  by  the  facilities  it 
offers  for  the  transaction  of  business,  and  by  the 
extension  of  credit  in  various  forms.  As  a  rule, 
the  banks  are  required  to  keep  a  large  reserve. 
In  New  Orleans,  the  conditions  are  liberal,  the 
reserve  being  25  °/o  of  their  assets,  of  which  only 
8%  is  in  cash. 

Insurance  Companies.  The  largest  life  and 
fire  insurance  comiDanies  of  the  United  States 
have  branch  offices  in  New  Orleans.  The  home 
companies  do  a  large  business,  not  only  for  the 
city  and  the  state,  but  for  many  neighboring 
states. 

The  Homestead  Associations.  The  home- 
stead associations  have  done  a  vast  amount  of 
good  in  facilitating  the  purchase  and  building 
of  hundreds  of  houses  for  people  of  moderate 
means.  They  have  encouraged  the  spirit  of 
economy  and  have  enabled  many  families  to 
own  their  homes,  who  would  not  have  been  able 
to  do  so  but  for  their  help, 

TOPICS:     History  of  Banking;  Tlie  Clearing  House. 
REFERENCES:     Eightor's  History. 


102 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


SECTION  4.    TRADES. 


History.  Very  little  lias  been  written  on  this 
subject  in  New  Orleans,  because,  before  the  Civil 
War,  the  crafts  and  trades  received  but  scant 
attention  in  Louisiana,  for  the  wealth  of  the 
people  was  invested  almost  exclusively  in  agri- 
culture, and  New  Orleans  was  a  commercial 
center. 

Slavery  had  a  tendency  to  crowd  mechanics 
out  of  New  Orleans,  and  in  ante-bellum  days  the 
general  desire  was  to  have  mechanical  woi-k 
done  by  negi'o  slaves,  many  of  whom  were  skilled 
workmen.  They  often  paid  their  owners  for  the 
privilege  of  hiring  themselves  to  others,  and  by 
this  means  accumulated  enough  money  to  pur- 
chase their  freedom. 

The  white  laborers  from  1860  to  1865  con- 
sisted of  men  over  fifty,  boys,  women,  and  men 
of  military  age,  exempted  because  of  physical 
weakness  or  wounds.  Industries  calling  for 
white  skilled  labor  were  but  comparatively  little 
develo]3ed  in  1860.  When  the  War  ended  in  1865, 
the  labor  system  of  the  South  was  disorganized. 
One  of  the  results  of  the  War  was  to  awaken  the 
South  to  a  full  realization  of  her  lack  of  knowl- 
edge concerning  mechanical  and  other  industrial 
pursuits.  By  1880,  with  the  help  of  the  United 
States  Grovernment,  mechanical  and  industrial 
colleges  were  established  in  the  Southern  States. 
The  splendid  work  was  begun  which  has  re- 
sulted in  the  preparation  of  many  men  and 
women  for  industrial  service  in  the  country. 
These   schools   were   ridiculed   by   thoughtless 


people  and  by  some  of  the  leading  journals. 
Manual  labor,  among  the  white  population,  was 
considered  more  respectable,  and  as  Northern 
and  European  capital  began  to  flow  into 
Louisiana,  skilled  labor  found  its  way  into 
the  city. 

Orgajiization  of  Labor.  The  history  of  New 
Orleans'  trade  unionism  begins  in  the  first 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  an  as- 
sociation of  printers  was  formed  in  1810.  From 
1830  to  18.36,  local  imious  of  printei's  were  or- 
ganized in  New  Orleans.  The  immediate  cause 
of  all  organizations  or  wage  labor  has  been  and 
is  the  rise  of  prices  in  the  cost  of  living.  Fol- 
lowing the  natural  trend,  here,  as  elsewhere, 
combinations  formed  among  the  capitalists  and 
workmen.  The  problems  that  have  arisen  from 
these  combinations  have  steadily  multiplied, 
and  have  become  one  of  the  chief  features  in  our 
state  and  national  government.  Many  of  the 
problems  have  been  solved  through  the  efforts 
of  trade  unions.  The  adequate  wage  scale  pro- 
tects capital,  to  some  degree,  from  profitless 
competition.  The  evils  of  child  labor  have  been 
lessened  by  legislation.  To-day,  a  mechanic  is 
not  looked  down  upon,  and  jDarents  are  willing, 
even  anxious,  to  have  their  children  trained  in 
some  good  trade,  knowing  "that  skilled  labor 
secui'es  steady  employruent. 

TOPICS:     Trades;  Past  Conditions;  Present  Conditions. 
REFERENCES:     Archives  of  the  Cabildo  and  City  Hall. 


CHAPTER  XL 


Charitable  Institutions. 


SECTION  1.    HOSPITALS. 


A  spirit  of  generosity  has  always  been  char- 
acteristic of  the  South  and  of  New  Orleans,  in 
particular.  The  poor  and  the  suffering,  the  aged 
and  the  infirm,  the  widowed  and  the  orphaned, 
have  always  found  and,  may  it  be  hoped,  always 
will  find  a  tender  chord  of  sympathy  in  the 
hearts  of  Orleanians.  Looking  back  to  the  his- 
tory of  Bienville's  time,  we  find  the  Ursuline 
nuns  nursing  the  sick,  caring  for  many  Indian 
girls,  and  for  French  children  orphaned  by  the 
Indian  war. 

Charity  Hospital.  The  oldest  charitable  in- 
stitution in  the  Mississippi  Valley  is  the  Charity 
Hospital,  founded  by  an  humble  sailor,  one  Jean 
Louis,  who,  by  trade  and  barter  on  his  many 
voyages,  had  accumulated  a  fortune.  This  sum, 
$2,500,  though  small, 
judged  according  to  pres- 
ent-day standards,  was 
sufficient  to  purchase  a 
building  which  was  fitted 
up  as  the  "Hospice  des 
Pauvres."  It  stood  upon 
the  west  side  of  Rampart 
Street,  between  St.  Peter 
and  Toulouse.  The  low, 
marshy  ground  rendered 
this  a  very  unsuitable  lo- 
cation for  a  hospital.  The 
"Hospice  des  Pauvres," 
however,    continued    its 

humanitarian  mission  until  destroyed  by  a  hur- 
ricane in  1779.  Every  one  felt  the  disaster  and 
few  were  able  to  offer  aid  to  the  unfortunate 
patients  who  roamed  the  streets  in  search  of 
shelter.  No  concerted  action  was  taken  for  their 
relief  until  1784,  when  Don  Almonaster  y  Roxas, 
the  great  benefactor  of  the  colony,  erected  on  the 
same  site,  a  new  building  of  brick  and  mortar.  It 
was  called  the  Hospital  of  St.  Charles,  in  honor 
of  the  king  of  Spain.  Although  Don  Almonaster 
had  built  the  new  hospital  at  his  own  cost  and 
annually  bestowed  upon  it  a  sufficient  sum  for 


CHARITY  HOSPITAL. 


its  maintenance,  he  was  bitterly  opposed  by 
members  of  the  Cabildo.  A  communication  from 
the  king  approved  his  action  and  declared  him 
to  be  the  "founder,  patron,  and  endower"  of  the 
institution. 

After  the  transfer  of  Louisiana  to  the  United 
States,  the  affairs  of  the  hospital  passed  from 
the  hands  of  the  Cabildo  to  the  more  practical 
management  of  American  mayors  and  council- 
men.  A  great  fire  totally  destroyed  the  Hos- 
pital of  St.  Charles  in  1809.  All  the  patients 
were  rescued  and  were  quartered  in  a  private 
residence,  which  continued  to  be  used  for  this 
purpose  until  1814.  The  square  boimded  by 
Canal,  Common,  Dryades,  and  Baronne  was  pur- 
chased as  the  site  for  a  new  building.  Here,  the 
institution  entered  upon 
the  third  stage  of  its 
career  as  the  New  Or- 
leans Charity  Hospital. 

In    1830,    it    was    re- 
moved to  its  present  loca- 
tion in  Tulane  Avenue  be- 
tween Freret  and  How- 
ard Streets,  where,  at  the 
time,    only  .the    central 
building    was    erected. 
Built   of   solid  masonry, 
this  substantial  structure 
has    withstood   the   rav- 
ages of  time.    It  has  been 
so  added  to  and  extended  that  now  the  whole 
square  and  parts  of  those  adjoining  are  covered 
with  the  buildings  of  the  institution. 

Connected  with  the  Charity  Hospital  is  one 
of  the  best  equipped  and  most  complete  hos- 
pitals for  children  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
donated  by  Mrs.  Deborah  Milliken  at  a  cost  of 
$100,000.  The  Sisters  of  Charity,  trained  by  life 
service  in  the  work,  have  had  charge  of  the  hos- 
pital since  1834.  Now,  however,  although  they 
still  care  for  the  sick  committed  to  the  institu- 
tion and  train  the  lay  nurses,  the  management 


104 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


has  been  taken  out  of  their  hands  and  given  to 
a  "Superintendent." 

The  ambulance  service  was  added  in  1885 
and  now,  by  means  of  the  automobile  am- 
bulances, a  patient  can  be  rushed  from  any  part 
of  the  city  to  the  hospital  within  a  few  minutes 
after  the  call  has  been  made.  Two  internes 
always  accompany  the  ambulance  and  fre- 
quently, in  case  of  accident,  they  administer  all 
necessary  aid.  Many  a  life  that  hung  upon  a 
slender  thread  has  been  saved  l)y  iunnediate 
medical  assistance. 

The  Charity  Hospital  is  open  to  the  medical 
students  of  Tulane  University,  who  •  thereby 
have  exceptional  opportunity  for  the  study  of 
actual  cases.  All  persons  who  cannot  afford 
treatment  in  pay  institutions  are  received  at  the 
Charity  Hospital;  there  are  wards  for  the  col- 
ored people  as  well  as  for  the  white,  and  the  care 
of  the  best  physicians  and  nurses  is  bestowed 
upon  them.  Cases  of  smallpox  are  not  admitted, 
as  there  is  a  special  hospital  for  persons  suffer- 
ing from  that  very  contagious  disease. 

Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat  Hospital.  As 
the  science  of  medicine  progresses,  there  is  a 
tendency  among  physicians  to  specialize  in  some 


particular  branch.  In  order  that  those  who  can 
ill  afford  treatment  by  a  specialist  may  not  be 
debarred  from  such  advantages,  the  Eye,  Ear, 
Nose,  and  Throat  Hospital  was  opened  in  1889, 
where  gratuitous  treatment  is  given.  The  num- 
bers who  grasp  this  opportunity  are  large  and 
increase  from  year  to  year,  especially  as  so  many 
children  are  found  sutfering  from  adenoids,  the 
removal  of  which  greatly  improves  their  con- 
dition. 

The  United  States  Marine  Hospital.  In  1802, 
the  United  States  Government  established  a  hos- 
pital for  sailors  at  New  Orleans.  No  building 
was  provided,  and  the  sick,  by  special  arrange- 
ment, were  cared  for  in  the  Charity  Hospital. 
The  present  location  on  Henrj^  Clay  Avenue  and 
Tchoupitoulas  Street  was  secured  by  authoriza- 
tion of  Congress  in  1882.  There  is  a  group  of 
buildings  comprising  the  wards,  office  building, 
houses  for  the  surgeons,  and  laundry,  etc.  Any 
American  seaman  in  need  of  treatment  is  re- 
ceived at  the  hospital,  as  is  also  any  foreign  sea- 
man bringing  a  request  from  his  consul.  The 
hospital  belongs  to  the  Federal  Government  and 
is  managed  by  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Service. 


SECTION  2.    ASYLUMS. 


Poydras  Asylum.  About  the  time  that  Lou- 
isiana was  ceded  to  Spain,  there  arrived  in  New 
Orleans  a  young  French  refugee  from  San  Do- 
mingo. His  only  assets  seem  to 
have  been  a  handsome  face  and 
pleasing  manner.  What  little  cap- 
ital he  could  command,  was  invested 
in  peddler's  stock  with  which  he 
ascended  the  coast  to  try  his  fortune. 
Enterprise  and  thrift  were  well  re- 
warded, for  soon  we  hear  Julien 
Poydras,  the  one-time  peddler, 
spoken  of  as  the  richest  man  in  the 
Spanish  settlement,  a  successful 
merchant,  planter,  and  banker.  In 
the  midst  of  his  wealth,  he  did  not 
forget  the  jDoverty  and  struggle  of 
earlier  days;  he  gave  unstintedly 
oiit  of  his  abundance  to  help  those  in  need.  The 
city  of  his  adoption  received  a  large  part  of  his 
munificent  benefactions.    Here,  by  the  donation 


of  a  large  lot  and  house  in  Poydras  street,  he 
founded  in  1816  the  first  orphan  asylum  in  the 
state.  The  Legislature  appropriated  $4,000  for 
its  benefit.  It  sheltei-ed  fourteen 
children  the  first  year;  but  there- 
after the  number  rapidly  increased. 
The  asylum  was  founded  for  girls, 
with  the  provision  that  any  de- 
serving girl,  whether  an  orphan 
or  not,  should  be  received  by 
the  institution.  The  business,  sec- 
tion of  the  city  gradually  spread 
until  it  embraced  Poydras  Street, 
after  which,  the  asylum  was 
moved  to  its  present  location  on 
Magazine  Street  and  Peters 
Avenue.  The  administration  is  con- 
ducted by  a  board  of  directresses. 
The  orphanage  is  supported  by  revenues 
from  property  left  by  Julien  Poydras  for  that 
purpose. 


JULIAN  POYDEAS. 

■ — Courtesy  La.  State  Museum, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


105 


St.  Mary's  Orphan  Asylum.  The  history 
of  tliis  institution  dates  back  to  the  year  1835. 
The  Sisters  of  Cliarity  have  tlie  care  of  the  cliil- 
dren,and  the  only  condition  of  admission  is  that 
of  orphanage.  A  board  manages  the  business 
affairs  of  the  institution,  which  is  supported 
partly  by  private  contributions  and  partly  by 
revenues  from  property. 

New  Orleans  Female  Orphan  Asylum.  The 
Sisters  of  Charity  withdrew  from  the  Poydras 
Asylum  to  establish  an  institution  of  their  own 
for  the  purpose  of  "receiving,  harboring,  nurs- 
ing, raising,  mahitaining,  and  educating  desti- 
tute female  orphans 
under  tlie  age  of  fif- 
teen." The  girls  were 
to  be  entirely  under  the 
control  of  the  sisters 
until  they  readied  their 
majority,  or  were  mar- 
ried. In  front  of  the 
asylum  is  a  triangle 
converted  in  to  a  park 
graced  by  the  first  mon- 
ument ever  erected  to 
the  virtues  and  benefac- 
tions of  a  woman.  This 
is  the  statue  of  "Mar- 
garet," whose  interest- 
ing history  is  intimately 
connected  with  that  of 
the  asylum  she  be- 
friended. 

Margaret  Haughery, 
of  Irish  origin,  came  to 
New  Orleans  from  Bal- 
timore. Left  alone  in 
the  world  by  the  deaths 
of  her  husband  and  child, 
she  obtained  employment  in  the  Poydras  Asylum. 
When  the  Sisters  of  Charity  removed  to  their 
own  establishment,  Margaret  went  with  them  to 
manage  the  dairy.  Soon  after,  she  established  and 
conducted  a  profitable  bakery,  so  as  to  diminish 
the  cost  of  bread  used  by  the  asylum.  With  little 
education,  she  mastered  and  directed  the  success- 
ful management  of  a  large  manufactory  of  flour, 
while  personally  aiding  in  the  care  of  the  largest 
female  orphan  asylum  in  the  city.  Her  charities 
were  numerous  and  bestowed  without  ostentation. 

St.  Elizabeth's  House  of  Industry.  In  con- 
nection with  their  Female  Orphan  Asylum,  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  opened  in  1855  a  branch  in 


MARGARET'S  MONUMENT, 
In  F'ront  of  N.  O.  Female  Orhpan  Asylum,  the  Model  Orphanage  of  the  City. 
— Courtesy  Southern  Pacific  R.  R. 


Napoleon  Avenue  to  receive  girls  over  twelve 
years  of  age.  Here,  they  are  given  an  industrial 
education,  preparing  them  to  make  their  way  in 
the  world.  The  institution,  through  the  ex- 
quisite needlework,  fine  laundering,  and  other 
industries  of  the  inmates,  is  largely  self-support- 
ing, although  valuable  property  belongs  to  the 
asylum.  Many  a  young  lady  is  proud  to  say  that 
her  trousseau  has  been  made  at  St.  Elizabeth's. 
St.  Vincent's  Infant  Asylum.  Another  branch 
of  the  Female  Asylum,  conducted  by  the  Sisters 
of  Charity,  is  the  St.  Vincent's  Infant  Asylum 
established  in  1862.  The  kindergarten,  nurseries, 
an4  dormitories  are  in- 
teresting sights  and 
models  of  neatness. 
After  the  age  of  seven 
years,  the  children  are 
no  longer  retained  at 
this  asylum;  the  girls 
are  sent  to  the  asylum 
in  Camp  Street,  and  the 
boys  to  some  other  in- 
stitution. 

Asylum  of  Destitute 
Orphan  Boys.  A  society 
for  the  ' '  Relief  of  Desti- 
tute Orphan  Boys"  was 
organized  by  members  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church. 
About  1841,  the  build- 
ings erected  for  the  good 
work  were  destroyed  by 
fire.  John  McDonogh 
came  to  the  rescue  of 
the  society  with  $100,- 
000  with  which  the  pres- 
ent house  in  St.  Charles 
Avenue  was  built. 
Seventh  Street  Protestant  Orphans'  Home. 
The  terrible  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  1853  left 
so  many  orphaned  children  that  the  asylums  of 
the  city  were  taxed  beyond  their  capacity.  To 
relieve  conditions,  the  Howard  Association  de- 
voted a  fund  of  $5,000  toward  a  new  asylum; 
this  was  supplemented  from  other  sources,  and 
the  outcome  was  the  Seventh  Street  Protestant 
Orphans'  Home.  Both  boys  and  girls  are  re- 
ceived by  this  institution. 

Jewish  Widows'  and  Orphans'  Home.  The 
Hebrews  of  the  city  maintain  a  well  kept  home 
for  the  widows  and  orphans  of  their  faith.  In 
1888,  the  present  spacious  and  substantial  build- 


106 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


ing  ou  the  corner  of  St.  Charles  and  Peters  Ave- 
nues was  occupied  by  the  ' '  Home. ' '  The  society 
that  controls  the  institution  dates  back  to  1855. 

St.  Anna's  Asylum.  St.  Anna 's  Asylum  was 
founded  in  1850  by  Dr.  W.  N.  Mercer  in  memory 
of  his  daughter,  Anna.  Its  object  is  the  relief 
of  impoverished  gentlewomen,  but  small  chil- 
dren whose  mothers  are  inmates  of  the  institu- 
tion are  also  recipients  of  its  beneficence. 

Episcopal  Home.  The  Sisters  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  conduct  a  well  managed 
liome  for  girls  in  Jackson  Avenue. 

The  Soldiers'  Home.  The  Soldiers'  Home, 
sometimes  called  Camp  NichoUs,  as  it  was 
founded  during  the  administration  of  Governor 
F.  T.  NichoUs,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  Bayou 
St.  John.  It  is  a  retreat  for  maimed  and  dis- 
abled Confederate  veterans.  The  board  of 
directors  for  the  Home  consists  of  five  member.** 


from  the  Association  of  the  Army  of  Tennessee, 
five  from  the  Association  of  the  Army  of  North- 
ern Virginia,  and  five  appointed  by  the  Governor 
of  Louisiana. 

The  Touro-Shakespeare  Almshouse.  Those 
whose  poverty  and  infirmities  make  them  objects 
of  public  charity  find  shelter  at  the  Touro- 
Shakespeare  Almshouse. 

Other  Institutions.  Several  institutions  for 
needy  colored  people  are  conducted  in  the  city, 
one  of  the  most  notable  being  the  Tomy  Lafon 
Orphan  Boys'  Asylum  on  Gentilly  Road. 

There  are  many  other  institutions  in  the  city, 
whose  object  is  the  alleviation  of  suffering. 

TOPICS:     Section  1,  Hospitals;  Section  2,  Asylums. 

REFERENCES:  Standard  History  of  New  Orleans,  Eightor; 
History  and  Present  Conditions  of  New  Orleans  (1880), 
Waring  and  Cable;  Cyclopedia  of  Louisiana,  Fortier; 
Guide  Book. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Education. 


SECTION  1.    COLONIAL  EDUCATION. 


Father  Cecil's  School  for  Boys.  The  early 
history  of  New  Orleans  was  so  tilled  with  the 
struggle  for  existence  that  little  time  or  energy 
was  devoted  to  education.  There  were  forests 
to  he  cleared,  homes  to  he  built,  sickness  and 
attacks  of  Indians  to  be  guarded  against,  and 
an  ever-increasing  number  of  unworthy  or 
worthless  colonists  to  be  provided  for.    Amidst 


such  unsettled  conditions,  neither  the  governor 
nor  individuals  could  turn  their  attention  to 
schools.  In  1724,  Father  Cecil,  a  Capuchin 
monk,  opened  a  school  for  boys  near  the  St. 
Louis  Cathedral.  He  was  the  first  teacher  in 
Louisiana  and  was  successful  in  imparting  a 
fairly  good  elementary  education  to  the  youth 
of  the  day. 


THE  URSULINES. 


Bienville  Secures  the  Services  of  the  Ursu- 
lines.  Father  Cecil  was  offering  educational 
opportunities  to  the  boys,  but  a  generation  of 
girls  was  growing  up  with  only  the  limited  train- 
ing of  the  home  circle.    Bienville  realized  this 


mended  and  their  services  secured  in  1726.  Al- 
though Bienville  was  no  longer  governor  when 
the  Ursulines  arrived  in  Louisiana,  he  deserves 
the  credit  of  having  established  the  first  girls' 
school  in  the  colony. 


THREE  HOMES  OF  THE  URSULINES. 


and  consulted  the  Jesuit  priest.  Father  Beaubois,  Establishment  of  the  Ursulines.  Eleven 
about  securing  teachers  for  the  girls.  The  Ursu-  sisters  under  the  direction  of  Mother  Tranche- 
line  nuns  who  were  conducting  flourishing  and  pain  embarked  at  Lorient,  France,  on  February 
well  patronized  schools  in  France  were  recom-  22,  1727.    After  a  long  and  hazardous  voyage, 


108 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


they  reached  the  land  of  their  adoption  on 
August  7th  of  the  same  year.  Joyful  crowds 
assembled  on  the  river  banks  and  along  the 
streets  to  welcome  them,  and  every  courtesy  was 
extended  to  them.  Governor  Perrier  and  his 
wife  were  most  cordial  to  the  Sisters  and  saw 
them  installed  in  Bienville's  house,  which  was 
the  best  in  the  colony.  Here,  they  were  to  re- 
main until  their  own  convent  could  be  erected. 

Treaty  With  the  Company  of  the  Indies.  A 
treaty  was  drawn  up  between  the  Company  of 
the  Indies,  then  in  control  of  Louisiana,  and  the 
Ursulines  before  the  latter  left  France.  The 
provisions  were  that  in  return  for  the  care  of 
the  hospital  and  the  education  of  girls,  the  nuns 
were  to  receive  from  the  com,pany,  a  convent 
and  a  plantation  and  500  livres  (livre=18i/'2 
cents)  each,  besides  having  the  expense  of  the 
voyage  paid.  They  were  guaranteed  600  livres 
until  they  could  realize  something  from  their 
plantation,  and  this  contract  did  not  bind  them 
to  remain  in  the  colony  should  they  find  it  dis- 
tasteful. 

Removed  to  Their  Convent.  There  is  no 
record  of  any  Sisters  having  returned  to  France. 
All  were  satisfied  with  their  work  in  a  strange 
land.  Their  convent  on  Chartres  Street  was  com- 
pleted in  1734  and  they  took  possession  of  it 
with  gi'eat  ceremony.  The  beloved  Superioress, 
Mother  Tranchepain,  had  ended  her  days  of  use- 
fulness, but  Bienville,  patron  and  benefactor  of 
the  Sisters,  had  returned  to  the  colony  as  gov- 
ernor for  the  third  time  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  ceremony.  At  the  time  of  this  change  of 
residence,  many  day  scholars,  twenty  boarders, 
three  parlor  boarders,  and  three  orphans  were 
under  the  care  of  the  nuns. 

System  of  Education.  Religious  classes  were 
conducted  for  two  hours  every  day  for  the  ben- 
efit of  Indian  and  negro  women.  The  Sisters, 
through  the  influence  of  religion  and  education, 
sought  to  uplift  the  inferior  races  and  lead  them 


into  the  ways  of  civilization.  The  daughters  of 
the  colonists  were  taught  languages,  history, 
literature,  some  science,  mathematics,  and  the 
art  of  letter-writing.  Great  emphasis  was  laid 
upon  instruction  in  music  and  sewing,  accom- 
plishments required  of  every  girl  of  the  time. 
Nimble  fingers  that  could  lighten  dull  hours 
with  gay  music  or  fashion  dainty  garments, 
made  their  owners  more  attractive  helpmates. 
Wives  were  scarce,  though,  and  so  readily  did 
the  girls  exchange  the  duties  of  the  classroom 
for  those  of  the  household  that  Sister  Madeleine 
writes,  ' '  Henceforth  no  girl  was  allowed  to  marry 
without  being  first  instructed  by  the  Nuns." 

Influence  in  Colony.  This  instruction  bore 
fruit  tliroughout  the  entire  colony.  The  girls 
carried  from  the  convent  to  the  home  circle 
polish,  charm  and  refinement,  the  result  of  edu- 
cation, and  seldom  found  in  the  rough  surround- 
ings of  pioneer  life. 

Lack  of  School  for  Boys.  As  a  result  of  this 
training,  the  women  far  surpassed  the  men  in 
culture,  for  the  latter  had  no  means  of  obtaining 
higher  education  without  going  to  Europe.  The 
fundamentals  were  taught  in  a  few  primary 
schools,  but  Bienville,  realizing  the  lack  of 
opportunity  for  young  men  in  Louisiana, 
petitioned  the  government  to  establish  a  college 
for  boys  in  New  Orleans.  According  to  his 
letter,  the  sons  of  wealthy  parents  were  reared 
in  luxury  and  idleness,  utterly  ruinous  to  char- 
acter, or  at  great  expense  were  sent  to  France 
to  be  educated,  where  they  acquired  a  distaste 
for  their  colonial  homes.  He  represented  that 
many  persons  residing  in  Vera  Cruz,  would  be 
glad  of  the  advantages  offered  by  such  a  college 
and  would  helj)  to  maintain  it.  The  government, 
however,  considered  Louisiana  too  remote  and 
too  insignificant  to  warrant  any  such  establish- 
ment. So  it  was  not  until  after  the  Americans 
assumed  control  of  the  colony,  that  a  college  for 
boys  was  opened 


SPANISH  SCHOOLS. 


Interest  Manifested  by  Spanish  Governors. 

In  1768,  Louisiana  passed  under  the  control  of 
Spain.  Unlike  the  French  government,  the 
Spanish  authorities  manifested  some  interest  in 
education.  Ulloa  was  a  highly  cultured  man, 
but  failed,  through  his  unpopularity,  to  benefit 
the  colony.    0  'Eeilly  and  his  successors  fostered 


learning  in  the  colony,  but  still  no  institution  of 
higher  education  was  founded.  Many  a  debonair 
Spanish  official  married  a  convent-trained  girl, 
thus  forming  a  friendship  for  the  Ursulines. 
The  Nuns'  school  was  well  patronized  under  this 
regime  and  they  received  several  Spanish  ladies 
into  their  convent. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


109 


Spanish  School  Founded.  An  effort  to  make 
the  use  of  the  Spanish  language  more  universal 
in  the  colony,  and  to  train  the  youth  according 
to  Spanish  ideals,  resulted  in  the  government 
ordering  a  school  to  he  estahlished  in  New  Or- 
leans in  1772.  The  government  selected  as 
founder  and  director  the  distinguished  scholar, 
Don  Andreas  Lopez  de  Armesto,  with  whom 
were  associated  three  other  eminent  teachers. 
Despite  the  weight  such  names  carried,  the 
school  was  never  popular,  proving  an  utter 
failure. 

People's  Distrust  of  Spanish  Schools.  The 
Louisianians,  tossed  from  one  king  to  another, 
felt  intense  resentment  against  the  Spanish  and 
clung  with  fierce  pride  to  their  own  customs  and 
languages.  Although  Spanish  was  used  for  all 
official  proceedings,  French  was  the  language  of 


the  home,  the  chuch,  and  the  school.  Complaint 
was  made  to  Spain  that  merchants  refused  to 
keep  their  books  in  any  language  but  French. 
Even  the  influence  of  just  and  politic  rulers  like 
Unzaga,  Galvez,  and  Miro,  was  not  sufficient  to 
stamp  out  this  prejudice.  The  Spanish  school 
was,  therefore,  not  well  attended,  never  having 
had  more  than  thirty  pupils,  which  number 
dwindled  down  to  eight  or  ten  after  a  fire  had 
destroyed  the  original  building. 

French  Schools.  Those  who  could  afford  to 
do  so,  sent  their  children  to  France  to  be  edu- 
cated; but  there  were  eight  French  schools 
where  several  hundred  profited  by  the  instruc- 
tion. Many  refugees  from  San  Domingo,  who 
Oldened  little  schools  to  eke  out  a  livelihood, 
received  staunch  support  from  the  French 
families. 


SECTION  2.    EARLY  YEAES  OF  AMERICAN  RULE. 


Private  Schools.  The  influx  of  Americans, 
after  the  purchase  in  1803,  caused  a  greater  de- 
mand for  schools.  As  there  was  no  system  of 
free  schools,  this  need  was  met  by  a  number  of 
teachers,  who  conducted  private  schools  at  mod- 
erate iDrices.  According  to  the  advertisements 
in  the  old  newspaper  files,  learning  flourished  in 
the  Faubourg  Ste.  Marie  (the  American  quar- 
ter), where  there  were  also  evening  schools  and 
summer  sessions. 

Discipline.  Frequently  these  pioneers  of 
education  in  American  New  Orleans  were  men 
who  exacted  the  most  rigid  discipline  from  their 
scholars  by  means  of  the  dunce  cap,  the  rod,  and 
in  some  extreme  cases  by  enforced  kneeling  on 
brick  dust  and  tacks. 


Course  of  Study.  The  subjects  accentuated 
then  were  almost  as  different  from  the  present 
day  curriculum  as  was  the  mode  of  discipline. 

English,  French,  and  other  langaiages,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  geogTaphy,  history,  mythology, 
chronology  are  mentioned  in  all  advertisements 
while  "embroidery,  print  and  crape  work, 
French  darning  and  every  kind  of  fancy  work, 
as  well  as  plain  sewing  and  marking"  are  speci- 
fied for  girls.  No  young  lady's  education  was 
considered  complete  without  music  and  da'ncing. 
These  were  frequently  taught  by  special  teach- 
ers who  went  from  house  to  house  and  also  gave 
lessons  in  "deportment,"  that  is,  the  correct 
manner  of  entering  a  parlor,  of  standing,  of  sit- 
ting, of  addressing  persons. 


COLLEGE  OF  ORLEANS. 


Foundation.  American  legislators  were 
more  impressed  with  the  necessity  for  public 
education  than  the  French  or  Spanish  had  been, 
but  they  made  the  mistake  of  establishing  too 
many  academies  and  colleges  instead  of  elemen- 
tary schools.  The  most  noteworthy  of  these 
was  the  College  of  Orleans,  opened  in  1805, 
where  many  prominent  men  received  their 
education,  among  them  being  Gayarre,  the  his- 
torian. 


Course  of  Study  and  Discipline.  The  course 
of  study  was  comprehensive,  including  Greek, 
French,  Latin,  English,  Spanish,  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  mechanics,  history  and 
literature.  Interest  in  composition  was  stimu- 
lated by  literary  exercises.  Poetic  as  well  as 
prose  composition  was  encourged  and,  occa- 
sionally, a  paper  published  verses  by  some  en- 
terprising student.  Lessons  in  music,  dancing, 
and  fencing  were  given  those  who  paid  extra. 


110 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


Life  at  the  College  of  Orleans  was  not  luxu- 
rious; the  rising  sun  found  the  boys  about  their 
tasks ;  a  half  loaf  of  dry  bread  constituted  break- 
fast. 

Support  of  College.  As  there  was  no  definite 
arrangement  for  tlie  support  of  the  college,  its 
finances  were  very  unsettled.  To  the  small  and 
irregular  appropriations  by  the  Legislature, 
were  added  funds  from  two  lotteries  established 
for  this  purpose.  Even  these  sources  of  revenue 
proved  insufficient  to  maintain  a  flourishing  in- 
stitution, and  the  proceeds  from  tlie  licenses 
granted  to  gambling  houses  was  utilized. 

Decline.  The  College  of  Orleans  flourished 
for  about  twenty  years,  but  with  the  appoint- 
ment as  principal  of  Lakanal,  one  of  the  parties 
who  caused  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.,  the  school 


began  to  decline.  Parents  refused  to  commit 
their  children  to  the  guidance  of  a  regicide  and 
the  College  of  Orleans  passed  out  of  existence. 
Its  failure  was  also  the  result  of  injudicious  regu- 
lation of  the  terms  of  admission.  Parents,  who 
could  afford  to  do  so,  were  required  to  pay  for 
their  sons'  tuition;  but  many  sons  of  destitute 
parents  were  admitted  without  charge.  These 
pupils  were  dissatisfied,  because  they  received 
the  sobriquet  of  charity  students  from  the  boys. 
"Public  Schools."  In  1826,  the  college  of 
Orleans  was  supplanted  by  one  central  and  two 
primary  schools.  Tliough  supposedly  public 
schools,  gratuitous  instruction  was  limited  to 
fifty  pupils  in  each  school.  To  the  revenue  ob- 
tained from  the  gambling  houses  was  added 
about  $3,000  annually  from  theatre  licenses. 


SECTION  3.    PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


Louisiana  was  far  behind  the  other  states  of 
the  Union  in  organizing  a  system  of  public 
schools,  because  the  idea  of  self-taxation  for 
educational  purposes  was  entirely  new  to  its 
people.  However,  when  Americans  from  other 
states  began  to  form  a  large  proportion  of  tlie 
population,  the  question  of  taxation  for  school 
support  was  agitated  more  fully. 

Accordingly,  the  public  school  system  of  New 
Orleans  was  inaugurated  by  the  Legislature  of 
1841,  which  decreed  that  "the  councils  of  the 
different  municipalities  of  New  Orleans  are 
authorized  and  required  to  establish  within  their 
respective  limits  one  or  more  public  schools  for 
the  free  instruction  of  the  children  residing 
therein,  to  make  such  regulations  as  they  judge 
proper  for  the  organization,  administration,  and 
discipline  of  the  said  schools,  and  to  levy  a  tax 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  same.  Every  white 
child  residing  in  a  municipality  shall  be  ad- 
mitted to  and  receive  instruction  therein." 

New  Orleans  was  at  that  time  divided  into 
three  distinct  municipalities,  the  Vieux  Carre, 
Faubourg  Mariguy,  Faubourg  Ste.  Marie,  (See 
Chapter  II. ) .  Although  these  were  united  under 
one  city  government  in  the  early  fifties,  the 
schools  of  the  three  districts  continued  to  be  con- 
trolled by  three  separate  boards  until  the  Civil 
War. 

These  schools  did  not  spring  immediately 
into  popular  favor;  but  within  a  few  j^ears  their 


ultimate  success  was  assured.  The  people  were 
anxious  to  patronize  schools  supported  by  self- 
imposed  taxes,  and  where  the  terms  of  admis- 
sion were  the  same  to  all.  The  American  quarter 
in  1844  had  three  schools,  eleven  teachers,  and 
615  pupils,  but  in  the  following  year,  to  accom- 
modate an  enrollment  of  1,029  pupils,  the  niim- 
ber  of  schools  was  increased  to  six  and  the 
number  of  teachers  to  thirty-six. 

Public  Schools  in  the  State,  1845.  Following 
the  success  of  the  new  schools,  the  Legislature 
organized  a  similar  system  throughout  the  par- 
ishes, to  be  supported  also  by  direct  taxation. 
The  eminent  scholar,  Alexander  Dimitry,  was  aj)- 
pointed  the  first  State  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion and  his  influence  was  felt  in  New  Orleans. 

Normal  School,  1858.  The  gTowth  of  the 
system  created  a  need  for  a  normal  scliool  where 
efficient  teachers  could  be  trained  for  work  in 
the  elementary  schools.  This  need  was  met  in 
1858  by  the  establishment  in  New  Orleans  of  the 
first  normal  school  in  the  South. 

Civil  War  and  Reconstruction.  B.  F.  Butler, 
C*ommander  of  the  Federal  army  of  occupation 
in  New  Orleans  during  the  Civil  War,  consoli- 
dated the  four  school  districts  under  one  board 
and  one  superintendent.  There  were  to  be  a 
uniform  system  of  grading  and  uniform  text- 
books used  throughout  the  city,  which  greatly 
facilitated  the  adjustment  of  pupils  who  moved 
from  one  district  to  another. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


111 


Education  of  Negroes.  Troubles  in  educa- 
tional circles  came  with  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation.  The  Freedman's  Bureau,  created 
by  the  United  States  Government  to  assist  liber- 
ated slaves,  furnished  free  transportation  for 
teachers  and  supplies  and  expended  large  sums 
for  negro  schools  in  New  Orleans.  Little  objec- 
tion was  raised  to  these  schools,  but  the  law 
passed  by  the  "carpet-bag"  Legislature  of  1870, 
requiring  the  white  schools  to  admit  any  negro 
children  who  would  apply,  caused  great  agita- 
tion and  bitter  feeling.  Although  there  were 
but  few  actual  admissions  of  colored  children 
into  the  New  Orleans  schools,  the  furore  did  not 
subside  until  separate  schools  were  provided  for 
the  two  races. 

School  Buildings.  As  soon  as  the  race  ques- 
tion in  the  schools  was  somewhat  settled,  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  better  buildings.  Out  of  the 
funds  left  by  John  McDonogh  for  this  purpose, 
six  well-equipped  schoolhouses  were  erected. 
This  money  has  been  utilized  to  meet  the  needs 
of  increased  enrollment  until  over  thirty  Mc- 
Donogh schools  have  been  built. 

Overthrow  of  Reconstruction  Government. 
The  reconstruction  government  had  spent  vast 
sums  of  money  for  education,  recklessly  and  in- 
judiciously extending  educational  advantages 
to  hundreds  of  non-taxpaying  negroes  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  whites,  who  bore  the  burden  of 
taxation.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  General 
Assembly,  after  the  overthrow  of  "carpet-bag" 
rule  and  the  assumption  of  power  by  the  better 
element,  which  elected  Francis  T.  Nicholls  gov- 
ernor, was  to  provide  for  education.  Louisiana, 
mercilessly  crushed  by  four  years  of  war  and 
left  burdened  with  a  monstrous  debt  yearly  in- 
creased by  the  extravagant  rule  of  unscrupulous 
politicians,  had  been  given  a  setback  from  which 
she  rallied  bravely,  but  the  effects  of  which  are 
felt  even  to  the  present  time. 

William  0.  Rogers — Warren  Easton.  Taking 
all  of  this  into  consideration  and  remembering 
the  natural  prejudice  of  Louisianians  to  a  system 
of  gratuitous  education,  the  schools  of  New  Or- 
leans rank  very  favorably  with  those  of  north- 
ern cities,  where  public  schools  are  an  inherited 
institution  of  the  people  and  where  revenue 
from  taxation  has  been  uninterrupted.  William 
0.  Rogers  as  Superintendent  of  the  New  Orleans 
schools,  I'endered  valuable  service  to  this  system 
for  many  years.  From  1887  until  his  decease  in 
1910j  the  position  ^yas  held  by  "Warren  Easton, 


whose  success  is  attested  by  the  devotion  of 
teachers  and  pupils  during  his  long  incumbency, 
and  the  universal  reverence  now  accorded  his 
memory. 

Within  the  past  few  years  the  schools  have 
made  wonderful  advancement  in  organization. 

Management  and  Maintenance.  Before  the 
adoption  of  the  new  city  charter,  the  schools 
were  governed  by  a  board  of  seventeen  mem- 
bers, one  elected  from  each  ward  in  the  city. 
Under  that  system  each  member  of  the  board 
had  the  appointment  of  all  teachers  to  schools 
in  the  ward  which  he  represented. 

Since  1912,  the  New  Orleans  School  Board 
has  been  distinct  from  and  independent  of  the 
State  Board.  Under  the  new  city  charter,  it 
consists  of  five  members  who  serve  gratuitously 
and  have  complete  control  of  the  affairs  of  the 
Public  Schools.  (See  Chapter  XV.  for  Mainten- 
ance of  Schools.) 

Division  of  Schools.  At  present,  the  system 
includes  elementary  schools,  secondary  or  high 
schools,  and  an  industrial  school  for  girls,  which 
is  soon  to  have  its  counterpart  in  a  trade  school 
for  boys.  The  school  year  of  about  nine  months 
is  divided  into  terms,  and  promotions  are  made 
semi-annually,  so  that  a  retarded  pupil  has  to 
repeat  only  one-half  year's  work. 

Elementary  Schools.  The  elementary  schools 
comprise  kindergarten,  primary  grades,  cover- 
ing four  years  work,  and  grammar  grades,  cov- 
ering four  years  more.  Previous  attendance  at 
kindergarten  is  not  a  requisite  for  admission 
into  the  primary  grades.  Any  child  six  years  of 
age  or  over,  who  complies  with  the  rules  of  the 
schools,  is  eligible. 

Departmental  Teaching.  The  system  of  de- 
partmental teaching  having  been  tested  in  sev- 
eral schools  and  found  successful,  was  intro- 
duced throughout  the  city  in  1913  in  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades.  Each  teacher 
handling  one  principal  subject  and,  according 
to  conditions  in  the  school,  one  or  moi'e  minor 
subjects,  is  enabled  to  attain  greater  knowledge 
of  her  specialty  and  more  efficiency  in  imparting 
it.  Arithmetic,  English,  History,  Geography, 
and  Literature  are  given  more  time  and  atten- 
tion in  these  grades  than  are  other  subjects. 
Some  schools,  thanlis  to  the  generosity  of  their 
patrons  or  their  own  endeavor,  are  supplied  with 
a  stereopticon  or  a  moving  picture  machine,  by 
which  historical  and  geographical  facts  can  be 
pr^sei^ted  pictorially  to  the  increased  interest 


112 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


and  enjoyment  of  the  classes  in  these  subjects. 
Drawing  and  Music  are  taught  in  the  scliools  as 
necessary  elements  of  culture. 

High  Schools.  The  city  supports  three  splen- 
did high  schools.  The  Esplanade  Girls'  High 
School  for  the  benefit  of  the  girls  below  Canal 
Street,  the  Sophie  B.  Wright  Girls '  High  School 
in  Napoleon  Avenue,  and  the  Warren  Easton 
Boys'  High  School  in  Canal  Street.  Many  more 
girls  than  boys  attend  high  school.  In  1914,  the 
number  of  girls  admitted  to  the  two  high  schools 


have  been  erected  through  the  generosity  of 
philanthropic  citizens.  The  new  McDonogh  14 
building  is  as  fine  as  any  in  the  country.  The 
Beauregard  School  in  Canal  Street  is  especially 
attractive  because  of  the  beautiful  grounds  that 
form  a  setting  for  its  artistic  architecture.  The 
oldest  public  school  building  now  in  use  in  the 
city  is  Jackson  School,  named  after  the  hero  of 
the  Battle  of  New  Orleans.  One  portion  was 
built  in  1845,  and  around  that  various  additions 
have  been  made.     The  frame  buildings  with 


WAEREN  EASTON  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


— Courtesy  of  Board  of  Publio  School  Directors. 


was  1,554,  while  there  were  only  705  boys  ad- 
mitted. The  high  school  courses  are  elective 
and  the  pupils  have  a  wide  selection  of  subjects, 
as  some  are  designed  simply  for  a  business 
course,  others  to  prepare  for  normal  or  college. 
For  graduation,  the  pupil  must  attain  a  certain 
number  of  points,  that  is,  successfully  complete 
so  many  subjects.  The  standard  of  graduation 
is  being  raised,  so  the  number  of  points  required 
is  changed  from  year  to  year. 

Modern  School  Buildings.  The  three  high 
schools  are  among  the  handsomest  educational 
buildings  in  the  city  and  their  classroom  ar- 
rangement and  laboratory  equipment  equals 
that  of  most  colleges.    Many  of  the  school  houses 


huge  rooms,  wide  galleries  running  the  full 
length,  and  staircases  on  the  outside,  show  they 
are  not  of  very  late  date. 

Evening  Schools.  Three  times  a  week,  evening 
classes  are  given  for  the  benefit  of  boys  and  girls 
over  fourteen  years  of  age,  who  have  to  work. 
There  are  also  adult  classes  for  those  who  did 
not  receive  an  early  education  and  for  foreign- 
ers desirous  of  learning  English. 

Manual  Training.  The  aim  of  the  present- 
day  education  is  to  develop  the  powers  and 
activities  of  the  child  as  far  as  practicable.  To 
this  end,  manual  training  has  been  introduced 
for  the  boys  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 
The  boy  in  measuring,  planing,  sawing,  fitting, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


113 


and  staining,  has  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  work 
advance  from  a  piece  of  rough  lumber  to  the 
finished  product — a  rack,  an  ornamental  box, 
and  sometimes  a  chair  or  table. 

Domestic  Science.  A  domestic  science  and  a 
domestic  art  department  train  the  girls  for  the 
more  practical  affairs  of  life.  One  period,  each 
week,  is  given  to  the  girls  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  gTades.  Under  the  supervision  of  a  skilled 
teacher,  the  seventh  A  and  eighth  B  girls  in  the 
domestic  science  department  learn  the  chemical 


athletics  for  boys  and  girls  help  to  insure 
straight  bodies,  active  limbs,  and  well-developed 
lungs.  Competitive  games  between  teams 
selected  from  the  different  schools,  assist  in  this 
Ijliysical  development  and  create  for  many  an 
interest  in  school  affairs,  which  otherwise  would 
be  lacking.  The  boys '  games  are  basket-ball,  in- 
door-ball, and  base-ball,  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year.  The  girls  play  basket-ball  and  in- 
door-ball. The  victorious  teams  are  awarded 
trophies,  which  the  school  keeps  for  one  year. 


McPONOGH  NO.  14. 


-Courtesy  of  Board  of  Public  School  Directors. 


constituents  of  the  materials  they  handle,  the 
relative  food  values,  and  the  most  wholesome 
combinations.  They  are  taught  to  plan  a  per- 
fect meal,  perfect  not  only  from  an  epicurean, 
but  from  a  henitliful  standpoint. 

Domestic  Art.  The  girls  of  the  seventh  B 
and  eighth  A  are  taught  sewing.  This  depart- 
ment has  been  most  successful.  The  girls  of  the 
eighth  A  have  made  dresses  for  the  closing  ex- 
ercises of  the  grammar  schools. 

Depaj-tment  of  Physical  Training.  As  the 
happiness  of  an  individual  depends  largely  on 
his  mental  and  physical  well-being,  proper  train- 
ing of  mind  and  body  are  essential  to  complete 
education.     Daily   calisthenic   drills  and  class 


The  "Spring  Meet'  in  May  is  well  attended  and 
much  enthusiasm  prevails  among  the  pupils, 
teachers,  and  parents. 

Department  of  Hygiene.  To  further  insure 
the  physical  welfare  of  the  community  and  the 
best  possible  hygienic  conditions  in  the  schools, 
the  services  of  several  competent  physicians  are 
secured.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  department  to 
instruct  and  supervise  those  in  charge  of  the 
hygiene  and  sanitation  of  school  buildings,  to 
enforce  the  exclusion  of  contagious  diseases 
from  the  schools,  and  to  require  from  every  child 
and  teacher  a  certificate  of  vaccination.  Its 
activities  cover  a  much  broader  field  in  the  med- 
ical inspection  of  pupils.     Through,   these   ex.- 


114 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


aminations  it  has  been  found  that  many  chil- 
dren, who  were  thought  slow  or  even  dull,  were 
suffering  from  physical  defects  such  as  poor  eye- 
sight, hearing,  or  adenoids.  A  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  pupils'  teeth  proved  a  revelation  to 
many  parents,  who  were  unaware  of  any  defects. 
In  most  cases,  they  gave  their  immediate  atten- 
tion to  the  matter,  and  those  who  could  not 
afford  to  pay  a  dentist  were  given  gratuitous 
treatment. 

Department  of  Attendance.  There  is  a  law 
in  the  State  of  Louisiana  compelling  children 
Isetween  the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen  to  attend 
school.  In  order  to  enforce  this  law,  the  School 
Board  of  New  Orleans  has  appointed  officers 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  this  law  is  carried 
out  and  to  investigate  cases  of  truancy.  If  the 
conditions  do  not  improve,  the  children  are 
brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court. 

Francis  T.  KichoUs  Industrial  School.  A 
movement  for  industrial  or  vocational  education 
has  spread  over  the  entire  country  and  attracted 
attention  in  New  Orleans.  The  aim  is  to  offer 
to  persons  whose  educational  opportunities  are 
limited,  one,  two,  or  three  years  of  training  in 
some  trade  or  industry.  The  trained  worker 
always  commands  a  higher  salary  than  the  raw 
recruit.  Those,  who  have  finished  courses  at  a 
trade  or  industrial  school,  are  fitted  to  earn  a 
livelihood  in  one  field  or  another.    The  Francis 


T.  Nicholls  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  occupy- 
ing a  handsome  building  similar  to  the  new  high 
schools,  has  been  opened  to  girls  over  fourteen 
years  of  age,  who  have  comiDleted  the   sixth 
grade  of  the  elementary  course  or  its  equivalent. 
Girls  above  the  age  of  seventeen,  who  have  not 
completed  the  sixth  grade  may  be  admitted  upon 
the  approval  of  the  Superintendent.  The  courses 
offered  are  dressmaking,  home  economics,  gar- 
ment making,  millinery,    fine    laundering,    art 
needle  work,  design  making.  Commercial  Arith- 
metic, and  English.    The  school  has  proved  so 
pojjular  that  other  courses  will  be  added  as  soon 
as  the  need  arises  and  provision  can  be  made  for 
them.    Many  girls,  who  either  had  no  aptitude 
for   or   time   to    devote   to   higher   intellectual 
culture,  have  been  equipped  with  the  means  of 
making  their  way  in  the  world,  where  year  after 
year  greater  skill  is  exacted  in  eveiy  occupation. 
Delgado   Central   Trade   School   for   Boys. 
Isaac  Delgado  bequeathed  to  the  Public  Schools 
of  New  Orleans  a  fund  for  a  trade  school  for 
boys,  which  as  nearly  as  possible,  must  be  cen- 
trally located.     This  school  has  not  yet  been 
erected,  but  a  department  of  Educational  Re- 
search has  been  established  to  furnish  the  School 
Board  with  accurate  data  concerning  the  in- 
dustries, trades,  and  commercial  activities  of 
'■  New  Orleans,  so  that  the  school,  when  opened, 
may  best  meet  the  needs  of  the  communitv. 


SECTION  4.     TULANE  UNIVERSITY  AND  LOYOLA  UNIVERSITY. 


Medical  College  of  Louisiana.  The  history 
of  Tulane  University  dates  back  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Medical  College  of  Louisiana  in  1834. 
This  College  was  chartered  the  following  year, 
and  in  1836  issued  the  first  degTees  in  medicine 
and  science  ever  conferred  in  the  southwest. 
Some  of  the  most  famous  doctors  in  the  country 
have  added  prestige  to  the  institution  by  hold- 
ing chairs  in  the  different  l)ra.nches. 

University  of  Louisiana,  1845.  The  Consti- 
tution of  1845  provided  for  the  establishment  of 
a  university  in  New  Orleans,  embracing  the 
Medical  College,  to  which  were  to  be  added  law 
and  academic  departments.  The  law  depart- 
ment then,  as  now,  gave  instruction  in  common 
and  in  civil  law,  with  more  stress  on  the  latter. 
As  the  civil  law  of  Louisiana  differs  so  widely 


from  that  of  other  states,  few  students  are  drawn 
from  these  sources.  Tlie  academic  department, 
never  popular,  ceased  all  instruction  in  1859  and 
was  not  reopened  until  after  the  restoration  of 
civil  government  in  Louisiana.  During  the  years 
of  1863,  1864,  and  1865  (war  times),  the  Univer- 
sity held  no  sessions.  Through  the  strenuous 
efforts  of  a  new  board  of  administrators,  the 
academic  department  was  oioened  in  1878  and 
sixty  students  matriculated.  The  following  year 
the  Legislature  recognized  the  University  of 
Louisiana  in  its  three  departments — medical, 
law,  and  academic,  and  pledged  state  aid  to  the 
amount  of  $10,000  annually.  Such  was  the  foun- 
dation on  which  Tulane  University  was  built. 

Paul  Tulane.    Louis  Tulane,  father  of  Paul 
Tulane,  was  a  Frenchman  who  had  emigTated  to 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


115 


San  Domingo  with  his  brother-in-law,  a  wealtliy 
planter,  and  slaveholder.  The  brother-in-law's 
entire  family  was  exterminated  during  the  in- 
surrection of  the  slaves,  but  Louis  Tulane  and 
his  wife  managed  to  escape  in  an  open  boat  to 
the  United  States.  They  settled  in  Cherry 
Valley,  near  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  and  there 
Paul  Tulane  spent  his  boyhood.  A  cousin  from 
France,  touring  the  United  States  for  his  health, 
took  the  youth  as  "traveling  companion."  Most 
of  the  traveling,  in  those  days,  was  done  by 
steamboat,  and  the  two  descended  the  Missis- 
sippi to  New  Orleans,  which  so  charmed  the 
younger  that  he  returned  a  few  years  later  to 
make  it  his  place   of   residence.     Establishing 


dollars  to  the  fund,  which  he  intended  to  in- 
crease, but,  as  he  died  without  a  will,  this  inten- 
tion was  never  carried  out. 

Tulane  University,  1884.  Tulane  had  not 
specified  what  should  be  done  with  the  fund 
beyond  that  it  should  be  devoted  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  white  youth  of  Louisiana;  so  the  ad- 
ministrators decided  to  establish  an  institution 
of  higher  learning.  They  entered  into  an  agTee- 
ment  with  the  State  by  which  the  University  of 
Louisiana,  with  all  its  property,  would  become 
a  part  of  the  new  institution,  thenceforth  to  be 
known  as  Tulane  University' of  Louisiana.  The 
$10,000  annually  contributed  by  the  state  was 
to  be  withheld,  but  the  property  belonging  to 


GIBSON-  HALL,  TULANE  CAMPUS. 


— Courtesy  of  Tulane  University. 


here  a  business  for  the  sale  of  general  supplies 
to  planters  and  country  merchants,  he  amassed 
a  fortune.  His  charities  were  numerous,  though 
so  unostentatious  as  rarely  to  come  to  public 
notice.  In  1873,  he  returned  to  New  Jersey, 
where  he  died.  Paul  Tulane  never  forgot  the 
city  where  most  of  his  wealth  had  been  accumu- 
lated; his  generosity  to  it  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion amply  proved  his  devotion.  In  1881,  he 
donated  all  the  property  he  then  possessed  in 
New  Orleans,  to  the  education  of  the  white 
youth  of  Louisiana.  A  board  of  administrators 
selected  from  the  most  prominent  men  of  the 
city,  was  chosen  to  execute  the  trust.  In  all, 
Tulane  donated  one  million  and  fifty  thousand 


the  University  was  to  be  free  from  taxation,  in 
return  for  which,  the  right  of  appointing  to  a 
scholarship  was  reserved  to  each  senator  and 
representative  in  the  state.  Colonel  William 
Preston  Johnston,  a  man  of  scholarly  attain- 
ments and  upright  character,  then  president  of 
the  Louisiana  State  University  at  Baton  Rouge, 
was  selected  as  the  first  president  of  Tulane 
University. 

Courses  Offered.  At  present,  the  University 
comprises  the  College  of  Medicine,  with  the 
schools  of  medicine,  of  pharmacy,  of  dentistry, 
of  hygiene  and  tropical  medicine,  of  post-gradu- 
ate medicine;  the  Department  of  Law,  with  the 
school  of  Louisiana  Law  and  Common  Law;  the 


116 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


College  of  Arts  and  Sciences;  the  College  of 
Technology,  with  schools  of  mechanical  and 
electrical  engineering,  of  civil  and  sanitary  en- 
gineering, of  chemistry,  and  chemical-sugar  en- 
gineering, of  architecture  and  architectural 
engineering.  A  business  course  has  been 
established. 

Location.  The  University  at  tirst  occupied 
the  buildings  of  the  University  of  Louisiana, 
which  it  had  absorbed.  Sufficient  funds  were 
given  by  Mrs.  Ida  Eichardson  to  erect  and  equip 
a  modern  building  as  a  memoi-ial  to  her  hus- 
band, who  had  long  been  connected  with  the 
medical  department.  The  building  was  erected 
in  1904,  facing  Canal  street,  in  the  square  be- 
tween Villere  and  Robertson,  and  until  1908  was 
known  as  the  Richardson  Memorial  Medical 
School.  In  that  year, 
however,  the  building 
was  sold  to  the  Hutch- 
inson Fund  and  the 
name  "Richardson 
Memorial"  was  given 
to  a  building  erected 
on  the  campus  of  Tu- 
lane  University.  Here, 
the  first  two  years' 
instruction  in  medi- 
cine is  given  the 
students.  The  build- 
ings of  the  former 
University  of  Lou- 
isiana became  too 
crowded  for  the  grow- 
ing institution,  which 
was   removed  to   the 

present  spacious  grounds  in  St.  Charles  avenue, 
facing  the  pleasant  prospect  of  Audubon  Park. 
The  cornerstone  of  the  main  building,  known  as 
Gibson  Hall,  was  laid  in  1894.  Since  then,  many 
handsome  and  well-equipped  structures  have 
been  added  and  form  an  imposing  group  on  the 
campus.  Many  of  them  are  donations  of  gen- 
erous patrons  of  education;  such  is  the  Tilton 
Memorial  Library,  the  repository  of  the  very 
valuable  collection  of  books  belonging  to  the 
University. 

Government.  The  student  body  of  Tulane 
University  is  self-governed.  Each  of  the  four 
classes  (freshman,  sophomore,  junior,  and 
senior)  of  the  academic  department  select  a 
president,  vice-president,  and  secretary.  These 
twelve  students  form  the  Academic  Board,  of 


NEWCOMB  COLLEGC. 


which  the  president  of  the  senior  class  is  ex- 
officio  i:)resident.  This  court  of  honor  is  entrusted 
with  nearly  all  matters  of  discipline,  except 
neglect  of  work  or  absence.  Its  judgments  are 
referred  to  the  president  of  the  University,  who 
approves  or  sends  them  on  to  the  faculty.  That 
body  seldom  does  more  than  ask  the  Board  to 
reconsider  a  decision.  This  system,  inculcating 
a  certain  amount  of  moral  responsibility  in  each 
individual,  has  worked  with  admirable  success. 

Sophie  Newcomb.  Mrs.  Josephine  Louise 
Newcomb,  wishing  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of 
her  daughter,  Sophie,  founded  a  college  for 
young  women.  The  original  fund  of  $100,000 
was  entrusted  to  the  administrators  of  the 
Tulane  fund.  The  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial 
College  was  opened  in  1887  as  a  department  of 
Tulane  University.  The 
courses  offered  are  reg- 
ular collegiate  work, 
the  high  standard  of 
which  ranks  Newcomb 
among  the  best  col- 
leges in  the  South.  One 
of  the  most  noteworthy 
features  of  the  institu- 
tion is  the  School  of 
Art,  which  covers  a 
four  years  course,  sup- 
plemented by  post- 
graduate work.  Draw- 
ing, painting,  model- 
ing, art  needle  work, 
tapestry,  jewelry,  and 
pottery  are  some  of  the 
subjects  comprised  in 
this  course.  Newcomb  pottery  is  far-famed  for 
its  beauty  of  outline  and  design.  The  exhibit 
of  the  Newcomb  School  of  Art  received  the 
highest  award  at  the  Panama  Exposition  held 
in  San  Francisco  in  1915. 

Educational  Work  of  the  Jesuits.  Although 
the  Jesuits  had  been  in  Louisiana  since  the 
earliest  colonial  days,  they  did  not  undertake 
educational  work  until  after  it  became  a  state 
of  the  Union.  The  first  college  established  with- 
in the  present  limits  of  the  state  by  this  illus- 
trious teaching  order  was  at  Grand  Coteau  in 
1835.  Twelve  years  later,  upon  the  invita- 
tion of  Archbishop  Blanc,  they  opened  the 
College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  on  the 
corner  of  Baronne  and  Common  Streets  in 
New   Qrlesins*  Adjoining  the  college  building 


rtesy  of  Tulane  University. 


The    new    ORLEANS    BOOK 


117 


is    one    of    the    handsomest    churches    in    the 
city. 

Loyola  University.  In  1904,  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  opened  a  select  school  in  the  uptown 
section  of  the  city,  in  St.  Charles  Avenue 
opposite  Audubon  Park.  To  this  was  soon  added 
a  collegiate  course.  The  ambition  of  the  Society 
for  a  Catholic  University  in  the  state  was 
realized  in  1912,  when  the  Legislature  granted 
them  full  powers  to  confer  ' '  degTees  in  the  arts 
and  sciences  and  all  the  learned  professions, 
such  as  are  granted  by  other  universities  in  the 
United  States."  Marquette  Hall,  a  magnificent 
building  in  the  Tudor-Gothic  style  of  architec- 
ture, has  been  erected  and  equipped  with  up- 
to-date  apparatus,  for  laboratory  work.  The 
buildings  are  to  be  grouped  in  the  form  of  an 
open  quadrangle;  Marquette  Hall  to  the  rear, 
Thomas  Hall,  already  completed,  on  the  down- 
town side,  and  a  church,  for  which  magnificent 
plans  have  been  made,  to  occupy  the  third  side 
of  the  quadrangle.    The  University  now  offers, 


LOYOLA  UNIVERSITY. 


besides  an  academic  course,  a  pre-medical  course, 
a  law  course,  a  course  in  pharmacy,  and  a  course 
in  dentistry. 

Seismic  Observatory.  The  most  interesting 
instrument  in  the  excellent  scientific  equipment 
of  the  University,  is  the  seismograph,  one  of  the 
few  in  the  country.  The  seismograph  is  an  ap- 
paratus, which  records  vibrations  of  the  earth. 
A  cylinder,  revolving  by  clockwork,  moves  a 
piece  of  carbonized  paper  on  which  two  deli- 
cately poised  needles  trace  parallel  lines.  These 
needles  move  from  side  to  side  witli  any  vibra- 
tion, causing  the  lines  to  be  wavy.  The  instru- 
ment is  so  sensitive  to  the  slightest  vibration  that 
it  will  be  affected  by  an  earthquake  anywhere  in 
the  world.  A  special  observatory,  donated  by 
W.  B.  Burke  in  memory  of  his  son,  houses  this 
mechanical  wonder.  The  seismograph  is  pro- 
tected from  atmospheric  disturbances  by  the 
double  walls  of  the  observatory  and  by  a  special 
little  room  of  glass  within  the  larger  room.  The 
instrument  does  not  rest  upon  or  touch  any  part 

- -     ,  of  the  building,   but  is 

supported  by  an  inde- 
pendent concrete  column 
extending  eight  feet  un- 
der ground.  The  Jesuits 
own  the  principal  seis- 
mic observatories  in  the 
United  States,  and  they 
have  been  asked  to  co- 
operate with  the  govern- 
ment in  the  compilation 
of  seismic  data.  This 
university  has  also  the 
equally  wonderful  and 
better  known  aiJ- 
paratus,the   wireless 

— Courtesy  of  Loyola  University,     telegraph. 


SECTION  5.     PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


Convents.  Several  Catholic  religious  orders 
conduct  splendid  schools  for  girls.  The  Ursu- 
lines,  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  the 
Dominicans  have  been  qualified  by  the  Legisla- 
ture to  confer  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

The  Ursulines,  having  been  forced  to  abandon 
their  historic  buildings  in  the. lower  part  of  the 
city  because  the  site  was  needed  for  a  new  levee, 


have  erected  a  very  imposing  structure  in  State 
Street. 

The  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  have  an 
Academy  in  St.  Charles  Avenue,  just  above  Na- 
poleon Avenue.  This  order  was  founded  in 
France  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury and,  for  over  a  hundred  years,  has  success- 
fully been  devoted  to  the  education  of  young 


118 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


ladies;  their  schools,  established  on  all  conti- 
nents, have  gained  for  them  world-wide  renown 
as  cultural  educators  and  moral  instructors. 
The  aim  of  their  education  has  always  been  to 
mould  the  character  and  to  infuse  into  their 
pupils  that  exquisite  culture  which  is  the  mark 
of  true  refinement.  Before  the  convent  in  St. 
Charles  avenue  was  established,  there  was  one 
in  Dumaine  street.  This  older  institution  has 
lately  been  abandoned  owing  to  the  shifting  of 
population. 

Parochial  Schools.  The  Catholic  Church 
conducts  a  well  organized  system  of  parochial 
schools.  Each  parish  church  has  a  school  ad- 
joining under  the  direction  of  the  parish  priest 
and,  in  most  cases,  taught  by  Nuns.  Uniform 
text-books  are  used  throughout  the  city  and  the 
classes  are  graded  according  to  public  school 
standards.  The  unity  and  efficiency  of  the  system 
is  further  increased  by  a  general  supervision  of 
all  the  Catholic  Parochial  Schools  in  New  Or- 
leans. Music,  art,  and,  of  course,  religious  in- 
struction are  given  special  attention.  A  gradu- 
ate of  Newcomb  College,  eminent  for  her  art 


work,  has  been  appointed  supervisor  of  the  art 
department.  The  teachers  are  thoroughly  pre- 
pared for  the  work  and  the  buildings  are  well 
equipped.  The  school  adjoining  the  Sacred  Heart 
Church  is  considered  one  of  the  most  up-to-date 
in  the  city.  Stereopticons  and  even  moving  pic- 
ture machines  are  utilized  to  illustrate  moral 
stories,  history,  and  practical  science  lessons, 
imparting  vivid  and  realistic  sense-impressions 
to  the  child,  thereby  stimulating  interest. 

Preparatory  Schools.  There  are  several  well- 
known  preparatory  schools.  The  Christian 
Brothers'  College,  renowned  for  thoroughness, 
the  Holy  Cross  College,  and  Rugby  Academy  are 
very  successful  in  pre-collegiate  work. 

Soule  College.  Since  1856,  this  institution 
has  been  successfully  carried  on,  excepting 
during  the  years  of  the  Civil  War,  when  the 
president.  Colonel  Soule,  entered  the  Confed- 
erate Army.  It  ranks  very  high  as  a  Inisiness 
college  and  its  graduates  have  little  difficulty  in 
securing  positions.  In  1881,  it  became  coeduca- 
tional to  meet  the  demands  of  women  for  com- 
mercial education. 


SECTION  6.    INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  COLORED. 


Public  Schools.  The  city  conducts  elementary 
public  schools  for  the  children  of  the  negro  race 
similar  to  those  provided  for  the  white  children. 

Leland  University.  This  institution,  situated 
at  the  corner  of  St.  Charles  Avenue  and  Audubon 
Street,  was  established  in  1870  by  a  retired  shoe 
merchant  of  Brooklyn,  New  York.  The  founder 
devoted  his  attention  to  it  for  twelve  years  and 
was  assisted  by  the  Freedman's  Bureau  and  the 
American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society.  At 
his  death,  he  bequeathed  his  property  to  the  in- 
stitution. Tuition  is  free  except  for  instrumental 
music.  The  course  offers  both  normal  and  col- 
legiate work. 


Straight  University.  The  American  Mission- 
ary Association  was  instrumental  in  establish- 
ing this  school  in  1869,  which  was  named  for 
Seymour  Straight,  a  produce  merchant  of  New 
Orleans,  and  one  M  its  earliest  benefactors.  At 
present,  the  University  occupies  large  buildings 
with  ample  grounds  in  Canal  Street. 

New  Orleans  University.  In  1869,  the  Freed- 
man's Bureau  established  the  Union  Normal 
school,  which  in  1873  the  Legislature  chartered 
as  the  New  Orleans  University.  The  affairs  of 
the  institution  are  controlled  by  a  board  of 
trustees.  Two-thirds  of  the  members  must  be- 
long to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 


SECTION  7.     LIBRARIES. 


Library  Societies.  According  to  tradition,  as 
early  as  1801,  the  first  public  library  of  New  Or- 
leans was  established;  but  there  are  no  authentic 
records  to  attest  its  existence  at  so  early  a  date. 


In  1805,  the  Legislature  chartered  the  New  Or- 
leans Library  Society,  a  joint  stock  company 
with  an  unlimited  number  of  shares  at  $25  each 
and  the  ])rivilege  of  conducting  a  lotter3^    The 


The    new    ORLEANS    BOOK 


119 


finances  of  tlie  Society  did  not  prosper  and  its 
ultimate  fate  is  imcertain.  A  similar  attempt 
was  made  in  1824,  when  the  Touro  Free  Library 
Society  of  New  Orleans  was  incorporated.  Its 
term  of  usefulness  was  short,  for  it  lasted  only 
six  years. 

The  State  Library.  There  is  no  record  of 
any  pul)lic  library  for  eight  years  after  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Touro  Free  Library  Society;  but 
in  1838,  the  State  Library  was  established  by 
act  of  the  Legislature,  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of 
the  legislators,  but  open  to  all  citizens.  From  a 
beginning  of  3,000  volumes,  it  increased  to 
50,028  in  1861.  Tliese  had  been  removed  to 
Baton  Rouge  with  the  change  of  capital,  con- 
sequently many  very  valuable  books  and  docu- 
ments were  destroyed  when  the  State  House  was 
burned  during  tlie  war.  The  volumes  that  were 
left  were  brought  to  New  Orleans  and  deposited 
in  the  City  Hall,  whence  they  were  removed  to 
Tulaue  University. 

"Commercial  Library."  This  owed  its  ex- 
istence to  private  enterprise,  but  in  1842,  through 
the  generosity  of  B.  F.  French,  it  was  turned 
over  to  the  public. 

The  Lyceum  or  Public  School  Library.  The 
Second  Municipality  was  bj;-  far  the  most  pro- 
gTessive  in  the  educational  line.  In  1845,  a 
library  in  connection  with  the  schools  of  the 
district  was  established  through  the  efforts 
of  Mr.  Shaw,  superintendent  of  the  public 
schools,  Samuel  J.  Peters,  and  others.  A 
monthly  subscription  of  25  cents  for  pupils  and 


a  yearly  subscription  of  $5  for  others,  gave  free 
access  to  the  library,  while  a  fee  of  $10  entitled 
the  subscriber  to  life  ownership.  The  Lyceum 
contained  about  7,500  volumes  and  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  a  few  of  them  still  bearing 
the  mark  of  the  Lyceum  are  to  be  found  on 
the  shelves  of  the  present  City  Library.  The 
books  were  placed  in  the  newly  founded  and 
unfinished  municipal  hall,  the  same  whose 
classic  Grecian  architecture  now  adorns  La- 
fayette Square. 

The  risk  Library.  About  1849,  Mr.  Alvarez 
Fisk  bought  the  "Commercial  Library"  from 
Mr.  French  to  carry  out  the  designs  of  his  de- 
ceased brother  for  the  establishment  of  a  public 
library  in  New  Orleans.  The  collection  then 
consisted  of  about  6,000  volumes,  which,  with  a 
Imilding  in  Customhouse  Street,  he  offered  to 
the  city.  Very  little  interest  or  appreciation 
was  shown  for  the  gift  and  the  city  made  no 
provision  for  its  efficient  operation.  It  was 
used  successively  by  the  Mechanics'  Institute, 
the  Louisiana  University,  and  Tulane  until  1897 ; 
then,  it  was  that  the  Lyceum  and  the  Fisk 
Library  were  consolidated  to  form  the  "Fisk 
Free  and  Public  Library."  The  City  Council 
has  annually  made  an  appropriation  for  its 
maintenance.  This  library  continued  to  be  the 
chief  public  library  of  the  city  and  was  fre- 
quently changed  from  one  building  to  another 
until  the  city  received  a  donation  from  Mr.  Car- 
negie with  which  the  present  handsome  struc- 
ture was  erected. 


SECTION  8.    THE  NEW  ORLEANS  PUBLIC  LIBRARY. 


Buildings.  The  library  building  was  erected 
in  1908  at  a  cost  somewhat  over  $260,000.  Mr. 
Carnegie's  gift  amounted  to  $375,000,  but  as  the 
Fisk  Library  was  to  be  embodied  in  the  new, 
the  city  refused  to  accept  the  sum  unless  the 
condition  of  naming  it  "Carnegie"  be  removed. 
The  structure  and  grounds  occupy  the  length  of 
the  block  on  St.  Charles  Avenue,  between  Lee 
Circle  and  Calliope  street.  The  building  is  of 
gray  stone  and  a  portico  suppoi-ted  by  graceful 
Corinthian  columns  extends  beyond  the  main 
entrance.  A  terrace,  several  feet  in  height,  gives 


the  building  an  imposing  setting.  The  interior 
of  the  main  building  is  like  one  great  hall  sup- 
ported by  massive  marble  jaillars.  A  domed 
skylight  and  many  large  windows  keep  it  well 
lighted.  Almost  one-half  of  this  huge  room  is 
occupied  by  the  Juvenile  Department,  secluded 
by  a  low  partition  running  from  side  to  side. 
Here,  the  long  low  tables  with  their  rows  of 
dark  shaded  electric  reading  lamps,  the  small 
chairs,  the  drinking  fountains,  row  upon  row  of 
interesting  books,  the  carefully  arranged  collec- 
tion of  pictures  show  that  everything  is  planned 


120 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOl^ 


for  the  comfort,  entertainraent,  and  instruction 
of  the  little  folks.  On  either  side  of  the  hall  is 
the  reference  room,  containing  a  large  collection 
of  valuable  books  which  are  not  allowed  to  cir- 
culate, but  which  can  be  taken  from  the  shelves 
and  read  at  leisure.  Just  beyond  the  reference 
room  is  the  magazine  reading  room,  where  one 
can  peruse  at  will  the  latest  cojay  of  339  different 
mag'azines — fashion  books,  literary  periodicals, 
religious  publications,  and  magazines  of  science, 
art,  invention,  agriculture,  education,  published 
in  all  parts  of  the  English-speaking  world  and 
some  in  foreign  languages.  Behind  the  main 
building  and  connected  to  it  by  a  wide  vestibule, 
is  the  annex  where  the  books  for  circulation  are 
kept.  Two  stories  are  stacked  with  well-filled 
shelves,  having  only  nar- 
row passageways  between. 
The  books  are  catalogued 
by  means  of  the  Library 
of  Congress  cards.  Each 
book  is  listed  twice — first 
on  a  card  bearing  the  title 
of  the  book  followed  by 
the  author's  name,  and 
this  is  filed  alphabetically, 
according  to  the  name  of 
the  book;  secondly,  on  a 
card  bearing  first  the 
author's  name,  then  the 
title  of  the  book,  and  this 
is  filed  according  to  the 
alphabetical  order  of  the 
author's  name.  All  the 
books  are  numbered  and 
the  cards  in  the  index  bear 
the  numbers  of  the  books. 

Branch  Libraries.  In  connection  with  the 
New  Orleans  Public  Library  there  are  four 
In-anch  libraries,  namely,  the  Eoyal  Branch, 
Algiers  Branch,  Canal  Branch,  and  the  Napoleon 
Avenue  Branch. 

System  of  Circulation.  The  iise  of  these 
libraries  is  absolutely  free  to  all,  and  any  one 
holding  a  card  may  borrow  books  from  the  cir- 
culating depariiuC^t.  All  that  is  necessary  to 
obtain  a  card  is  to  have  some  one  sigTi  a  guar- 
antee that  he  would  be  liable  for  any  fines  in- 
curred by  the  borrower.  Fines  are  incurred  if 
the  book  is  kept  longer  than  the  time  allowed, 
if  the  book  is  damaged,  or  if  it  is  lost. 

Howard  Memorial  Library.  Just  on  the 
other  side  of  Lee  Circle  from  the  New  Orleans 


Pul)lic  Library,  is  a  much  smaller,  but  handsome 
structure.  This,  too,  is  a  library,  a  memorial 
to  Charles  T.  Howard,  erected  by  his  daughter, 
Mrs.  Parrot,  in  1888.  The  plans  were  drawn  by 
Eichardson,  and  were  the  last  from  the  hand  of 
that  famous  architect.  The  original  cost  of  the 
building  was  $115,000,  and  Mrs.  Parrot's  gener- 
osity led  her  to  bestow  an  endowment  of  $200,000 
upon  the  library.  The  interior  consists  of  a  fine 
hall  containing  stacks,  and  a  circular,  domed 
reading  room.  Among  the  valuable  articles 
owned  by  the  library,  are  copies  of  the  original 
editions  of  the  works  of  Audubon  and  an  un- 
rivaled collection  of  Louisiana  maps. 

The  Confederate    Memorial    Hall.     Adjoin- 
ing the   Howard   Librarv   is   the   Confederate 


NEW  ORLEANS   PUBLIC  LIBRARY. 

— Courtesy  Southern  Pacific  R.  R- 

Memorial  Hall  liuilt  in  1891  by  Frank  T.  How- 
ard. The  Hall  with  its  invaluable  collections,  is 
in  charge  of  the  Louisiana  Historical  Associa- 
tion. Many  and  varied  are  the  relics  gathered 
here, — flags  tattered  and  stained  by  time  and 
battle,  swords  of  gallant  officers,  the  uniforms 
of  some  fallen  hero,  a  lock  of  hair,  the  cord  from 
a  hat, — sad  but  soul-stirring  mementoes  of  those 
heroes,  who  went  forth  gladly  to  give  their  lives 
for  their  beloved  South. 

The  Louisiana  State  Museum.  The  Louisiana 
State  Museum,  which  now  occupies  the  two  his- 
toric buildings  on  either  side  of  the  St.  Louis 
Cathedral,  was  created  by  act  of  the  Legislature 
in  1906.  The  Cabildo  contains  valuable  and  in- 
teresting historical  collections,  including  origi- 


*rHE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


121 


nal  documents  and  letters;  maps,  especially  of 
New  Orleans  dating  from  the  earliest  days  of 
the  city;  General  Jackson's  battle  flag  and  other 
relics  of  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans;  slave-sale 
certificates,  Confederate  money,  and  mementoes 
of  the  Civil  War;  pictures  of  scenes  connected 
with  the  history  of  the  state,  portraits  of  the 
governors  of  the  state  and  many  other  historical 
personages ;  and  collections  of  china,  silverware, 
furniture,  and  trinkets,  representing  different 
periods  in  the  history  of  the  State  and  city.  The 
old  Presbytery  is  devoted  to  the  natural  history 
and     commercial     of     the     State.     The     chief 


agricultural  products — cotton,  sugar  cane,  rice, 
and  corn,  the  lumber  and  mineral  products,  and 
a  wonderful  collection  of  native  birds  and  ani- 
mals are  scientifically  classified  and  attractively 
exhibited. 


TOPICS:  Section  1,  Colonial  Education;  Section  2,  Early 
Years  of  American  Rule;  Section  3,  Public  School  System; 
Section  4,  Tulane  University  and  Loyola  University; 
Section  5,  Private  Schools  and  Colleges;  Section  6,  In- 
stitutions for  the  Colored;  Section  7,  Libraries;  Section 
8,  New  Orleans  Public  Library. 

REFERENCES:  Louisiana  Studies,  Fortier;  Standard  His- 
tory of  New  Orleans,  Eightor;  History  of  Education  in 
Louisiana,  Fay;  Annual  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Schools;  Annual  Report  of  the  New  Orleans  Public 
Library. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


Literature  of  New  Orleans. 


SECTION  1.    INTRODUCTION. 


Meaning.  The  word  "literature"  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  "litera,"  which  means  a 
letter,  written  records,  or  writings.  By  litera- 
ture is  meant  "the  best  expression  of  the  best 
thought  reduced  to  writing."  As  people's 
emotions  and  thoughts  are  influenced  by  their 
individual  character,  mode  of  life,  and  social 
conditions,  so  is  literature,  which  is  the  written 
record  of  these  emotions  and  thoughts;  hence 
literature  is  an  important  factor  in  understand- 
ing a  people.  Literature  requires  settled  con- 
ditions in  order  to  flourish.  The  North  Amer- 
ican Lidian  had  no  literature  because  his  life 
was  one  continuous  struggle  for  food  and  life; 
he  had  no  time  to  record  his  emotions,  thoughts, 
and  deeds.  The  earliest  form  of  literature  is  the 
writing  of  the  jiriests  of  the  ancient  tribes ;  their 
life  was  quiet;  they  led  the  people  spiritually, 
in  return  for  which,  they  were  exempt  from 


fighting;  this  condition  of  their  life  enabled  them 
to  give  permanent  expression  to  their  religious 
beliefs  and  the  prowess  of  the  warriors.  Litera- 
ture is  therefore  the  product  of  peaceful  times, 
though  struggles  and  turmoils  of  different  kinds 
are  often  taken  for  the  theme. 

Two  Kinds  of  Literature  in  Louisiana.  For  a 
full  century,  French  was  the  principal  language 
in  Louisiana.  The  Spanish  domination  had  no 
effect  on  the  language  of  the  colony.  Even  after 
the  American  occupation,  French  held  first  place 
for  about  forty  years.  The  sons  of  wealthy 
Creole  families  of  ante-bellum  days  were  sent  to 
France  for  their  higher  education;  thus  the 
French  language  was  retained  in  its  purity. 
Even  to-day,  the  French  language  is  generally 
well  spoken  in  Louisiana.  From  this  hag  re- 
sulted a  French  as  well  as  an  English  Litera- 
ture. 


SECTION  2.    FRENCH  LITERATURE. 


First  Literary  Effort.  Literature  grows 
slowly  in  new  countries.  In  the  early  days  of 
the  colony,  the  hard  conditions  of  life  repressed 
any  literary  aspirations.  "Le  Moniteur,"  the 
first  newspaper,  was  not  founded  until  1794. 
Copies  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  the  archives  of 
the  city.  The  first  literary  work  produced  in 
New  Orleans,  in  fact  in  Louisiana,  was  an  epic, 
which  appeared  in  1779,  during  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  control;  it  was  written  in  French  by 
Juiien  Poydras,  a  native  of  Brittany,  then  living 
in  New  Orleans.  The  poem  celebrated  Glalvez's 
capture  of  Baton  Rouge  and  was  entitled  "La 
Prise  du  Morne  du  Baton  Rouge  par  Monseig- 
neur  de  Glalvez. ' '  The  work  is  devoid  of  literary 
merit,  but  is  worthy  of  notice  as  the  first  at- 
tempt at  a  literary  work  in  Louisiana.  Juiien 
Poydras 's  fame  rests  on  his  philanthropy  and 
public-spirited  citizenship.     He  came  to  New 


Orleans  penniless;  by  peddling  along  the  River, 
he  gradually  amassed  enough  money  to  become 
a  merchant  and  planter,  and  thus  acquired  the 
fortune,  which  he  spent  so  freely  in  assisting  less 
fortunate  in  Louisiana.  Poydras  street  received 
its  name  from  the  fact  that  Juiien  Poydras 's 
New  Orleans  home  was  located  there. 

Drama.  The  second  literary  work  was  a 
tragedy,  "Poucha  Houmma,"  by  Le  Blanc  de 
Villeneufve,  published  in  1814.  The  subject  is 
a  Houmma  Indian  chief's  sacrifice  of  his  life  so 
as  to  save  that  of  his  son.  Cula-Be,  the  son  of 
Chief  Poucha  Houmma,  had  escaped  from  the 
Choctaw  village  after  killing  a  Choctaw.  At  the 
feast  of  the  "Yovmg  Wheat,"  the  Choctaws  sent 
to  the  Hoummas  to  demand  the  murderer.  The 
old  chief  sent  his  son  away  and  gave  himself  up 
instead  to  the  Choctaws.  Villeneufve  endeavors 
through  his  work  to  prove  to  the  world  that  the 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


123 


Indians  were  not  destitute  of  human  feeling. 
L.  Placide  Canonge  in  1849  wrote  a  one-act 
comedy,  "Qui  Perd  Gagne"  (Who  loses  gains). 
Dr.  Alfred  Mercier  and  Dr.  C.  Delery  also  wrote 
some  plays. 

Poetry.  A  number  of  fine  poems  were  written 
at  different  times  during  the  last  century.  In 
1846,  Mr.  Felix  de  Courmont  published  a  poetical 
journal  called  "Le  Taenarion."  Dr.  Alfred 
Mercier,  besides  his  drama,  wrote  some  poetry; 
"La  Eose  de  Smyrne"  and  "Erato"  are  ranked 
among  his  best.  Dr.  Chas.  Testut  published  in 
1849  a  volume  of  verse  called  "Les  Echos."  But 
French  poetry  is  little  known.  The  works  of  the 
French  poets  do  not  enjoy  the  wide  recognition 
they  deserve. 

Prose.  Charles  Gayarre's  first 
work  was  in  French,  "Essai  His- 
torique  sur  la  Louisiaue"  (His- 
toi'ical  Essay  in  Louisiana).  This 
work  appeared  in  1830.  Charles 
Grayarre  is  one  of  the  best  known 
names  in  Louisiana,  as  a  lawyer, 
legislator,  and  historian.  He  was 
born  in  New  Orleans,  January 
9,  1805,  of  French  and  Spanish 
parentage;  his  mother  was  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Etienne  de 
Bor6.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
age  of  twenty  from  the  College  of 
Orleans  and  then  went  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  studied  law 
with  a  well-known  jurist,  Mr. 
Bawle.  He  was  elected  in  1835  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  but  his  poor  health  prevented 
him  taking  his  seat.  He  then  spent  eight  years 
in  France  and  returned  with  his  health  much 
improved.  While  abroad,  he  began  the  work  on 
which  his  fame  rests,  his  "Histoire  de  la  Lou- 
isiane,"  the  first  two  volumes  of  which  appeared 
in  1846  and   '47;    in    1854,    he    completed    the 


volume  on  the  Spanish  Domiziation,  and  during 
the  Civil  War  that  on  the  American  Domination. 
After  the  Civil  War,  appeared  a  comedy,  "Dr. 
Bluff,"  "Philip  11.  of  Spain,"  "Fernando  de 
Lemos  or  Truth  and  Fiction,"  and  its  sequel, 
"Aubert  Dubayet  or  the  Two  Sister  Republics." 
He  contributed  many  articles  to  prominent  mag- 
azines and  reviews.  He  helped  to  reorganize  the 
Louisiana  Historical  Society  and  became  its 
president.  Gayarre  has  given  a  valuable  ac- 
count of  his  life  as  a  child  on  his  grandfather's 
(Etienne  de  Bore)  plantation  in  "A  Louisiana 
Plantation  under  the  Old  Regime."  He  held 
man^^  political  positions,  such  as  member  of  the 
General  Assembly  and  Secretary  of  State.  The 
last  years  of  the  distinguished  scholar's  life  were 
rendered  painful  by  ill  health  and 
l^ecuniar)'  embarrassments.  Death 
claimed  Charles  Gayarre  on  Feb- 
i-uary  11,  1895. 

Besides  his  poems.  Dr.  Testut 
wrote  two  novels,  "Le  Vieux 
vSalomon"  and  "Les  "Filles  de 
Monte  Cristo."  Dr.  Alfred 
Mercier  wrote  "Le  Fou  de 
Palerme,"  "La  Fille  du  PrMre," 
and  "L 'Habitation  St.  Ybars"; 
the  latter  is  generally  considered 
his  best;  it  gives  a  vivid  and 
accurate  account  of  life  on  a 
large  sugar  plantation  before  the 
War. 

French  Literary  Society. 
The  "Athenee  Louisianais"  is  a  society  for 
the  preservation  of  the  French  language  in 
Louisiana.  It  is  affiliated  with  the  Alliance 
Frangaise  of  Paris  and  the  United  States. 
The  society  publishes  a  journal,  "Les  Compte- 
rendus  d  1 'Athenee  Louisianais,"  which  con- 
tains many  of  the  best  literary  efforts  of  its 
members. 


CHARLES  GAYARRiS. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum, 


SECTION  3.    ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 


DeBow's  Review.  In  January,  1846,  appeared 
the  first  number  of  the  "Commercial  Review  of 
New  Orleans";  the  Review  was  edited  by  James 
D.  B.  DeBow,  who  had  removed  in  1845  from 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  to  New  Orleans.  Its 
original  title  is  now  scarcely  known,  it  being 


familiarly  spoken  of  as  DeBow's  Review.  The 
Review  became  one  of  the  foremost  journals  of 
the  United  States  in  the  years  before  the  War; 
it  is  a  rich  source  of  historical  material  about 
the  Old  South.  DeBow,  the  editor,  was  a  pioneer 
in  the  study  of  political  economy,   which  he 


124 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOIt 


taught  at  the  University  of  Louisiana,  then 
located  in  New  Orleans.  Besides  contributing 
to  the  Eeview  and  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
DeBow  published  "Encyclopedia  of  Trade  and 
Commerce  of  the  United  States ' '  in  two  volumes, 
and  various  other  works.  The  Review  was  pub- 
lished regularly  until  1864,  when  it  was  discon- 
tinued ;  after  the  war,  the  office  was  removed  to 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  where  the  journal  was 
published  for  two  years,  1866- '68,  and  then  per- 
manently stopped.  The  Review's  influence  on 
the  development  of  the  city  commercially  and 
educationally  was  great ;  its  pages  are  rich  with 
the  best  thought  not  only  of  New  Orleans,  but  of 
the  entire  South. 

Poetry.  Many  New  Orleanians  have  written 
poetry,  though  few  have  attained  distinction  as 
poets.  Before  the  War,  the  two  best  writers  of 
verse  were  not  native  New  Orleanians,  but  citi- 
zens by  adoption.  Joseph  Brennan,  born  1829, 
was  an  Irish  patriot  exiled  from  Ireland  because 
of  his  connection  with  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments in  1848.  He  lived  in  New  Orleans  for  the 
last  ten  years  of  his  life,  and  for  three  years  was 
connected  with  the  "Delta."  About  his  best 
poem  is  "The  Exile  To  His  Wife";  it  is  a 
pathetic  account  of  his  loneliness  in  a  foreign 
land  and  his  longing  for  his  wife,  for  her  pres- 
ence, her  love,  and  tenderness;  it  is  rich  in 
lieauty  of  thought  and  musical  rhythm.  Richard 
Heiiry  Wilde  was  also  a  native  of  Ireland;  he 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1789;  he  came  to  Mary- 
laud  as  a  child  and  then  lived  in  Augusta, 
Georgia,  where,. after  studying  law,  he  was  sent 
to  Congress.  In  184.3,  Wilde  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  where  he  died  four  years  later.  His 
two  best  known  poems  are  "Ode  to  Ease"  and 
"The  Lament  of  a  Captive;  or.  My  Life  is  Like 
the  Summer  Rose."  Both  poems  soimd  a  note 
of  sad  loneliness;  the  last  is  an  exquisite  lyric. 

Colonel  William  Preston  Johnston,  a  former 
president  of  Tulane  University,  published  a 
volume  of  poems,  ' '  My  Garden  Walk, ' '  La  1895. 

There  have  been  three  noted  poetesses,  Mrs. 
MoUie  E.  Moore-Davis,  Mrs.  Mary  Ashley  Town- 
send,  and  Mrs.  Eliza  Poitevent  Nicholson. 

Mrs.  Davis  was  the  wife  of  Major  Thomas 
Edward  Davis;  she  was  born  in  Alabama  in 
1852,  but,  when  a  small  child,  her  parents  moved 
to  Texas,  where  she  lived  until  her  marriage 
caused  her  to  reside  in  New  Orleans.  Many  of 
her  early  poems  were  gathered  into  a  volume 
entitled  "Minding  the  Gap  and  Other  Poems." 


"Pere  Dagobert"  and  "Wanga"  are  among  her 
principal  later  poems.  There  is  an  appealing 
note  of  truth  and  sympathy  and  sweetness  in 
Mrs.  Davis's  writings;  her  thoughts  are  fresh 
and  original.    Mrs.  Davis  was  also  a  novelist. 

Mrs.  Mary  Ashley  Townsend  was  born  and 
spent  her  early  life  in  New  York.  Alter  her 
marriage  in  1856,  New  Orleans  became  her  home. 
Mrs.  Townsend  has  published  three  volumes  of 
verse  and  a  collection  of  sonnets;  she  usually 
wrote  under  the  name  of  "Xariffa."  "Creed" 
contains  beautiful  thoughts  beautifully  ex- 
pressed; for  instance,  the  vivid  simile  in  the 
verse  preceding  the  last,  in  which  she  compares 
a  person  who  has  not  loved  to  one  who  carelessly 
drops  a  luscious  gi'ape  without  ever  knowing  its 
delicious  sweetness;  the  last  verse  tells  of  the 
beautifying  effect  love  has  on  old  age.  "A 
Georgia  Volunteer"  is  a  sympathetic  musing 
over  the  grave  of  an  unknown  Confederate  sol- 
dier. ' '  A  Woman 's  Wish ' '  and  ' '  The  Captain 's 
Story"  are  among  other  well-known  poems. 

Mrs.  Eliza  J.  Poitevent  Nicholson  was  born 
in  Mississippi  in  1849,  but  removed  to  New  Or- 
leans after  her  marriage.  Mrs.  Nicholson  was 
the  owner  of  the  former  ' '  Picayune ' '  newspaper. 
"Pearl  Rivers"  was  the  name  under  which  she 
wrote.  Mrs.  Nicholson  died  in  1896.  Besides 
many  unijublished  poems  and  poems  published 
in  newspapers,  there  is  a  volume  of  "Lyrics." 
The  lovely  poem,  "Singing  Heart,"  is  in  this 
volume.  Mrs.  Nieholsou  generally  wrote  of  the 
things  of  nature;  she  had  a  deep  understanding 
and  love  of  nature's  workings. 

Drama.  No  great  dramatic  work  has  been 
produced.  Judge  Gayarre  and  W.  W.  Howe, 
and  Mr.  E.  C.  Wharton  wrote  a  few  plays,  but 
achieved  no  distinction  thereby. 

History.  Judg-e  Francis  X.  Martin  was  the 
first  historian  of  Louisiana.  Judge  Martin  pub- 
Isihed  his  history  in  1827;  he  recounts  the  his- 
tory of  Louisiana  from  the  beginning  of  its 
settlement  to  the  close  of  the  year  1815.  Judge 
Martin  was  also  an  eminent  jurist.  (See  Chap- 
ter X.,  Professions — Trades.) 

Judge  Gayarre  wrote  a  romantic  History  of 
Louisiana.  Other  historical  writings  of  Judge 
Gayarre  are:  "A  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Two 
Lafittes,"  "A  Louisiana  Sugar  Plantation  of  the 
Old  Regime,"  "The  New  Orleans  Bench  and 
Bar  in  1823,"  "Literature  in  Louisiana,"  and 
"The  Creoles  of  History  and  the  Creoles  of 
Romance";  the  last  was  a  refutation  of  George 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


125 


W.  Cable's  misrepresentation  of  tlie  Louisiana 
Creoles. 

Professor  Alcee  Fortier  devoted  his  life  to 
the  study  of  Louisiana  historj^,  people,  and  their 
language.  Professor  Fortier  was  born  in  St. 
James  Parish,  June  5,  1856;  he  was  the  son  of 
Florent  Fortier  and  Edwige  Aime,  the  daughter 
of  Valcour  Aime.  He  received  his  early  educa- 
tion under  private  tutors,  in  the  schools  of  New 
Orleans,  and  at  the  University  of  Virginia.  He 
then  studied  law  for  two  years,  but  his  father's 
financial  reverses  compelled  him  to  give  it  up 
and  accept  a  clerkship  in  a  bank.  Shortly  after, 
he  became  a  teacher  in  the  city  high  school; 
later,  he  was  made  principal  of  the  preparatory 
department  of  the  University  of  Louisiana.  In 
1880,  he  was  made  Professor  of 
French,  at  the  University.  The 
following  year,  he  married  Miss 
Marie  Lanauze  of  New  Orleans. 
From  the  professorship  of  French, 
he  was  changed  some  years  later, 
to  that  of  Romance  languages. 
In  1913,  he  became  Dean  of  the 
Graduate  Department  of  the  Uni- 
versity. Professor  Fortier  died 
at  his  home  in  Audubon  Street, 
February  14,  1914.  Professor 
Fortier  served  for  ten  years  on 
the  State  Board  of  Education;  he 
was  president  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  and  of  the  Board  of 
Curators  of  the  State  Museum.  It 
was  largely  through  his  exertions 
that  the  Louisiana  Historical  So- 
ciety was  kept  from  perishing; 
he  served  as  its  president  for  many  years.  The 
French  government  honored  him  by  appointing 
him  an  officer  of  public  instruction  and  present- 
ing him  with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
Professor  Fortier  was  president  of  the  follow- 
ing organizations:  Athenee  Louisianais,  Modern 
Language  Association  of  America,  American 
Folk  Lore  Society,  and  Federation  Alliance 
FrauQaise  of  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
the  Public  School  Alliance  of  New  Orleans. 

Besides  his  labors  in  the  classroom,  in  clubs, 
and  societies.  Professor  Fortier  did  much 
writing,  both  in  French  and  English.  "Bits  of 
Folk  Lore"  appeared  in  1888,  followed  succes- 
sively by  "Sept  Grands  Auteurs  du  Dixneu- 
vieme  Siecle"  (Seven  Great  Authors  of  the 
Niiieteeath  Cofttury),  "Histoire  de  la  Literature 


Frangaise"  (History  of  French  Literature), 
"Louisiana  Studies,"  "Louisiana  Folk  Tales," 
"Voyage  en  Europe,"  "Precis  de  1 'Histoire  de 
France"  (Abstract  of  History  of  France),  "His- 
tory of  Louisiana,"  "History  of  Mexico"; 
editor  of  "Encyclopedia  of  Louisiana,''  and  of 
many  French  texts.  Professor  Fortier  con- 
tributed to  many  magazines  in  the  United  States 
and  in  France. 

Judge  Alexander  Walker  wrote  in  1860  the 
"Life  of  Andrew  Jackson  and  Battle  of  New 
Orleans";  his  son,  Mr.  Norman  McF,  Walker, 
Ijublished  in  the  Magazine  of  American  History, 
September,  1883,  an  interesting  paper  entitled 
"The  Geographical  Nomenclature  of  Lou- 
isiana." Colonel  William  Preston  Johnston 
wrote  the  life  of  his  father,  "Life 
of  Albert  Sidney  Johnston."  An- 
other work  dealing  with  the  Civil 
War  is  Colonel  Alfred  Roman's 
"Military  Operations  of  General 
Beauregard. "  W.  W.  Howe  pulv 
Hshed  the  "Municipal  Histor^^  of 
New  Orleans"  in  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  Studies  in  His- 
torical and  Political  Science. 
There  are  many  other  books  of  a 
similar  character. 

The  Novel.  Charles  Gayarre 
Avrote  two  so-called  novels,  ' '  Fer- 
nando de  Lemos"  and  "Aubert  Du- 
bayet.  Charles  Dimitry,  the  son  of 
the  able  educator,  wrote  "The 
House  on  Balfour  Street."  Dr, 
W.  H.  Holcombe  published  "Mys- 
tery of  New  Orleans  in  1890."' 
One  of  the  most  noted  names  in  the  literature 
of  New  Orleans  is  that  of  Lafcadio  Hearn.  Hearn 
was  born  in  1850  on  the  island  of  Santa  Maura, 
one  of  the  Ionian  group ;  his  mother  was  a  Greek 
and  his  father  an  English  army  surgeon;  he  was 
educated  partly  in  England,  in  Ireland,  and  in 
France.  Hearn  came  to  the  United  States  after 
his  father's  death,  making  his  residence  in  Cin- 
cinnati ;  here,  he  learned  the  printer 's  trade,  then 
became  a  travelling  correspondent  of  a  Cincin- 
nati paper;  he  spent  a  vacation  in  the  South 
and,  unable  to  cast  off  the  spell  of  the  Southland, 
removed  to  New  Orleans.  It  was  in  New  Orleans, 
most  of  his  literary  work  was  done ;  he  wrote  at 
times  for  the  Times-Democrat.  His  first  book 
was  "Stray  Leaves  from  Strange  Literature." 
"Chinesej  Ghosts"   relates   legends  of   China., 


ALCEE  FORTIER. 

— Courtesy  La.  State  Museum 


126 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


"Chita"  is  a  local  story  based  on  the  ter- 
rible storm  that  destroyed  Last  Island.  Later 
Mr.  Hearn  removed  to  Japan,  where  his 
death  occurred.  Lafcadio  Hearn 's  writing  is 
characterized  by  its  brilliance  and  vivid  col- 
oring. 

G-eorge  W.  Cable  may  be  claimed  as  a  writer 
of  New  Orleans,  even  though  he  no  longer  re- 
sides in  the  city.  George  W.  Cable  was  born  in 
New  Orleans  in  1844.  After  serving  in  the  Civil 
War,  he  became  a  civil  engineer,  but  ill  health 
forced  him  to  give  it  up.  Cable  wrote  for  the 
Picayune  and  in  1869  became  one  of  its  editors. 
Scribner's  Magazine  published  his  "Old  Creole 
Days";  the  success  of  this  book  decided  him  to 
adopt  literature  as  a  profession.  After  a  lecture 
tour  with  Clemens  (Mark  Twain)  through  the 
Northern  States,  he  removed  to  New  England. 
George  W.  Cable  has  also  written  ' '  The  Gran- 
dissimes,"  "Dr.  Sevier,"  "The  Creoles  of  Lou- 
isiana," and  "The  Silent  South."  His  portrayal 
of  the  Creoles  has  sometimes  been  faulty.  One 
of  Mr.  Cable's  ablest  works  is  "History  of  New 
Orleans  and  Its  Present  Condition,"  written  for 
the  United  States  census  of  1880;  it  is  a  rich 
source  of  information  about  New  Orleans.  His 
last  work  is  "Gideon's  Band,"  published  in 
1914;  in  this  novel,  Mr.  Cable  portrays  with  mas- 
terful skill  steamboat  life  on  the  Mississippi  in 
the  early  fifties,  revealing  the  spirit  of  con- 
flict then  abroad  in  the  great  Valley.  Mr.  Cable 
has  much  power  as  a  descriptive  writer,  de- 
lighting his  readers  with  exquisite  word- 
paintings. 

Besides  her  poems,  Mrs.  Majy  E.  M.  Davis 
wrote  several  -  charming  novels,  "In  "War 
Times  at  La  Eose  Blanche,"  "An  Elephant's 
Track,"  "The  Queen's  Garden,"  "The  Price 
of  Silence,"  " Keren-Happuch, "  clever  accounts 
of  life  and  scenes  in  New  Orleans,  and  some 
other  stories. 

Mrs.  Ruth  McEnery  Stuart  was  born  in 
Avoyelles  Parish,  the  daughter  of  James  and 
Mary  McEnery;  she  was  educated  in  New  Or- 
leans. Mrs.  Stuart  is  the  widow  of  Alfred  0. 
Stuart,  a  cotton  planter,  to  whom  she  was  mar- 
ried in  1879.  Mrs.  Stuart  began  writing  in  1888; 
her  first  book  was  "The  Golden  Wedding,"  a 
portrayal  of  negro  character;  this  was  followed 


by  "Christmas  Gifts,"  a  story  of  slave  times; 
"Carlotta's  Intended,"  which  deals  with  Dago 
life;  "In  Simpkinsville, "  "The  Gentleman  of 
the  Plush  Eocker,"  "George  Washington 
Jones,"  and  "A  Christmas  Gift  That  Went 
A-Begging."  Mrs.  Stuart  also  does  clever  mag- 
azine writing. 

Miss  Grace  King  is  among  the  foremost 
writers  of  New  C)rleans.  Knowing  intimately 
the  Creole  life  of  New  Orleans,  Miss  King  has 
generally  devoted  her  books  to  the  portrayal  of 
the  character  and  manners  of  the  Creoles,  in 
which  the  best  critics  agree  that  she  has  en- 
tirely succeeded.  Miss  Grace  Elizabeth  King 
was  born  in  New  Orleans,  November  29,  1859; 
her  father,  William  Woodsen  King,  was  a  prom- 
inent lawyer  in  ante-belhim  days.  Miss  King 
passed  her  childhood  in  the  midst  of  the  Creole 
quarter  of  the  city  and  on  her  father's  planta- 
tion in  St.  Martin  Parish.  She  received  her 
education  in  the  schools  of  the  city  and  from 
private  tutors.  Miss  King  early  spoke  French 
and  Spanish  fluently  and  was  thus  enabled  to 
easily  study  the  history  of  the  Creoles  from  orig- 
inal documents.  Miss  King's  first  literarj^  work 
was  done  for  the  New  Princeton  Eeview,  which 
writing  she  later  developed  into  her  first  novel, 
"Monsier  Motte"  (1888).  "Tales  of  Time  and 
Place, ' '  and  ' '  Earthlings ' '  followed.  ' '  New  Or- 
leans, the  Place  and  the  People,"  then  followed; 
this  is  one  of  Miss  King's  most  delightful  books; 
it  is  written  in  an  easy,  charming  manner,  re- 
plete with  vivid  descriptions  and  interesting  de- 
tails, and  reveals  the  Creole  character  at  its  best. 
Other  works  are  "Jean  Baptiste  Lemoyne, 
Founder  of  New  Orleans,"  "Balcony  Stories," 
and  "De  Soto  and  His  Men  in  the  Land  of 
Florida."  Miss  King  wrote  a  school  history  of 
Louisiana,  in  collaboration  with  Mr.  Ficklin. 
Miss  King  has  received  world-wide  recognition 
of  her  work. 

Mrs.  Cecilia  Viets  Jamison  is  a  writer  of 
beautiful  stories  for  children.  Mrs.  Jamison  is  a 
native  of  Canada,  but  New  Orleans  became  her 
home  after  her  marriage  in  1878  to  Samuel  Jami- 
son, a  well-known  lawj^er  of  this  city.  Among 
Mrs.  Jamison's  most  popular  books  are  "Lady 
Jane,"  "Toinette's  Philip,"  "Seraph,"  "This- 
tledown," and  "The  PenhaUow  Family."    Mrs. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


127 


Jamison  writes  for  such  magazines  as  Appleton, 
Harper,  and  St.  Xicliolas. 

Mr.  Thos.  McCaleb  lias  written  a  novel.  "An- 
thony Melgrave, "  which  met  with  a  cordial  re- 
ception on  its  appearance  in  1892. 

Miss  Fannie  Heaslip  Lea  (Mrs.  Hamilton 
Pope  Agee)  is  among  the  latest  recruits  to  the 
literar}-  ranks.  Miss  Lea  has  written  principally 
for  magazines;  her  only  novel,  "Quicksands," 


appeared  in  1911.    Miss  Lea  has  just  begun  her 
literary  career. 

TOPICS:  Section  1,  Introduction:  Meaning,  Two  Kinds  of 
Literature  in  Louisiana;  Section  2,  French  Literature: 
First  Literary  Effort,  Drama,  Poetry,  Prose,  French  Lit- 
erary Society;  Section  3,  English  Literature:  DeBow's 
Keview,  Poetry,  Drama,  History,  NoveL 

EEFERENCES:  Fortier,  Louisiana  Studies;  Fortier,  Ency- 
clopedia of  Louisiana;  KeCaleb,  The  Louisiana  Boole; 
J.  E.  Clarke,  Songs  of  the  South;  Literary  reviews  of 
current  magazines  and  newspapers. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


People — Customs. 


SECTION  1.    PEOPLE. 


Composition  of  Population.  Tlu;  popiilHlion 
(if  New  Oilciiiis,  like  llifil  of  otlicM'  larj^c  Aiiior- 
iciin  ciiicK,  is  (!()Siii()i)olitfin,  tlio  rosiili  of  ils 
people's  CorcHK'n  [)arenta«(i  jukI  of  foreign  iin- 
iiii^ralioii.  It,  must  bo  ])()i'n(!  in  niind  tliat  the 
people  ol'  tli((  llnijcd  States  aix;  not  native  to 
tli(;  coiintry;  tlieii'  anc-cfstors,  followinjj;  in  the 
Wiiki'.  of  (!()lunil)iis,  i)uslie(l  their  way  across  tlie 
seas  and  assumed  control  of  the  Americas  as 
their  forefatliers  had  of  Eiiroix'. 

Accoi'diiiK'  to  the  United  Staters  census  of 
1!>10,  jhe  population  of  New  Orleans  was  ;5.'U),()75, 
(^onsistinf;-  of  Oreoles,  Americans,  negroes,  and 
foreigners;  the  foreign  element  was  tlien  sliglitly 
moi'((  tlian  12  per  cent  of  tlie  population,  and 
includiHl  nqirosentatives  of  every  nation  of 
Europe  and  of  s(iveral  countries  of  Asia  and  of 
(!entral  and  South  America.  This  percentage 
comi)ar'es  favorably  with  Hu<;h  cities  as  New 
York,  in  which  the  foreign  element  is  42  per  cent 
of  tiie  entire  i)opulation,  (Ihicago  ;53  ])er  cent, 
and  St.  Louis  25  per  cent.  It  is,  however,  much 
lai'gei-  than  that  of  Boston,  where  the  foreign 
el(Mnent  is  only  four  per  cent  of  the  entire  ])0])U- 
lation. 

Creoles.  The  (h'Cioles  are  the  descendants  of 
the  b'rencii  and  Spanish  settlers  of  Louisiana. 
VVIien  Louisiana  passed  under  the  American 
flag,  the  Americans  built  up  a  quarter  for  them- 
selves above  the  Ter'i-e  Commime.  This  Terre 
Commune  is  now  Canal  Street  and  thus  marks 
the  division  between  the  old  city  and  the  new, 
and  between  the  Creoles  and  the  Americans. 
Below  Canal  Street  is  the  French  or  Creole 
(juarter  and  above  (Janal  Street  the  American 
district;  the  line  is  not  as  strictly  drawn  now 
as  in  former  iiines;  many  Creole  families  now 
live  in  the  American  section  and  there  are 
numerous  American  residents  north  of  Canal 
(downtown).  ^Phe  (Creoles  have  many  charac- 
lei-istics  of  tiu;  French  and  Spanish  i)eoi)le,  tem- 
px'red,  however,  by  the  di(f(^reut  conditions  of 
their  liL'c  iu  A.nierica.    They  are  (luick-t(Mni)ered, 


care-free,  sociable,  gay,  jiossess  the  pow(u*  of 
enjoying  life,  and  are  generally  religious;  they 
are  kindly  in  their  intercourse  and  possess  a 
pleasing  chann  of  manner.  The  Creoles  differ 
in  appearance  from  the  other  iidial)itants  of  the 
city;  their  physitpu!  is  sliglit,  but  muscular  and 
strong,  and  their  movcnnents  light  and  graceful; 
they  have  olive  comi)lexi(ms,  dark  eyes  and 
hair.  The  Ci'eoles,  as  a  rule,  speak  Frtuich  and 
Fnglish. 

Americans.  "Americans"  in  New  Orleans 
generally  means  the  people  who  are  not  descend- 
ants of  the  French  and  Spanish  settlers.  The 
appellation,  "American,"  was  given  by  the 
Creoles  to  the  English-si)eaking  settlers,  who, 
from,  the  time  of  the  Kevolutionary  War,  came 
at  intervals  to  Louisiana.  This  name  has  clung 
to  them  ever  since.  These  people  rapidly  ob- 
tained control  of  the  comtnerce  of  the  city  and 
made  their  quarter,  the  Faubourg  Ste.  Marie, 
(Ihe  First  District),  the  business  and  i)olitical 
center  of  New  Orh^ans.  These  Americans,  un- 
like the  Creoles,  have  no  distinctive  physical 
characteristics,  (except  that  generally,  their 
build  is  larger.  Their  temjierament  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  average  American;  having  become 
acelinuited,  the  long  sumnun-s  do  not  cause  them 
to  lose  their  energy  as  frofjuently  happens  to 
their  l)rothers  from  Northern  States;  they  ad- 
just their  mode  of  living  to  suit  the  conditions 
of  the  place.  Though  the  "Americans"  are  a 
happy  people,  yet  they  are  not  as  fond  of  gaiety 
as  the  Creoles;  they  generally  prefer  home 
])leasures  to  social  affairs. 

Latin  Americans.  The  Latin  Americans 
come  from  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central  and 
South  America;  they  are  descended  from  the 
Si)anish  settlers  of  these  countries  and  have  the 
same  character  and  appearance  as  the  people 
of  Spain.  Though  not  very  numerous  hereio- 
I'ore,  revolution  in  Mexico  is  occasioning  the 
uumlier  of  M(!xican  inuuigrauts  to  increase 
rapidly. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


.1.29 


Europeans.  lOvery  country  ol"  Euro|)e  is 
r(^l)ro,s(Mite(l  in  Now  Orleans  and  in  all  classes, 
oc(!Uf)ations,  and  seciions  of  the  city.  Among 
tlie  i'oroigners,  the  "Italians"  are  the  moat 
numerous;  tiiey  are  found  in  tlie  dideront  walks 
of  life  from  tlie  humble,  loud-voiced  v(uidor, 
di'iving  his  cart  of  fruit  along  the  str(!ets  and 
calling  out  the  different  varieties  in  Kngiisli 
iiniK)ssil)le  to  understand,  to  tlu^  wealtliy  fruit 
ni(M'(Oiant,  wlio  is  helping  to  develop  tlu^  city's 
ocean  connnerce.  The  (lermans  are  conspicuous 
in  all  avocations;  tlieir  ability  and  iiulustiy  pro- 
cui'c  them  permanent  success,  wliether  in  agri- 
culture, trade,  banking,  or  in  the  pr<)f(!Ssions. 
The  French  are  perfectly  at  home  in  the  Ofcole 
part  of  the  city,  where  they  Ihud-  their  imtive 
language  spoken  with  but  a  slightly  different 
accent.  French  opera  is  sung  ((xclusivcily  a1, 
the  Opera  House;  a  troupe  of  singers  is  brought 
from  France  for  the  winter  season.  The  Irish 
are  almost  as  numerous  as  the  French.  Irish 
immigration  began  in  the  early  forties  of  the 
past  century  and  has  continued  aloiost  unintcn-- 
ruptedly.  Trade  is  the  avocation  in  which  they 
are  most  conspicuous.  The  English  in  N((w  Or- 
leans belong  as  a  rule  to  a  wealthier  class  than 
the  other  foreigners;  they  are  largcily  (engaged 
in  foreign  trade;'like  the  Italians  and  (l(!ririans, 
they  are  scattered  among  the  other  inhabitants 
of  the  city,  not  congregating  more  in  one  (juaiier 
than  another.  The  Russians  occupy  sixth  place 
on  tli(^  list  of  foreigners  in  New  Orleans;  on  the 
main,  they  are  Russian  Jews,  who  have  fhsd  from 
l)ersecution  in  Russia;  many  are  engaged  in  con- 
ducting little,  second-hand   shops  on    Dryades 


Sirecit,  and  in  peddling.  P)esid('S  thes(>  national- 
ities, there  are  a  few  Austrians,  (JrecVks,  Swiss, 
Spaniards,  P)('lglaiis,  Danes,  Noi'wegiaiis,  Swedes, 
and  Scotchmen. 

Asiatics.  Among  Orit^ntal  nations,  the 
(!liiiies(!,  Ja[)anese,  and  Turks  arc;  tlu;  more 
|)roniinent  in  New  Orleans,  as  in  other  cilices  of 
the  United  States,  where  they  have  congregatcMl 
in  any  numbers.  The  Ohinesc*  have  established 
a  (piarter  of  their  own  in  New  Orleans;  they  are 
located  on  Tulane  y\ venue  between  South  Ivain- 
pai-t  and  the  Oi-iminal  Ooui't  House.  Ibire,  they 
have  small  nistavi rants,  junk  aiul  pa,wn  shops, 
and  laundries;  thc^y  are  experts  in  laundering, 
(;sp((cially  clothes  requiring  stiffening,  and  theii' 
little;  laundry  places  are  found  everywlu^rcs  in 
th(>  city.  The  Jaiuuiese,  the  most  liighly  de- 
veloped people  of  iJi(!  Mongolian  race,  operate 
nuiny  shops  for  tlu;  sale  of  .bipanese  ware  and 
curios  of  all  kinds;  some  of  the  more  interesting 
of  tluise  little  stores  are  in  Royal  Stnud;,  a,nd, 
through  them,  may  be  o])tained  most  d(*liglitful 
glimpses  of  the  life  in  far-away  Nippon.  'V\)i^ 
swarthy  Turk  earns  his  livelihood  in  tlu;  (^'niS- 
cent  City  by  peddling  lincMis,  ciinbroideries,  lac(fS, 
and  various  y)roducts  of  Western  Asia. 

Negroes.  The  negroes,  more  generally  calhul 
the  "colored  people,"  are  the  descendants  of  the 
slaves  of  ante-bellum  days,  who  originally  came; 
from  Africa.  The  "colored  people"  form  the 
s((rvant  class  in  the  community.  Schools  and 
missions,  maintained  for  their  betterment,  ani 
w((ll  attended  and  have  accomplished  good  n;- 
siilts.  A  kindly  feeling  exists  l)(;twe(Mi  tlurwiiitc! 
an<l  "coIoccmI  "  r'a.<'.es. 


SECTION  2.     CUSTOMS. 


Carnival.  (Jarnival  is  tlus  season  betwcn^n 
'i\velftli  Night  and  Lent.  It  is  the  gayest  season 
of  the  year  in  New  Orleans,  the  climax  being 
reached  by  the  costly  festivities  of  Mardi  (Jras, 
"fat  Tuesday,"  the  eve  of  Ash  Wednesday.  The 
name  "Carnival"  is  derived  from  two  Latin 
words  "carne,"  "flesh,"  and  "vale,"  "fare- 
well," hence  "farewell  to  the  flesh";  the  pleas- 
ures of  "carnival"  are  a  gay  good-by  to  th(! 
flesh  which  is  to  be  mortified  during  the  p(!ni- 
tential  season  of  Lent. 

Carnival  is  of  pagai;  origin.     The  Romans 


(•(ihibralcci  ilus  f(iast  of  the  I'astoral  god,  Lu- 
pcrcus,  on  February  ir)th;  goats  were  sacrificed 
and  two  youths  clothed  in  goat  skins,  nut 
through  the  streets  hitting  with  leather  thongs 
th(;  persons  they  met.  The  celebration  in  modi- 
fied form  was  kept  by  the  Christian  Romans  and 
has  been  continued  to  the  present  day.  TIk! 
custom  spread  from  Rome  to  other  placets.  N(;w 
Orleans  adopted  th(!  Carnival  from  Paris,  but 
has  improved  upon  it  so  greatly,  that,  today, 
her  Carnival  is. the  most  noted  in  the  world.  The 
brilliant  bjills  and  gorgeous  pageants  of  the  la^^ 


130 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


'Paradise  Lost" 


week  of  Carnival  annually  attract  tlioiisands  of 
\dsitors  to  the  hospitable  metropolis  of  the 
Southland. 

The  custom  of  having  pageants  reproducing 
scenes  from  history,  literature,  or  art,  by  means 
of  gorgeously  decorated  floats,  was  introduced 
into  New  Orleans  from  Mobile.     In  1831,  an 
organization  of  Mobile  known    as    the  "Cow- 
bellions,"  held  the  first  parade  of  the  kind  in 
America.    The  Mystic  Krewe  of  Comus  was  the 
first  to  delight  the  populace  of  New  Orleans  by 
its  appearance  in  the  streets.    In  1857,  they  pre 
seuted  scenes  from  Milton's 
and  then  repaired  to  the 
old  Varieties  Theatre  for 
the  grand  l^all  with  which 
they    entertained    their 
more    intimate    friends. 
This  merry   god  and  his 
court  annually  parade  in 
exquisitely    artistic    guise 
in   the   evening  of   Mardi 
Grras;   their  ball   later  at 
the  French   Opera  House, 
is  the  climax  and  close  of 
the  brilliant  social  season. 
Rex  first  came  to  rule 
in  1872  for  the  benefit  of 
the    city's    distinguished 
guest,    the    Grand    Duke 
Alexis    of    Russia.    Since 
then,  the  royal  yacht,  com- 
ing from  over  distant  seas, 
bears  the  merry  monarch 
and  his  court  of  dukes  and 
peers  of  the  realm,  to  the 
landing  at   the  foot   of 
Canal   Street   at   noon   of 
Monday,  the  eve  of  .Mardi 
Gras.     Rex's    arrival    is 
hailed    by    a    prolonged 
salute  of  cannon  and  whistles  from  every  craft 
in  the  harbor.     A  procession,  composed  of  the 
dignitaries  of  the  city,  the  soldiers  from  Jackson 
Barracks,  the  crews  of  the  visiting  warships,  the 
state  militia,  and  jjart  of  the  city  police  force, 
then  escorts  Rex  to  the  City  Hall.     Here,  the 
Mayor  of  New  Orleans  presents  him  with  the 
keys  of  the  city  and  he  begins  his  frolicsome 
rule  of  thirty-six  hours,  during  which  time  the 
air  resounds  with  the  royal  anthem,  "If  Ever  I 
Cease  to  Love."    At  noon  on  Mardi  Gras,  Rex 
parades  in  f ancif iJ  array  through  the  principal 


streets  of  the  city,  pausing  in  front  of  the  Pick- 
wick or  Boston  Club's  balcony  in  Canal  Street, 
to  salute  the  Queen  of  the  Carnival  and  the  mem- 
bers of  her  court  and  present  Her  Majesty  with 
a  bouquet  in  the  carnival  colors,  pui'ple,  green, 
and  gold.  Mardi  Gras  night  Rex  entertains 
at  a  public  ball  at  the  carnival  palace  (the 
Athenaeum,  corner  of  St.  Charles  Avenue  and 
Clio  Street);  at  midnight.  Rex  and  his  Queen, 
accompanied  by  the  members  of  the  court,  visit 
Comus,  at  the  French  Opera  House;  the  union 
of  the  two  courts  in  the  grand  mareli  following 
the  arrival  of  the  royal  guests,  is  one  of  the  most 
gorgeous  spectacles  in  the 
social  life  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Thursday  night 
before  Mardi  Gras  wit- 
nesses the  appearance  of 
the  Knights  of  Momus. 
This  parade  inaugurates 
the  Mardi  Gras  festiv- 
ities. Momus 's  advent 
occurred  in  the  same  year 
as  Rex,  1872,  when  he 
showed  scenes  from  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  romance, 
"The  Talisman."  After 
the  parade,  Momus  enter- 
tains at  a  ball  at  the 
French  Opera  House. 

The  Mystic  Krewe  of 
Proteus  made  its  first  ap- 
pearance in  1882,  on^Mardi 
Gras  eve,  in  a  parade  illus- 
trative of  ' '  The  Dream  of 
Egypt. ' '  Proteus  seems 
not  to  limit  the  cost,  so 
beautiful  are  his  annual 
]iageant  and  ball  both  in 
thought  and  execution. 
There  are  other  organizations  that  entertain 
at  brilliant  balls;  among  these,  the  more  promi- 
nent are  the  Twelfth  Night  Revellers,  Nereus, 
and  the  Atlanteans.  A  queen  and  attendant 
maids  are  chosen  at  all  these  balls  and  the 
beauty  and  rich  attire  of  the  court  contribute  to 
the  splendor  of  the  entertainment,  which  gener- 
ally occurs  at  the  French  Opera  House. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  arous- 
ing the  Mardi  Gras  spirit  is  the  secrecy  and 
mystery  enshrouding  the  great  pageants;  the 
public  knows  nothing  about  them  until  they  see 


CARNUIVAL   PAGEANT    IN    CANAL   STREET. 

— Courtesy  Southern  Pacific  R.  R-. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


131 


them  appear  in  the  streets.  The  expense  of 
these  parades  is  borne  by  members  of  the  Mystic 
Krewes,  and  ranges  from  $20,000  to  $30,000  and 
sometimes  more  for  a  single  pageant.  As  soon 
as  one  Mardi  Gras  is  over,  preparations  begin 
for  the  next.  A  Mystic  Krewe  numbers  about 
250  members,  about  100  of  whom  are  selected 
to  participate  in  the  display.  A  design  com- 
mittee is  elected  at  the  organization's  first  meet- 
ing; a  "captain"  is  appointed  to  be  the  head 
of  this  committee,  and  is  given  absolute  power. 
The  committeemen  propose  subjects  taken  from 
history,  literature,  mythology,  etc.;  five  or  six 
of  these  suggestions  are  given  to  the  artist,  who 
presents  a  few  weeks  later  crayon  sketches  of 
them  to  tlie  committee.  After  the  committee 
makes  its  final  selection,  the  artist  designs  in  de- 
tail and  in  water  colors  each  float  and  costume. 
The  characters  are  then  assigned  the  meml^ers 
and  the  costume  cards  are  sent  to  the  manu- 
facturer ;  the  costumes  are  received  by  December 
and  given  to  the  court  tailors  for  fitting  and 
altering.  The  float  Committee  has  charge  of  the 
construction  of  tlie  floats.  Carpenters,  painters, 
papier-mache  workers,  and  many  others  are 
kept  busy  building  the  floats  in  the  "Float 
Den,"  which  is  located  in  an  out-of-the-way 
place,  such  as  the  yard  of  an  abandoned  cotton- 
press.  The  ball  at  the  Opera  House  is  arranged 
by  the  "Ball  Committee."  When  the  appointed 
day  for  the  parade  arrives,  preparations  are 
begun  in  the  afternoon,  if  the  display  is  to  be 
at  night.  The  drivers,  torcli-bearers,  and  other 
attendants  are  well  drilled.  The  maskers'  cos- 
tumes are  in  readiness  in  some  building  near  the 
Float  Den;  the  members  rejoair  to  this  building 
and  don  their  costumes,  placing  their  formal 
dress  suits  in  the  "costume  boxes;  these  boxes  are 
later  taken  to  the  Opera  House  to  be  in  readiness 
for  the  maskers  at  the  close  of  the  ball.  About 
seven  o'clock,  the  maskers  line  up  and  the  roll 
is  called.  A  police  squad  keeps  the  streets 
cleared  for  several  squares  about  the  den.  The 
torch-bearers  form  in  ranks  and  the  floats,  about 
twenty  in  number,  are  driven  out.  At  the  ' ' Cap- 
tain's"  command,  the  maskers  mount  the  floats. 
The  Captain  then  marshals  the  torch-bearers, 
floats,  and  bands  into  position,  and  the  proces- 
sion moves  out  Clio  Street  to  St.  Charles  Avenue, 
up  St.  Charles  Avenue  to  Washington  Avenue, 
and  then  down  to  Canal  Street ;  out  Canal  Street 
to  Magazine  Street,  and  out  Canal  Street  along 
its  upper  side  to  Carondelet   Street,  and  then 


down  Bourbon  Street  to  the  French  Opera  House, 
at  the  corner  of  Toulouse  Street  and  Bourbon, 
where  the  maskers  dismount  and  the  floats  are 
taken  away  to  their  secret  home.  These  pageants 
are  not  only  exquisite  and  entertaining,  but  in- 
structive as  well.  The  subjects  are  worked  out 
in  a  highely  artistic  manner,  beautifully  illus- 
trating bits  of  the  world's  treasure  house  of  fact 
and  fable,  as  for  instance,  Tasso's  "Jerusalem 
Delivered,"  "The  Adventures  of  Telemachus," 
"Chaucer's  Tales,"  and  many  others. 

McDonogh  Day.  One  of  the  most  prominent 
]3ersons  in  the  conunercial  and  social  world  of 
New  Orleans  between  the  Transfer  and  1850, 
was  John  McDonogh;  first,  social  favorite,  then 
melancholy  recluse.  John  McDonogh  was  born 
in  Baltimore  in  1778,  of  Scotch  parentage.  A 
visit  to  New  Orleans  in  1800  revealed  its  com- 
mercial possibilities,  and,  in  1804,  he  took  up 
his  permanent  residence  here.  His  business 
flourished  so  well  that,  five  years  later,  he  opened 
a  sumptuous  house  at  the  corner  of  Chartres  and 
Toulouse  Streets.  At  the  Battle  oT  New  Orleans, 
he  served  as  a  member  of  Captain  Beale's  com- 
pany of  rifles.  The  story  is  that,  about  this  time, 
McDonogh  fell  in  love  with  a  Miss  Johnson, 
whose  parents  had  removed  to  New  Orleans 
from  Baltimore  in  1814.  Because  of  differences 
in  religion,  the  young  lady's  parents  refused 
their  consent  to  her  marriage  with  John  Mc- 
Donogh ;  a  few  years  later.  Miss  Johnson  became 
an  Ursuline  Nun.  Thereupon,  McDonogh  closed 
his  house  in  the  Vieux  Carre  and  repaired  to  his 
plantation  across  the  river,  now  McDonoghville. 
As  there  were  no  steam  ferries  prior  to  1835, 
McDonogh  crossed  the  river  daily  in  a  skiff, 
continuing  to  do  so  after  the  ferries  were  oper- 
ated. Because  of  this  habit,  many  persons  ac- 
cused him  of  stinginess.  Unaffected  by  the 
sarcasm,  ridicule,  and  condemnation  of  his 
former  admirers,  McDonogh  silent  the  re- 
mainder or  his  days  in  solitude,  dealing  out 
justice  and  charity  to  his  employees  and  slaves, 
freeing  many  of  his  slaves  and  providing  for  the 
future  freedom  of  others,  and  all  the  time  amass- 
ing a  fortune.  "And  for  what  purpose?"  every 
one  asked.  John  McDonogh  never  said.  It  was 
not  imtil  his  will  was  read  after  his  death  in 
1850,  that  his  secret  purpose  was  revealed, 
namely,  to  benefit  by  education  the  youth  of 
New  Orleans  and  Baltimore.  The  passing  years 
have  removed  from  his  name  the  stigma  of 
miser,  and,  today,  we  know  him  to  have  been 


132 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


honorable,  steadfast,  kind,  and  self-sacrificing, 
a  patriotic  citizen,  and  an  upright  Christian. 

The  opening  of  the  will  of  John  McDonogh 
revealed  to  the  public  that  he  had  left  the  bulk 
of  his  fortune  to  the  cities  of  Baltimore  and  New 
Orleans  for  the  education  of  their  youth.  All 
that  John  McDonogh  asked  in  return  for  his 
gift,  was  that,  once  a  year,  the  children  of  the 
city  would  strew  flowers  on  his  grave.  As  his 
remains  were  removed  to  Baltimore,  the  monu- 
ment erected  in  his  memory  by  the  public  school 
children  of  the  city,  has  been  substituted  for  his 
grave.  On  the  first  Friday  of  May,  delegations 
from  every  public  school  in  New  Orleans,  gather 


decoration  day.  The  cemeteries  are  beautifully 
decked  with  quantities  of  gorgeous  flowers;  the 
large,  handsome  chrysanthemums  being  the 
most  used.  All  day,  the  cities  of  the  dead  are 
thronged  with  the  living,  whose  presence  and 
the  lavish  floral  display  give  a  festive  air  to  the 
otherwise  sad  scenes.  The  day  is  prepared  for 
months  ahead  of  time  by  thrifty  florists.  So 
popular  has  become  the  chrysanthemum  for  all 
Saints '  decoration,  that  several  hundred  persons 
are  engaged  in  their  cultivation,  principally  for 
this  festival. 

Thajiksgiving  Offering.     Thanksgiving  Day 
is  set  apart  for  the  public  offering  of  thanks  to 


McDONOGH  MONUMENT  IN  LAFAYETTE  SQUARI 

— Courte 


nf  thL  SiuthPin  Piciflc  R.  E. 


in  Lafayette  Square,  and  mass  beautiful  flowers 
about  McDonogh 's  monument,  while  singing  the 
pretty  McDonogh  song.  Owing  to  other  bene- 
factors of  the  public  schools  being  honored  on 
this  day,  the  name  of  the  day  has  been  changed 
to  Founders'  Day,  but  uppermost  in  the  minds 
and  hearts  of  all  is  the  name  of  John  McDonogh, 
the  foremost  of  the  public  school  benefactors. 

All-Saints '.  All-Saints '  Day  is  celebrated  on 
the  first  of  November;  it  is  of  Catholic  origin, 
being  the  day,  on  which  the  memory  of  all  the 
saints,  is  honored  by  the  Catholic  Church.  All- 
Saiijts  i,s  now  a  state  holiday;  it  is  the  Louisiana 


God  for  the  prosperity,  peace  and  happiness  of 
the  nation.  It  is  a  holiday,  and  so  appropriately 
celebrated  in  the  home  by  a  bountiful  Thanks- 
giving dinner.  The  children  of  the  public 
schools  bring  a  Thanksgiving  offering  to  school 
on  the  eve  of  the  holiday;  this  oft'ering  consists 
of  anything  from  an  onion  and  an  Irish  potato 
to  a  delicate  pastry  or  jelly.  After  all  the  offer- 
ings have  been  collected,  they  are  sorted  and 
sent  to  the  needy  homes,  orphan  asylums,  and 
homes  for  the  aged  in  the  district  of  the  school. 
Thus  do  the  more  prosperous  share  with  their 
poorer  neighbors,  and  Thanksgiving  morning 


THE   N£W   ORLEANS    BOOKl 


133 


sees  all  united  in  thanking  God  for  His  public 
and  personal  benefactions. 

St.  Roch's.  St.  Eoch's  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting cemeteries  in  New  Orleans ;  principally 
because  of  its  unusual  origin.  An  epidemic 
bi'oke  out  in  the  city  in  the  year  1866- '67. 
Father  Thevis,  then  pastor  of  the  Catholic  Ger- 
man parish  in  the  rear  of  the  Third  District, 
made  a  vow  that  if  none  of  his  parishioners 
should  succumb  to  the  epidemic,  he  would  with 
his  own  hands  erect  a  chapel  in  thanksgiving. 
The  whole  parish  united  in  prayer  to  St.  Eoch. 
As  the  epidemic  did  not  cause  the  death  of  any 
of-  his  congregation,  the  old  pastor  built  the 
chapel  and  called  the  place  "Campo  Santo," 
"Holy  Field."  The  chapel 
is  of  beautiful  Gothic 
architecture  and  is  similar 
to  the  mortuary  chapels 
found  in  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary. Over  the  altar  is  a 
statue  of  St.  Eoch,  which 
represents  him  with  his 
favorite  dog  that  fed  him 
when  he  lay  suffering  from 
the  plague,  in  the  forest 
near  Bingen,  Germany.  St. 
Eoch's  became  famed  as 
a  miracle-working  shrine, 
attested  to,  by  the  hun- 
dreds of  votive  tablets  ex- 
pressive of  the  gratitude 
of  the  donors;  these  are 
placed  on  all  sides  of  the 
altar,  and  many  candles 
are  kept  continually  burn- 
ing before  this  altar.  A 
little  cemetery  has  grown 
up  about  the  chapel;  within  the  little  edifice, 
the  side  tiers  of  vaults  are  reserved  for  the 
members  of  the  societies  of  St.  Anne  and  St. 
Joseph ;  the  holy  founder  lies  buried  in  the  crypt 
under  the  sanctuary.  There  are  many  legends 
connected  with  St.  Eoch's,  such  as,  that  if  a 
young  woman  prayed  in  the  chapel  regularly 
every  evening  she  would  have  a  husband  before 
the  year  would  be  out ;  another  is  that  if  a  maid 
look  into  the  well  at  St.  Eoch's,  she  would  see 
reflected  on  its  smooth  surface  the  face  of  her 
future  husband;  of  course,  she  must  not  look 
into  the  well  when  alone. 

Charivari.    The  charivari  is  among  the  dis- 
tinctly odd  customs  of  New  Orleans.     In  me- 


ST.  ROCH'S  CHAPEL, 


diaeval  times  in  France,  persons  entering  into 
a  second  marriage,  were  given  a  ' '  mocking  sere- 
nade, produced  by  the  beating  of  pans  and 
kettles  mingled  with  groans  and  hisses";  this 
peculiar  serenade  was  called  a  "charivari." 
The  custom  still  survives  among  the  Creoles  of 
Louisiana;  however,  it  is  now  considerably  less 
boisterous  in  New  Orleans  than  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts. There  have  been  numberless  "charivaris," 
but  perhaps  none  have  attained  the  celebrity  of 
the  one  accorded  the  fair,  young  widow  of  Don 
Andres  Alomnaster  y  Eoxas.  Miss  King  relates 
in  "New  Orleans:  The  Place  and  the  People," 
that  for  three  days  and  three  nights  the  crowd 
followed  the  fleeing  couple,  "up  and  down  the 
city,  to  and  fro  across  the 
river,"  until  finally  they 
made  their  escape  from 
the  city. 

July  Fourteenth.  French- 
men's  Day  is  celebrated 
annually  on  July  four- 
teenth. It  was  July  14, 
1789,  that  the  Paris  mob, 
in  whom  opioression  had 
aroused  the  spirit  of  revo- 
lution, attacked  the  Bas- 
tille, the  state  prison,  for 
five  hours.  The  huge 
stronghold  withstood  the 
attack,  but  the  guard  with- 
in forced  De  Launey,  the 
captain,  to  surrender;  he 
did  so,  however,  on  the 
condition  that  no  harm 
should  be  done.  Seven 
prisoners  well  deserving 
their  fate,  were  the  only 
ones  found  in  the  prison.  Five  officers  and  three 
men  were  killed  by  the  populace.  De  Launey 
was  murdered  in  the  street  and  his  head  stuck 
on  a  pike.  This  began  the  Eevolution  in  France, 
known  as  the  "Eeign  of  Terror"  because  of  its 
fearful  atrocities,  which  overthrew  the  rule  of 
the  Bourbon  kings,  and  was  itself  only  crushed 
by  the  despotism  of  Napoleon  Bonapart.  The 
republican  form  of  government,  different,  how- 
ever, from  that  in  the  United  States,  finally 
obtained  control  in  France.  The  French  of  to- 
day, thus  celebrate  July  Fourteenth  as  their  In- 
dependence Day. 

The  Volksfest.    The  "Volksfest"  is  held  at 
the  Fair  Grounds  on  the  last  Sunday  in  May. 


134 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


It  is  given  by  the  Grerman  residents  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  funds  for  the  snpport  of  the 
German  Protestant  Orphans'  Home.  Tlie  Volks- 
fest  was  first  held  in  New  Orleans  in  1874.  The 
festival  was  introduced  from  Germany,  where 
the  "Volksfest" — people's  festival,  is  held  in 
the  spring  of  the  year.  These  festivals  are  char- 
acterized by  the  games  or  sports  peculiar  to  the 
district  and  sometimes  take  their  name  from  a 


special  sport.  The  New  Orleans  Volksfest  differs 
from  the  German  in  its  purpose,  namely,  to  raise 
funds  for  charity  instead  of  only  to  entertain 
and  amuse  the  people. 

TOPICS:     Section  1,  People;  Section  2,  Customs. 

REFERENCES:  Guide  to  New  Orleans,  1884;  Picayune 
Guide  Book;  Eliza  Eipley,  Social  Life  in  Old  New  Or- 
leans; Grace  King,  New  Orleans — The  Place  ami  the 
People;   Alcce  Fortier,  Louisiana  Studies. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


City  Government. 


SECTION  1.    INTRODUCTION. 


The  Well-Governed  Home.  "Ah!  what  a 
splendid  home  I",  said  the  visitor,  smiling  ap- 
provingly. The  house  of  which  he  spoke  was 
very  modest;  but  let  us  approach  it  as  did  the 
appreciative  visitor.  The  banquette  was  clean 
and  in  repair;  the  simple  iron  fence  was  well 
painted;  within  was  a  small  garden,  where 
lovely  flowers  blossomed  unhampered  by  any 
rank  growth  of  weeds.  The  home  sat  in  the 
midst  of  the  garden  and  lawn  and,  like  its  sur- 
roundings, was  in  good  condition,  not  in  the 
least  in  need  of  repair;  its  cleanliness  fairly 
sparkled.  A  peep  into  the  interior  of  the  home 
■revealed  every  comfort  and  a  few  luxuries. 
Children's  merry  voices  resounded  about  the 
premises.  At  the  sound  of  the  dinner  bell,  there 
was  a  flurry  of  movement  and  then  the  family 
gathered  about  the  inviting  board.  At  one  end 
of  the  table,  the  smiling  mother  saw  to  the  needs 
of  each  of  the  rosy-cheeked  youngsters,  amid  a 
happy  chatter  about  the  doings  of  each  one,  dis- 
cussions of  which  were  referred  to  the  proud 
father  at  the  other  end  of  the  table.  Each  had 
his  report  to  make  about  that  day's  activities. 

What  was  it  that  made  that  home  "splen- 
did," as  the  visitor  said?  GOA^RNMENT. 
The  father  and  mother  were  the  head  of  the 
family.  They  saw  that  each  member  had  his  or 
her  special  chores  to  accomplish,  and  that  each 
one  did  their  share  and  took  up  responsibility 
for  the  whole,  inasmuch  as  each  one  would  not  do 
anything  to  cause  disorder.  No  one  would  throw 
paper,  fruit  peelings,  etc.,  about  the  premises, 
nor  ruthlessly  tear  up  the  grass  and  flowers,  nor 
•  jab  holes  in  the  pavement,  nor  scribble  on  the 
paint. 

What  was  the  result!  A  fair  home,  the  joy 
of  the  inmates  and  the  admiration  of  the  visitors. 

Need  of  Government  in  the  City.  If  govern- 
ment is  so  necessary  in  the  home  for  the  main- 
tenance of  order,  securing  of  cooperation,  and 
making  progress,  how  much  more  necessary  is 
it  in  a  home  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people, 


a  big  city !  And  as  the  needs  of  the  city  are  the 
vastly  magnified  needs  of  the  family,  so  the 
tokens  by  which  the  visitor  judges  the  family, 
are  those,  vastly  magnified,  by  which  he  judges 
the  city,  namely,  the  appearance  of  the  city,  the 
spirit  of  the  citizens  (the  members  of  the  city 
family),  and  the  work  accomplished  by  the 
citizens. 

As  the  father  and  mother  governed  the 
family,  so  the  persons  chosen  by  the  people  of 
the  city,  govern  the  city;  and  when,  like  the  two 
parents  of  whom  we  have  been  speaking,  they 
do  their  work  well,  the  citizens  are  busy  and 
contented,  and  make  annually  (everything  is  on 
such  a  bigger  scale)  reports  about  their  wonder- 
ful work. 

Civic  Interest — A  Duty.  Do  you  think  the 
liome  we  have  been  considering  would  be  so 
splendid  if  all  the  members  of  the  family  were 
not  interested  in  making  and  keeping  it  in  such 
condition?  Surely  not.  Suppose  four-year-old 
Tommy  decided  to  use  a  flower-bed  as  a  garbage 
can,  and  threw  all  the  banana  peelings  into  it. 
Six-3rear-old  Mary  might  happen  by  and  care- 
fully remove  it  to  its  proper  receptacle;  but, 
while  Mary  would  be  so  engaged,  the  chore, 
that  had  been  assigned  to  her,  of  gathering  the 
violets  for  the  dinner  table,  would  be  neglected. 
Some  one  else,  trying  to  accomplish  Mary's 
work,  would  leave  his  own  undone.  So,  be- 
cause of  poor  Tommy's  disorderly  act  the  en- 
tire household  arrangement  would  be  somewhat 
upset. 

Now  let  lis  make  the  aplication  to  our  huge 
family — our  city.  A  couple  of  thousand  Tommies 
unthinkingly  throw  jDeelings,  paper  wrappings, 
bits  of  old  clothes,  food,  etc.,  in  the  streets,  even 
in  the  beautiful  squares  and  parks.  A  large 
number  of  workmen  are  kept  employed  cleaning 
up  after  these  careless  citizens;  another  set  of 
men  have  to  mount  guard  to  protect  the  public 
gTounds  and  prevent  these  thoughtless  citizens 
from  committing  such  disorderly  acts.    And  all 


136 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


this  labor  and  money  spent  on  cleaning  up  and 
preventing  disorderly  deeds,  could  be  used  in 
improving  the  eity,^f  there  were  no  disorderly 
Tommies.  ) 

Do  you  think  four-year-old  Tommy  has  any 
right  to  turn  into  a  garbage  receptacle,  the 
pretty  flower-bed,  which  his  father  has  had  the 
gardener  make?  NO.  Has  any  member  of  the 
city  family  the  right  to  deface  the  appearance 
of  the  city?  NO.  It  is  then  the  duty  of  each 
one  to  refrain  from  committing  disorderly  acts, 
and  to  labor,  each  one  according  to  his  ability 
and  position,  to  improve  the  city;  to  discover 
the  needs  of  the  city,  and  how  to  meet  these 
needs;  to  take  an  interest  in  the  government  of 
the  city,  since  it  is  all  the  voters  of  the  city  who 
choose  the  government  and  select  the  persons  to 
do  the  governing  of  the  city;  to  see  that  the 
work  of  governing  is  assigned  to  responsible 
]3ersons;  to  recognize  and  appreciate  good  gov- 
erning, as  well  as  con- 
deum  and  punish  bad  gov- 
erning. Suppose  Johnnie 
was  given  the  weeding 
of  the  garden,  and  after 
working  three  days  and 
removing  every  weed,  he 
told  his  father  about  his 
work  and  his  father  paid 
no  attention  t6  him,  never 
said  an  appreciative 
word,  nor  looked  at  the 
well-ordered  garden.  Do 
you  think  Johnnie  would 
in  the  future  care  very 
much  as  to  whether  he 
would  do  his  work  well 
or  ill?  So  with  those  per- 
sons whom  the  people  of 

the  city  select  to  do  their  governing.  If  the  people 
of  the  city  never  become  acquainted  with  their 
work,  let  alone  appreciate  it,  take  no  interest 
in  the  public  work  of  the  city,  do  you  think  the 
public  officers  will  feel  encouraged  to  do  better, 
or  will  realize  their  responsibility  to  the  people, 
when  the  people  pay  no  attention  to  the  affairs 
of  the  city? 

Charter  of  New  Orleans.  New  Orleans  be- 
came a  chartered  city  in  1805,  that  is,  she  was 
then  granted  a  charter  by  the  Legislature  of  the 
Orleans  Territory.  The  charter  gave  her  the 
right  to  govern  herself  in  a  special  manner  de- 
scribed therein.    Every  time  the  people  of  New 


Orleans  have  desired  a  change  in  the  govern- 
ment, they  have  had  to  apply  to  the  State  Legis- 
lature for  such  permission;  when  it  was  to 
be  a  complete  change,  a  new  charter  would  be 
gTanted. 

Government  of  New  Orleans,  1805-1912.  Be- 
tween 1805  and  1912,  the  government  was  gen- 
erally "aldermanic."  The  city  was  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  aldermen;  the  number  of  alder- 
men varied  under  different  charters.  The  elec- 
tors voted  for  the  mayor  and  aldermen  either 
at  large  or  according  to  wards.  The  mayor  and 
aldermen  formed  the  city  council  and  made  and 
enforced  the  laws  and  took  charge  of  the  city's 
finances.  Sometimes  the  aldermen  were  divided 
into  two  bodies,  other  times  they  served  as  one 
body. 

Besides  the  "aldermanic"  fonn,  there  was 
the  "department"  or  "bureau"  form  of  gov- 
ernment. Under  this  form,  the  work  of  govern- 
ing the  city  was  divided 
into  two  departments 
or  bureaus,  as  finance, 
public  property,  public 
works,  etc.;  each  depart- 
ment had  its  head  officer 
and  assistants.  The  heads 
of  each  department  with 
the  mayor  formed  the  city 
council. 

The  last  form  of  gov- 
ernment in  the  city  be- 
fore 1912  was  the  "alder- 
manic."    This    form    of 
government   with   the 
large  number  of  council- 
men,   was   considered  to 
be    unsatisfactory,    prin- 
cipally because  it  pre- 
vented the  holding  of  any  one  in  particular  re- 
sponsible for  the  government's  acts.    A  change 
was  then  agreed  upon. 

Commission  Plan  of  City  Government.  A 
form  of  government  known  as  the  ' '  commission 
plan"  had  become  popular  among  medium-sized 
cities  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  This  plan  pro- 
vided for  conducting  the  business  of  governing 
a  city,  in  the  same  manner  as  oioerating  a  large 
corporation.  The  plan  provided  for  a  mayor  in 
charge  of  the  city's  public  affairs  and  divided 
the  rest  of  the  city  government  into  four  depart- 
ments, each  in  charge  of  a  commissioner;  (1)  de- 
partment   of   finance;    (2)    public   works;    (3) 


THE   CITY  HALL. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


137 


police  and  fire  prevention;  (4)  public  property. 
The  mayor  and  four  commissioners  formed  the 
commission  council  and  had  to  make  and  enforce 
the  laws  of  the  city,  make  appointments,  make 
improvements,  award  contracts,  and  vote  appro- 
priations, Provision  was  made  for  holding  the 
mayor  and  commissioners  responsible  for  the 
faithful  and  satisfactory  performance  of  their 
duties,  and  removing  them  from  office  in  case  of 
misdeeds  or  inability  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
their  office.  The  voters  of  the  city  could  have  a 
law  repealed,  that  is,  made  inactive;  again,  they 
could  have  a  law  passed. 

Commission  Plan  of  Government  in  New  Or- 
leans, 1912.  It  was  decided  in  1912  to  try  this 
plan  of  government  in  New  Orleans.  There  was 
much  opposition.  Many  persons  held  that  such 
a  form  of  government  was  satisfactory  in  small 
cities,  but  would  prove  a  failure  in  a  city  of  the 
size  of  New  Orleans.  However,  a  bill  providing 
for  a  new  charter  giving  New  Orleans  the  com- 


mission form  of  government,  was  introduced  in 
the  legislature  in  May,  1912,  and  was  passed 
after  amendment.  The  general  opinion  at  pres- 
ent seems  to  be  that  the  commission  form  has 
proven  better  than  its  predecessors.  A  new 
era  of  civic  activity  has  certainly  come  to  life 
since  1912. 

Political  Divisions  of  New  Orleans.  New  Or- 
leans is  divided  into  seven  municipal  districts, 
corresponding  to  the  gTowth  of  the  city  by  the 
annexation  of  adjoining  towns.  Besides  the 
municipal  districts,  there  is  the  division  of  the 
city  into  wards;  each  of  the  seventeen  wards  is 
entitled  to  one  representative  in  the  General  As- 
sembly of  Louisiana.  The  wards  are  subdivided 
into  precincts — police  precincts  and  polling  pre- 
cincts. A  police  precinct  is  the  district  under 
the  supervision  of  one  police  station.  A  polling- 
precinct  is  a  certain  district  within  which  there 
is  a  polling  booth,  where  the  voters  residing  in 
that  district  must  cast  their  votes. 


SECTION  2.    COMMISSION  COUNCIL. 


Members  of  the  Commission  Council.    The 

Commission  Council  is  composed  of  five  mem- 
bers, namely,  the  Mayor  and  four  Commission- 
ers. The  members  of  the  Council  must  be  qual- 
ified electors  of  the  City  of  New  Orleans;  they 
are  elected  at  large,  that  is,  all  are  voted  for  by 
all  the  electors  of  the  city  without  any  regard 
to  districts ;  they  serve  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
The  Mayor  and  Commissioners  must  furnish  a 
bond  of  $50,000  for  the  faithful  performance  of 
the  duties  of  their  respective  offices.  The  Mayor 
receives  an  annual  salary  of  $10,000,  and  each  of 
the  Commissioners,  $6,000. 

Vacancies.  "When  a  vacancy  occurs  in  the 
Commission  Council,  the  Council  must  appoint 
a  qualified  person  to  serve  for  the  unexpired  por- 
tion of  the  term;  during  the  vacancy,  a  quorum 
(a  majority)  of  the  whole  Council  exercises  the 
powers  of  such  officer. 

Meetings.  The  Commission  Council  meets 
on  the  first  Tuesday  evening  of  each  month,  and 
as  often  as  is  thought  necessary.  If  the  returns 
of  an  election  are  to  be  opened,  the  meeting  must 
be  held  in  daylight.  Meetings  of  the  Commis- 
sion Council  are  open  to  the  public.  The  Mayor, 
or  in  his  absence,  the  acting  Mayor,  presides  at 
the  meetings;  the  Mayor  cannot  veto  a  measure. 


but  either  he  or  two  Commisison  Councilmen 
must  sign  every  resolution  or  ordinance  passed 
by  the  Council,  after  which,  it  must  be  recorded 
before  going  into  effect. 

Publication.  The  Mayor  must  have  all  ordi- 
nances and  resolutions  of  the  Council  published 
and  the  clerk  of  the  Council  must  have  all  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Council  published  for  the  in- 
formation of  the  public.  These  publications 
must  be  in  a  daily  newspaper  of  New  Orleans, 
which  shall  have  been  in  existence  at  least  a 
year  previous  to  the  contract;  a  contract  for 
publication  must  be  given  out  at  least  every  two 
years  at  public  auction  to  the  lowest  bidder.  The 
newspaper  so  contracting  has  to  give  security 
for  the  faithful  j^erformance  of  the  work. 

Council  Elections. .  Many  important  city  offi- 
cials, such  as  the  City  Attorney,  City  Notary, 
Clerk  of  the  Commission  Council,  Auditor  of 
Public  Accounts,  City  Engineer,  City  Chemist, 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  Fire  Department,  and 
others,  are  elected  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
Commission  Council,  either  at  the  first  meet- 
ing of  the  Council  or  as  soon  thereafter  as 
possible. 

Powers  of  the  Commission  Council.  The  en- 
tire powers  and  duties  of  government  of  the  city 


138 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


are  vested  in  tlie  Commission  Coiineil.  The 
Council  has  not  only  the  power,  but  the  duty,  to 
preserve  peace  and  good  order  in  the  city,  and 
to  that  end  may  make  and  enforce  laws;  and  to 
provide  for  city  improvements.  The  Council 
must  see  that  cleanliness  and  health  are  main- 


tained in  the  city;  that  thoroughfares  are  kept 
open  to  traffic;  that  there  are  efficient  police  and 
fire  departments,  and  a  good  system  of  public 
lighting;  that  the  education  of  the  city's  youth 
is  properly  provided  for  by  means  of  schools 
and  libraries;  that  public  works  are  maintained. 


SECTION  3.    DEPARTMENTS. 


Distribution  of  Powers.  The  Mayor,  because 
of  his  office,  is  Commissioner  of  the  Department 
of  Public  AiJairs.  At  the  first  regular  meeting 
after  the  election,  the  Commission  Council  by 
a  majority  vote  assigns  one  Commission  Coun- 
cilman to  each  of  the  other  four  departments 
(public  finances,  safety,  utilities,  and  property) 
to  be  Commissioner  of  that  department..  The 
Commissioner  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Finances,  because  of  his  office,  is  City  Treasurer 
and  serves  as  acting  Mayor  in  the  absence  of  the 
Mayor. 

Department  of  Public  Affairs.  The  Mayor  is 
the  head  of  the  city  government  and  has  super- 
vision of  all  parts  of  the  city  government.  He 
is  by  virtue  of  his  office  a  member  of  all  city 
boards  and  eonniiisisons.  He  has  charge  of  the 
seal  of  the  city,  which  he  affixes  to  all  official 
acts.  He  has  the  power  to  administer  oaths.  He 
represents  the  city  in  all  legal  matters. 

Department  of  Public  Finances.  This  de- 
partment has  charge  of  the  city's  moneys.  Ac- 
counts must  be  kept  of  the  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures of  all  public  moneys.  The  Commissioner 
of  this  department  is  in  the  absence  of  the  May- 
or, the  acting  Mayor. 

Department  of  Public  Safety.  The  Public 
Safety  Department  is  charged,  as  its  name  tells, 
with  the  maintenance  of  pul)lic  safety.  For  this 
l)urpose,  there  are  maintained  the  police  and 
fire  departments,  board  of  health  and  public 
charities.  The  fire  department  has  charge  of 
the  inspection  of  premises,  with  a  view  to  their 


being  to  a  certain  extent  fire-proof,  and  main- 
tains an  efficient  force  of  firemen  and  engines 
to  combat  fires.  The  police  department  has  a 
body  of  policemen  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
the  laws  are  obeyed  and  that  violators  of  the 
laws  are  brought  to  trial  in  court.  The  board  of 
health  has  to  see  that  sanitary  conditions  are 
maintained  iii  the  city.  (See  Cliapter  IV.  Health 
Conditions.) 

Department  of  Public  Utilities.  This  de- 
partment has  charge  of  public  utilities.  The 
Commissioner  of  Pulblic  Utilities  adjudges  at 
public  auction  franchises,  contracts,  and  grants 
to  the  highest  or  lowest  bidder,  according  as  the 
case  may  require.  A  franchise  is  a  privilege 
granted  by  the  city  to  an  individual  or  corpora- 
tion to  operate  a  public  utility  under  certain 
conditions  for  a  specified  time. 

Department  of  Public  Property.  Streets  and 
alleys,  parks  and  playgrounds,  public  buildings, 
public  baths,  and  other  public  property,  except 
the  Public  Belt  Railroad,  are  controlled  by  this 
department.  The  Commissioner  of  PubMe  Pro- 
perty with  his  assistants,  has  charge  of  the 
draining,  paving,  lighting,  cleaning,  and  beauti- 
fying of  the  streets,  j^arks,  playgrounds,  and 
other  public  places;  much  of  the  work  is  given 
out  in  contracts;  there  are  park  commissions 
that  have  charge  of  the  parks  and  different  pub- 
lic squares  and  places.  This  department,  how- 
ever, sees  directly  to  the  cleaning  and  watering 
of  the  streets,  removal  of  garbage,  and  street 
paving.  (See  Chapter  XVI..  The  clty  Beautiful.) 


SECTION  4.    CITY  BOARDS. 


Commissioners  of  Civil  Service.  In  order  to 
have  better  service  in  departments,  where  it  is 
necessary  that  the  employees  have  a  certain  edu- 
cational training,  the  emi^loyees  in  such  depart- 


ments have  been  placed  under  civil  service.  By 
being  placed  under  civil  service  is  meant  that 
they  are  examined  as  to  their  qualifications 
necessary  to  hold  the  position,  and  after  Iteing 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


139 


permanently  appointed  cannot  be  removed  from 
office  without  grave  cause,  until  the  term  of  tlie 
appointing  officer  shall  have  expired.  Positions 
under  civil' service  thus  have  a  certain  perma- 
nence. 

The  civil  service  is  controlled  by  the  Board 
of  Commissioners  of  Civil  Sei'vice.  This  board 
is  composed  of  the  Mayor  and  two  Commission- 
ers selected  by  the  Commission  Council.  Ap- 
plicants in  order  to  become  eligible  to  appoint- 
ment must  make  an  average  of  at  least  seventy 
per  cent;  this  eligibility  expires  on  January 
thirty-first  of  each  year.  The  first  six  months  after 
an  applicant  is  appointed  is  a  period  of  probation ; 
if  he  is  not  discharged  during  that  time,  he  is 
entitled  to  hold  the  position  until  the  expiration 
of  the  term  of  office  of  the  appointing  officer. 

All  Confederate  veterans  with  good  records 
are  excused  from  any  examination. 

Board  of  Directors  of  the  Public  Schools. 
The  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Public  Schools  of 
the  Parish  of  Orleans  consists  of  five  members, 
who  must  be  electors.  In  1912,  these  members 
were  elected  for  four  years.  In  1916,  five  mem- 
bers shall  be  elected;  the  three  receiving  the 
highest  number  of  votes  shall  serve  for  four 
years  and  the  two  receiving  the  lowest  number 
of  votes  shall  serve  for  two  years.  After  that 
each  group  shall  serve  for  four  years.  By  this 
regulation,  the  entire  membership  of  the  board 
will  not  be  changed  at  the  same  time.  The  elec- 
tion of  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Public 
School  Directors  must  be  non-partisan,  that  is, 
without  regard  to  political  parties.  There  must 
be  a  separate  column  on  the  ballot  with  the 
heading  "Board  of  School  Directors;"  the 
names  of  the  candidates  are  placed  in  alpha- 
betical order  in  this  column.  All  the  public 
schools  of  the  Parish  of  Orleans  and  the  manage- 
ment, property  thereof,  course  of  study  and 
grading  thereof,  including  text  books  to  be  used 
therein,  are  under  the  control  of  this  Board  of 
Directors. 

The  Board  of  Directors  must  elect  a  com- 
petent and  experienced  educator  to  be  superin- 


tendent of  the  schools;  this  election  must  take 
place  on  July  thirteenth  of  every  fourth  year 
after  July  thirteenth  of  the  year  1913.  The 
Board  must  also  elect  as  many  assistant  super- 
intendents as  may  be  necessary;  there  must  be 
an  attendance  officer  and  such  other  officers, 
clerks, and  assistants  as  may  be  necessary  to  prop- 
erly conduct  the  public  schools  of  the  parish. 

The  schools  are  supported  by  funds  derived 
from  apportionment  of  the  State  taxes,  interest 
on  proceeds  of  lands  granted  by  the  United 
States  for  the  support  of  the  schools,  all  poll  tax 
receipts  in  the  Parish  of  Orleans,  funds  from  the 
Board  of  Liquidation  of  the  city  debt,  fines  and 
forfeitures,  rent  of  school  lands,  and  the  city 
appropriation,  which  may  not  be  less  than  eight- 
tenths  of  a  mill  of  the  ten  mill,  city  expense  tax. 
The  State  also  contributes  specially  to  the  sup- 
port of  domestic  science  schools. 

Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Orleans 
Levee  District.  This  board  is  composed  of  nine 
members  possessing  all  the  requisites  of  an  elec- 
tor; seven  members  are  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State  from  the  seven  municipal  dis- 
tricts of  the  city ;  the  other  two  members  are  the 
Mayor  and  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works, 
who  are  ex-officio  members.  The  board  has 
charge  of  the  construction  and  repair,  and  is 
vested  with  the  control  and  maintenance  of  all 
levees  in  the  Orleans  District. 

Board  of  Directors  of  Public  Libraries.  The 
public  libraries  are  managed  by  a  board  of  ten 
members.  This  board  was  originally  appointed 
by  the  Mayor  and  City  Council;  vacancies,  since 
occuring,  are  filled  by  the  board  itself.  The 
members  serve  for  life  or  until  resignation.  The 
Mayor  is  ex-officio  a  member  and,  on  going  out 
of  office  of  the  mayoralty,  becomes  a  permanent 
member.  The  libraries  are  maintained  by 
means  of  donations  and  special  city  appropria- 
tion ;  the  city  is  under  contract  with  Mr.  Andrew 
Carnegie  to  appropriate  annually  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  libraries,  an  amount  equal  to  at  least 
ten  per  cent  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  gift,  which  was 
$375,000. 


SECTION  5.    ELECTIONS. 


Elections.  An  election  is  a  choice  of  officials 
or  acceptance  or  rejection  of  laws  by  popular 
vote.    The  parochial  and  municipal  elections  in 


New  Orleans  are  held  on  the  Tuesday  following 
the  first  Monday  of  November,  1916,^and  every 
fourth  year  thereafter. 


140 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


Electors.  Electors  are  those  j)ersons  whom 
the  state  permits  to  vot-e  in  elections.  In  Lou- 
isiana, electors  are  males  over  twenty-one  years 
of  age  and  having  certain  qualifications,  namely, 
residential,  educational  or  property,  and  poll 
tax  qualifications. 

(1)  Residential — An  elector  must  be  a  resi- 
dent of  the  state  for  two  years,  of  the  parish  one 
year,  and  of  the  precinct  six  months  preceding 
an  election.  Removal  from  a  precinct,  however, 
does  not  operate  against  an  elector  until  sis 
months  thereafter. 

(2)  Educational — An  elector  must  be  able  to 
write  his  apphcation  for  registration  in  English 
or  in  his  own  tongue,  or,  if  prevented  from  so 
doing  by  a  physical  disability,  the  registration 
officer  or  deputy  may  write  it  at  his  dictation, 
under  liis  oath  attesting  his  disabilty. 

(3)  Property — The  possession  of  property 
assessed  at  $300  and  on  which  all  taxes  are  paid, 
serves  in  lieu  of  the  educational  qualification. 

(4)  Poll  Tax — Electors  between  the  ages  of 
twenty-one  and  sixty  years  must  pay  a  poll  tax  of 
a  dollar  a  year,  which  tax  is  used  to  help  support 
the  public  schools  of  the  parish.  Poll  taxes  are 
liens  only  upon  assessed  property.  In  order  for 
an  elector  to  vote  at  an  election,  he  must  have 
paid  his  poll  tax  for  two  years  preceding  that  in 
which  he  desires  to  vote.  This  tax  must  be  paid 
on  or  before  December  31st  of  each  year. 

Registration.  No  elector  may  vote  in  an 
election  without  first  registering.  There  is  a 
special  registration  office  in  the  City  Hall,  where 
electors  register;  this  office  is  closed  to  register- 
ing for  thirty  day  before  an  election.  An  elec- 
tor registers  by  going  to  the  registration  office 
and  filling  in  or  having  filled,  as  the  case  may 
be,  the  registration  blank;  this  blank,  when  fill- 
ed out,  is  a  statement  of  the  elector's  residen- 
tial and  educational  or  property  qualifications. 
When  the  elector  has  filled  in  the  registration 
blank,  the  registration  officer  gives  him  a  cer- 
tificate of  registration;  this  certificate  is  similar 
to  a  check;  it  bears  the  elector's  registration 
number  and  is  attached  to  a  stub,  which  remains 


in  the  book  when  the  certificate  is  given  to  the 
elector.  The  registration  officer  compiles  books 
for  each  polling  precinct,  containing  the  name,  ad- 
dress, registration  number,  and  qualifications  of 
each  elector  in  that  precinct.  These  books  are  kept 
at  the  polling  booths  on  election  day  for  verifica- 
tion of  the  certificates  presented  by  the  electors. 

Ballot.  The  ballot,  is  the  official  form  for 
voting.  The  names  of  the  candidates  for  office 
are  arranged  in  parallel  colunms  according  to 
pai'ties,  each  party  has  a  column  at  the  head  of 
which  is  the  party  name  and  emblem.  There  is 
a  space  left  by  the  parties  and  candidates' 
name  for  checking  by  the  electors. 

In  the  case  of  a  primary  election,  the  names 
are  arranged  on  the  ballot  according  to  offices, 
as  the  ballot  is  a  party  ballot. 

Voting.  The  polling  precincts  are  open  from 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  seven  in  the  eve- 
ning. During  this  time,  an  elector  must  cast  his 
vote.  He  must  present  to  the  election  com- 
missioners his  certificate  of  registration  and  his 
poll  tax  receipts;  should  he  have  lost  his  poll 
tax  receipts,  he  is  still  allowed  to  vote  if  his 
name  is  on  the  official  list  of  poll  tax  payers, 
issued  by  the  City  Treasurer,  copies  of  which 
list  are  kept  at  every  polling  booth.  He  is  then 
given  a  ballot  by  the  election  commissioners. 
The  elector  casts  the  ballot  in  secret;  he  votes 
by  checking  the  sjoace  after  a  party  name,  thus 
voting  for  all  that  pai-ty's  nominees  for  office, 
or  else  he  checks  the  space  after  each  preferred 
candidate's  name,  checking  not  more  than  one 
name  for  each  office;  he  then  folds  the  ballot,  the 
names  inward,  and  drops  it  in  the  ballot  box. 

Counting  the  Votes.  The  polling  booth  is 
closed  at  seven  o  'clock  in  the  evening.  The  com- 
missioners of  election  then  compile  lists  of  the 
number  of  votes  awarded  each  candidate  for 
office.  These  statements  are  sworn  to,  placed  in 
sealed  packages,  and  delivered  to  the  Mayor  or 
acting  Mayor.  The  Mayor  or  acting  Mayor 
opens  in  public  on  the  Monday  following  the 
election  these  sealed  packages  and  declares  the 
result  of  the  election. 


SECTION  6.     TAXATION. 


Purpose.  The  people  are  taxed  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  government,  public  education,  and 
libraries,   the  operation  of   the  sewerage  and 


water  plant,  the  maintenance  of  levees,  and  the 
payment  of  the  city  debt. 

Assessment.     There  is  a  board,  called  the 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


141 


Board  of  Assessors,  whose  duty  it  is  to  assess 
all  property,  real  and  personal,  within  the  limits 
of  the  city.  To  Assess  property  is  to  place  a 
certain  value  upon  it.  Property  may  not  be  as- 
sessed above  its  actual  value.  It  is  upon  this 
assessed  valuation  that  the  owner  must  pay  his 
tas.  For  instance,  suppose  a  man  owned  a 
piece  of  property  for  which  he  had  paid  $5,500, 
and  the  assessed  valuation  is  $4,000.  The  rate 
of  tax  being  twenty-two  mills  on  every  dollar 
of  assessed  valuation,  he  would  then  have  to  pay 
twenty-two  mills  on  every  dollar  of  the  $4,000, 
not  of  the  $5,500;  thus  his  tax  would  be  $88. 

Rate  of  Tax.  The  total  rate  of  tax  for  the 
city  is  twenty-two  mills  on  every  dollar  of  as- 
sessed  valuation   of  property.     Ten   of   these 


twenty-two  mills  form  what  is  known  as  the 
city  expense  tax;  ten  mills  are  used  to  pay  the 
interest  and  redeem  the  city  bonds;  the  other 
two  mills  are  used  for  the  payment  of  the  sewer- 
age and  water  bonds.  The  city  taxes  are  col- 
lected in  July.  Besides  the  city  taxes,  there  are 
the  State  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  State  and 
maintenace  of  the  levees  in  the  Parish  of  Or- 
leans; six  mills  on  every  dollar  of  assessed  valu- 
ation are  collected  for  defraying  the  expenses  of 
the  State;  three  other  mills  on  every  dollar  of 
assessed  valuation  are  collected  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  levees  in  the  Parish  of  Orleans. 
Thus  in  the  Parish  of  Orleans  (City  of  New  Or- 
leans) the  total  State  tax  is  nine  mills;  this  tax 
is  collected  in  December. 


SECTION  7.     RECORDERS'  COURTS. 


Number.  There  may  not  be  less  than  three 
police  courts  in  the  City  of  New  Orleans,  which 
are  known  as  Eecorders'  Courts. 

Officers.  Each  such  court  has  one  judge 
called  the  Recorder,  appointed  by  the  Commis- 
sion Council  at  a  salary  not  exceeding  $2,500.  He 
must  be  at  least  thirty-five  years  old  and  a  resi- 
dent of  the  city  for  five  years  prior  to  his  election 
to  office.  The  Council  also  appoints  a  clerk  and 
the  necessary  assistant  clerks.  The  Board  of 
Police  Commissioners  details  four  policemen  to 
each  Recorder 's  Court  to  keep  order  and  execute 
the  orders  and  decrees  of  the  Recorders. 


Control.  These  courts  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Commission  Coimcil. 

Appeals.  Appeals  may  be  made  from  these 
courts  to  the  Criminal  Distxict  Court. 

Powers  of  the  Recorders'  Courts.  All 
fines,  penalties  or  forfeitures  imposed  by  the 
Recorders,  must  be  collected  by  them  and  by_ 
them- paid  daily  to  the  City  Treasurer;  they 
must  give  to  the  person  paying  the  fine  or 
]>enalty,  a  receipt  stating  the  amount  of  the 
fine  or  penalty,  the  date,  from  whom  col- 
lected, name  of  the  person  fined,  and  for  what 
offense. 


SECTION  8.     DISTINCTIVE  FEATURES  OF  THE  COMMISSION 
FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


Initative,    Referendum,    and    Recall.      The 

commission  form  of  city  government  has  three 
distinct  features,  namely,  the  "initiative,"  "re- 
ferendum," and  "recall." 

By  the  "initiative,"  the  voters  may  origi- 
nate legislation;  this  is  done  by  30  per  cent  of 
qualified  voters  demanding  of  the  Council  the 
passage  of  a  measure;  should  the  Council  not 
pass  it,  they  must  submit  it  to  the  vote  of  the 
electors,  a  majority  of  whom  can  pass  it  over 
the  opposition  of  the  Council, 


Ordinances,  except  for  the  immediate  pre- 
servation of  the  public  peace,  health,  or  safety, 
do  not  go  into  effect  before  ten  days  following 
their  final  passage;  by  the  "referendum,"  the 
qualified  electors  may  within  those  ten  days  de- 
mand of  the  Council  to  repeal  the  ordinance  or 
submit  it  to  the  vote  of  the  qualified  voters. 
Ordinances  that  are  passed  by  the  majority  of 
the  electors,  may  be  repeald  only  by  a  majority 
vote  of  the  electors.  Special  elections  for  pass- 
ing or  repealing  ordiiiances,  may  not  be  held 


142 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


oftener  than  once  in  a  period  of  six  mouths,  nor 
within  ninety  days  of  a  general  municipal 
election. 

The  charter  provides  that  "the  Mayor  and 
Commission  Councilmen  may  be  removed  from 
office  or  recalled  therefrom  in  the  manner  now 
or  hereafter  provided  by  the  Constitution." 
The  Constitution  does  not  provide  for  the  "re- 


call' of  officers,  but  an  amendment  establishing 
the  recall  was  jDassed  by  the  vote  of  the  people 
Nevember  3,  1914. 

TOPICS:  Section  1,  Introduction;  Section  2,  Commission 
Council;  Section  3,  Departments;  Section  4,  City  Boards; 
Section  5,  Elections;  Section  6,  Taxation;  Section  7, 
Recorders'  Courts;  Section  8,  Distinctive  Features  of 
the  Commission  Form  of  Government. 

REFERENCES:  Charter  of  the  City  of  New  Orleans,  1912; 
Constitution  of  the  State  of  Louisiana. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


The  City  Beautiful. 


SECTION  1.    CITY  BUILDING. 


Conditions  Governing  the  Location  of 
Cities.  In  the  early  history  of  nations,  cities 
were  located  where  the  best  natural  means  of 
defense  were  offered.  As  the  strength  of  their 
armies  increased,  natural  means  of  defense 
were  considered  of  secondary  importance  in 
the  selection  of  a  site.  Commerce  and  indus- 
tries were  developed  during  eras  of  peace. 
Consequently,  cities  grew  and  fioiTrished  where 
easy  access  by  water  and  good  harbors  favored 
trade,  where  swift  streams  afforded  power  to 
run  their  mills,  or  wlieje  mineral  de]3osits 
awaited  the  hand  of  man  to  convert  them  into 
wealth.  The  perfection  of  the  railroad  has 
largely  removed  dependence  upon  water  com- 
munication: inland  towns,  far  from  navigable 
lakes  or  rivers,  have  sprung  up  as  the  distrib- 
uting points  for  great  agricultural  districts. 
One  or  more  of  these  conditions  has  led  to  the 
establishment  of  American  cities.  The  natural 
•fortifications  around  Quebec  made  that  city  an 
early  center  of  western  civilization;  New  York, 
on  the  other  hand,  possessed  peculiar  commer- 
cial advantages;  the  New  England  cities  were 
the  outgrowth  of  manufactures;  and  most  of 
the  cities  of  the  Eocky  Mountain  States  owe 
tlieir  rise  to  the  untold  mineral  wealth  of  the 
section  and  the  construction  of  great  railroads. 

City  Building  in  Ancient  Times,  A 
woman.  Queen  Semiramis,  had  decided  to  con- 
struct upon  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  River 
the  greatest  city  in  the  world,  and  thus,  for 
the  first  time  known  to  history,  a  city,  Babylon, 
was  built  in  accordance  with  a  definite  plan. 

The  Greeks,  laboring  for  the  attainment 
of  knowledge  and  beauty,  enjoyed  the  highest 
civilization  of  ancient  times.  The  city  of 
Athens,  a  city  of  exquisite  beauty  and  long  the 
western  world's  center  of  art  and  letters,  was 
the  noblest  expression  of  their  cultured  civili- 
zation. 

Eome  becoming  by  her  military  prowess 
the  supreme  power  in  the  western  world,  drew 


to  herself  the  best  talent  of  the  conquered 
peoples.  Thus  she  was  able  to  erect  the  mag- 
nificent temples  and  palaces  that  adorned  her 
seven  hilis,  and  to  construct  the  military  roads, 
solid  masonry  bridges,  and  remarkable  aque- 
ducts that  displayed  engineering  skill  of  the 
highest  order. 

Value  of  Permanency.  The  works  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  in  great  part  have  de- 
fied the  ravages  of  time  and  the  elements;  this 
is  the  result  of  the  work  of  builders  to  whom 
permanency  was  as  much  an  ideal  as  beauty. 
These  people,  to  have  left  such  wonderful 
monuments  attesting  their  existence  as  proud 
and  powerful  nations,  must  have  been  actuated 
by  a  tremendous  civic  spirit. 

Paris.  The  right  building  of  modern  cities, 
combining  healthfulness,  utility,  and  beauty, 
was  first  undertaken  in  France.  In  the  early 
fifties,  when  Napoleon  III.  was  emperor  of 
France,  Baron  Haussmann  and  M.  Alphand,  the 
city  engineer,  drew  up  a  wonderful  plan  for 
renovating  and  embellishing  Paris.  Crooked, 
narrow  streets  were  straightened  and  widened 
into  magnificent  boulevards;  broad  avenues, 
connecting  open  space  with  open  space,  were 
laid  out  through  densely  populatecl  districts; 
places,  parks,  and  avenues  were  beautified  with 
trees  and  masterpieces  of  art.  Hence  it  has 
been  said  of  Napoleon  III.  in  regard  to  Paris 
that  "he  found  it  brick  and  left  it  marble." 

Pre-Eminence  of  Germans  in  City  Plan- 
ning. The  German  city  is  to-day  the  best  ex- 
ample of  community  life  and  city  planning. 
The  reasons  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  system, 
thoroughness,  and  perseverance  of  the  Ger- 
man people,  combined  with  their  high  stand- 
ard of  perfection;  in  the  splendid  organization 
of  German  institutions;  and  in  the  extraordi- 
nary industrial  progress  and  consequent  in- 
crease in  urban  population,  during  the  past 
quarter  century.  City  planning  has  become 
both  an  art  aad  a  science  in  Germanv.    Berlin 


144 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


supports  a  college  of  town  planning,  wliile,  in 
Dusseldorf,  there  is  a  university  where  the 
study  of  city  planning  and  administration  is 
fostered.  The  German  school  is  distinguished 
by  a  preponderance  of  the  artistic  motive  which 
at  the  same  time  implies  the  practical.  They 
plan  their  cities  to  be  beautiful.  Nothing  in- 
harmonious or  ugly  is  allowed  to  exist.  But 
they  also  plan  them  to  be  the  homes  of  the  or- 
dinarjr  citizens,  with  surroundings  most  con- 
ducive to  health,  contentment,  and  efficiency. 

Some  Causes  of  German  Success.  The  suc- 
cess of  German  cities  lies  in  the  freedom  and 
power  of  the  municipality.  The  activities  of 
a  city  are  practically  unrestricted  by  the  state 
or  the  central  government.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  municipality  has  the  power  over  the  in- 
dividual unknown  in  any  American  city.  The 
city  determines  the  width  of  streets,  the  height 
of  buildings — German  cities  do  not  tolerate 
skyscrapers — the  minimum  garden  space,  the 
maximum  area  to  be  covered  by  improvements, 
the  character  of  improvements  in  any  section. 
Architectural  plans  must  be  submitted  to  the 
authorities  to  insure  proportion  and  har- 
mony; factories  must  be  located  in  the  suburbs, 
upon  a  railroad,  and  on  the  lee  side  of  the 
city;  all  industries  occasioning  noise  or  odors 
must  be  so  placed  as  to  be  inoffense  to  the 
populace.  The  rights  of  the  {individual  are 
subservient  to  the  welfare  of  ^he  community, 
but  this  is  never  questioned,  as  the  greatest 
benefit  is  ultimately  obtained.  The  city  owns 
savings  banks,  mortgage  institutions;  it  oper- 
ates its  own  gas-works,  electric-lighting  works, 
water  plant,  street  railways,  and  many  other 
undertakings  of  a  profitable  nature  which  place 
it  upon  a  firm  business  basis.  German  city 
planners  are  successful  because  they  study  the 
claims  of  the  past,  needs  of  the  present,  and 
the  prospects  of  the  future;  because  they  plan 
in  a  broad-visioned  way,  allowing  for  develop- 
ment and  expansion,  and  thus  insure  perma- 
nency; because  they  overlook  nothing  in  urban 
life  as  too  great  or  too  trivial  to  be  considered 
in  striving  for  utility,  harmony,  and  artistic 
effectiveness. 

German  Cities.  Dusseldorf,  a  city  about 
the  size  of  New  Orleans,  is  typical  of  the  suc- 
cessful German  city.  Aroused  by  the  indus- 
trial activity  following  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  the  city  undertook  a  comprehensive  plan 
for    improving    existing    conditions,    opening 


parks,  and  erecting  imposing  public  buildings, 
and,  with  intelligent  prevision  of  the  future, 
purchasing  at  agricultural  prices  large  tracts 
of  land  in  the  suburbs,  thereby  protecting  itself 
from  speculative  prices  and  preventing  fluctu- 
ation of  real  estate  values. 

The  problem  of  relieving  congestion  and 
improving  conditions  in  an  old  town  has  been 
scientifically  attacked  by  Cologne.  Encircling 
fortifications,  which  restricted  the  growth  of 
the  city,  were  demolished,  and  the  site  was 
converted  into  an  octagonal  parkway  or 
boulevard  separating  the  old  town  from  the 
new.  In  the  official  plan  for  suburban  devel- 
opment, Cologne,  a  city  rich  in  relics  of  the 
past,  seeks  to  reproduce  the  quaint,  irregular 
streets  and  mediaeval  architecture  of  the  old 
town. 

Frankfort-on-the.Main,  with  its  magnifi- 
cent public  buildings,  its  Eathaus  or  city  hall, 
its  opera-house,  its  railway  station;  with  its 
colossal  undertaking  of  waterway  improve- 
ment and  harbor  construction;  with  its  mu- 
nicipal activities,  and  its  immaculate  cleanli- 
ness, shows  what  can  be  accomplished  by  a 
community  with  civic  pride  and  civic  interest. 

A  heritage  of  great  beauty  has  been  left 
Munich  by  extravagant  rulers.  A  city  of 
splendid  civic  centers,  with  groups  of  public 
buildings,  a  city  of  carefully  designed  streets 
and  remarkable  vistas,  like  Cologne,  it  pre- 
serves in  its  planning  the  atmosphere  of  me- 
diaeval times. 

The  Prussian  capital  is  a  thoroughly 
modern  city.  Berlin's  chief  attractiveness  is 
in  its  imposing  government  buildings,  its 
famous  Unter  den  Linden,  its  beautiful  sub- 
urbs, its  orderliness,  cleanliness,  and  efficient 
administration. 

Influence  of  the  German  Movement.  Iso- 
lated instances  of  city  planning  existed  be- 
fore the  Germans  seriously  considered  the  sub- 
ject. The  energy,  interest,  and  enthusiasm 
with  which  they  attacked  their  problem  and 
the  remarkable  results  obtained  have  awakened 
a  general  desire  for  better  sanitary  conditions, 
more  homogeneous  and  artistic  architecture, 
and  more  beautiful  parks,  attractive  views, 
and  picturesque  or  striking  streets. 

Garden  Cities  of  England.  The  city  plan- 
ning movement  in  England  has  developed 
garden  cities.  The  most  noted  of  these  are 
Letchworth  and  Hampstead,  whose  sites  were 


The    new    ORLEANS    BOOK 


145 


purciiased  by  companies.  Neat,  attractive  cot- 
tages or  apartments,  stirronnded  by  gardens, 
are  provided  the  working  classes  at  nominal 
rent.  The  result  in  beauty,  convenience,  health, 
happiness,  and  efficiency  have  .  fully  justified 
the    experiment. 

City  Planning  in  America.  Few  American 
cities  have  been  built  along  any  definite  plan; 
they  have  grown  up  haphazard,  according  to 
the  press  of  conditions  or  the  whims  of  in- 
dividuals. Washington,  which  ranks  as  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  world,  is  a 
notable  exception.  When  a  site  on  the  Potomac 
was  selected  for  the  national  capital.  President 
Washington,  recognizing  systematic  planning 
to  be  necessary  for  growth,  prosperity,  and 
artistic  development,  employed  Charles  L 'En- 
fant, a  young  French  engineer,  to  lay  out  the 
city.  The  growth  of  Washington  continued 
in  accordance  with  L 'Enfant 's  plan.  The  for- 
mal plan  of  rectangular  blocks  crossed  by  broad, 
diagonal  thoroughfares,  terminating  at  circles, 
civic  centers,  or  open  squares,  is  well  adapted 
to  a  city  so  preeminently  official  and  social. 

The  architectural  features  of  Washington's 
imposing  buildings  are  enhanced  by  the  radial 
avenues,  affording  numerous  leafy  vistas,  as 
the  parks  and  streets  of  the  city  on  the  Potomac 
are  the  greenest  and  shadiest  in  the  world. 

Many  American  cities  have  drawn  their 
inspiration  in  city  planning  from  the  beauty 
of  the  national  capital.  The  Columbian  Ex- 
position, held  in  Chicago  in  1893,  demonstrated 
the  advantages  of  spacious  approaches  and 
proper  grouping  of  well-designed  buildings, 
and  exerted  a  marked  influence.  Chicago 
began  to  form   a  definite   idea  of  the   "City 


Beautiful"  and  to  evolve  a  comprehensive  plan 
for  civic  embellishment. 

Cleveland,  with  characteristic  enthusiasm, 
called  upon  the  best  talent  to  create  for  her  a 
plan  of  utility  and  compelling  beauty.  The  dom- 
inant feature  in  the  renovation  of  Cleveland  is 
the  civic  center.  Along  a  broad  thoroughfare 
are  grouped  the  principal  public  buildings 
representative  of  the  great  functions  of  a  city. 

Boston,  like  New  Orleans,  is  a  city  with 
traditions.  These  she  cherishes  and  embodies 
in  her  churches,  her  inns,  her  architecture. 
No  towering  skyscrapers  loom  up  beside 
dark,  tunnel-like  alleys,  or  shut  out  the  blessed 
sunlight  and  fresh  air  from  more  lowly  neigh- 
bors. Boston  further  shows  her  belief  in  the 
salutary  effect  of  nature's  restoratives  by  her 
admirable  system  of  public  parks,  and  her  re- 
gard for  the  value  of  beauty  and  recreation  by 
developing  and  embellishing  the  water  front 
along  the  Charles  Eiver. 

Experts  are  now  at  work  on  a  plan  that 
will  render  New  York  City  preeminent  in 
civic  beauty  as  she  is  now  in  size  and  wealth. 

Many  other  American  cities  are  awaken- 
ing to  a  sense  of  their  responsibility  toward 
the  citizen.  There  is  a  growing  realization  of 
the  need  not  only  of  hygienic  conditions  and 
business  facilities  in  cities,  but,  also,  of  beauty; 
for  people  need,  not  only  good  health  and 
means  of  earning  a  livelihood,  but,  also, 
sources  of  right  enjoyment  and  inspiration, 
if  they  are  to  accomplish  great  works.  This 
beauty  is  attained  by  spacious  and  tastefully 
adorned  streets  and  parks  and  by  an  architec- 
ture characteristic  and  suitable  to  the  people 
and  place. 


SECTION  2.    BUILDING  OF  NEW  ORLEANS. 


Original  Plan  of  New  Orleans.  Bienville, 
having  convinced  the  authorities  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  town  on  the  Mississippi  River, 
sent  de  la  Tour  to  plan  the  new  city.  Only  a 
few  huts  built  by  voyageurs  who  had  come 
down  the  River  occupied  the  site  Bienville  had 
chosen.  The  engineer  cleared  a  strip  along 
the  River  and  with  the  help  of  some  piquers, 
located  the  streets,  dividing  the  town  into  rec- 
tangular squares.  De  la  Tour's  plan  embraced 
the  rectangle  now  bounded  by  Bienville,  North 


Rampart,  Barracks,  and  the  River;  it  provided 
for  an  open  square  or  Place  d'Armes  around 
which  were  to  be  grouped  the  parish  church, 
school,  and  government  building,  and  it  di- 
vided each  square  into  plots  or  building  sites 
to  be  given  to  settlers  on  condition  that  they 
should  enclose  the  property  with  palisades  and 
open  along  the  street  a  ditch  to  serve  as  a  drain 
for  river  water  in  times  of  inundation;  Bien- 
ville selected  a  site  on  the  outskirts  for  his 
residence,  which,  when  occupied  by  the  Ursu- 


146 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


lines  in  1727,  was   still    "in  the  depth  of  the 
forest. ' ' 

Changes  in  the  Shape  of  New  Orleans.  . 
The  city  did  not  adhere  in  its  growth  to  this 
rectangular  plan.  Owing  to  the  greater  height 
of  land  being  along  the  river  front  and  the 
boat  landings  all  being  there,  the  stream  of 
settlement  took  that  eonrse  also,  and  the  rec- 
tangle was  expanded  on  either  side  into  a  cres- 
cent, hence  the  name,  ' '  Crescent  City. ' '  Growth 
in  population  has  caused  further  advance  up 
and  down  the  curving  River,  so  that  now  the 
harbor  resembles  an  elongated  "S";  the  city 
is  now  also  expanding  towards  Lake  Pont- 
chartrain,  in  fact  reaches  the  Lake,  between 
West  End  and  Spanish  Fort. 

Influence  of  Climate  and  Available  Build- 
ing Material.  Before  long,  the  squares  near 
the  Place  d'Armes  were  covered  with  rude 
habitations  built  of  logs  plastered  with  clay 
and  thatched  with  palmettoes  from  the 
nearby  swamp.  Glass  window  panes  were 
an  unknown  luxuiy  in  those  days;  even  Bien- 
ville's house  is  described  as  having  "the  sashes 
covered  with  fine,  thin  linen  which  let  in  as 
much  light  as  glass  and  more  air."  The  prim- 
itive structures  were  gradually  replaced  by 
larger  and  better  buildings  of  brick  made 
from  the  abundant  clay.  Time  hardened  and 
strengthened  this  brick,  and,  as  the  framework 
and  floors  were  of  cypress,  a  wood  unaffected 
by  dampness,  these  buildings  were  remarkably 
durable.  The  first  Ursuline  convent,  con- 
structed of  brick  and  cypress  in  the  time  of 
Bienville,  is  the  oldest  building  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  and  is  still  in  splendid  condition. 
Brick  houses  became  more  prevalent,  not  only 
because  of  their  durability,  but  also  because 
they  were  much  cooler  than  frame  houses. 
Climatic  conditions  favored  the  adaptation  of 
broad  central  halls,  long  galleries  shielding 
from  intense  glare,  and  thick  walls  through 
which  little  heat  could  penetrate. 

Early  French  and  Spanish  Influence.  New 
Orleans  has  an  individuality,  both  charming 
and  unique.  The  Vieux  Carre,  with  its 
narrow  streets  and  close  rows  of  solid, 
somber  houses  with  doi-mer  windows  and 
batten  shutters,  looks  less  a  part  of  an  Amer- 
ican city  than  of  some  Old  World  town  trans- 
planted to  this  continent.  One  reason  for  the 
compactness  of  Old  New  Orleans  was  the  need 
for  defense  against   the   Indians;  and  besides 


the  early  inhabitants  brought  with  them  ideas 
of  French  and  Spanish  cities,  where  the  streets 
were  made  narrow  to  avoid  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun.  Spanish  architectural  features  pre- 
dominate because  most  of  the  original  French 
buildings  were  destroyed  by  the  devastating 
fires  of  1788  and  1794.  After  that,  the  tiled 
roofs,  still  a  picturesque  feature  of  the  French 
quarter,  came  into  use.  The  solid  walls  of 
adobe  or  brick,  paved  courtyards,  ponderous 
doors,  iron-barred  windows,  massive  arched 
doorways,  and  wrought-iron  balconies  over- 
hanging the  banquettes  bespeak  Spanish  in- 
fluence. On  three  sides  of  Jackson  Sqiiare  are 
the  most  imposing  relics  of  that  influence, 
namely,  the  old  St.  Louis  Cathedral,  Cabildo, 
and  Presbytere  facing  the  River,  and  the  red 
brick  Pontalba  buildings  to  the  sides  of  the 
Square. 

The  courtyard,  affording  a  cool  secluded 
place  for  family  rest  or  recreation,  is  one  of 
the  most  attractive  features  of  the  section 
below  Canal  Street.  Walled  in  by  the  gxeat 
houses,  these  paved  courts  broaden  out  behind 
narrow  entrances  through  which  the  jjasser-by 
may  catch  delightful  glimpses  of  palms  and 
ferns,  old-fashioned  parten-es,  land,  occasion- 
ally, a  graceful  Spanish  water  jar  or  iron  foun- 
tain. But  the  individuality  of  New  Orleans  is 
more  strikingly  emphasized  by  the  second-story' 
galleries  extending  over  the  banquettes  from 
residences,  shops,  cafes,  or  old  office  buildings, 
offering  genei'ous  shelter  from  sun  and  rain. 
There  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  where  every 
foot  of  ground  bears  its  burden  of  masonry  or 
timber,  these  galleries  form  hanging  gardens, 
gay  with  feathery  ferns  and  potted  shrubs — 
bright  color  against  the  dingy  faces  of  old 
weatherworn  piles.  The  houses  built  after  the 
Ajnerican  occupation  are  modifications  of 
French  and  Spanish  styles.  Brick  and  timber, 
easily  obtained  from  the  surrounding  country, 
were  the  chief  materials  used  in  their  con- 
struction. 

Building  Ornamentation.  Peculiarly  char-, 
acteristic  of  New  Orleans  architecture  are  the 
balustrades  and  fences  of  wrought-iron  in 
elaborate  and  intricate  patterns.  Some  show 
conventional  desigias,  some  flowers  or  trailing 
vines,  but  one  of  very  beautiful  craftsmanship 
represents  growing  corn  laden  with  ripened 
ears  over  which  the  flowering  tassel  waves  with 
singTilar  grace.     Occasionally,  as  on  the  Pon- 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


147 


talba  buildings  and  the  old  St.  Louis  or  Hotel 
Royal,  there  is  a  distinctive  pattern  formed  by 
twining  initials  in  the  delicate  traceries.  The 
balustrades,  so  varied  in  design  and  beauty, 
are  the  work  of  mastercraftsmen,  and  are 
treasured  as  exquisite  examples  of  a  now  al- 
most lost  art.  The  ingenuity  and  patient  labor 
of  these  wondrous  workers  is  strikingly  proven 
by  the  fact  that  among  the  thousands  of  balus- 
trades to  be  found  in  New  Orleans,  a  duplicate 
is  seldom  seen. 

American  Influence.  After  the  cession  of 
1803,  the  influx  of  Americans  spread  the  city 
beyond  its  original  limits  and  gradually 
transformed  its  architectural  types.  Some 
old  American  residences  still  standing  in  St. 
Charles  Street  and  lower  Carondelet,  resemble 
those  of  the  Vieux  Carre,  but  with  an  open 
lawn  or  well  kept  garden  instead  of  the  closed 
courtyard.  In  the  Garden  District,  still  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  residential  sections,  fine 
homes  with  broad  verandas  supported  by 
classic  columns  bespeak  the  influence  of  the 
Colonial  style  of  the  Georgian  period.  Large 
grounds  enclosed  by  high  iron  fences,  hedges, 
or  walls  complete  the  dignity  and  exclusive- 
ness  of  these  homes. 

Modern  Homes.  To  a  city  so  accessible 
by  rail  and  water,  lack  of  material  is  no 
longer  a  stumbling  block  to  diversity  in  build- 
ing. Vermont  granite,  Tennessee  marble,  steel 
from  Pennsylvania,  cypress,  oak,  walnut,  gum, 
and  many  other  useful  or  ornamental  woods 
from  Louisiana's  forests,  have  contributed  to 
the  construction  of  the  New  Orleans  of  today. 
Brick,  artistically  finished  and  as  durable  as 
stone,  no  longer  needs  a  coat  of  plaster,  and 
is  used  effectively;  it  is  especially  pleasing  as 
a  background  for  the  white  pillars  of  the  En- 
glish colonial  residences.  The  cosmopolitan 
population,  as  well  as  variety  of  material, 
caused  a  defection  from  tlie  early  types  of  ar- 
chitecture. Indeed,  except  for  public  build- 
ings, the  architecture  of  the  city  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  can  hardly  be  said  to  possess  a  type. 
In  architecture  the  practical  need  comes  first, 
but  parallel  with  this  is  the  testhetic  need.  Un- 
fortunately, both  are  frequently  overlooked  in 
the  construction  of  modern  dwellings,  which, 
too  often,  are  mere  shelters  for  human  beings 
or  are  modelled  after  plans  totally  unsuited 
to  the  climate.  New  Orleans,  so  rich  in  tra- 
ditions,  so   indelibly  marked  by  a  distinctive 


type  in  her  earlier  architecture,  a  type,  which, 
in  itself,  gives  her  individuality,  and  charm, 
should,  like  other  cities  with  older  associa- 
tions, seek  to  perpetuate  and  vivify  this 
indviduality,  and  increase  this  charm.  Imita- 
tion of  other  cities  is  a  mistake.  She  has  her 
own  ideals.  Why  should  they  be  forgotten  in 
her  progress? 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  the  French 
colonial  type  is  the  Newcomb  pottery  build- 
ing. It  is  neither  large  nor  pretentioiis,  but 
with  its  small-paned  windows  and  iron-railed 
balconies  adheres  closely  to  the  style  it  repre- 
sents, amply  proving  that  an  evolution  of  the 
native  architecture  is  best  suited  to  the  natural 
environments. 

Buildings  of  Note.  As  building  is  the  out- 
ward expression  of  the  life  of  a  community, 
some  of  the  most  important  structures  in  New 
Orleans  have  been  described  in  relation  to  some 
phase  of  human  activity.  For  example,  the 
Post  Office,  the  Custom  House,  the  New  Court 
building,  are  representative  structures,  and 
found  their  place's  in  other  chapters.  Many 
churches  are  fine  examples  of  the  different 
architectural  schools. 

The  City  Hall  was  built  in  1850  by  Gallier 
after  the  plan  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  on  the 
Athenian  Acropolis.  A  broad  flight  of  granite 
steps  ascend  to  the  entrance,  high  above  the 
street.  Massive  Grecian  columns  support  a  lofty 
portico,  the  frieze  of  which  is  adorned  by  a  bas- 
relief  of  Justice  and  flgiires  emblematic  of  the 
commerce  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

In  the  business  section  of  New  Orleans  ai-e 
several  skyscrapers  —  the  Grunewald  Hotel, 
Maison  Blanche,  the  Whitney-Central  build- 
ing,— none,  however,  rival  the  skyscrapers  of 
New  York.  High  buildings  are  unsuited  to  New 
Orleans,  first,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  sufficiently 
firm  foundations  to  bear  their  weight,  and 
second,  the  concentration  of  business  within 
a  small  area  congests  traffijc  in  streets  which 
are  scarcely  wide  enough  to  accommodate  the 
usual  procession  of  vehicles. 

Streets.  With  the  exception  of  the  section 
laid  out  by  de  la  Tour,  New  Orleans  has  never 
been  officially  planned.  The  streets  have  fol- 
lowed the  line  of  least  resistance  or  have  been 
opened  up  by  speculators  who  exploit  the  at- 
tractiveness of  a  particular  section  for  im- 
mediate gain  rather  than  for  the  permanent 
benefit    to   the    community.     The    result    has 


148 


rHE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


been  great  irregularity  and  lack  of  uniformity. 
In  general,  the  streets  running  north  and 
south  conform  in  broad,  sweeping  curves  to 
the  dii'ection  of  the  River,  and  are  crossed 
by  other  streets  which  converge  or  radiate, 
sometimes  meeting  to  form  triangles,  some- 
times ending  abruptly  at  intersections.  These 
curves  become  less  evident  in  streets  at  a 
distance  from  the  River,  and  the  blocks  of 
the  newly  developed  section  toward  the  Lake 
are,  for  the  most  part,  rectangular.  Some 
New  Orleans  streets  have  attained  more  than 
local  fame.  The  narrow  streets  of  the  Vieux 
Carre  are  noted  for  the  picturesqueness  and 
Old  World  charm  characteristic  of  that  section. 
Canal  Street,  the  broad  thoroughfare  170  feet 
wide,  which  divides  the  city  into  two  sec- 
tions— north  and  south — is  the  great  center  of 
the  city's  retail  trade,  the  heart  of  its  bvisiness 
life.  St.  Charles  Avenue,  a  shady  boulevard 
from  Lee  Circle  to  Carrollton  Avenue,  curves 
with  the  winding  of  the  River  and  its  width 
of  120  feet  affords  splendid  views  on  either  side 
of  the  residences  in  the  midst  of  their  lovely 
gardens.  The  neutral  ground  is  beautified 
with  a  green  sward  and  crepe  myrtles,  olean- 
ders, palms,  and  oaks.  The  imposing  build- 
ings of  Tulane  and  Loyola  Universities  facing 
Audubon  Park,  enhance  the  avenue's  natural 
atti'activeness.  Besides  good  architectural 
features,  many  structures  are  enhanced  by 
their  exceptionally  advantageous  locations,  as, 
for  instance,  the  New  Orleans  Public  Library. 
It  was  indeed  a  fortuitous  occurrence  that 
caused  the  library  to  be  erected  where  St. 
Charles  Avenue  terminates  at  Lee  Circle,  thus 
giving  it  several  splendid  prospects. 

Present  Movement  in  Behalf  of  Conserva- 
tion and  Improvement.  The  cry  to  abolish  by 
city  ordinance  the  galleries  and  balconies  which 
shelter  the  sidewalks  in  the  business  section  is 
raised  in  the  name  of  progress  by  those  who 
would  rob  New  Orleans  of  a  distinctive  charm 
and  reconstruct  her  according  to  the  stereo- 
typed  pattern   of   some   cities   in   the   Middle 


West.  Artists,  architects,  and  travellers  have 
praised  these  galleries.  Edward  Hungerford 
wrote  of  them:  "The  galleries  of  New  Or- 
leans! They  are  perhaps  the  most  typical 
of  the  outward  expressions  of  a  town  whose 
personality  is  as  distinct  as  that  of  Boston, 
Charleston,  or  San  Francisco. . .  .She  (New  Or- 
leans) well  knows  the  commercial  value  of  her 
personality.  There  are  newer  cities  and 
showier  within  the  radius  of  a  single  night's 
ride  upon  a  fast  train.  But  where  one  man 
comes  to  one  of  these,  a  dozen  alight  at  the 
old  French  town  by  the  bend  of  the  yellow 
river."  Concurrent  with  the  movement  for 
the  retention  of  galleries  is  the  still  more 
recent  agitation  for  conserving  fine  old 
trees,  which  having  taken  generations  to 
attain  maturity,  cannot  be  replaced  in  a 
single    day. 

The  Association  of  Commerce  under  the 
guidance  of  a  zealous  and  energetic  president, 
and  the  Women's  Clubs  are  actively  further- 
ing the  cause  of  the  "City  Beautiful."  The 
campaign,  earnestly  waged  in  behalf  of  more 
harmonious  architecture  and  more  jDleasing 
streets,  strenuously  opposes  towering  sky- 
scrapers, and  urges  the  abolition  of  violently 
assertive  and  glai'ing  advertisements,  unsightly 
shoijs  in  residential  districts,  and  jarosaic 
foi-ests  of  poles  with  their  burden  of  overhead 
wires.  Street  improvement  has  resulted  in 
more  spacious  thoroughfares  with  ample  pro- 
vision for  neutral  grounds  and  banquettes,  al- 
lowing free  circulation  of  air;  better  pave- 
ment and  drainage;  and  more  lavish  use  of 
greenery,  performing  both  a  utilitarian  and 
an  iBsthetic  mission  by  absorbing  carbonic 
gases  and  by  giving  out  oxygen,  by  relieving 
monotony,  and  by  speaking  to  the  hearts  of 
men  the  uplifting  lang-uage  of  nature.  The 
city  government  has  manifested  interest  and 
a  desire  to  cooperate  in  the  movement.  It 
supports  a  nursery  to  supply  trees  for  civic 
adornment  and  it  is  gradually  introducing  a 
system  of  ornamental  street  lighting. 


I 


SECTION  3.     PUBLIC  PLEASURE  GROUNDS. 


Need  of  Open  Spaces  in  Cities.  Public  health  of  a  community  as  the  organs  of 
parks  and  squares  have  been  called  the  lungs  breathing  are  to  an  individual.  Disease  is 
of  great  cities;   they   are   as   necessary  to  the     fostered,  human  life  shortened  by  the  dusty, 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


149 


foul,  ill-smelling  atmosphere  of  congested  dis- 
tricts. Since  present  economic  conditions  force 
people  to  live  in  such  surroundings,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  municipality  to  provide  some 
means  of  alleviation.  As  many  workers  have 
neither  time  nor  money  to  go  long  distances 
in  search  of  fresh  air,  small  parks  distributed 
through  every  section  of  the  city,  supply  this 
need.  The  trees  and  shrubs  help  to  purify 
the  atmosphere  and  afford  a  pleasant  relief 
from  the  monotony  of  workshops  or  offices. 

The  French  Place.  The  French,  particu- 
larly, make  generous  use  of  the  small  parks 
or-  places  usually  a  center    around   which   im- 


taxes;  New  Orleans  then  set  aside  the  tract  as 
a  public  park.  It  remained  unimproved  for 
many  years,  until  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
commission.  The  commissioners  had  to  solve 
the  problem  of  converting  a  swamp  through 
which  sluggish  bayous  wound  their  tortuous 
course,  into  a  beautiful  spot  for  rest  and 
recreation.  The  swamps  were  drained,  the 
underbrush  cleared,  and  the  muddy,  stagnant 
bayous  transformed  into  winding  lagoons 
arched  by  artistic  bridges.  City  Park  now 
charms  all  nature-lovers.  The  wonderful  trees 
of  City  Park,  in  particular  the  mighty  live 
oaks,   are  noted;   nearly  every  tree  found  in 


beside  the  live  oaks,  being  the  magnolia,  pine, 
cedar,  cypress,  and  camphor.  In  the  spring, 
the  huge  wistaria  vines  laden  with  their 
gorgeous  lavender  blossoms,  give  an  oriental 
touch  to  the  landscape. 


portant  buildings  are  grouped,  or  as  parts  of     Louisiana   is   represented;   the   principal   ones 

a  system  connected  by  splendid  boulevards  or 

driveways.     When    de    la    Tour  planned  New 

Orleans,  he  provided  for  an  open  square,   the 

Place  d'Armes,  now  Jackson  Square,  to  serve 

the  double  purpose  of  a 

place  of  recreation  for 

the  public  and,  as  the 

old   name    implies,    a 

parade  ground  for  the 

soldiers. 

The  Park:  Func- 
tion. The  small  parks 
and  squares  serve  a 
purpose,  but  every  city 
needs  a  large  park,  a 
place  where  people  can 
seek  rest  and  seclusion 
away  from  the  noises 
and  oppressive  atmos- 
phere  of   the   heart   of 

the  city.  The  park  supplies  a  physical  need 
for  sunshine,  fresh  air,  and  quiet,  by  offering 
a  means  of  wholesome  relaxation  and  change; 
it  stimulates  mental  activity;  and  through  the 
beauties  of  nature  ordered  and  arranged  by  the 
art  of  man,  it  fosters  a  love  of  the  beautiful. 

New  Orleans  Parks:  City  Park  and 
Audubon  Park.  A  large  portion  of  the  area 
of  City  Park  was  the  property  of  Louis  Al- 
lard,  which,  being  sold  for  mortgages,  became 
the  property  of  John  McDonogh.  The  former 
owner,  then  in  the  decline  of  life,  was. allowed 
to  pass  his  remaining  years  at  his  old  home, 
and  was  laid  to  rest  beneath  the  stately  oaks 
he  had  loved  so  well.  McDonogh  willed  the 
plantation  with  the  rest  of  his  estate  to  the 
cities  of  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans.  Balti- 
more abandoned  her  claim    in    payment   of 


DELGADO  ART  MUSEUM. 


The  open-air  rose  gar- 
den is  an  object  of  at- 
tention and  admiration, 
the    year    round.    The 
Delgado    Art    Museum 
is  in  the  center  of  the 
park,  by  the  side  of  the 
little  lake.  As  its  name 
implies,  it  was  the  gift 
of  Isaac  Delgado.  Very 
fittingly,  the  edifice  was 
fashioned  after  a  Greek 
temple   and   is   itself  a 
work    of    art.    The    ex- 
hibit, though  still  small, 
contains  many  pieces  of  value.     Mr.  Delgado 
made  a  donation  to  the  exhibit;  Mr.  Morgan 
Whitney    bequeathed    to    it    his    collection    of 
jades,   and   Mrs.   Chapman  Hyams,  hdr  beau- 
tiful art  collection  valued  at  $250,000.    A  lovely 
prospect  may  be  obtained  of  the  museum,  from 
the  bridge  that  crosses  Bayou  St.  John  at  the 
foot  of  Esplanade,  through  the  long  avenue  of 
trees  and  palms  that  leads  up  to  the  museum. 
Audubon  Park  was  formerly   the   Foucher 
plantation.    Pierre  Foucher  obtained  the  upper 
part  in  1793,  and  the  lower  part  in  1825.    This 
lower  section  is  of  peculiar  historic  interest. 
It  was  part  of  Etienne  de  Bore's    plantation 
where  sugar  was  first  granulated  in  1794,  and 
where   Charles   Gayarre,   Louisiana's   eminent 
historian,    passed    his    youth.    The    Foucher 
plantation  was  purchased  by  the  city  in  187lj 


150 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


and  was  known  as  Upper  City  Park;  in  1887, 
it  was  renamed  "Audubon  Park,"  in  honor 
of  the  great  nauralist.  A  statue  in  the  central 
portion  of  the  park,  now  also  serves  to  honor 
his  memoiy.  The  park  was  unimproved  up 
to  the  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition;  hut  the 
exposition  directed  attention  to  the  park  as 
an  important  and  easily  improved  asset  to  the 
city.  Its  natural  advantages  have  been  well 
utilized.  Extending  from  St.  Charles  Avenue 
to  the  Eiver,  it  has  an  unusual  expanse.  The 
broad  green  swards,  clusters  and  avenues  of 
palms  and  trees,  and  the  far-famed  ^Tove  of 
magnificent,  old  live  oaks  have  an  unfailing 
{esthetic  appeal.  A  large  artificial  lake  is  to 
be  constructed  and  will  add  the  final  touch  to 
the  beautiful  landscape  of  Audubon  Park; 

Two  Park  Commissions  administer  the 
atfairs  of  each  joark  and  see  to  the  im- 
provements. 

Squares  and  Playgrounds.  New  Orleans  is 
singularly  fortunate  in  the  number  of  small 
parks,  or  open  squares  and  playgrounds  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  city.  There  is  Jackson 
Square,  the  old  Place  d'Armes,  famous  in  his- 
tory and  romance;  Lafayette  Square,  between 
the  City  Hall  and  the  new  Post  Office ;  Coliseum 
Place,  a  favorite  resort  for  children;  Annuncia- 
tion Square,  Washington  Square,  and  many 
others  serve  as  breathing  spots  for  residents  of 
crowded  districts.  The  playgrounds,  equipped 
with  swings,  see-saws, 
merry  -  go  -  rounds,  and 
other  apparatus  that 
delight  the  hearts  of 
children,  are  kept  up  in 
many  parts  of  the  city. 
Boys  and  girls  not  only 
reap  the  benefit  of  sun- 
shine, fresh  air,  and  ex- 
ercise so  necessary  to 
build  up  the  bone  and 
tissue  of  growing  limbs, 
but  they  are  taught  or- 
ganization, self-control, 
and  responsibility  by 
means  of  supervised 
games.  New  Orleans 
has  more  fresh-  ai  r 
space  per-capita  than 
any '  city  in  the  world, 
for  no  city  with  equal 
population,  and  but  one 


or  two  with  greater  population,  include  such 
a  large  area. 

Flora  of  New  Orleans.  So  varied  is  the 
vegetation  of  this  semi-tropical  climate  that 
an  attempt  to  list  its  trees,  shrubs,  and 
flowers  would  be  a  heavy  task.  Here,  the 
hardy  plants  of  colder  climes  thrive  side  by 
side  with  the  delicate  products  of  warmer  re- 
gions. Four  times  as  many  varieties  of  trees 
are  found  in  Louisiana  as  in  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia; the  most  conspicuous  are  the  many 
varieties  of  oaks,  the  cypress,  poplar,  willow, 
pecan,  and  beautiful  white-flowering  magnolia. 
Among  the  shrubs  that  adorn  the  parks  and 
gardens,  are  the  crepe  myrtle  and  oleander  of 
several  different  colors,  the  sweet  olive,  the 
camellia,  white,  pink,  and  red,  and  an  endless 
variety  of  jasmines.  Roses  of  every  descrip- 
tion and  color,  thrive;  the  hibiscus,  rhododen- 
dron, hydrangea,  and  beautiful  crimson  poin- 
setta  adorn  the  gardens.  "Parterres"  are 
filled  with  a  profusion  of  annuals,  mignonette, 
sweet  alysum,  marigold,  petunia,  phlox,  pansies, 
portulaca,  balsams.  The  wistaria,  which  in 
spring  is  massed  with  delicate  and  exquisite 
clusters  of  lavender  blossoms,  and  the  trailing 
rosa  montana,  whose  delicate  deep  coral  sprays 
burst  into  bloom  in  late  summer,  grace  many 
a  gallery,  fence,  and  arbor.  An  eminent 
botanist  has  said,  "Though  perhaps  the  flora 
of    Louisiana    lacks    the    tropical    beauty    of 


''■  ■'■'■     ,>                                g£               V' 

M 

iiy;>ir.^5S5.'»i'i-"i^_-;<i'-T-- ^                                                                                               "             -"'-    "■-"    " '"^"f^V^^^SM 

OAKS   IN   AUDUBON   PARK. 


—Courtesy  of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


151 


Florida,  or  the  stupendous  grandeur  of 
the  forests  of  California,  yet  in  the  di- 
versity and  variety  of  its  plant  life,  it 
is  second  probably  to  no  State  in  the 
Union. ' ' 

Birds.  Few  undomesticated  animals,  ex- 
cept the  little  squirrels  that  skip  from  branch 
to  branch  in  the  parks  and  venture  audaciously 
near  some  human  in  their  search  for  food, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  limits  of  the  thickly 
settled  portion  of  New  Orleans.  The  bird  life, 
however,  is  extraordinary  and  interesting  in 
its  variety.  By  far  the  greater  number  of 
birds  are  migratory,  only  visiting  this  vicinity 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  and  nesting  else- 
where. With  the  spring  awakening  come  a 
great  variety  of  warblers,  and  their  delicate 
notes  fill  the  air  with  music;  the  black  cres- 
cent of  the  chimney  swallow's  outstretched 
wings,  is  seen  darting  rapidly  here  and  there; 


orioles,  wood  thrushes,  summer  tanagers,  and 
companions,  famoiis  for  melody  and  plumage, 
come  in  monster  troops.  As  the  season  ad- 
vances, these  travellers  wing  their  flight  and 
are  replaced  by  other  species  of  bird  life — 
thrushes,  catbirds,  redstarts,  king-birds,  gold- 
finches, and  later  the  ruby-crowned-ringlets, 
the  myrtle  warblers,  and  the  swamp  and 
white-throated  sparrow.  Among  the  best 
known  resident  birds,  are  the  thrush,  sparrow, 
wood-pecker,  redbird,  blue  jay,  and  the 
mockingbird,  famed  as  a  masterly  songster. 
Many  kinds  of  gulls,  made  bold  by  a  keen 
appetite,  venture  up  the  Eiver  and  across  the 
Lake  in  search  of  food,  fearlessly  disporting 
themselves  about  the  big  ships  in  the  harbor. 
Several  kinds  of  wild  duck  are  resident  and 
abundant  at  all  times  of  the  year,  thus  making 
hunting  in  the  vicinity  noted  during  the  open 
season. 


SECTION  4.    PAVING. 


Necessity  for  Paving.  The  question  of 
pavements  is  one  of  great  importance  to  a 
municipality.  "With  the  growth  of  a  city  and 
the  consequent  increase  in  traffic,  paving  be- 
comes a  necessity,  for  the  continual  hauling 
of  heavy  vehicles  produces  stifling  dust  in  dry 
weather  and  impassable  bogs  during  rains. 
And  again,  an  unpaved  street  is  both  a 
hindrance  to  traffic,  and  a  menace  to  health. 
It  cannot  be  so  easily  or  thoroughly  cleaned 
as  smooth  pavement;  even  after  sprinkling,  the 
germ-laden  dust  soon  rises  with  the  passing 
of  every  vehicle;  the  drainage  is  less  perfect 
than  on  a  paved  street;  and,  too  often,  it  is  an 
unsightly  dumping  ground  for  trash.  Hence 
the  needs  of  traffic,  sanitary  conditions,  and  the 
appearance  of  the  city  make  paving  necessary. 

Early  Paving.  The  conditions  of  New  Or- 
leans streets  drained  by  open  wooden  gutters 
and  bordered  by  wooden  sidewalks  was  far  from 
being  sanitary.  In  1817,  in  the  face  of  much 
skepticism  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
the  block  on  Gravier  Street  between  Tchoupi- 
toulas  and  Magazine,  was  paved  with  cobble- 
stones. This  was  the  first  paving  laid  in  New 
Orleans,  and  proving  successful  was  gradually 
increased.     In  1820,  brick  sidewalks  replaced 


those  of  wood  on  the  main  thoroughfares,  but" 
it  was  not  until  1821  that  any  systematic  at- 
tempt was  made  to  pave  the  streets.  As  there  is 
no  stone  near  the  city,  material  for  paving  had 
to  be  brought  from  a  great  distance.  In  order 
to  obtain  stone,  the  city  offered  a  premium  for 
rock  ballast.  This  plan  was  quite  effectual. 
The  heavy  Belgian  block  was  laid  in  a  pretty 
diagonal  pattern  on  many  streets.  Although 
some  of  the  Belgian  block  still  remains,  the 
heavy  traffic  and  the  insecure  foundation  have 
caused  the  patterns  long  since  to  disappear.  St. 
Charles  Street  was  paved  in  1822  and  work 
begun  on  several  commercial  streets  in  the 
old  and  new  town;  but  the  impulse  toward 
municipal  improvements  soon  subsided.  Up 
to  1835,  only  two  streets  had  been  paved  for 
any  considerable  length;  elsewhere,  vehicles 
sank  up  to  the  hub  in  mire  after  heavy  rains. 
The  first  paving  with  square  granite  blocks 
was  done  in  1850. 

Paving  at  Present  Time.  New  Orleans 
covers  such  an  extensive  area  that,  although 
there  are  several  hundred  miles  of  paved 
streets,  there  are  many  times  that  amount 
still  unpaved.  The  kinds  of  pavement  now 
being    used    in    New     Orleans     are     asphalt 


152 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


(pitch),  rock  asplialt,  bitlmlitliic,  mineral 
rubber,  granitoid,  wood  block,  and  granite 
block. 

Asphalt.  Asphalt  is  either  obtained  from 
natural  lakes  in  Trinidad  and  Venezuela  or  is 
manufactured  here  from  crude  oil.  The  asphalt 
is  not  laid  upon  the  soil.  The  model  pavement 
of  any  kind  must  first  have  a  six-inch  con- 
crete base  next  to  the  soil  to  give  solidity  and 
strength.  The  heat  of  the  sun  somewhat  softens 
the  asphalt,  and  heavy  wagons  passing  over  it 
in  this  condition  indent  it;  in  these  depressions, 
the  water  collects  and  rots,  the  pavement.  To 
prevent  the  asphalt  from  slipping,  a  two-inch 
binder  course  of  tar  and  crushed  stone  is  laid 
over  the  concrete  before  the  asphalt  is  applied. 
The  tar  sticks  firmly  to  the  concrete  and  the 
rough  edges  of  the  stone  hold  the  asphalt  in 
place.  For  the  final  layer,  about  75  per  cent  of 
river  and  lake  sand  is  mixed  with  12  per  cent 
asplialt,  the  remaining  portion  consisting  of 
mineral  dust,  or  powdered  granite  used  as  a 
"filler."  These  are  thoroughly  mixed  and 
heated  to  250°,  so  that  the  total  amount  of 
expansion  may  take  place  in  the  mass.  It  is 
laid  hot  upon  the  surface  of  the  street,  and, 
in  cooling,  contracts,  holding  firmly  to  the 
rough  surface  of  the  binder.  Immediately 
after  the  mixture  is 
spread  upon  the 
street,  it  is  rolled 
with  a  five-ton  roller 
to  compress  particles 
of  sand  together  in  a 
solid  mass.  Asphalt 
pavement  can  be  laid 
about  as  cheaply  in 
New  Orleans  as  else- 
where, because  the 
sand  is  easily  pro- 
cured and  the  asi^halt 
is  either  made  here 
or  transported  by 
water. 

Creosoted  Wood 
Block.  The  best 
kind  of  pavement  for 
heavy  traffic  is  the 
creosoted  wood  block. 
It  may  be  considered 
a  home  prodiict,  for 
the  blocks  are  made 
from  the  native  long- 


leaf  yellow  pine.  In  the  manufacture  of  the 
creosoted  wood  blocks,  the  pine  is  cut  into 
blocks  of  uniform  size.  They  are  subjected  to 
the  vacuum  process,  which  evaporates  all  sap 
and  water,  leaving  the  blocks  porous.  Creosote 
under  heavy  pressure  is  forced  into  the  cylin- 
der containing  the  blocks,  which  thus  become 
permeated  with  the  creosote.  This  pavement 
costs  about  30  per  cent  more  than  asphalt,  as 
most  of  the  creosote  is  imported,  but  the  ex- 
pense, ultimately,  is  not  greater,  for  it  lasts 
longer  and  does  not  require  as  frequent  repair. 
The  creosoted  wood  block  is  noiseless,  com- 
pared with  pavements  of  less  elastic  material; 
it  is  sanitary,  as  creosote  is  a  germicide,  and 
it  endures  without  injury  enormous  weight 
and  great  shocks,  as  the  falling  of  heavy  ma- 
chinery. Therefore  the  floors  of  foundries 
and  olher  manufacturing  places,  and  the  docks 
are  being  paved  with  creosoted  wood  blocks. 
The  government  machine  shops  in  Balboa, 
Canal  Zone,  are  paved  with  this  material. 

Expenditure  for  Paving.  The  City  pays 
one-fourth  the  cost  of  paving  single  streets 
and  one-third  the  cost  of  double  streets;  the 
property  holders  pay  the  balance  according  to 
the  frontage  of  their  property  along  the  street 
to  be  paved.     On  streets  where  car  lines  run, 


CfiEOSOTKD  >\O0U  BLOCK  PAVEITENT. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


153 


the  railway  company  paves  between  tlie 
tracks  and  eighteen  inches  on  either  side,  or 
the  entire  street,  according  to  their  franchise 
for  each  section.  Twenty  per  cent  of  the  rev- 
enues of  the  city  are  devoted  to  public  im- 
provements; out  of  that  must  come  the  main- 


tenance of  the  two  parks,  the  erection  of  new 
school  buildings,  paving,  and  many  other  im- 
IDrovements.  About  $400,000  a  year  is  avail- 
able for  public  improvement  and  that  sum  has 
been  spent  for  the  next  fifteen  years  to  come. 
Over  70  per  cent  of  it  was  used  for  paving. 


SECTION  5.    STREET  LIGHTING. 


Necessity  of  Street  Lighting.  Efficient 
street  lighting  serves  a  threefold  purpose:  it 
beautifies  a  city,  prevents  accidents,  and  les- 
sens crime.  Proper  arrangement  of  lights  sup- 
ported by  ornamental  brackets  or  poles,  adds 
to  the  artistic  appearance  of  streets  by  day  as 
well  as  by  night.  Eobbers  make  iise  of  dark 
streets  where  they  can  hide  unobserved  while 
waiting  to  attack  unsuspecting  persons;  car- 
riages, not  having  the  powerful  lights  of  the 
automobiles  may  come  to  grief,  or  pedestrians, 
groping  their  way  in  darkness  may  meet  with 
some  acicdent. 

Street  Lighting  in  the  Past.  Governor 
Carondelet,  responsible  for  much  municipal  im- 
provement, first  established  a  system  of  street 
lighting  in  New  Orleans  (See  Page  20).  The 
use  of  oil  lamps,  suspended  from  wooden  posts 
at  the  street  intersections,  continued  well  into 
the  period  of  American  rule.  The  light  from 
these  penetrated  but  a  short  distance,  thus 
blocks  where  trees  overhimg  the  street,  were 
shrouded  in  darkness.  The  sidewalks  were  infe- 
rior and  those  persons  called  forth  for  business 
or  jjleasure    after    nightfall,   carried  lanterns. 


Through  the  dim-lit  streets,  many  a  gay  party 
made  its  way  preceded  by  servants  bearing 
swinging  lights  that  daintily  slippered  feet 
might  avoid  foot-falls  and  mud-puddles.  Gas 
street  lamps  were  introduced  about  1833  and 
continued  in  use  for  over  half  a  century.  Some 
of  the  old-time  residents  may  still  remember 
the  lamp-lighter,  who  at  dusk  made  his  round; 
as  the  use  of  electricity  gradually  superseded 
gas,  he  became  a  less  familiar  figure  and  now 
is  seen  no  more. 

Present  City  Lighting.  The  present  system 
of  lighting  costs  the  city  about  $240,000 
annually.  The  cost  of  arc  lights  with  under- 
ground connection,  is  greater  than  those  with 
overhead  wires;  but  the  former  are  preferable 
because  of  the  unsightliness  of  the  overhead 
wires.  Many  cities  require  telephone,  tele- 
graph, trolley,  and  lighting  wires  to  be  placed 
undergTound.  In  some  parts  of  the  city,  the 
arc  lights  at  street  intersections,  are  being 
replaced  by  incandescent  lights  along  the  block. 
The  effect  is  much  more  beautiful,  and  the 
light  more  evenly  distributed,  especially  where 
large  trees  overhang  the  street. 


SECTION  6.    STREET  CLEANING. 


Need.  The  first  requirement  for  a  healthful 
and  beautiful  city,  is  cleanliness.  One  advan- 
tage of  paved  streets  is  that  they  are  more 
easily  cleaned;  but  unless  cleaning  is  done  fre- 
quently, a  paved  street  will  bcome  as  unsani- 
tary as  any  other.  Dirt  and  refuse,  breeding 
places  for  flies,  rapidly  collect,  and  germ-laden 
dust  filters  into  houses  and  clothing  and  so 
endangers  health  unless  the  streets  are  kept 
in   proper    co^ditio^   by    dailj;'    cleaning    and 


sprinkling.  Unpaved  streets  seldom  receive 
the  necessary  care;  they  are  ovrlooked  in  the 
problem  of  street  cleaning. 

Method.  The  City  of  New  Orleans  has 
an  organized  force  of  street  cleaners. 
During  the  hours  of  least  traffic,  this  white- 
clad  army  is  at  work.  Huge  brush  rollers, 
almost  half  the  width  of  the  street,  sweep 
the  refuse  near  the  curb;  along  the  curb  men 
are  working  in  squads,  who  brush  it  into  pile§ 


154 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOJC 


ready  to   be  hauled  away.    Other  white  uni-  three     of     these     si^rinklers,  one     after     the 

formed    men    follow    on    water-wagons    which  other,    go    over    the    same  street    in    order 

spread    the    water    in    great    fan-like     sprays  to    lay    well    the    dust    and  flush    the    street 

over     the     surface     of     the     street.     Usually  along   the    curb. 


SECTION  7.    CIVIC  VIRTUES. 


Kindness  and  Cheerfulness.  By  nature  a 
social  being,  man  should  not  ignore  his  relation 
to  society.  These  very  relations  give  rise  to 
certain  obligations;  one  of  the  greatest  of 
these  is  to  consider  the  happiness  of  others. 
The  cultivation  of  a  kindly  cheerful  disposition 
ready  with  little  deeds  of  good  will,  sym- 
pathy, and  hospitality  to  disseminate  sunshine 
through  the  world  is  a  duty  both  to  self  and 
to  one's  fellow-men.  The  value  of  a  kind  and 
cheerfiil  disposition  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

Order  and  Cleanliness.  Barbarous  men  do 
not  know  the  use  of  water;  the  savages  of  Africa 
anoint  their  bodies  with  oil;  the  nomads  of  the 
desert  rub  their  skin  with  sand;  civilized 
people  recognize  the  agreeable  and  salutary 
effects  of  the  unstinted  use  of  soap  and  water. 
Clean  thoughts  and  clean  language  are  even 
more  obligatory  than  bodily  cleanliness,  be- 
cause vulgarity  of  speech,  profane  or  obscene 
language,  not  only  offend  sensitive  natures, 
but  poison  minds  and  hearts.  Personal  clean- 
liness should  be  accompanied  by  good  order  in 
one's  surroundings:  the  condition  of  a  home 
indicates  the  character  of  its  inmates.  People 
who  take  pride  in  the  attractive  appearance 
of  their  jjroperty,  who  allow  no  breeding  place 
for  rats,  and  roaches,  who  are  too  orderly  to 
throw  trash  in  public  places,  are  a  desirable 
element  in  any  community. 

Honesty  and  Courage.  Honesty  in  public 
and  private  life  has  many  phases;  it  implies 
freedom  from  pretense,  truthfulness  of  speech, 
being  worthy  of  confidence,  fidelity  to  trust, 
reliability  in  the  performance  of  duty,  sincerity, 
uprightness,  integxity,  and  a  high  sense  of 
justice  in  all  human  relations.  Without  such 
qualities  in  men  and  women,  the  whole  fabric  of 
law  and  order  would  be  destroyed.  The  stead- 
fast adherence  to  the  dictates  of  honor,  requires 
more  moral  courage  than  physical  bravery. 
"When  boys  and  girls  resist  the  inclination  to 
ichfiat    or   tell,   oun truths,    they    are    laying    a 


foundation  of  character,  which  will  develop 
into  right  citizenship.  This  moral  courage 
gives  also  the  power  to  bear  responsibility, 
which,  as  long  as  men  live  together,  will  fall 
to  the  lot  of  all. 

Self-Control,  Will  power  is  needed  for  the 
governance  of  man's  lower  inclinations.  Intem- 
perance in  any  form,  is  a  lack  of  self-control. 
Those  who  wish  to  preserve  vigor  of  body  and 
mind,  to  be  useful  to  the  community  in  which 
they  live,  and  to  render  patriotic  service  to 
their  country,  must  be  temperate  in  the  iTse 
of  alcoholic  beverages,  and  narcotic  stimulants 
and  drugs  which,  especially  during  the  period 
of  youth,  retard  physical  and  mental  growth. 
Self-control  implies  moderation  in  the  pursuit 
of  pleasure,  the  lack  of  which  leads  to  waste- 
fulness, poverty,  and  dissipation.  Quiet  con- 
duct in  public  places  and  repression  during 
performances,  are  necessary  for  the  conven- 
ience and  pleasure  of  others. 

Industry.  Thrift  and  industry  go  hand  in 
hand.  Idleness  is  far-reaching  in  its  results; 
it  is  largely  responsible  for  ignorance,  pov- 
erty, and  vice;  it  helps  to  fill  prisons,  refoi'ma- 
tories,  and  insane  asylums,  throwing  a  heavy 
burden  upon  the  municipality  or  the  state.  On 
the  other  hand  industry  brings  self-respect, 
contentment,  comfort,  and  increase  in  skill. 
All  are  not  called  upon  to  work  in  the  same 
way;  some  are  more  proficient  in  lines  of 
mental  activity,  while  others  succeed  better 
at  manual  labor.  But  as  every  one  has  the 
power  to  work  in  some  manner,  every  one 
must  labor.  The  history  of  the  world  teaches 
the  reward  of  labor  and  the  punishment  of 
idleness.  For  a  city  to  be  truly  great,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  citizens  be  industrious. 

Respect  for  Authority.  Authority  is  law- 
fully constituted  power  of  control  and  direc- 
tion. Bespect  for  authority  is  the  recognition 
of  that  i:)ower  and  rendering  it  obedience.  In 
Chapter  XV.,  it  was  seen  how  it  was  neces- 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


155 


sary  in  a  city  to  have  persons  in  authority, 
to  have  a  government.  Since  that  authority 
is  necessary,  it  follows  that  it  must  be  recog- 
nized and  obeyed,  else  why  have  the  author- 
ity? Lack  of  respect  for  authority,  is  a  chief 
fault  of  the  youth  of  the  United  States,  re- 
sulting, perhaps,  from  a  misunderstanding  of 
freedom.  The  independence  of  a  people  can- 
not be  maintained  without  authority,  for,  in 
its  absence,  unruly  persons  would  disregard 
the  rights  of  others  in  the  attempt  to  satisfy 
their  own  desires.  Respect  for  authority  im- 
plies respect  for  all  persons  in  whom  authority 
is  vested,  whether  it  be  parents  or  guar- 
dians, teachers,  or  officials  of  the  city,  state 
or   nation. 

Courtesy.  Courtesy  is  an  elegance  of 
manner  resulting  from  consideration  of  the 
needs  of  others.  It  is  "the  virtue  of  civiliza- 
tion." Its  exercise  is  an  indication  of  good 
breeding  and  intelligence,  and  requii'es  com- 
pliance with  the  accepted  rules  of  social  inter- 
course. Eeverence  for  old  age  without  regard 
to  station,  dress,  or  other  circumstance,  and 
honor  and  respect  for  women,  have  become 
the  essentials  of  the  Southern  ideal  of  cour- 
tesy, an  ideal  made  world-famous  by  the  past 
generations  of  Southern  men.  In  the  South- 
land men  and  boys  do  not  speak  to  women 
without  raising  their  hats;  upon  a  woman  en- 
tering an  elevator,  they  remove  their  hats;  in 
the  street  cars,  the  men  stand  that  the  women 
may  have  the  seats;  people  say  "please" 
when  asking  for  something,  and  "thank  you" 
on  receiving  it;  the  aged  are  assisted  across 
throughfares,  up  and  down  stairs.  A  worthy 
example  of  this  thoughtfulness  is  the  kindly 
assistance  the  conductors  on  the  cars  extend 
to  passengers  entering  or  leaving  the  cars, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  aged,  whom  they 
assist  to  ascend  and  alight  from  the  cars.  Such 
courtesy  is  only  possible  by  the  continual  per- 
formance of  courteous  acts,  resulting  in  the 
formation  of  a  habit  that  gains  the  good-will  of 
others  for  the  possessor  and  adds  grace  and 
charm  to  his  personality. 

Civic  Interest.  Something  has  been  said  of 
what  other  cities  with  great  civic  spirit  have 
accomplished.  Every  good  citizen  takes  an 
interest  in  the  affairs  of  his  municipality,  votes. 


pays  his  taxes,  and  lends  his  siipport  to  all 
movements  for  progress  and  improvements. 
Children  can  manifest  civic  interest  by  caring 
for  public  property,  in  particular,  by  not 
mutilating  the  interior  or  exterior  of  public 
buildings,  trees,  or  flowers,  by  caring  for  li- 
brary books,  by  being  active  workers  in  the 
cause  of  order  and  cleanliness.  (Chapter  XV.) 
The  Beauty  of  Right  Living.  In  this 
chapter,  many  kinds  of  material  beauty  have 
been  considered.  Now,  we  come  to  view 
beauty  which  is  far  inore  than  any  of  those; 
it  is  not  a  thing  of  matter  like  the  beautiful 
flowers,  nor  is  it  generally  short-lived,  for  it 
becomes  in  time  the  heritage  of  the  gener- 
ations; it  is  the  beauty  of  right  living.  The 
beauty  of  right  living  is  the  root  of  hap- 
piness; if  a  person  possessed  every  kind  of 
material  beauty  in  the  world,  and,  yet,  did 
not  live  rightly,  that  person  would  not  .be 
happy.  And  what  is  right  living?  Ordering 
one's  life  so  as  to  do  all  the  good  possible, 
and  to  refrain  from  all  the  evil  possible.  For 
a  boy  or  girl  to  live  rightly,  they  must  be 
like  the  most  useful  English  verbs,  active 
and  passive;  active  in  the  commission  of 
good  deeds,  but  passive  when  it  comes  to 
the  commission  of  bad  ones.  Right  living- 
gains  for  a  person  the  admiration  and  affec- 
tion of  family  and  friends,  and  the  apprecia- 
tion of  a  worthy  community.  To  live  rightly,  a 
boy  or  girl  must  act  well  not  only  at  home  and 
in  school,  but  in  the  public  thoroughfares  and 
places,  amusement  resorts,  etc.  It  implies  an 
adherence  to  those  civic  virtues  we  have 
considered,  and  to  other  virtues,  that  may  be 
known  to  us  to  be  necessary,  and  requires  con- 
tinued effort  for  its  attainment.  The  beauty 
of  right  living  is  the  fruit  of  worthy  deeds 
and  is  possible  of  attainment  by  all  persons, 
for  it  is  independent  of  wealth,  great  intel- 
ligence, and  physical  beauty,  depending  solely 
on  the  good  will  of  the  individual. 


TOPICS:  Section  1,  City  Building;  Section  2,  Building  of 
New  Orleans;  Section  3,  Public  Pleasure  Grounds;  Sec- 
tion 4,  Paving;  Section  5,  Street  Lighting;  Section  6, 
Street  Gleaning;  Section  7,  Civic  Virtues. 

REFERENCES:  European  Cities  at  Work,  F.  C.  Howe; 
Personality  of  American  Cities,  E.  Hungerford;  History 
and  Conditions  of  New  Orleans,  Waring  and  Cable;  Conv 
missioner  of  Public  Property,  City  Hall. 


4 


SUPPLEMENT 


OUTLINE  OF  STATE  GOVERNMENT. 


Bill  of  Rights. 

By  tlie  ' '  Bill  of  Rights, ' '  the  citzen  has  what 
are  known  as  his  civil  rights  secured  to  him, 
such  as  life,  liberty,  etc. 

The  "Bill  of  Rights'  maintains  that  govern- 
ment originates  with  the  j^eople,  rests  on  their 
will,  and  is  established  for  the  good  of  all.  ' '  To 
secure  justice,  preserve  peace,  and  promote  the 
interests  and  happin6ss  of  the  people"  is  the 
only  lawful  end  of  government. 

The  people  of  the  State  are  secure  in  the 
enjoyment  of  life,  liberty,  property,  freedom 
of  religion  and  of  speech.  The  courts  are 
thrown  open  to  all  for  the  enjoyment  of  im- 
partially dispensed  justice.  Arms  are  allowed 
to  be  carried  when  not  concealed.     In    trials, 


the  accused  is  granted  an  impartial  jury,  the 
assistance  of  counsel,  and  the  forced  attend- 
ance of  witnesses  for  his  defense,  and  is  con- 
fronted with  his  accusers  and  is  informed  of 
the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  brought 
against  him.  No  person  may  be  compelled  to 
give  evidence  against  himself.  There  may  be 
no  excessive  bail  nor  fines,  nor  cruel  and  un- 
usual punishments.  "The  privilege  of  the  writ 
of  habeas  corpus"  can  only  be  suspended  in 
time  of  invasion  or  rebellion,  or  whenever  else 
the  public  safety  may  demand  it.  The  mili- 
tary is  subordinate  to  the  civil  power.  The 
listing  of  these  rights  does  not  deny  or  impair 
any  other  rights  of  the  people  not  mentioned 
in  the  "Bill  of  Rights,"  as  contained  in  the 
Constitution  of  Louisiana. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


Division.  The  powers  of  government  are 
divided  into  three  distinct  departments,  as 
follows:  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial. 
The  members  of  one  department  may  not  hold 
office  in  another  except  in  a  few  instances, 
which  may  be  expressly  provided  for  by  law. 

A.    Legislative  Department. 

General  Assembly.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  a  General  Assembly,  composed  of  a 
Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The 
General  Assembly  meets  at  noon  in  the  capital 
city.  Baton  Rouge,  on  the  second  Monday  in 
May  of  the  even  years,  for  a  session  of  not 
more  than  sixty  days.  Members  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  are  privileged  from  arrest 
during  their  attendance  at  the  sessions  and  in 
going  to  and  from  the  same,  except  in  cases 
of  treason,  felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace. 
They  are  paid  five  dollars  per  day  during  at- 
tendance, and  are  allowed  five  cents  per  mile 
going  to  and  returning  from  the  capital.  Each 
house  has  to  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceed- 
ings, which  is  preserved   in    the    office  of  the 


Secretary  of  State.  A  quoi'um  consists  of  not 
less  than  a  majority  of  each  house.  Neither 
house  may  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days 
nor  to  any  place,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other.  No  member  may  during  his  term  of 
office  nor  for  one  year  thereaftef,  be  ap- 
pointed or  elected  to  any  civil  office  of  profit 
under  the  State,  which  may  have  been  created 
or  the  income  from  which  may  have  been  in- 
creased, during  the  time  he  was  a  member  of 
the  General  Assembly.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives has  the  sole  power  of  impeachment 
and  the  Senate  of  trying  cases  of  impeach- 
ment. No  person  may  be  convicted  without  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senators  present.  When 
the  Governor  of  the  State  is  on  trial,  the 
Chief  Justice  or  the  senior  Associate  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  presides  over  the  Senate. 
How  a  Bill  Becomes  a  Law.  A  law  may 
embrace  but  one  subject,  which  must  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  title.  In  order  for  a  bill  to  be- 
come a  law,  it  must  be  read  on  three  different 
occasions  in  each  house  and  reported  by  a 
committee  and,  in  its  final  passage,  receive  the 


n. 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


affirmative  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  members 
elected  to  the  house.  When  a  bill  has  been 
passed  by  both  houses  and  returned  to  the 
house  in  which  it  originated,  it  is  signed  by 
the  presiding  officer  in  open  house  and  imme- 
diately taken  by  the  clerk  to  the  other  house, 
whose  presiding  officer  must  sign  it  in  like 
manner.  It  is  then  sent  to  the  Governor  to 
be  signed.  Should  the  Governor  refuse  to 
sign  it,  he  must  return  it  with  his  objections, 
to  the  house  in  which  it  was  originated.  It 
may  then  be  passed  over  the  Governor's  veto 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  of 
both  houses.  Should  the  Governor  keep  a 
bill  longer  than  five  days  without  signing  it, 
it  would  become  a  law  just  as  though  he  had 
signed  it,  unless  the  General  Assembly  ad- 
journed sine  die  during  the  interval.  A  bill 
does  not  become  a  law  until  it  be  promul- 
gated, that  is,  until  ten  days  after  publication 
in  the  State  Journal,  except  it  be  a  general 
appropriation  act,  or  act  appropriating  money 
for  the  expenses  of  the  General  Assembly.  A 
bill  may  not  be  again  proposed  in  the  house 
in  which  it  was  rejected  without  the  consent 
of  the  majority  of  that  house. 

House  of  Representatives.  Representation 
is  based  on  population,  but  each  parish,  and 
each  ward  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans  must 
have  at  least  one  representative;  representa- 
tion is  directed  to  be  reapportioned  after  each 
United  States  census.  The  number  of  repre- 
sentatives may  not  exceed  120.  The  necessary 
qualifications  of  a  representative  are:  (1)  he 
must  be  an  elector;  (2)  a  resident  of  the  State 
for  five  years;  (3)  for  two  years  preceding  his 
election,  an  actual  resident  of  the  parish  or 
ward  from  which  he  is  elected.  A  member's 
seat  becomes  vacant  on  his  changing  his  resi- 
dence from  the  parish  or  ward  from  which  he 
was  elected.  The  term  of  offi'ce  is  four  years. 
The  House  of  Representatives  judges  of  the 
qualifications,  elections,  and  returns  of  its  own 
members,  chooses  its  own  officers,  determines 
the  rules  of  the  proceedings,  and  may  punish 
its  members  for  disorderly  conduct  or  con- 
tempt and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds 
of  all  its  members  elected,  expel  a  member.  It 
may  punish  also  any  other  person  guilty  of 
disrespect,  or  disorderly,  or  contemptuous  be- 
havior during  the  session;  such  imprisonment 
may  not  exceed  ten  days  for  each  offense.  All 
bills    for    raising    revenue    or    appropriating 


money  must  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, but  the  Senate  may  propose  or 
concur  in  amendments,  as  in  other  bills.  The 
expenses  of  the  house  may  not  exceed  $120 
per  day.  There  is  a  clerk  of  the  house  and 
such  other  assistants  as  may  be  necessary. 

Senate.  Whenever  the  representation  in 
the  House  of  Representativs  be  apportioned, 
the  State  is  divided  into  Senatorial  districts; 
no  parish,  except  that  of  Orleans,  may  be 
divided  in  the  formation  of  such  districts; 
when  a  new  parish  is  made,  it  is  attached  to 
the  senatorial  district  from  which  most  of  its 
territory  was  taken.  There  may  not  be  more 
than  forty-one  senators  nor  less  than  thirty- 
six,  and  they  are  apportioned  among  the  dif- 
ferent districts  according'  to  the  total  popula- 
tion contained  in  the  several  districts.  A  sen- 
ator must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age 
and  have  the  other  qualifications  required  of 
a  representative.  The  Senate,  like  the  House 
of  Representatives,  judges  of  the  qualifica- 
tions, elections,  and  returns  of  its  members, 
chooses  its  own  officers,  except  the  President 
of  the  Senate,  determines  the  rules  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, and  punishes  its  members  for  dis- 
orderly conduct  and  contempt,  and,  with  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  members 
elected,  may  expel  a  member.  It  may  punish 
any  other  person  guilty  of  disrespect,  dis- 
orderly or  contemptuous  behavior  during  the 
session;  such  imprisonment  may  not  exceed 
ten  days  for  each  offense.  The  expenses  of 
the  Senate  may  not  exceed  $100  per  day;  there 
is  a  Secretary  of  the  Senate  and  such  other 
assistants  as  may  be  necessary. 

Limitations  of  Legislative  Power.  No 
money  may  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  ex- 
cept as  appropriated  by  law,  nor  may  any 
such  appropriation  be  for  longer  than  two 
years.  The  General  Assembly  has  no  power 
to  contract  any  debts,  except  for  the  purpose 
of  repelling  invasion  or  suppressing  insurrec- 
tion. There  are  numerous  restrictions  on  the 
passing  of  local  or  special  laws;  for  instance, 
no  law  may  be  passed  for  the  opening  and 
conducting  of  elections,  or  fixing,  or  changing 
the  place  of  voting,  etc.  The  price  of  manual 
labor  may  not  be  fixed  by  law.  No  member 
may  vote  on  a  bill  in  which  he  has  any  per- 
sonal or  private  interest.  No  appropriations 
may  be  made  for  any  church,  or  minister,  or 
private  charitable  institution. 


THE   NEW   ORLEANS   BOOK 


m. 


B.    Executive  Department. 

Members.  The  members  of  the  executive  de- 
partment are  the  Governor,  Lieutenant-Gover- 
nor, Secretary  of  State,  Treasurer,  and  Auditor. 

Election  and  Term.  The  officers  of  this  de- 
partment are  elected  at  the  general  State  elec- 
tion of  representatives,  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
In  case  of  the  absence,  resignation,  death,  or 
removal  from  office  of  the  Governor,  the  succes- 
sion devolves  first  upon  the  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, then  upon  the  President  pro  tempore  of 
the  Senate.  Li  case  of  the  absence,  resignation, 
death,  or  removal  from  office  of  any  of  the  other 
officers  of  the  department,  the  Governor  fills  the 
vacancy  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate.  The  Secretary  of  State  has  the  right  to 
appoint  an  Assistant  Secretary  of  State. 

Eligibility.  Any  qualified  elector  is  eligible 
for  these  offices,  except  those  of  Governor  and 
Lieutenant-Governor;  for  these  positions  he 
must  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  ten  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  a  resident  of 
the  State  for  ten  years  preceding  his  election  to 
office.  No  person  holding  office  under  the  United 
States  government  at  the  time  of  or  within  six 
months  immediately  preceding  the  election,  may 
be  elected  to  these  offices.  The  Governor  and 
Treasurer  may  not  succeed  themselves  in  office, 
Init. become  eligible  again  at  the  expiration  of 
one  or  more  tei*ms  after  they  have  served. 

Salaries.  The  Governor's  salary  is  $5,000 
until  1916,  when  it  will  be  $7,500  per  year.  The 
Lieutenant-Governor  receives  $1,500  per  year. 
The  Secretary  of  State  and  the  Auditor  receive 
$5,000  and  the  Treasurer  $4,000  per  year. 

Duties  and  Powers  of  the  Grovemor.  The 
Governor  enters  into  office  on  the  third  Monday 
in  May.  The  Governor  has  the  power  to  grant 
reprieves  for  offenses  against  the  State,  except 
in  eases  of  impeachment  or  treason;  he  may,  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  Board  of  Pardons, 
grant  pardons,  commute  sentences,  and  remit 
fines  and  forfeitures.  The  Governor,  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  appoints  all 
officers  whose  ielection  is  not  provided  for  by  the 
Constitution  or  by  special  act  of  the  General 
Assembly.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
militia  of  the  State,  except  when  they  are  in 
actual  service  of  the  United  States.  He  must 
keep  the  General  Assembly  informed  as  to  the 
affairs  of  the  State  and  make  such  recommenda- 
tions for  its  consideration  as  he  may  deem  ex- 
pedient.   It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  the  laws  are 


faithfully  enforced  and  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  the  General  Assembly,  pro- 
vided it  be  for  a  session  of  not  more  than  thirty 
days.  Before  a  bill  may  become  a  law,  it  must 
be  signed  by  the  Governor;  should  he  veto  it, 
he  must  return  it  with  his  objections  to  the 
house  in  which  it  was  originated;  it  may  then, 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  of  both 
houses,  be  passed  over  his  veto.  Should  the  Gov- 
ernor keep  a  bill  longer  than  five  days  before 
signing  it,  it  becomes  a  law  just  as  though  he 
had  signed  it,  unless  the  General  Assembly  had 
adjourned  sine  die  during  the  interval.  The 
Governor  may  veto  any  distinct  item  of  a  bill 
making  appropriations  for  money  and  the  part 
vetoed  may  become  a  law  only  by  an  affirmative 
vote  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  members  of  both 
houses. 

Duties  and  Powers  of  Lieutenant-Governor. 
The  Lieutenant-Governor  enters  into  office  with 
the  Governor.  He  is  ex-officio  president  of  the 
Senate.  When  discharging  the  duties  of  the 
Governor,  he  receives  the  same  compensation 
as  that  to  which  the  Governor  would  have  been 
entitled  had  he  remained  in  office.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Board  of  Pardons. 

Commissions.  All  commissions  are  in  the 
name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  State  of  Lou- 
isiana. They  must  be  sealed  with  the  seal  of 
the  State,^  signed  by  the  Governor,  and  coun- 
tersigned by  the  Secretary  of  State. 


'The  seal  of  the  State  of  Louisiana,  as  it  has  existed 
up  to  April  30,  1902,  had  no  absolute  authority  of  record 
for  its  existence. 

The  first  seal  was  chosen,  supposedly,  by  Governor 
Claiborne,  and  was  supposed  to  represent  a  pelican  with 
a  nest  full  of  young.  There  was  no  change  in  this  seal 
and  no  enactment  providing  for  any  seal  until  1864.  When 
Henry  W.  Allen  became  Governor  of  the  Confederate  por- 
tion of  the  State,  and  Michael  Hahn  of  the  Federal  jjor- 
tion,  each  had  his  seal;  both  seals  were  a  pelican — one 
with  the  head  on  the  left  and  the  other  with  the  head  on 
the  right;  one  with  a  nest  full  of  young  and  the  other 
with  four  young.  Up  to  that  time,  the  inscription  on  the 
seal  was  "Justice,  Union  and  Confidence";  subsequently, 
without  any  apparent  authority,  the  inscription  upon  the 
seal  was  changed  to  ' '  Union,  Justice  and  Confidence. ' ' 

In  order  to  establish  uniformity  in  the  State  seal  and 
in  its  use  among  various  departments  of  the  government, 
on  April  30,  1902,  Governor  Heard,  acting  under  authority 
of  Section  3471  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  directed  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  to  use  a  seal,  the  description  of  which  is 
given  below,  and  this  is  the  first  directing  order  that  has 
come  from  the  chief  magistrate  and  that  stands  of  record 
legitimizing  the  seal  for  the  State: 

' '  A  pelican,  with  its  head  turned  to  the  left,  in  a  nest 
with  three  young;  the  pelican,  following  tradition,  in  the 
act  of  tearing  its  breast  to  feed  its  young;  around  the  edge 
of  the  seal  to  be  inscribed  'State  of  Louisiana.'  Over  the 
head  of  the  pelican  to  be  inscribed  'Union,  Justice  and'; 
under  the  nest  of  the  pelican  to  be  inscribed  'Confi- 
dence.' "      (W.  O.  Hart.) 


tv. 


THE   NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK 


C.    Judicial  Department. 

Courts.  The  judicial  power  of  the  State  is 
vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  Court  of  Appeals, 
District  Courts,  City  Courts,  Juvenile  Courts, 
Justices  of  the  Peace,  and  other  inferior  courts. 

1.    Supreme  Court. 

Jurisdiction.  The  Supreme  Court  has  appel- 
late aud  original  jurisdiction.  It  has  original 
jurisdiction,  that  is,  the  right  to  try  eases  before 
any  other  court,  in  determining  questions  affect- 
ing its  own  jurisdiction  and  in  matters  touching 
professional  misconduct  of  members  of  the  bar. 
It  has  control  and  general  supervision  of  all  in- 
ferior courts. 

Members.  This  court  is  composed  of  one  Chief 
Justice  and  four  Associate  Justices,  a  majority 
of  whom  constitutes  a  quorum.  The  necessary 
ctualifications  of  a  member  of  this  court  are: 
(1)  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  State;  (2)  to  be  thirty -five  years  of  age; 
(3)  to  be  learned  in  the  law;  (4)  to  have  prac- 
ticed law  in  the  State  for  ten  years  preceding 
his  election  or  appointment.  They  are  elected 
for  a  term  of  twelve  years.  In  the  event  of  the 
death,  resignation,  or  removal  from  office  of  a 
Justice,  the  vacancy  is  filled  by  the  selection  by 
the  court  of  a  Judge  of  one  of  the  Courts  of 
Appeal  from  a  different  Supreme  Court  District 
than  that  in  which  the  vacancy  occurred;  at  the 
next  congressional  election  it  is  filled  by  elec- 
tion for  a  full  term  of  twelve  years.  On  reaching 
the  age  of  seventj^-five  years  and  after  a  con- 
tinued service  of  fifteen  years,  a  Justice  may 
retire  on  full  pay.  The  office  of  Chief  Justice  is 
filled  by  the  Associate  Justice  who  has  served 
the  longest  time. 

Districts.  There  are  four  Supreme  Court 
Districts.  The  first  district  is  composed  of 
the  Parishes  of  Orleans,  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
St.  Charles,  Jefferson,  St.  Bernard,  and 
Plaquemines;  from  this  district  two  Justices 
are  elected.  The  remainder  of  the  State  is 
similarly  divided;  the  northern  parishes  form 
the  second  district;  the  southwestern  ones,  the 
third  district;  and  the  remaining  southern 
parishes,  the  fourth  district. 

Sessions.  The  Supreme  Court  holds  an  an- 
nual session  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  be- 
ginning not  later  than  the  first  Monday  in 
November  and  ending  not  sooner  than  June 
.30th  in  each  year.  All  processes  are  con- 
ducted in  the  name  of  the  State  of  "Louisiana." 


2.  Court  of  Appeals. 

Jurisdiction.  The  Courts  of  Appeals  have 
appellate  jurisdiction  upon  the  law  and  the 
facts  in  all  civil  and  probate  eases  in  which 
the  Civil  District  Court  for  the  Parish  of  Or- 
leans and  the  District  Courts  throughout  the 
State,  have  exclusive  original  jurisdiction  and 
of  which  the  Supreme  Court  has  no  jurisdic- 
tion, when  the  matter  in  dispute  does  not  ex- 
ceed $2,000. 

Judges.  There  are  three  judges  in  each 
Court  of  Appeals.  They  must  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  qualified  electors  of  the  State, 
learned  in  the  law,  have  practiced  law  in 
the  State  for  six  years,  and  have  been  actual 
residents  for  two  years  preceding  election 
or  api^ointment,  of  the  district  from  which 
they  are  elected  or  appointed.  They  serve 
eight  years  at  a  salary  of  $4,000  per  year, 
except  in  the  Parish  of  Orleans,  where  they 
receive  $5,000.  Vacancies  are  filled  by  the 
Governor  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate. 

Circuits.  The  State  is  divided  into  two  cir- 
cuits exclusive  of  the  parishes  whose  appeals 
are  returnable  to  the  Court  of  Appeal  for  the 
Parish  of  Orleans.  Each  circuit  is  divided  into 
three  districts. 

Sessions.  The  places  for  holding  sessions  of 
the  Court  of  Appeals  are  partly  designated  by 
the  Greneral  Assembly  and  partly  by  the  Court 
of  Appeal.  The  sessions  last  for  a  period  of  ten 
months,  beginning  on  the  first  Monday  of  Sep- 
tember of  each  year  and  ending  on  the  last  day 
of  June  of  the  following  year. 

3.  District  Courts. 

Jurisdiction.  The  District  Courts  except  in 
the  Parish  of  Orleans  have  original  jurisdiction 
in  all  civil  matters  where  the  amount  in  disiDute 
exceeds  fifty  dollars  and  in  cases  where  the  title 
to  real  estate  is  involved,  or  to  office  or  other 
public  positions,  or  civil  or  political  rights.  They 
have  unlimited  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all 
criminal  cases  with  a  few  exceptions,  in  all 
probate  and  succession  matters,  and  in  cases 
where  the  State,  a  parish,  mimicipality,  or  other 
political  corporation  is  a  party  defendant. 

Number.  The  State  may  be  divided  into  not 
less  than  twenty,  nor  more  than  thirty-two 
judicial  districts;  there  are  at  present  thirty  dis- 
tricts exclusive  of  the  Parish  of  Orleans,  which 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


V. 


has  two  District  Courts,  the  Civil  District  Court 
and  Criminal  District  Court. 

Judges.  There  is  usually  one  judge  in  each 
judicial  district.  In  the  case  of  large  districts, 
however,  there  are  two,  as  for  instance,  in  the 
First  District,  composed  of  the  Parish  of  Caddo. 

In  the  Parish  of  Orleans  there  are  five  judges 
of  the  Civil  District  Court  and  two  of  the  Crim- 
inal District  Court.  These  judges  are  elected 
by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  district ;  they  must 
be  residents  of  their  district  for  at  least  two 
years  preceding  their  election,  be  learned  in  the 
law,  and  have  practiced  law  for  five  years. 
Their  term  of  office  is  four  years,  except  in  the 
Parish  of  Orleans,  in  which  it  is  two  years; 
their  salary  is  $3,000  per  year,  except  in  the 
Parish  of  Orleans,  in  which  it  is  $4,000.  Vacan- 
cies, when  the  unexpired  term  is  less  than  a 
year,  are  filled  by  the  Grovernor  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate ;  where  the  unexpired 
term  is  a  year  or  more,  the  vacancy  must  be 
filled  by  a  special  election  called  by  the  Gov- 
ernor within  sixty  days  after  the  occurrence  of 
the  vacancy.  The  district  judges  have  power 
to  issue  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  at  the  instance 
of  any  person  in  actual  custody  in  their  respec- 
tive district. 

Jury.  Cases  in  which  the  punishment  may 
not  be  at  hard  labor,  are  tried  by  the  judges 
without  a  jury;  cases  in  which  the  punishment 
may  be  at  hard  labor,  must  be  tried  by  a  jury 
of  five,  all  of  whom  must  concur  to  render  a 
verdict;  cases  in  which  the  punishment  may  be 
capital,  must  be  tried  by  a  jury  of  twelve,  all 
of  whom  must  concur  to  render  a  verdict.  There 
are  juries  for  trying  civil  and  criminal  cases. 
The  Grrand  Jury,  composed  of  twelve  members, 
is  impanelled  in  each  parish  twice  a  year;  nine 
must  agree  to  find  an  indictment. 

Sessions.  Continuous  sessions  are  held  during 
ten  months  of  the  year.  In  districts  com- 
posed of  more  than  one  parish,  the  judge  sits 
alternately  in  each  parish  as  the  public  business 
may  require.  Judgments  must  be  signed  after 
three  days  .from  their  being  given  and  are  to  be 
enforced  ten  days  after  the  signing. 

4.    Juvenile  Courts. 

Courts.  In  the  parishes,  the  district  courts 
serve  when  necessary  as  Juvenile  Courts,  but  in 
New  Orleans  there  is  a  special  Juvenile  Court. 

Purpose.     Juvenile  Courts  are  established 


for  the  trial  of  all  children  seventeen  years  of 
age  and  under,  charged  as  "neglected"  or  "de- 
linquent," and  all  persons  guilty  of  the  violation 
of  laws  for  the  protection  of  the  physical,  moral, 
or  mental  well-being  of  children,  not  punishable 
by  death  or  hard  labor.  Cases  of  desertion  or 
non-support  of  children,  by  either  parent,  also 
belong  to  this  court. 

Terms  "Neglected"  and  "Delinquent."  By 
"neglected"  child  is  meant  any  child  seventeen 
years  of  age  or  under,  foimd  destitute,  or  with- 
out proper  guardianship,  or  whose  home  because 
of  neglect,  cruelty,  depravity,  or  indigence  of 
parents  or  guardians,  is  an  unfit  place  for  a 
child;  or  having  one  parent  undergoing  punish- 
ment for  crime,  or  found  wandering  about  the 
streets  at  night  without  being  on  any  lawful 
business.  By  "delinquent"  child  is  meant  any 
child  seventeen  years  of  age  or  under,  found 
begging  or  receiving  alms,  singing,  or  playing 
a  musical  instrument  in  any  street  or  public 
place,  for  alms;  or  found  living  in  places  of  bad 
repute,  visiting  any  saloon,  pool-room,  etc.,  at- 
tempting to  jump  on  moving  trains  or  street 
cars  for  the  purpose  of  stealing  a  ride ;  or  found 
to  be  incorrigible  or  habitually  using  vile, 
obscene,  or  indecent  language,  or  guilty  of  im- 
moral conduct  in  public  places  or  around  school- 
houses,  or  growing  up  in  idleness  or  crime,  or 
running  away  from  home  or  the  State  institu- 
tion where  he  may  be  kept,  or  violating  any 
law  of  the  State,  or  ordinance  of  any  village, 
town,  city,  or  parish  of  the  State. 

Officers.  There  are  the  judge  of  the  court 
and  probationary  officers.  These  probationary 
officers,  discreet  persons  of  either  sex,  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  court.  Tha  probation  officers 
must  attend  court  when  cases  assigned  them 
are  being  heard;  they  have  to  investigate  such 
cases  and  take  charge  of  the  child  before  or 
after  the  trial,  according  to  the  court's  order; 
they  have  the  power  and  authority  of  sheriffs 
to  make  arrests  and  perform  other  duties  of 
their  office. 

5.    Sheriffs  and  Coroners. 

Sheriffs.  At  the  general  election,  each  parish, 
except  that  of  Orleans,  must  elect  a  sheriff  for 
four  years.  He  must  within  thirty  days  of  his 
election  furnish  bond.  The  sheriff'  has  to  see 
to  the  "keeping  of  prisoners,  conveying  con- 
victs, insane  persons,  juveniles,  lepers,  and  other 


VI. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


persons  committed  to  any  instituion  of  the 
State;  and  must  see  to  the  service  of  ijrocess 
from  another  parish,  and  service  of  process  or 
the  performance  of  any  duty  within  the  limits 
of  his  own  parish."  For  this,  he  is  paid  $500  a 
year  for  each  representative  the  parish  may 
have  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  He  is 
also  tax  collector  and  receives  five  per  cent  of 
all  sums  collected.  Vacancies  in  which  a  year 
or  more  of  the  term  remains,  are  filled  by  the 
Governor  calling  a  special  election  within  sixty 
days  of  the  occurrence  of  the  vacancy.  If  the 
time  ])e  less  than  a  year,  the  Grovernor  must 
appoint  some  one  for  the  remainder  of  the  term. 
Coroners.  A  coroner  is  elected  in  each  parish 
at  the  general  election,  for  four  years.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  coroner  to  inquire  into  the  causes 
of  violent  deaths  occurring  in  his  parish.  The 
coroner  takes  the  place  of  the  sheriff  when  the 
office  becomes  vacant  until  it  shall  be  filled,  and 
when  the  sheriff  is  a  party  interested;  he  may 
not,  however,  perform  the  duties  of  tax  collector. 
Coroners  must  be  regularly  licensed  physicians. 

6.    Attorney-General. 

Term.  There  is  an  attorney  for  the  State, 
elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  State  for 
a  term  of  four  years. 

Qualifications.  The  attorney-general  must 
be  learned  in  the  law  and  must  have  actually 
resided  and  practiced  law  as  a  licensed  attorney 
in  the  State  for  five  years  preceding  his  election. 

Salary.  The  attorney-general  is  paid -$5,000 
a  year. 

Powers  and  Duties.     The  attornev-general 


appoints  two  assistant  attorneys-general  at 
salaries,  respectively,  of  $4,000  and  $3,500  per 
year.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  attorney-general  to 
attend  to  all  such  legal  matters  as  the  State 
may  have  an  interest  in  or  be  a  party  to,  and  to 
prosecute  and  defend  all  suits  wherein  the 
State  may  be  a  party  or  have  an  interest. 

7.  District  Attorneys. 

Each  judicial  district  must  elect  a  district 
attorney  at  each  presidential  election  for  a 
four-year  term.  He  receives  $1,000  a  year 
and  fees.  He  must  be  a  resident  of  the  district 
and  a  licensed  attorney.  The  Governor  fills 
vacancies  in  which  the  time  is  less  than  a  year; 
if  it  be  a  year  or  more,  a  special  election  must 
be  called  within  sixty  days. 

8.  Justices  of  the  Peace  and  Constables. 

Justices  of  the  Peace.  Each  parish  must 
elect  justices  of  the  peace  for  a  term  of  four 
years.  Justices  of  the  peace  have  exclusive 
original  jurisdiction  in  all  civil  matters,  when 
the  disputed  amount  is  not  more  than  $50,  and 
original  jurisdiction  with  the  District  Court 
when  the  amount  does  not  exceed  $100.  Tliey 
also  have  jurisdiction  in  minor  criminal  cases. 
They  are  paid  a  salary  fixed  by  the  police  jury 
of  the  iDarish. 

Constables.  Each  court  of  the  justice  of  the 
peace  has  a  constable  elected  for  four  years.  He 
is  paid  a  salary  by  the  police  jury  of  the  parish. 
The  duties  of  the  constable  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  sheriff;  he  must  enforce  the  decisions  of 
the  court. 


SOME  GENERAL  PROVISIONS. 


Treason.  Levying  war  against  the  State,  or 
adhering  to  its  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and 
comfort,  constitutes  treason  against  the  State. 

Official  Language.  English  is  the  official 
longuo,  but  in  the  City  of  New  Orleans,  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  provides  for  the  publication  of 
judicial  advertisements  in  French. 

Lotteries.  The  State  of  Louisiana  prohibits 
lotteries  and  the  sale  of  lotterv  tickets. 


Gambling.  The  constitution  de- 
clares gambling  to  be  a  vice  and  that 
the  General  Assembly  must  pass  laws  to 
suppress  it. 

Convicts.  The  State  may  employ  convicts 
on  pulilic  v\'orks  such  as  roads,  farms, 'etc.,  Init 
they  must  be  under  the  suiiorvision  of  State 
officers.  They  may  not  be  hired  out  to  in- 
dividuals or  corporations. 


THE  NEW  ORLEANS  BOOK 


VIT. 


THE  PARISH  AS  A  UNIT  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


The  Parish,  a  Public  Corporate  Body.    The 

State  of  Louisiana  is  divided  into  parishes,  as 
other  States  are  divided  into  counties,  for  tlie 
purpose  of  local  government.  The  French  called 
these  divisons  of  the  territory  "Paroisses," 
hence  their  being  called  parishes  instead  of 
counties.  The  parish  is  a  public  corporate  body 
that  may  own  and  sell  property,  sue  and  be 
sued,  exercise  power  of  taxation  for  purposes  of 
local  government,  local  improvement,  paying  off 
debts,  and  supporting  schools.  But  the  parish 
is  made  subordinate  to  the  State  by  the  con- 
stitution, by  which  it  was  m^de. 

Changing  Parish  Lines.  Parish  lines  may 
be  changed  only  on  the  affirmative  vote  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  qualified  electors  of  the  parishes 
affected  by  the  law.  For  instance,  when  in  1912 
the  Parish  of  Calcasieu  was  divided  into  the 
four  parishes  of  Calcasieu,  Allen,  Jefferson 
Davis,  and  Beauregard,  it  was  necesasry  for 
two-thirds  of  the  qualified  electors  of  Calcasieu 
to  vote  in  favor  of  the  division,  otherwise  it 
could  not  have  been  made.  When  such  a  division 
takes  place,  the  property  and  assets,  debts  and 
liabilities  of  the  former  parish,  are  proportioned 
among  its  divisions.  Similarly,  for  merging  two 
or  more  parishes,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  con- 
sent of  a  majority  of  the  qualified  voters. 

Parish  Subdivisions.  Parishes  are  sub- 
divided into  Avards.  When  a  parish  is  formed, 
the  General  Assembly  decides  the  number  of 
wards  into  which  it  may  be  divided,  and  the 
Police  Jury  arranges  the  limits  of  each  ward. 

Issuance  of  Bonds.  Parishes  may  issue  bonds 
for  purposes  of  public  improvement  when 
authorized  by  the  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  tax- 
payers; such  bonds  m'ay  not  run  for  more  than 
forty  years  nor  bear  more  than  five  per  cent 
interest,  nor  be  sold  for  less  than  par.  The  total 
bond  issue  of  a  parish  may  not  exceed  ten  per 
cent  of  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  property 
within  its  limits.  Taxes  for  the  payment  of  in- 
terest and  principal  of  such  debts  may  not  be 
higher  than  "ten  mills  on  the  dollar  of  assessed 
valuation  of  the  property"  in  such  parish. 
There  is  also  what  is  known  as  the  acreage  tax 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  to  diixin  dis- 
tricts; it  may  not  be  inq^osed  for  more  than 
forty  years.     The  amount  of  the  bonds  issued 


for  this  purpose  may  never  exceed  in  princi]ial 
and  interest  the  total  amount  to  be  raised  by 
the  acreage  tax  during  the  period  it  is  to  be  im- 
posed, and  such  bonds  may  not  bear  more  than 
five  per  cent  interest,  nor  be  sold  for  less  than 
par. 

Police  Jury.  The  electors  in  each  ward  of  a 
parish  elect  a  member  of  the  Police  Juiy  of  the 
Parish.  The  Police  Jury  conducts  the  affairs 
of  the  parish ;  this  jury  may  be  said  to  be  to  the 
parish  what  the  city  council  is  to  the  city. 

Other  Parochial  Officers.  The  sheriff,  cor- 
oner, clerk  of  court,  assessors,  justice  of  the 
peace,  constable,  board  of  health,  board  of  school 
directors,  and  superintendent  of  schools,  are  the 
other  officials  who  assist  in  managing  the 
affairs  of  the  parish. 

Seat  of  Parish  Government.  In  every  parish 
there  is  what  is  known  as  the  parish  seat,  in 
other  States  the  county  seat,  where  is  located 
the  courthouse  and  jail;  where  the  Police 
Jury  meets  and  the  other  officials,  such  as 
the  sheritf,  clerk  of  court,  assessors,  and 
superintendent  of  schools,  have  their  offices. 
This  forms  a  nucleus  for  a  settlement,  and 
in  most  cases,  prosperous  towns  have  thus 
been  developed. 

Commission  Government.  In  1914,  the  Legis- 
lature passed  a  bill  allowing  the  parishes  to 
change  their  government  from  that  by  the 
police  jury  to  the  commission  form.  According 
to  this  plan,  three  commissioners  are  elected  at 
large;  these  commissioners  replace  the  police 
jury,  board  of  health,  and  assessors;  they  have 
charge  of  i^ublic  buildings,  sanitation,  care  of 
paupers,  construction  of  roads,  bridges,  fences; 
the  finances  and  assessment  of  the  parish  are 
under  their  control,  as  are  all  parish  employees. 
The  three  characteristics  of  commission  govern- 
ment, recall,  initiative,  and  referendum,  are  pro- 
vided for;  by  the  recall,  the  electors  may  remove 
a  commissioner  from  office  and  replace  him;  by 
the  initiative,  the  electors  may  have  ordinances 
and  regulations  passed;  and  by  the  referendum, 
the  electors  may  compel  the  commissioners  to 
submit  a  measure  to  the  vote  of  the  electors 
before  putting  it  in  force.  This  plan  of  gov- 
ernment abolishes  the  division  of  a  parish  iiilo 
wards. 


VIII. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


THE  TOWN  AS  A  UNIT  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


Municipal  Corporations.  Wlien  a  hamlet  or 
unincorporated  village  has  a  population  of  at 
least  250,  on  two-thirds  of  the  electors  petition- 
ing the  Governor  to  declare  it  an  incorporated 
village,  and  he  having  verified  the  facts  given  in 
the  petition,  he  must  declare  it  incorporated  as 

the  village  of ,  and  appoint  the  first 

officials,  hut,  thereafter,  they  are  elected.  The 
Governor  must  declare  a  village  to  he  a  town 
whenever  the  local  authorities  inform  him  that 
its  population  is  or  exceeds  1,000,  or  a  city  when 
the  population  is  or  exceeds  .5,000. 

Officials.  In  municipalities  having  a  popu- 
lation of  less  than  200,000,  the  government  is 
foiiued  by  the  State  and  is  of  an  aldermanic 
character;  the  governing  body  is  composed  of 
a  mayor,  aldermen,  marshal,  tax  collector,  and 
street  commissioner.  The  number  of  aldermen 
varies  according  to  whether  the  municipality  is 
a  village,  in  which  case  there  are  three;  a  town, 


five ;  or  a  city,  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than 
nine.  The  voters  elect  the  mayor,  aldermen,  and 
marshal;  the  aldermen  appoint  the  other  officials. 
Powers  and  Duties  of  Municipal  Officials. 
The  management  of  the  municipality  devolves 
upon  the  mayor  and  aldermen,  who  enact  ordi- 
nances for  its  governance,  and  improvement, 
levy  and  collect  taxes.  In  towns,  their  power 
exceeds  that  in  villages;  in  towns,  they  may 
open  and  maintain  hospitals,  have  a  system  of 
street  lighting,  fire  department,  etc.  "With  an 
increase  in  size,  additional  powers  are  obtained. 
The  mayor  is  chief  executive  and,  in  munici- 
palities of  a  population  less  than  5,000,  judge 
in  a  court  for  cases  of  violations  of  the  town 
ordinances.  The  marshal  is  the  constable  and 
chief  of  police.  The  tax  collector  collects  the 
taxes.  The  street  commissioner  has  to  see  that 
all  alleys,  streets,  and  roads  are  kept  in  good 
condition. 


TAXATION. 


Purpose.  Taxes  are  levied  for  the  support 
of  the  State  Government  and  its  institutions, 
the  education  of  the  children,  preservation  of 
public  health,  payment  of  interest  and  principal 
of  the  public  debt,  suppression  of  insurrection, 
repelling  invasion,  or  defense  of  the  State  in 
time  of  war,  providing  pensions  for  indigent 
Confederate  soldiers  and  sailors  and  their 
widows,  establishing  markers  or  monuments 
commemorative  of  the  services  of  Louisiana 
soldiers  on  such  fields,  maintenance  of  a  me- 
morial hall  in  New  Orleans  for  the  collection 
and  preservation  of  relics  and  memorials  of  the 
late  Civil  War,  and  for  levee  purposes. 

Kinds  of  Taxes.  (1)  The  poll  tax  is  an  an- 
nual tax  of  one  dollar  per  year  payable  by  all 
male  inhabitants  betweeij  the  age  of  twenty-one 
and  sixty  years;  this  tax  must  be  paid  in  order 
to  vote,  and  property  holders  may  be  forced  to 
pay  it;  the  funds  collected  by  this  measure  are 
given  to  the  support  of  the  public  schools  in 
the  parish  within  which  the  collection  is  made. 
(2)  The  property  tax  is  a  tax  of  six  mills  on 
the  dollar  of  assessed  valuation  of  the  property. 


Property  may  not  be  assessed  above  its  vah;e. 
This  tax  forms  the  State's  principal  source  of 
revenue.  (.3)  The  license  tax  is  a  tax  on  trades, 
professions,  vocations,  and  callings.  (4)  The 
inheritance  tax  is  a  tax  on  inheritances,  legacies, 
and  donations;  no  inheritance  or  donation  of 
less  than  $10,000  to  ancestors  or  descendants 
may  be  taxed,  and  when  over  that  amount  may 
not  be  taxed  for  more  than  three  per  cent;  col- 
lateral inheritance  or  donation  to  strangers  may 
not  be  taxed  for  more  than  ten  per  cent;  if  the 
donation  be  to  an  educational,  charitable,  or 
religious  institution,  it  is  exempt  from  this 
tax.  (5)  The  levee  tax  is  a  tax  of  not  more 
than  one  mill  on  the  dollar  of  assessed  valu- 
ation of  property,  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
levee  system  in  the  Levee  District  in  which 
the  tax  is  levied. 

Exemptions.  Clerks,  laborers,  clergymen, 
school  teachers,  persons  engaged  in  mechanical, 
agTieultural,  and  horticultural  pursuits,  and 
manufacturers,  except  those  of  distilled  alco- 
holic or  malt  liquors,  tobacco,  cigars,  and  cotton 
seed  oil,  are  exempt  from  paying  a  license  tax. 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS    BOOK 


IX. 


No  public  property,  nor  property  used  for  re- 
ligious, educational,  or  charitable  purposes,  is 
taxed;  neither  is  household  furniture  valued  at 
$500,  or  less.  The  constitution  grants  exemp- 
tion from  taxation  to  many  corporations,  bonds, 
etc.,  under  certain  conditions.  See  Constitu- 
tion of  1913,  Article  230. 

Sheriff's  Sales.  If  taxes  are  not  paid  before 
the  expiration  of  the  year  in  which  they  fall 
due,  the  collector  shall,  after  giving  due  notice 
to  the  delinquent,  advertise  for  sale  the  prop- 
erty on  which  the  taxes  are  due,  and  on  the  day 
of  sale  shall  sell  such  part  of  the  property  as 
the  debtor  shall  point  out,  for  the  amount  of 
the  taxes,  interest,  and  costs;  if  the  tax  debtor 
fails  to  point  out  sufficient  property,  the  tax 
collector  shall  sell  the  least  quantity  of  the 
property  which  any  one  will  purchase  for  the 


taxes,  interest,  and  costs.  The  owner  may  re- 
deem the  property  within  the  space  of  one  year 
by  paying  the  price  given,  including  costs,  and 
twenty  per  cent  thereon. 

State  Board  of  Appraisers.  The  Board  of 
Appraisers  was  created  by  the  State  for  the 
purpose  of  assessing  the  property  belonging  to 
corporations,  associations,  and  individuals,  em- 
ployed in  railway,  telegTaph,  telephone,  sleeping 
car  and  express  business  throughout  the  State 
of  Louisiana.  This  Board  is  composed  of  the 
Auditor  and  other  members,  corresponding  in 
number  to  the  Congressional  Districts  of  the 
State,  elected  by  the  Governor,  Lieutenant-Grov- 
ernor.  Treasurer,  Attorney-General,  and  Secre- 
tary of  State,  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  Gen- 
eral Assembly  fixes  the  compensation  of  the 
Board. 


VARIOUS  STATE  BOARDS. 


Boards  in  General.  The  State  has  created 
several  boards  or  commissions  for  the  manage- 
ment of  some  special  affairs  of  the  State,  and 
these  boards  form  an  important  part  of  the 
machinery  of  the  State  government. 

Board  of  Public  Education.  This  Board  is 
composed  of  the  Governor,  Attorney-General, 
State  Superintendent  of  Education,  and  one 
member  from  each  Congressional  District,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor.  The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion has  to  appoint  the  chairman  of-  the  State 
committee  for  examining  teachers;  elects  a  State 
Institute  Conductor,  who  has  general  charge  of 
summer  schools  and  institutes;  prescribes  stand- 
ards for  approved  high  schools,  and  makes  ap- 
propriation to  each  high  school  of  from  $400  to 
$500  a  year;  makes  recommendations  to  the 
parish  board,  gives  special  aid  to  departments 
of  agriculture  and  home  economics  of  the  public 
schools,  and  provides  courses  of  study  for  the 
different  public  schools. 

Louisiana  State  Board  of  Agriculture  and 
Immigration.  This  Board  consists  of  a  member 
from  each  Congressional  District,  appointed  by 
the  Governor  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  from  men  engaged  in  the  leading  agri- 
cultural interests  of  the  State;  these  members 
hold  office  for  six  years,  or  until  their  successors 
are  appointed.     The  Governor,    Commissioner 


of  Agriculture  and  Immigration,  President  of 
the  Louisiana  State  University  and  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College,  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Supervisors  of  the  same 
institution,  and  the  Director  of  the  State  experi- 
mental stations,  are  ex-officio  members  of  this 
Board.  The  members  of  this  Board  receive  no 
compensation,  only  their  expenses  when  attend- 
ing meetings.  This  Board  has  control  and  direc- 
tion of  all  State  agricultural  organizations  and 
State  Farmers'  Institutes,  and  adopts  measm-es 
to  secure  proper  immigration.  It  encourages 
State,  district,  and  parish  fairs  and  local  agri-'- 
cultural  organizations;  maintains  effective  con- 
trol of  the  manufacture  and  sale  in  this  State 
of  fertilizers  and  Paris  Green,  and  suppresses 
adulteration  and  fraud  therein.  It  has  to  per- 
form other  duties  when  assigned  by  the  General 
Assembly. 

Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections.  Six 
members,  appointed  by  the  Governor  for  six 
years,  form  this  board,  of  which  the  Governor 
is  ex-officio  chairman.  They  receive  no  com- 
pensation, but  the  secretary,  whom  they  ap- 
point, receives  a  salary  fixed  by  the  General 
Assembly.  The  board  does  not  possess  any 
administrative  or  executive  powers,  merely 
visitorial.  It  is  their  duty  to  visit  all  chari- 
table, correctional,  or  reformatory  institutions. 


X. 


The  new  ORLEANS  book: 


whether  pulilie  or  jirivate,  and  make  au  auuual 
report  ou  their  condition  to  the  Governor  and 
(Jeneral  Assembly. 

Board  of  Liquidation  of  the  State  Debt.  The 
State's  bonded  debt  was  $11,108,300  on  January 
1,  1914.  The  State  has  created  a  special  board 
to  assume  control  of  this  debt,  pay  oft"  the  in- 
terest and  principal.  One  and  three-twentieths 
mills,  out  of  the  six-mill  tax  levied  by  tlie  State, 
are  set  aside  for  this  purpose. 

Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Port  of  New 
Orleans.  The  Governor  appoints  the  members 
of  this  board,  tive  in  number,  has  the  power  to 
remove  them  and  fill  all  vacancies.  The  Com- 
missioners have  control  of  the  bond  issue  for  im- 
proving the  water  front,  constructing  wharves, 
sheds,  roadways,  etc.  They  must  furnish  the 
Governor  with  an  annual  detailed  account  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditures,  and  this  report  must 
be  published  once  in  the  official  journal  of  the 
city  of  New  Orleans. 

"Board  of  Health.  The  State  Board  of  Health 
is  composed  of  representative  physicans  from 


different  parts  of  the  State.  It  is  the  duty  of 
this  board  to  protect  the  people  from  the 
sale  of  injurious,  or  adulterated  drugs,  foods, 
and  drinks,  and  against  any  and  all  adul- 
terations of  the  general  necessaries  of  life. 
See  Chapter  V. 

Conservation  Commission.  In  1912,  a  Con- 
servation Commission  was  established  for  the 
purpose  of  preserving  the  natural  resources  of 
the  State.  This  commission  is  composed  of 
three  members,  appointed  by  the  Govei-nor  for 
a  term  of  four  years.  It  is  their  duty  to  inspect 
and  have  improved  all  State  reservation  lands 
and  waters;  they  must  see  that  the  State's 
natural  wealth  is  properly  used  and  not  ruth- 
lessly destroyed;  they  must  tind  out  what  are 
the  natural  resources  of  the  State  and  how  they 
may  be  best  developed.  The  reforesting  of  lands 
whose  timber  has  been  used,  is  one  of  the  works 
undertaken  by  the  present  commission.  The 
care  and  enlargement  of  the  State's  great  oyster 
beds,  falls  within  the  province  of  the  com- 
mission. 


EDUCATIONAL  AND  CHARITABLE  INSTITUTIONS  SUPPORTED  BY  THE  STATE. 


The  State  supports  four  large  educational 
institutions,  namely:  the  State  University  at 
Baton  Rouge,  the  State  Normal  at  Natchitoches, 
and  the  two  industrial  schools  at  Ruston  and 
Lafayette,  and  several  charitable  institutions, 


the  two  Insane  Asylums,  at,  respectively 
Pineville  and  Jackson,  the  school  for  the 
deaf  and  blind,  Charity  Hospital,  and  other 
public  charity  institutions  conducted  under 
State  authority. 


SUFFRAGE  AND  ELECTIONS. 


Electors.  In  Louisiana,  electors  are  males 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  who  possess 
the  following  qualifications : 

Residential.  He  must  have  been  a  resident 
of  the  State  for  two  years,  of  the  parish  one 
year,  and  of  the  precinct  six  months  preceding 
the  election;  removal  from  a  precinct,  how- 
ever, does  not  operate  against  a  person  until 
six  months  thereafter. 

Educational.  He  must  be  able  to  write  his 
application  for  registration  in  English  or  in  his 
own  tongue  or,  if  prevented  from  so  doing  by 
a  physical  disability,  the  registration  officer  or 
deputy  may  write  it  at  his  dictation,  under  his 
oath  attesting  his  disability. 


Property  Qualification.  The  possession  of 
property  assessed  at  $300  and  on  which  all  taxes 
are  paid,  serves  in  lieu  of  the  educational  quali- 
fication. 

Poll  Tax  Qualification.  Men  between  the 
ages  of  twenty-one  and  sixty  years  must  pay  a 
poll  tax  of  a  dollar  a  year,  which  tax  is  used 
to  help  support  the  public  schools.  Poll  taxes 
are  liens  only  upon  assessed  property.  No  man 
may  vote  at  any  election  who  has  not  paid  his 
poll  tax  for  two  j'ears  preceding  that  in  which 
he  desires  to  vote;  this  tax  must  be  paid  on  or 
l)efore  December  31st  of  each  year.  "Any 
person  who  shall  pay  the  poll  tax  of  another, 
or  advance  him  money  for  that  purpose  in  order 


THE    NEW    ORLEANS   BOOK: 


XL 


to  influeuce  his  vote,  is  guilty  of  bribery  and 
punishable  accordingly. ' ' 

Voting  of  Taxpayers  in  Political  Sub- 
divisions. In  order  to  vote  as  taxpayers,  the 
only  qualifications  are  those  of  age  and  resi- 
dence; women  of  age  who  are  taxpayers,  have 
the  right  to  vote  in  such  elections  either  in 
person  or  by  an  agent  authorized  in  writing. 
No  other  person  may  vote  at  such  elections  un- 
less they  be  registered  voters. 

Disbarment  from.  Voting.  "Persons  con- 
victed of  any  crime  punishable  by  imprisonment 
in  the  penitentiary  and  who  have  not  had  the 
right  of  suffrage  restored  to  them,  inmates  of 
any  charitable  institution  except  the  Soldiers' 
Home,  those  confined  in  a  public  prison,  inter- 
dicted persons,  and  persons  notoriously  insane 
or  idiotic,  whether  interdicted  or  not,"  are  not 
allowed  to  vote,  hold  any  office  or  appointment 
of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  in  Louisiana. 

Manner  and  Time  of  Voting.  Voting  is  by 
ballot  except  "in  elections  by  persons  in  a  rep- 
rentative  capacity, ' '  when  the  vote  is .  viva- 
voce.  The  general  State  election  is  held  once 
every  four  years  on  the  Tuesday  following  the 
third  Monday  in  April.  The  next  State  election 
will  be  held  in  1916  and  every  four  years  there- 
after. 


Gain  and  Loss  of  Residence.  Persons  in  the 
employ  of  the  State  or  United  States,  whether 
civil  or  military,  or  "engaged  in  the  navi 
gation  of  the  waters  of  the  State,  or  United 
States,  or  of  the  high  seas,  or  while  a  student 
at  an  institution  of  learning,"  are  not 
considered  to  have  gained  a  residence  be- 
cause of  their  presence,  nor  list  it  because 
of  their  absence. 

The  Ballot.  Ballots  are  furnished  by  the 
State  for  the  general  State  elections.  Ballots 
are  so  printed  that  an  elector  may  vote  a 
straight  party  ticket  or  vote  individually.  The 
ballots  are  cast  in  secret. 

Voting.  No  registration  may  take  place 
within  thirty  days  preceding  an  election.  A 
man  desiring  to  vote,  must  register  as  an  elector 
and  present  his  registration  papers  and  two  poll 
tax  receipts  for  two  years  previous  to  the  elec- 
tion in  which  he  wishes  to  vote. 

TOPICS:  Bill  of  Rights;  Legislative  Department;  Executive 
Department;  Judicial  Department;  Various  Officials; 
Some  General  Provisions  of  the  Constitution;  The  Parish 
as  a  Unit  of  Government;  The  Town  as  a  Unit  of  Gov- 
ernment; Taxation;  Various  Boards;  Support  Given  to 
Educational  and  Charitable  Public  Institutions;  Suffrage 
and   Elections. 

REFEEEHCES:  Constitutions  of  1913  and  1898;  J.  E. 
Ficklen,  History  and  Government  of  Louisiana. 


SEAL  OF  STATE  OF  LOUISIANA. 

—Courtesy  of  W.  0.  Hart. 


GOVERNORS  OF  LOUISIANA. 


GOVERNORS  OF   LOUISIANA   UNDER   FRENCH   RULE. 

Pierre  le  Moyne,  Sieur  d'Iberville ; 1699-1700 

Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne,  Sieur  de  Bienville 1701-1713 

Antoine  de  la  Mothe  Cadillac 1713-1716 

De   1  'Epinay    (Christian   name   unrecorded) 1717-1718 

Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne,  Sieur  de  Bienville 1718-1724 

Pierre  Dugue  de  Boisbriant  (ad  interim) 1724 

Perrier   (Christian  name  unrecorded) 1725-1732 

Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne,  Sieur  de  Bienville 1733-1743 

Pierre  PranQois,  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil-Cavagnal - 1743-1752 

Louis  Billouart,  Baron  de  Kerleree 1753-1763 

D  'Abadie  (Christian  name  unrecorded) 1763-1765 

Aubry 1765-1766 

GOVERNORS  OF   LOUISIANA   UNDER  SPANISH   RULE. 

Antonio  de  Ulloa 1766-1768 

Alexander,  Count  O  'Reilly 1768-1769 

Louis  de  IJnzaga  y  Amerzaga . 1769-1776 

Bernardo  de  Galvez  y  Gallardo 1777-1785 

Estevan  Eodriquez  Miro   1785-1791 

Francisco  Louis  Hortes,  Baron  de  Carondelet 1792-1797 

Gayosa  de  Lemos  1797-1799 

Francisco   de  Bouligny 1799 

Sebastian,  Marquis  de'  Casa  Calvo  y  O  'Farril 1799-1801 

Juan   Manuel   de   Salcedo.  . , 1801-1803 

GOVERNORS  OF  THE  TERRITORY  OF  ORLEANS. 

William  Charles  Cole  Clairborne 1804-1812 


GOVERNORS  OF  THE  STATE  OF   LOUISIANA. 

William  Charles  Cole  Clairborne 1812-1816 

Jacques  P.  ViUere  •. 1816-1820 

Thomas  Boiling  Robertson  (resigned) 1820 

H.  S.  Thibodeaux,  President  of  the  Senate  (Acting  Governor) 

Henry  Johnson 1824 

Pierre  Derbigny  (died  in  oflfice) 1828 

A.  Beauvais,  President  of  the  Senate  (Acting  Governor) 1829 

Jacques  Dupre    

Andre  Bienvenu  Roman 1831 

Edward  Douglas  White 1835 

Andre  Bienvenu  Roman    1839 

Alexander  Mouton    1843 

Isaac   Johnson    1846 

Joseph  W.  Walker 1850 

Paul  Octave  Hebert   1853 

Robert  Charles  Wicklifee  _ 1856 

Thomas  Overton  Moore   - 1860 

General  George  F.  Shepley  (Military  Governor) 1862 

Henry  Watkius  Allen  (under  Confederate  government) 1864 

Michael  Hahn  (under  Federal  government) 1864 

James  Madison  Wells,  President  of  the  Senate  (Acting  Governor) 1864 

James  Madison  Wells    1866 

Benjamin  F.  Flanders  (under  military  authority) ■ 1867- 

Joshua  Baker  (under  military  authority) 1868 

Henry  Clay  Warmoth    1868-1873 

John  McEnery  (counted  out  by  the  Returning  Board) 1873 

Peter  B.  S.  Pinchback,  Lieutenant  Governor  (Acting  Governor) 1873 

William  Pitt  Kellogg,  Governor  de  facto 1873-1877 

Francis  T.   Nicholls    : 1877-1880 

Louis  Alfred  Wiltz  (died  in  office) 1880-1881 

S.  Dougl^is  McEnery,  Lieutenant  Governor  (succeeded  Wiltz  as  Governor) 1881 

S.  Douglas  McEnery.  ,  , 1884- 

Francis  T.  Nicholls  1888 

Murphy  J.  Foster 1892 

William  Wright  Heard    1900 

Newton  Crain  Blanchard    . 1904 

Jared  Y.  Sanders  1908 

Luther  E.  Hall  1912 


1824 
1824 
1828 
1829 
1830 
1830 
1835 
1839 
1843 
1846 
1850 
1853 
1856 
1860 
1864 
1864 
1865 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 


1884 
1888 
1892 
1900 
1904 
1908 
1912 


XIII. 


INDEX. 


Abattoir  Companies,  96 

Abbadie,  D',  14. 

Abraham,  83. 

Adams,  President  John,  18. 

Adulteration,  54. 

Africa,  mention  of,  20;  41;  73;  129. 

Agrienlture  and  Immigration,  State  Board  of,  IX. 

Alabama,  State,  mention  of,  7;  73;  76;  88;  96. 

Algiers,  32>  39;  Branch  Library,  120. 

Allard,  Louis,  149. 

Alleghenies,  mention  of,  10;  12;  18;  69;   River,  18. 

Alliance  Fran^aise,  123. 

All  Saints'  Day,  132 

Almonaster  y  Roxas,  Don,  16-17;   103;  Widow  of,  133. 

Alphand,  engineer,  143. 

America,  mention  of,  22;  .59;  60;  61;  76;  99;  City  planning 
in,  145. 

American  Revolution,  15;  128. 

American,  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  118;  Domination 
in  Louisiana,  23-48;  Folk  Lore  Society,  125;  Influence  on 
building  of  New  Orleans,  147;  Missionary  Association, 
118;  Rule,  109-110;  Ships,  72;  Sugar  Refinery,  67;  80;  88. 

Americans,  mention  of,  18;  19;  23;  30;  31;  44;  109;  110;  128. 

Amusements  in  New  Orleans  1800,  21. 

Animals  of  Louisiana,  95. 

Annunciation-  Square,   150. 

Anse  la  Butte,  87. 

Antwerp,  mention  of,  72. 

Appraisers,  State  Board  of,  IX. 

Architecture,  mention  of,  32;  42;  See  Chapter  XVI.,  143-148. 

Argentina,  mention  of,  74. 

Arizona,  mention  of,  88. 

Ark,  The,  mention  of,  83. 

Arkansas  River,  mention  of,  7;  9;  State  of,  30;  72;  76;  87;  96. 

Armesto,  Don  Andreas  Lopez  de,  109. 

Art,  NeW|Comb  School  of,  116. 

Arts  and  Sciences,  College  of,  116. 

Asia,  mention  of,  41;  61;  73;  81;  92;  128. 

Asiatics,  mention  of,  129.  "t 

Asphalt,  152.  -^  'J 

Assessment,  140-141. 

Assessors,  Board  of,  141.  .  ;(^ 

Association  of  Army  of  Tennessee,  mention  of,  106. 

Association  of  Army  of  Virginia,  mention  of,  106. 

Association  of  Commerce,  148. 

Asylums,  104-106.  .'.'  ' 

Atehafalaya,  Bank  of,  33;  River,  71. 

Athenaeum,  130.  f" 

Athenee  Louisianais,  123;   125.  '    "■ 

Athens,  143. 

Atlanta,  88. 

Atlanteans,  130. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  13;  Trade,  18;  Cable  Companies,  61;  Coast, 
6;  26;  31;  Ports,  83. 

Attakapas   'Cadians,  20. 

Attendance,  Department  of,  114. 

Attorney-General,  97;  98;  VI;   IX. 

Aubry,  14. 

Auditor,  State,  III.;  IX. 

Audubon,  John  James,  120;  Park,  mention  of,  39;  40;  47; 
80;  116;  117;  148;  149-1.50;  Street,  mention  of,  118;  125. 

Augusta,  Ga.,  mention  of,  124. 

Australia,  mention  of,  61;  74. 

Austria,  mention  of,  72;  74;  133;  People  of,  129. 


Auxiliary  Sanitary  Association,  53. 
Avery's  Island,  85j  86. 
Avoyelles  Parish,  126. 
Aztecs,  mention  of,  59. 

Babylon,  mention  of,  143. 

Bacteriological  Department,  55;   56. 

Balboa,  C.  Z.,  152. 

Balize,  mention  of,  10;   14. 

Ballot,  140;  XI. 

Baltimore,  mention  of,  31;  72;  105;  131;  132;  149. 

Bananas,  68;  72;  73. 

Banks,  Royal  Bank  of  Tra.nce,  101;  Louisiana,  101;  Lou- 
isiana Planters',  101;  Gas  Company,  101;  Canal,  70;  101; 
Carrollton,  ■  101;  Commercial,  101;  Mechanics  and 
Traders',  101;  Whitney-Central,  42;   101;  Hibernia,  101. 

Banks'  Arcade,  32. 

Banking,  101. 

Banks,  General,  101. 

Bar  Association,  Louisiana,  American,  99. 

Barataria  Bay,  mention  of,  26;  Bayou,  42;   43;   94. 

Baratarian  Pirates,  26;   98. 

Barcelona,  mention  of,  72. 

Baronne,  Street,  mention  of,  63;   103. 

Barracks,   17;   63;   Street,  13;   145. 

Barrett,  actor,  38. 

Barrios,  mention  of,   72. 

Barton,  Dr.,  mention  of,  100. 

Bastille,  mention  of,  14;   133. 

Baton  Rouge,  mention  of,  15;   115;  119;   122;  I. 

Battle  of  New  Orleans,  28;  29;  98;  Centennial  Celebration 
of,  43-44. 

Batture,  mention  of,  2;  Riots,  25. 

Bayou  Road,  mention  of,  21;  24;  63. 

Beale,  Captain,  131. 

Beaubois,  Father,  mention  of,  107. 

Beaumont,  mention  of,  87. 

Beauregard,  Gen.  P.  G.  T.,  33;  74;  Square  (Congo),  117;  32; 
School,  112. 

Beauty  of  Right  Living,  155. 

Beer,  Manufacture  of,  90. 

Belfast,  72. 

Belgian  Block,  151. 

Belgium,  mention  of,  72;  74;  People  of,  129. 

Belize,  mention  of,  72. 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  mention  of,  61. 

Belle  Isle,  mention  of,  85;  86. 

Bench  and  Bar,  97;  99. 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.,  98. 

Berlin,  143-144. 

Bie:nvenue;  Bayou,  mention  of,  26;   27;  56. 

Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne  de,  9;  10;  11;  12;  107;  145; 
House  of,  146;  Street,  12;  108;   145. 

Bilboa,  mention  of,  72. 

Bill  of  Rights,  I. 

Biloxi,  mention  of  9;  Bay,  9. 

Bingen,   mention   of,   133. 

Birds,  95;   151. 

Birmingham,  mention  of,  72;  88. 

Black  Code,  11. 

Blanc,  Archbishop,  116. 

Blue,  Surgeon-General  Rupert,  57. 

Bluefields,  mention  of,  72. 


XIV. 


INDEX— Continued. 


Boards: — Agriculture  and  Immigration,  IX.;  Charities  and 
Corrections,  IX.-X.;  Civil  Service,  Commissioners  of, 
1S8;  139;  Conservation  Commission,  84;  95;  X.;  Health, 
City;  51;  53;  55-56;  57;  96;  Health,  State,  53-54;  57; 
96;  X.;  Liquidation  of  City  Debt,  40;  139;  Liquidation 
of  State  Debt,  X.;  Orleans  Levee,  4;  40;  139;  Public 
Education,  State,  111;  125;  IX.  Public  Libraries,  City, 
139;  Public  School  Directors,  New  Orleans,  111;  139; 
Sewerage  and  Water,  47. 

Bocas  del  Toro,  mention  of,  72. 

Boll-weevil,  78. 

Bonnet  Carre,  crevasse,  3. 

Booth,  actor,  mention  of,  38. 

Boots,  Manufacture  of,  89. 

Bore,  Etieune  de,  18;  79;  123;  149. 

Borgne,  Lake,  mention  of,  1;  2;  8;  26;  27;   46;   70. 

Boston,  mention  of,  31;  35;   70;  87;  128;   145;   148;  Club,  130. 

Bourbon  Street,  mention  of,  21;   131. 

Bragg,   General,  mention   of,   100. 

Branch  Libraries,  120. 

Brass  Works,  89. 

Brazil,  mention  of,  74. 

Bremen,  mention  of,  72. 

Brennan,   Joseph,   124. 

Brittany,  mention  of,  122. 

Brooklyn,  118;   Navy  Hospital,  93. 

Bubonic   Plague,   50;    52;    57. 

Buffalo,  mention  of,  31. 

Building   of   New   Orleans,    145-148. 

Building  Ornamentation  (New  Orleans),  146-147. 

Buililings  of  Note,  147. 

Buras,   Elorentine,   93. 

Burgundy,  Fort,  mention  of,  17. 

Burke,  W.  B.,  117. 

Burr,   Aaron,   Conspiracy  of,   24. 

Butler,  General  B.  F.,  38;  101;   110. 

Cabildo,  15;  16;   17;   19;   20;  22;  23;   103;   120;   146. 

Cable,  George  W.,  125-126. 

Caddo  Parish,  87. 

Cadillac,  Governor,  9. 

Cadiz,  mention  of,  72. 

"  Ca  Ira,"  mention  of,  17. 

Calcasieu  River,  mention  of,  71;  Parish,  84. 

Caldwell,   James   H.,   33;    37;    38;    Mrs.   J.   H.   Caldwell,   38; 

Parish,  84. 
California,  mention  of,  87;   151. 
Calliope  Street,  mention  of,  67;   119. 
Campeachy,   mention   of,    15. 
I 'amp  Nicholls,    106. 
Camp  Street,   mention   of,  24;   62. 
Canaan,  mention  of,   83. 
t'anada,  mention  of,  8;   13;   25. 
Canadians,   12;   20. 

Canal  Bank,  33;  Building,  42;  Bank  and  Trust  Company,  101. 
Canals,    Carondelet,    17;    45;    49;    70;    Intercoastal,    70;    71; 

Lake  to  River,  70;  New  Basin,  4;  70. 
Canal  Street,  mention  of,  3;  17;  18;  20;  40;  63;  67;  70;  100; 

103;    112;    116;    118;    128;    130;    131;    146;    148;    Branch 

Library,  120. 
Canal  Zone,  mention  of,  141. 

Canaries,  mention  of,   19.  * 

Canning  Factories,  90. 
Canonge,  L.  Placide,  123. 
Canova  artist,   mention  of,  36. 
Cape  Breton  Island,   mention   of,    1.1. 
Cape  Gracias,   mention   of,   72. 
Capital  at  New  Orleans,  mention  of,  10. 
Capture  of  New  Orleans,  38. 
Ca])uchins,  mention  of,  11-12;  10;  20;  107. 


Cargo,  64;  67-68. 

Caribbean,  mention  of,  72. 

Car  Lines,  Street,  63. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  mention  of,  119;   139. 

Carnival,  129;   131. 

Carondelet,  Baron   de,   16;    18;   36;   45;   49;    153;    Canal,  17; 

45;    49;    70;    Fortifications,    17;    Methodist    Church,    33; 

Street,  33;   147. 
Carolina,   Schooner,   mention   of,   27. 
Carpet  Baggers,  39;  111. 
Carroll,  General,  mention  of,  26. 
Carrollton,   3;   18;   40;   Avenue,   148;   Bank,   101;   Bend,  2;    3; 

Railroad,  40;    63. 
Casa   Calvo,  Marquis  de,   22;    23;   24. 
Casket  Girls,  11. 
Catalonians,  mention  of,  19;  20. 
Cathedral,    St.    Louis,    mention    of,    19;    20;    21;    29;    33;    34; 

107;   120;   146. 
Cat  Island,  mention  of,  32. 
Cecil,  Father,   107. 
Ceiba,  mention  of,  72. 
Cemeteries,  63. 

Cenas,  Blaise,  59;  Doctor  100. 

Centennial   Celebration,   Battle   of    New   Orleans,   43-44. 
Central  American  Countries,  mention  of,  1 ;  4] ;  87;  88;  92. 
Central  States,  mention  of,  72. 
Chaise,  de  la,  mention  of,  99. 
Chaland,  Bayou,  mention  of,  95. 
( 'haldea,   mention   of,   83. 
Chalmette  Sugar  Refiner.y,  80. 
Changes  in   Shape  of  New  Orleans,   146. 
"Chant  du  Depart,"  mention  of,  27. 
Charitable  Institutions,  103-106. 
Charities  and  Corrections,  State  Board  of,  IX. 
Charity    Hospital,  12;   16;   19;   32;  50;   57;  58;   103;   104;  X. 
Charity,  Sisters  of  103. 
Charivari,  133. 
Charles  III.,  mention  of,   14. 
Charles  River,  mention  of,  143. 
Charleston,  S.  C,  mention  of,  40;  81;   123;   148. 
Charlevoix,  Pere,  10. 
Charter  of  New  Orleans,  136;  142.. 
Chartres  Street,  mention  of,   3;   12;   16;   20;   21;   108; 
Cheerfulness,   virtue   of,   154. 
Chef  Menteur,  mention  of,  42. 
Cherry  Valley,  mention  of,  115. 
Chicago,  mention  of,  61;   64;   69;   72;   128;   145. 
Chickasaws,   War   with,   12. 
Chief  Justice  of  Louisiana,  I.;  IV. 
China,  mention  of,  74;   90;   92;   125. 
Chinese,  mention  of,  59;  94;   129. 
Choctawhatehee  Bay,  7. 
Choetaws,  mention  of,  25;   27;   122. 
Cholera,  Asiatic,  mention  of,  51;   52;   70. 
Christ  Church,  mention  of,  33. 
Christian  Brothers'   College,   118. 
Cincinnati,  mention  of,  125. 
City  Attorney,  41. 
City  Bank,  mention  of,  33. 
City  Beautiful,  143-155. 
City  Boards,  138-139. 
City  Building,  143-145. 
City  Engineer,  41. 
City  Government,  135-142. 
City  Hall,  33;   119;   130;   140;    147. 
City  Library,  119. 
City  Limits,  1. 
City  Park,  2;    43;    63;    149. 
City  Planning  in  America,  145. 
City  Railroad   Comiiany,  63. 


1 


INDEX — Continued. 


XV. 


City  Treasurer,  140;   141. 

Citrus  Fruits,  92-93. 

Civic  Interest,  135-136;   155. 

Civic  Virtues,   154-155. 

Civil  Code,  97. 

Civil  Law,  97. 

Civil  Service  Commission,  125;   138;   139. 

Civil  War,  mention  of,  38;  50;  110. 

Claiborne,  W.  C.  C,  23;  24;  25;  26;  30;  53;  101. 

Clay,  Henry,  36. 

Cleaning,  City,  53. 

Cleanliness,  Virtue  of,  154. 

' '  Clearing,  "75. 

Clemens   (Mark  Twain),  126. 

Cleveland,  145. 

Climate,  4-5.  • 

Clio  Street,  mention  of,  130;   131. 

Cochrane,  Admiral,  26;   27;   30. 

Code  Napoleon,  97. 

Coffee,  General,  26;  Import,  72;  73. 

Colbert,  Minister,  8. 

Coliseum  Place,  150. 

Collector  of  Customs,  74. 

College  of  Orleans,  109-110. 

Cologne,  144. 

Colon,   mention   of,   72. 

Colonial   Education,   107-109. 

Columbian   Exposition,   mention   of   145. 

Commerce,   18;   22;    30;    34;   41 

Commercial  Bank,  33,  47;   101. 

Commercial  Library,  119. 

Commercial  Eeview   of   New   Orleans,   123. 

Commissioners  of  Port  of  New  Orleans,  Board  of,  40;  66-67; 
77;  X. 

Commmission  Form  of  Government,  43;   in  State,  VII. 

Commission  Plan  of  City  Government,  136-137;  in  New 
Orleans,  137;  Distinctive  Features  of,  141-142. 

Commissions  Given  by  State,  III. 

Common  Law,  English,  97;   115. 

Common  Street,  mention  of,  23;   24;    103. 

Communication,  Systems  of,  59-63. 

Comus,  Krewe  of,  130. 

Company  of  The  West  or  of  Indies,  9;   12;   100. 

Comptroller,  40;41. 

Confederate  Memorial  Hall,  120;  Veterans,  106. 

Confederacy,  38;  Army  of,  110;  118;  Note  of,  101. 

Conservation  Commission,  84;   95;   X. 

Conspiracy  of  October,  1768,  14-15. 

Constables,  VI. 

Constitution  of  Louisiana,  25;   67;   142. 

Contagion,  55. 

Convents,   117-118. 

Convicts,  VI. 

Cook,  Bayou,  95. 

Cooke,  Sir  William,  60. 

Cooper,  actor,  38. 

Copenhagen,  mention  of,  72;   87. 

Copper  Works,  89. 

Corn,  78. 

Coroners,  VI. 

Cortez  (Port),  72. 

Costa  Rica,  72. 

Cotton:  Introduced,  13;  Outlook  in  1812,  25;  Centennial 
Exposition,  40;  42;  62;  150;  Trade  in,  72;  73;  Cultiva- 
tion of,  76-78;  Exchange,  76;  Futures,  77;  Warehouse, 
77-78;  Manufacture  of,  77;  88;  89. 

Council,  Commission,  55;  67;  City,  119;   132;   139. 

Council    Elections,    137. 

Courage,  Virtue  of,   155. 

Courmant,  Felix   de,  123. 


Courtesy,  Virtue  of,  155. 

Courthouse,  New  Orleans,  42. 

Court  of  Appeals:  Jurisdiction,  Judges,  Circuits,  Sessions,  IV. 

Credit  System  in  Business,  30. 

Creek  (Indians),  125. 

Creoles,  18;   19;   20;   21;   24;   26;   30;   31;   124;   125;   126;   128; 

129;   133. 
Creosoted  Wood  Blo.ek,   152. 
Crevasses,   2;    3;    49. 
Criminal  Coui-thouse,  40;  129. 
Crozat,  Anthony,  9. 

Cuba,  mention  of,  7;   15;  24;  51;  Trade  with,  74. 
Cula-Be,  123. 

Cumberland  iJiver,  25;  Telephone  and  Telegrajih  Company,  62. 
Curators  of  State  Museum,  Board  of,  125. 
Currency,  Colonial  13. 
Customhouse,  17;  33;  74;  Street,  119. 
Customs,  129-134. 
Customs    Officers,  75. 
Cypress,  83.  "  . 

Dakin,  architect,  33. 

Dallas,  mention  of,  88. 

Dauphine  Street,  mention  of,  3;  12;  63. 

Davis,  Mrs.  MoUie  E.  Moore,  124;  126. 

Davy,  Humphrey,  60. 

De  Bow,  James  D.  B.,  123;  Eeview,  123. 

De  Launey,  mention  of,  133. 

De  I'Epinay,  9. 

Delery,  Dr.  C,  123. 

Delgado,  Isaac,  149;  Art  Museum,  149;  Tjentral  Trades  School 
for  Boys,  114. 

"Delta,"   The,   124. 

Denegre  Building,  mention  of,  62. 

Denmark,  mention  of,  72;  people  of,  129. 

Departmental  Teaching,  111. 

Departments  of  City  Government,  138. 

Departments  of  State  Government,  I.-VI. 

Depouilly,  architect,  33. 

De  Soto,  Hernando,   7;   Parish,  87. 

Destitute  Boys,  Asylum  of,  105. 

Dimitry,  Alexander,  110;   Charles,  125. 

Distribution  of  Powers  of  City  Government,   138. 

District  Attorney,  VI. 

District  Courts:  Jurisdiction,  number  of  judges,  jury,  ses- 
sions, IV.-V. 

Districts:  First,  11;  Second  (Municipality),  31;  Third,  3;  31; 
Fourth,  33;  39;  Fifth,  39;  42;  Sixth,  39;  40;  41;  42; 
Seventh,  40;   42;    137. 

Dock  Board,  67;  69;  71. 

Domestic  Art,  113. 

Domestic  Science,  113. 

Dominican  Convent,  117. 

Drainage,  41;   42;   45-48;   49;   53. 

Drama,   English,    124;   French,   122-123. 

Dress  in  New  Orleans,  1800,  20. 

Drugs,  Habit-forming,  54;   Laws,  .54. 

Dryades  Street,  103;   129. 

Dry  Dock,  66. 

Dublin,  mention  of,  124. 

Dubreuil,  mention  of,  13. 

Duelling  in   1800,  21. 

Dumaine  Street,  21;   118. 

Duquesne,  Fort,  mention  of,  13. 

Eads,  Captain  .James  B.,  40;   65. 

Early  French  and  Spanish  Influence  on  Architecture,  146. 

East  Indian  Is.,  74. 

Easton,  Warren,   111. 

Ebony,  89. 


XVI. 


INDEX — Continued. 


Edgerly,  87.  , 

Edison,  Thomas,  mention  of,  61. 

Education,  35;  107-121. 

Educational  and  Charitable  Institutions,  State,  X. 

Egypt,  mention  of,  83. 

Elections,  City,  139-140;  State,  X-XI. 

Electors,    City,    Qualifications    of,    140;    State,    Qualifications 

of,  X.-XI. 
Elementary  Schools,  111. 
Elkin  Club,  mention  of,  37. 
El  Paso,  61. 

Elysian  Fields,  mention  of,  21;   32. 
Emancipation  Proclamation,  mention  of.  111. 
Encyclopedia   Britannica,   mention   of,    124;     of     Trade    and 

Commerce  of  the  United  States,  124. 
England,  mention  of,  13;  14;  15;  25;  32;  72;  73;  82;  97;  98; 

125;  126. 
English  at  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  26;  27;  28. 
English  Literature   of   New   Orleans,   123-127. 
English  Turn,  52. 
"Entering"   (port),  75. 
Epidemics,  35;   49-51;   53;   133. 
Episcopal  Home,  106. 
Erie,  Lake,  mention  of,  7;  31. 
Esplanade  Avenue,  mention  of,  17;   18;   40;   63;   149;   Girls' 

High  School,  112. 
Essence  of  Oranges,  93. 
Etruria,  Kingdom  of,  mention  of,  22. 
Euphrates  River,  mention  of,  143. 
Europe,  mention  of,  8;   9;   13;   18;   21;   30;   31;   32;   41;   73; 

77;  90;  100;  108;  128;   129;  People  of,  129. 
Evangeline  Parish,  mention  of,  82. 
Evening  Schools,  112. 
Executive  Department,  State,  III. 
Exports,  72-73. 

Expenditure  for  Paving,  152-153. 
Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat  Hospital,  104. 

Faraday,  Michael,  mention  of,  60. 

Farragut,  Admiral,  mention  of,  38. 

Faubourg  Marigny,  31;   110. 

Faubourg  Ste.  Marie,  18;   25;   30;   31;   32;   109;   110;    128. 

Federal  Army,  110. 

Field,  Cyrus,  mention  of,  61. 

Filter  Plant,  47;  48. 

Finances,  1815-1860,   33-34;   Today,  43. 

Finlay,  Dr.  Carlos,  mention  of,  51. 

Fire  Department,  40. 

Firemen's  Charitable  Association,  33. 

First  Presbyterian  Church,  33. 

Fish,  93-94. 

Fisk  Library,  119. 

Floods,  2. 

Flora  of  New  Orleans,  150;  151. 

Florence,  mention  of,  72. 

Florida,  mention  of,  13;   16;  25;  26;  31;  93;   151. 

Food  and  Drug  Laws  and  Eegulations,  54. 

Food  Inspection,  55. 

Foodstuffs,  91-96. 

Fontera,  mention  of,  72. 

Forests  of  Louisiana,  84. 

Forrest,  Edwin,  actor,  38. 

Fortier,  Professor  Aleee,  125. 

Foucher,  Pierre,  mention  of,  149. 

Fourth  French  and  Indian  War,  13. 

Fox  River,  mention  of,  7. 

France,  At  Close  of  Eighteenth  Century,  7;   8;   mention  of, 

11;  12;   13;  14;  15;   18;  21;  22;  24;  72;  73;  74;   84;  97; 

98;  99;  100;   107;   108;   115;  117;  123;   125;  129;   133. 
Francis  T.  Nicholls  Industrial  School,  114. 


Franco-Prussian  War,  mention  of,  144. 

Frankfort-on-the-Main,  61;   144. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  mention  of,  59;   61. 

Frasch,  Herman,  84;   System  of,  84. 

Freedmen's  Bureau,  111;  118. 

French,  B.  F.,  mention  of,  119. 

French,  Cities,  146;  Language,  109;  122;  Literature,  122 
123;  Market,  17;  19;  20;  32;  54;  Opera  House,  130 
131;  Orphan  Asylum,  33;  Place,  149;  Refugees,  104 
Settlers,  12;  13;   19;   24;  26;  49. 

Frenchmmen's  Day,  133. 

Freret  Street,  mention  of,  108. 

Frisco  Railroad  Company,  67. 

Frisco  Slip,  67. 

Fruits,  92-93. 

Fulton,  Robert,  mention  of,  25. 

Furbearing  Animals,  95. 

Gallier,   Architect,   33;   47. 

Galveston,  mention  of,  61;   73;  76. 

Galvez,  Bernado,  15;   109;  122. 

Gambling,  VI. 

Garbage,  Removal  of,  56;  59. 

Garden  Cities  of  England,  144-145. 

Gas,  87;  Company  Bank,  301. 

Gayarre,  Charles,  89;  123;   124;  125;  149. 

Gazette,  The,  21. 

General  Assembly,  Louisiana,  123;   136;  I.-II. 

Genoa,  72. 

Gentilly  Terrace,  mention  of,  2;  42;  106;  Road,  21. 

George  V.,  King  of  England,  mention  of,  43. 

Georgia,  mention  of,  7;  76. 

Germans,  mention  of,  9;  12;  19;  20;  28;  33;  129;  Catholies, 
133;  Coast,  11;  20;  26;  Pre-eminence  in  City  Planning 
and  Causes  of  Success,  143-144;  Protestant  Orphans' 
Home,  134. 

Germany,  mention  of,  72;  74;  134, 

Gibbs,  General,  mention  of,  28. 

Gibson  Hall,  116. 

Girod  Street,  mention  of,  24, 

Glasgow,  mention  of,  72.  ' 

"Gombo,"  20. 

Gopher  Wood,  mention  of,  83. 

Government  of  Louisiana,  13;  14;  25;  Supplement. 

Government  of  New  Orleans,  24;  40;  41;  Commission  Form 
of,  43;  1805-1915,  139. 

Governor  of  Louisiana,  67;  70;  106;  139;  I.,  II.,  III.; 
Election,  Term,  Eligibility,  Salary,  Duties  and  Powers 
of.  III.,  Vni.,  IX, 

Grain  Elevators,  67, 

Grand  Coteau  College,  116. 

Grand  Duke  Alexis,  130. 

Grant,  Captain,  32;  General  Ulysses  S.,  38.  ' 

Gravier,  18;  23;  24;  151;  Street,  24;  62. 

Gray,  Elisha,  mention  of,  61. 

Great  Britain,  mention  of,  18;  24;  30;  43. 

Great  Fires  of  1788  and   1794,  16. 

Great  Lakes,  mention  of,  6;  31 

Great  Southern  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company,  men- 
tion of,  62, 

Greece,  mention  of,  73;  83;  People  of,  129;  143. 

Grunewald  Hotel,  42;  61. 

Grymes,  John  R.  98. 
Gaudeloupe,  mention  of,  24. 
Guatemala,  mention  of,  72. 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  mention  of,  1;  4;  5;  7;  8;  9;  31;  41;  64;  65; 
Coast,  6;  87;  93;  94;  98;  Level,  2;  Ports,  50;  Stream,  4. 
Gulfport,  mention  of,  83. 

Haehard,  Sister,  Madeleine,  12. 
Hahnemann  School,  100. 


INDEX — Continued. 


xvn. 


Hall,  Oakey,  mention  of,  36. 

Hamburg,  mention  of,  72. 

Hampstead,  mention  of,  144. 

Harbor,  65-66. 

Harrison,  Dr.,  mention  of,  100. 

Harvey  Canal,  42. 

Haughery,  Margaret,  105. 

Haussmann,  Baron,  mention  of,  143. 

Havana,  mention  of,  13;   14;   15;   19;   50;   72;  82;  108. 

Havre,  mention  of,  72. 

Health   Conditions,   45-58;    City   Board   of,   51;    53;    55;    56; 

57;   96;   State  Board  of,  53;   54;   57;   96;   X. 
Hearn,   Lafcadio,   125. 

Hebrew  Benevolent  Association,  mention  of,  58. 
Hebrews,  mention  of,  105. 
Hennen,  Alfred,  98. 
Henry  Clay  Avenue,  104. 
Hibernia  Bank,  mention  of,  101. 
High  Temperature  Destructor,  56-57. 
High  S,chool,  112. 
Holeombe,  Dr.  W.  H.,  100;  125. 
Holland,  3;  45;   72;   73 
Holy  Cross  College,  118. 
Homeopathic  School,  100. 
Homes,  1815-1860,  35. 
Homestead  Associations,   101. 
Honduras,  mention  of,  72. 
Honesty,  Virtue  of,  154. 
Honolulu,  mention  of,  57. 
Hooke,  Robert,  mention  of,  61 
Horter  and  Fenner,  mention  of,  62. 
Hospice  des  Pauvres,  103. 
Hospitals,  58,  103-105. 
Hotel  Dieu,  58. 
Houma  Indians,  9 

House  of  Representatives,  Louisiana,  24;  I.;  II. 
Houston,  mention  of,  88. 
Howard  Association,  33;  50;  105;  Charles  T.,  120;  Frank  T., 

120;  Memorial  Library,  120;  Street,  103. 
Howe,  W.  M.,  124;  125. 
Hungary,  mention  of,  133. 
Hungerford,  Edward,  148. 
Hunt,  Doctor,  mention  of,  100. 
Huron,  Lake,  mention  of,  107. 
Hutchinson  Memorial,  116. 
Hyams,  Mrs.  Chapman,  mention  of,  149. 
Hygiene,  Department  of,  113-114. 

Iberville,  Pierre  le  Moyne  d',  8;  9;  99 

Ice,  Manufacture  of,  88 

Illinois,  mention  of,  9;  87;  Central  Railroad,  40;  67;  69;  71; 

72;  92;  River,  7;  73. 
Immaculate   Conception,  College   of,   116. 
Immigrants,  European,  33. 
Immigration  Station,  42;   66;   90. 
Impeachment,  I. 
Imports,  73;  74. 

Incorporation  of  New  Orleans,  24. 
India,  mention  of,  13;  73;  74. 
Indiana,  mention  of,  73. 
Indianapolis,  mention  of,  72. 
Indian  Medicine  Men,  99. 
Industry,  Virtue  of,   154. 
Influence    on    Architecture    of    Available    Building   Material 

and  Climate,  146;  of  German  Movement,  144. 
Initiative,  141. 

Inspection,  Sanitary,  53;  54;  of  Food,  55;  of  Slaughtering,  96. 
Institutions  for  the  Colored,  118. 
Insurance  Companies,  101. 
Intercoastal  Canal,  70-71. 


Inundations,  Causes,  2;   Crevasses,  3;   35. 

Ireland,  mention  of,  72;  124;  125. 

Irish,  mention  of,  19-20;  25;   33;   105;   129. 

Iron  Mountain-Missouri  Pacific  Railroad  System,  71, 

Islennes,  mention  of,  20. 

Isolation  Hospital,  51. 

Italians,  mention  of,  19;   51. 

Italy,  mention  of,  22;  72;  73;  74. 

.Jackson,  Andrew,  26;  27;  29;  30;  44;  98;  120;  Avenue, 
mention  of,  43;  63;  106;  Barracks,  32;  School,  112; 
Square,  20;  146;   149;   150;  City  in  Mississippi,  32. 

.Jamaica,  mention  of,  49. 

Jamison,  Mrs.  Cecilia  Viets,  126. 

Japan,  mention  of,  74;   126. 

.Japanese,  mention  of,  81;  129. 

Jean  Lafitte,  25;  26;  85. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  1;  22;  24;  City,  39;  Parish,  1;  43;  88;  92. 

Jefferson's  Island,  mention  of,  85. 

Jefferson-Plaquemines  Drainage  District,  42. 

Jenner,  Dr.,  mention  of,  49. 

Jennings  Oil  Fields,  87. 

Jesuits,  11;   13;  23;   33;   79;  93;   107;   116-117. 

Jetties,   40;   64-65. 

Jewish  Widows  and  Orphans '  Home,   105-106. 

Jews,  mention  of,  129. 

.Johns  Hopkins  University,  mention  of,  125. 

Johnston,  Col.  William  Preston,  115;   124;   125. 

Joliet,  7. 

Judicial  Department,  State,  IV.- VI. 

July  Fourteenth,  133. 

Justices  of  the  Peace,  VI. 

Juvenile  Courts:  Courts,  Purpose,  Terms  "Neglected"  and 
"Delinquent,"  Officers,  V. 

Kansas  City,  mention  of,  64;  69. 
Keane,  General,  mention  of,  28. 
Kea.ns,  actors,  mention  of,  38. 
Kenner  Plantation,  3;  Town,  80. 
Kentuckians,  mention  of,  17;  18;  28. 

Kentucky,  mention  of,  17;   73;   82;  Flatboatmeu,  20;   Sharp- 
shooters, 28. 
Kerlerec,  Governor,  14;   17. 

Key  West,  mention  of,  61.  ' 

Kindness,  Virtue  of,  154.  ' 

King,  Miss  Grace  Elizabeth,  126;   133. 
Kohnke,  Dr.  Q.,  51;  100. 
Kruttschnitt,  Ernest  B.,  98. 

Lafayette,  mention  of,  33;  39;  Square,  119. 

Lafitte   (brothers),  25-26. 

Lafourche  Parish,  mention  of,  95. 

Lafreniere,  mention  of,  14;  15. 

Lakanal,  mention  of,   110. 

Lake  Charles  (City),  71. 

Lake  to  River  Canals,  70. 

Lakeview,  mention  of,  42. 

' '  La  Lanterne  Magique, ' '  mention  of,  25. 

Lambert,  General,  mention  of,  28. 

Lane  Mills,  mention  of,  77. 

"La  Prise  du  Morne  du  Baton  Rouge  par  Monseigneur   de 

Galvez,"  122. 
Laredo,  mention  of,  61. 
La  Salle,  7;  Parish,  84. 
Latin  Americans,  128. 
Laussat,  mention   of,  22;   23. 

Law,  Department  of,  115;  John,  9;  Bank,  10;   11. 
Lea,  Miss  Fannie  Heaslip,  127. 
Lee  Circle,  mention  of,  63;  119;  120;  148. 
Leeds,  Charles,  40. 


xvin. 


INDEX— Continued. 


Legislative  Dciiartiiient,  I.;  Powcij  Limitations  oi,  IL 
Lclainl  University,  118. 

' '  Le   5[oiiiteur   de   la   Louisiane,"   21;    122. 
L 'Enfant,   Charles,  mention   of,   145;    loO. 
"  Les  Trois   Capalins,  "  21. 

"  Les  Compte-renilus   de   1 'Athenee   Louisiauais, "    123. 
Letfhworth,  mention   of,   144. 

Levees:      Along  the    River,   3;    Breaks,   2;    Construction,   4; 
Length    and    Size,    3;    Protection,    4;    Swamp    Bieelama- 
tiou,  4;   12;   18. 
Libraries,  Public,  40;    118-119;   Societies,  118-119. 
Lieutenant-Governor,     Election,     Term,     Eligibility,     Salary, 

Duties  and  Powers  of,  III.;  IX. 
Lights  in  1800,  20. 

Liquidation,  City  Board  of,  40;   139;   State  Board  of,  X. 
Literature  of  New  Orleans,  122-127. 
Little   Woods,   mention   of,   42. 
Livaudais,   mention   of,   33. 
Liverpool,  mention  of,  61;   71;   72;   73;   87. 
Livingston,  Edward,  98;  Eobert,  22. 
Location   of  Cities,   Conditions  Governing  the,   143;   of  New 

Orleans,  1. 
London,  mention  of,  72. 
Longshoremen,  67. 
Lorient,  mention  of,  107. 
Lotteries,  VI. 

Louis  XIV.,  8;  XV.,  14;  XVI.,  110;   .Jean,  12;   103. 
Louisiana,    Before    1718,    Early    Explorers,    Expeditions    of 
Marquette   and   La   Salle,    7;    Early   Colonization   of,   8; 
Proprietary    Colony,    9;     10;     11;     12;     Colonial    Govern- 
ment,   13;    Transfer   to   Spain,    14;    17;    Diocese   of,    16; 
Period   of   Transition;    21-23;    Transfer   to    France;    22; 
Purchase  by  United  States,  22-23;  Division,  24;   Creoles 
of,  25;  Admission  as  State,  25;  30;  Secession,  38;  Yellow 
Fever    in,    49;    Trade,     72;    73;     74;    Industries,     76-87 
Cotton,  76;   Corn,  78;   Sugar,   79;   Rice,  81;   Lumber,  83 
Forest,  84;   Minerals,   84;   Truck   Farming   in,   91;   Fruit: 
of,  92;  Fish  of,  93;  Oyster  Industry  of,  94;  G^ime  of,  95 
Animals    of,    95;    Bench    and    Bar    of,    97-99;    Medicine, 
History    of,    99-100;    Banking    in,    101;    Trades    in,    102 
Education  in,  107-121;  Law  of,   115;  Historical  Associa- 
tion,  120;   State  Museum,   120-121;    122;    123;   Historical 
Society,  123;   125;   All  Saints'  Day  in,  132;   Government 
of.     See     Supplement;     State     University,     115;      119; 
Bank,    101;    Planters'   Bank,    101;    Railway    and    Navi- 
gation Compan}"-,  71;  Telephone  Company,  mention  of,  62. 
Louisianians,  20;   23;   24. 
Louisville,  mention  of,  72. 

Louisville    and   Nashville   Railroad,  4;   40;   41;   67;    71;    72. 
Lovell,  General,  mention  of,  38. 
Loyola   University,   116-117;    148. 
Ludlow,  mention  of,  38. 
Lumber,  83-84;  89. 
Luneville,  Treaty  of,  21-22. 
Luzenberg,  Dr.  C.  A.,  100. 
Lyceum,  119. 

McCarty  's  Plantation,  3. 
Mackie,  Dr.,  mention  of,  100. 
Mackinaw  Straits,  mention  of,  7. 
Madagascar,  mention  of,  81. 

Madrid,  Treaty  of,  18.  ■      ■  • 

-Magazine  Street,  mention  of,  24;   62;   104;   ]:!1;   151. 
jSIaginnis  Mills,  mention   of,   77. 
Magneto  System,  62. 
Maliogan}',   73;   89. 
.Mail   System,  59. 
Maine,  mention  of,   13;   89. 
Maison  Blanche  Building,  42, 
JIaison  de  Sante,  58. 


Malaria,   50. 

Malay  Archipelago,  mention  of,  92. 

Manchac,  Bayou,  mention  of,  S;    9;   Fort,   15;   Church,  59. 

Manchester,  mention  of,  72. 

"Manifest,"  75. 

Manila  A^illage,  mention  of,  94;   13. 

Manual  Training,  112-113. 

Manufactures,  41;'  88-90. 

Marconi,   Gugliemo,  mention  of,  61. 

Mardi  Gras,  129;  130;  131. 

Marigny,  Plantation,  mention  of,  24;   Faubourg,  31;   110. 

Marine  Hospital,  United  States,  104. 

Markets:     Dryades,  54;   French,   17;   19;   20;   32;   54;   Maga- 
zine, 62;  Poydras,  32;  St.  Mary's,  32;  Washington,  32. 

Marquette,  Pere,  7;  Hall,  117. 

''Marseillaise,  La,"  mention  of,  17;  27. 

Marseilles,  mention  of,  72. 

Martin,  Fran<;ois,   97;    124. 

Martinique,  Island   of,   mention   of,   19. 

Maryland,  mention  of,  124. 

Massachusetts,  Colony  of,   59. 

Massecuite,   79;   80. 

Matagorda  Bay,  mention  of,  8. 

Matthieu,  Dr.  Jules,  100. 

Maurepaus,  Lake,  mention  of,  8. 

Mayor,   mention   of,  40;   41;   55;   89;   103;   137-138;    139;    140; 
List  of,  44. 

McCaleb,  Thomas,  127. 

McDonogh,  .John,  37;    101;    105;    111;    131-132;   Day,   131-132; 
— ville,  131. 

Meats,  96. 

Mechanics   and   Traders '   Bank,   mention   of,   101. 

Medical  College,  First,  100;  of  Louisiana,  114;  Societies,  100. 

Medicine,  History  of,  99-100. 

Meetings  of  Commission  Council,  137. 

Melpomene  Canal,  45. 

Memphis,   mention   of,   7;   61;   88;   91. 

Mendez,   Don   Antonio,  mention  of,  79. 

Mercer,  Dr.  W.  N.,  106. 

Merchants'   Exchange,   mention   of,   32. 

Mercier,  Dr.  Alfred,  123. 

Mermentau  River,  mention  of,   71. 

Metairie  Ridge  and  Road,  2;   21;   42;   43. 

Metropolitan  Police,  39. 

Mexican  Gulf  Railroad,  mention  of,  32. 

Mexico,    mention    of,    7;    8;    9;    15;    Cable,    61;    Trade   with, 

72;   88;   128. 
Michaud   Tract,   mention   of,  42. 
Middle  West,  mention  of,  148. 
Milhet,  Jean,  mention  of,  14;   15. 
Military  Rule,  38. 
Milliken,  Mrs.  Deborah,   103. 
Milneburg,   mention   of,  32;   36. 
Minims,  Port,  mention  of,  25. 
Minerals,   84;   87. 
Minnesota,  mention  of,  73, 
Miro,  Governor,  mention  of,  18;  108. 

Mississippi:     Company  (of  the  West),  101;  River,  mentioned 
frequently  as  "the  River";   River  System,  69;   Valley. 
1;  3;  25;  30;  32;  64;  69;  72;  88;  103;"  1.36;  Sound,  8. 
Mobile,  mention  of,  15;   83;   130;  Bay,  8;   9. 
Modern  Homes,  147. 

Modern  Language  Association  of  America,  mention  of,   \'2~>. 
Monius,  Knights  of,   130. 
Monougahpla,   mention   of,   13. 
Monoiiolies,  13. 

.Monroe,  James,  22;   30;  Mayor  of  New  Orleans,  ;!8. 
Montcleone  Hotel,  mention  of,  42. 
Aiontreal,  mention  of,   13. 
Morales,  mention  of,  18;  24. 


INDEX — Continued. 


XIX. 


Morehouse  Parish,  mention  of,  76. 
Morse,  B.  F.,  mention  of,  61. 
Mortality,  Chart,  rate  of,  56. 
Moscoso,  mention  of,  7. 
Mosquito  Theory,  50. 
Mulatto  Exotlus,  33. 
Munich,  144. 

Mutual  Benevolent  Society,   100. 
Myles'  Salt  Mine,  86. 

Naples,  mention  of,  72. 

Napoleon,  Bonaparte,  21-22;   25;  26;   133;  III.,  143;  Avenue, 

47;  67;   105;  Branch  Library,   120. 
Narvaez,  Pamphilo  de,  7. 
Nashville,  mention  of,   124. 

Natchez,  City,  mention  of,  24;  Indians,  9;  99;  War,  12. 
Natchitoches,  mention  of,  9;   25. 
National  Sulphur  Company,  85. 
Naval  Station,  42;  61;  65;  66. 
Need  of  Government  in  the  City,  135. 
Need  of  Open  Space  in  Cities,  148-149. 

Negroes,  10;  20;  39;  110;   111;  118;  Insurrection  of,  12,  129. 
Nereus,  130. 

New  Basin  Canal,  4;  70. 

Newcomb,  Mrs.  Josephine  Louise,   116;   College,   116. 
New  England,  mention  of,  89;   126;   143. 
New  Jersey,  mention  of,  115. 
New  Madrid,  mention   of,   18. 
New  Mexico,  mention  of,  88. 
New  Orleans  and  Carrollton   Company,  mention  of,  63;   101. 

"  "         and  Louisiana   Construction   and   Improvemeift 

Company,  40. 

"         "         and  Nashville  Railroad,  mention   of,  32. 

"  "  and  North  Eastern  Railroad,  mention  of,  71;  72. 

"  "  and  Pacific  Railroad,  mention,  of,  40. 

"  "         Board  of  Public   School  Directors,   111;    139. 

"  "         Board  of  Trade,  82. 

"  "  Canal  and  Banking  Companjf,  mention  of,  70. 

"         "  Clearing  House,  mention  of,  101. 

"  "  Cotton  Market,  76. 

"  "         Female  Orphan  Asylum,  105. 

"  "  Great   Northern   Railroad  mention   of,    71. 

"  "         Lake  Shore  Land  Company,  mention  of,  4;  42. 

"  "         Park  Commissioners,  Board  of,  39. 

"  "  Parks,  149-150. 

"  "         Public  Library,  119-121;   148;   Board  of  Direc- 

tors of,  139. 

"         "         Railway  and  Light  Company,  63. 

"  "         School  of  Medicine,  101. 

"  "  Southern  and  Grand  Isle  Railroad,  43. 

"  "         Terminal  Company,  67. 

"  "         Texas  and  Mexico  Railroad  Company,  71 

"         "  Waterworks  Company,  47. 

' '  New  Orleans, ' '  The,  25. 
New  Princeton  Review,  mention  of;  126. 
New  York  City,  mention  of,  31;   32;   33;   34-35;   52;   72;   85; 

87;  124;  128;  143;  145. 
Niagara  River,  7. 
Nicaragua,  mention  of,  72. 
Nieholls,  Governor  F.  T.,  106;   111. 
Nicholson,  Mrs.  Eliza  Poitevent,  124. 
Noah,  mention  of,  83. 
Normal  School,  110 
North  America,  mention  of,  8;  13;  31 
North  American  Indian,  122. 
Northeast  Pass,  31. 
Norwegians,  mention  of,  129. 
Novel,  125-127, 
Noyan,  15. 


Ocean  Springs,  mention  of,  9. 

Official  Language,  VI. 

Ohio,  Canal,  mention  of,  31;  River,  mention  of,  1;  13;  25; 
31;  89;  Valley,  mention  of,  12;  13;  18;  31;  State,  men- 
tion of,  73;  82. 

Oil,  87;  Inspection  of,  54. 

Oklahoma,  mention  of,  72;  87. 

Old  Basin  Canal,  70. 

"Old  Metairie"  Race  Track,  37. 

Old  Pelican  Club,  mention  of,  37. 

Omaha,  mention  of,  71;  72. 

Ontario,  Lake,  mention  of,  7. 

Opelonsas,  mention  of,  32. 

Opera  House,   33 

Orange  Grove,  93 

Order,  Virtue  of,  154. 

O'Reilly,  Alexander,  15;   97;   99;   108. 

Organization  of  Labor,  102. 

Original  Plan  of  New  Orleans,   145-146. 

Orleans,  Club,  mention  of,  37;  Isle,  mention  of,  9;  13;  14; 
22;  26;  Levee  District,  Board  of  Commissioners  of,  4, 
40;  139;  Parish,  mention  of,  1;  31;  55;  139;  141; 
Parish  Medical  Society,  100;  Territory,  24;  25;  138; 
Theatre,  37;  38. 

Ouachita  Parish,  mention  of,  82. 

Oyster  Industry,  94-95. 

Ozark  Mountains,  mention  of,  91. 

Pacific  Cable  Company,  61;  71;  Coast,  mention  of,  41;  Ocean, 
mention  of,  61. 

Pakenham,   Sir   Edward,   27;    28. 

Palermo,  mention  of.  72. 

Panama  Canal,  mention  of,  41;  65;  72;  74;  88;  92;  Ex- 
position,  116. 

i^an-Americ.'-.n   Jledical  Society,   mention   of,    100. 

Paris,  City  of,  129;  133;  143;  Custom  of,  14;  Treaty  of,  178:'., 
13;  14;   15;   18. 

Parish,  As  a  Unit  of  Government,  The,  VII.;  a  Public  Cor- 
porate Body;  Changing  Lines  of;  Subdivisions;  Issuance 
of  Bonds;  Police  Jury;  Other  Officers  of  the;  Seat  of 
Government;   Commission  Form   of  Government,  VII. 

Park:     Function,  149;  Commissions,  150. 

Parma,   Prince   of,   mention   of,   22. 

Parochial  Schools,  Catholic,  118. 

Parolli,  Father,  mention  of,  51. 

Parrot,  Mrs.  mention  of,  120. 

Paving,  Street,  53;   151-153. 

Patterson,  Commodore,  mention  of,  26. 

Pauger,  mention  of,  10. 

Pearl  River,  mention  of,  93. 

"Pearl  Rivers"  (Mrs.  Eliza  Poitevent  Nicholson),  124. 

Pensacola,  mention  of,  8;  15;  83. 

People  of  New  Orleans,  128-129. 

People 's  Avenue,  mention  of,  4. 

Perdido  River,  mention  of,  25. 

Perique  Tobacco,  82. 

Perrier,  Governor,  11;   12;  45;  49;   108. 

Persians,  mention  of,  59. 

Peters  Avenue,  mention  of,  104;  106;  Samuel,  119. 

Philadelphia,  mention  of,  18;  30;  66;  72;  81;  123;  Exposition, 
mention  of,  62. 

Philippine  Islands,  mention  of,  74. 

Physical  Training,  Department  of,  113 

Picayune,   mention   of,   124;    126. 

Pickwick  Club,  mention  of,  130. 

Pilsbury,  Edward,  40. 

Pitt,  AVm.,  mention  of,  13. 

Pittsburg,  mention  of,  25;  64;   69. 

Place  d'Armes,  mention  of,  10;  12;  16:  20;  22;  23;  29;  145- 
146;  149;   150. 


XX. 


INDEX — Continued. 


Plantation  System,  91. 

Plaquemines  Parish,  mention  of,  92;  95. 

Pleasant  Street,  mention  of,  63. 

Poetry,  English,  124;  French,  123. 

Police,    Board    of    Commissioners    of,    1-tl;    City    Guardians, 
1800,  21;   Commissioners  of,  40;  41. 

Political  Divisions  of  New  Orleans,   137. 

Poll  Tax,  140;  X.-XI. 

Pollock,  Oliver,  15. 

Pontalba  Buildings,  mention  of,   16;   146;   147. 
■  Pontchartrain,   Count   of,   mention   of,   8;   Lake,   mention   of, 
1;   2;   3;   8;   17;  42;   45;   46;  47;   49;   63;   146;   Trade  on 
Lake,  70. 

Population,   mention   of,   12;   15;    18;    30;    33;    39;    41;    Com- 
position of,  128. 

Port,  Chalmette,  mention  of,  67;  Definition  of,  64;  Improve- 
ment, 71;  Limon,  72;  Sabine,  85. 

Ports,  72;  Trans- Atlantic,  72. 

Porto  Rico,  mention  of,  72. 

Postage,  59-60. 

Postal  Savings  Department,  mention  of,  60;   System,  59-60; 
Telegraph,  61. 

Post  Office  Building,  5;  42;   59;   60. 

Potomac  River,  mention  of,  145. 

"Poucha  Houmma,"  122;  Chief,  122. 

Powers  of  Commission  Council,  137. 

Powers,  Thomas,  mention  of,  18. 

Poydras,   Julien,   101;    104;    105;    122;    Market,    32;    Orphan 
Asylum,  33;  70;  104;  Street,  mention  of,  24. 

Pratz,  La  Page  du,  mention  of,  99. 

Pre-eminence  of  Germans  in  City  Planning,  143-144. 

Premium  Bonds,  40. 

Prepiaratory  Schools,  118. 

Presbyterian  Church,  105;  Hospifal,  58. 

President  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate,  III. 

Princeton,  115. 

Pritchard,  R.  0.,  33. 

Private  Schools  and  Colleges,  117-118 

Professions — Trades,  97;  102 

Progresso,  mention  of,  72. 

Protection  Levee,  4;  46. 

Proteus,  Mystic  Krewe  of,  130. 

Prytania  Street,  mention  of,  63. 

Public  Affairs,  Commissioner  of,  138;  Department  of,  138. 

Publications  of  Commission  Council,  137. 

Public  Belt  Railroad,  41;  43;  56;  68-69;  90;  138. 

Public  Buildings,    Commissioner   of,   41 ;    42. 

Public  Education,  State  Board  of,  111;  125;  IX. 

Public  Finances,  Commissioner  of,  Department  of,  138. 

Public  Pleasure  Grounds,  148-151. 

Public  Property,  Commissioner  of.   Department  of,   138. 

Public  Safety,   Commissioner   of.   Department   of,   55;    138. 

Public  School,  Alliance,   125;   System,   110-114. 

Public  Utilities,  Commissioner  of,  Department  of,  138. 

Public  Works,  Commissioner  of,  40;  41. 

Pumping  Stations,  46;  47;  67. 

Purchase  of  Louisiana,  22-23. 

Quadroon,  mention  of,  20. 

Quarantine,  52;   43. 

Quebec,  mention  of,  7;  8;  13;  143. 

Railroads,  1815-1860,  32;   Communication,   71-72. 

Rampart  Street,  North,  mention   of,   8;   12;    17;   18;   63;    103; 

145;  South,  129. 
Recall,  141. 

Reconstruction  Acts,  38;   110;   111. 
Recorders'  Courts,  141. 
Red  River,  mention  of,  7;  8;  87. 
Referendum,  141. 
Refrigerators,  96. 


Registration,  140 

' '  Reign  of  Terror, ' '  133 

Reis,  Philip,  61. 

Bellgieuses,  38. 

Rejiresentative  of  Louisiana,  Qualifications  of,  II.;  Residence, 

Gain  and  Loss  of,  XI. 
Respect  for  Authority,   154-155. 
Rex,  130. 
Rice,  70;  81-82. 
Richardson,  Dr.  T.  G.,  100;  Mrs.  Ida,  116;  Memorial  Medical 

School,  116;  Architect,  120. 
Rigolets,  mention  of,  1;  2. 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  mention  of,  74. 
Rio  Grande,  mention  of,  70. 
Riplej^,  Mrs.  Eliza,  35. 
Riverport,  64. 
River  Traffic,  70. 
Robertson  Street,  mention  of,  116 
Robin,  Traveller,  mention  of,  20,  21. 
Rocky  Mountains,  mention  of,  8;  69;   States,  143. 
Rodriguez's  Canal,  27. 
Rogers,  Wm.  O.,  111. 

Roman  Code,  15;  People,  59;   129;  Civil  Law,  97. 
Rome,  83;  129;  143. 
Ronald,  Francis,  mention  of,  60 
Roosevelt,  Nicholas  I.,  mention  of,  25. 

Rosalie,  Fort,  12.  .    - 

Roselius,  Christian,  98. 
Rosewood,  89. 

Ross,  Colonel,  mention  of,  26. 
Rotterdam,  mention  of,  72, 
Royal,  Bank   of   France,    101;    Street,   21;    40;    129;    Branch 

Library,  120. 
Rue  de  la  Levee,  mention  of,  18;  20. 
Rugby  Academy,  118. 
Riussel  actor,  38. 
Russia,  129;  People  of,  129. 

Sabine  River,  mention  of,  71;  93, 

Sacred  Heart,  Ladies  of,  117-118;   Church,  118. 

Salcedo,  Governor,  mention  of,  22;  23. 

Salt,  85. 

San  Domingo  mention  of,  8;   13;  24;  31;   79;   104;   109;  125; 

Refugees,  17;  18;  19;  20;  actors,  21. 
Sanitation,  History  of,  49;  Improvements,  53. 
San  Francisco,  mention  of,  52;  57;  116;  148. 
Santa  Maura,  mention  of,  125. 
Santos,  mention  of,  74. 
Sauvage,  Bayou,  mention  of,  2. 
Sauve  's   Plantation,   mention  of,  3. 
"Scalawags,"  39. 
School  Gardening,  92. 

Scotland,  mention  of,  72;  People  of,  129. 
Scotti  Father,  mention  of,  51. 
Sea  Level,  1. 
Seal  of  State,  HL 
Seaport,  64 
Secession,  38 

Second  Coalition,  War  of,  22. 
Second  District,  42. 
Second  Municipality,  31;  119. 
Secretary  of  State,  123;  I.;  IIL 
Seismic  Observatory,  117. 
Self-Control,  Virtue  of,  154, 
Semiramis,  Queen,  143. 

Semraes,  Admiral  Raphael,  mention  of,  98;  Thomas  J,,  98. 
Senate,  Louisiana,  I.;  II. 
Senatorial  Districts,  II. 
Senator,  Louisiana,  Qualifications  of,  II. 
September  14,  1874,  39. 


INDEX— Continued. 


XXI. 


Seventh  Street  Protestant  Orphans'  Home,  105. 

Seven  Years'  War  (See  Fourth  French  and  Indian  War). 

Sewerage,  43;  45-48;  53;  and  Water  Board,  47. 

Shakespeare,  Joseph  A.,  mention  of,  40. 

Sheriffs,  V.-VI. 

Shipping,  64. 

Shoes,  Manufacture  of,  89. 

Sicily,  mention  of,  84;  Island,  12. 

Sioux  City,  mention  of,  72. 

Sisters  of  Charity,  103;  105. 

Sisters  of  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  106. 

Slaves,  African,  9;   11;   12;   15;  Indian  and  Negro,  20;   102; 

Trade  Forbidden,  24. 
Slavery,  31;  33. 
Smallpox,  49;  52. 
Soil,  2. 

Soldiers'  Home,  106. 

Some  Causes  of  German  Success  in  City  Planning,  144. 
Sophie  B.  Wright  Girls'  High  School,  112. 
Sophie  Neweomb  College,  116. 
Soto,  Hernando  de,  7. 
Souder,  Emily  B.  (ship),  50. 
Soule,  Colonel,  College,  118 
South  American  Countries,  1;  Trade  with,  41;  74;  Cable,  61; 

mention  of,  73;  88;   128. 
South  Carolina,  38. 

Southern  Paeiflc  Railroad,  71;  Ships,  72;  82. 
Southern  Railway  Company,  mention  of,  67. 
Southern  States   or   South,   mention   of,   72;    102;    103;    110; 

123;   125;   People  of,  129. 
South  Pass,  40;  65. 
Squares  and  Playgrounds,  150. 
Spain,  mention  of,  11;   13;   14;   15;   18;   22;   23;   24;   72;   73; 

97;  101;  103;  104;  108;  109;  128;  People  of  129. 
Spanish   Succession,   War   of,   9;    Governor's   Home,   18;    19 

Architecture,  19;  People  in  New  Orleans,  1800,  19;  Sol 

diers,  20;  Infanta,  22;  King,  23;  Flag,  23  (Frontispiece) 

Land  Grants,   24;   Physicians,   99;    100;   Language,   109 

Domination,  14;  21;  123;  126;  128;  Cities,  146;  Fort,  36 

70;  135;  Schools,  108-109. 
Spanish-American  War,  50. 
St.  Anna's  Asylum,  106. 
St.  Ann  Street,  mention  of,  21. 
St.  Anthony's     Square,  mention  of,  21. 
St.  Bernard  Parish,  mention  of,  1;  88;  91;  92;  95. 
St.  Charles   Avenue,   mention   of,    105;    106;    116;    117;    118; 

119;  130;  147;  150;  Fort,  mention  of,  17;  Hotel,  33;  34; 

36;  38;  Street,  mention  of,  40;  147;  150;  Theatre,  33;  38. 
St.  Clair  River,  mention  of,  7. 
St.  Elizabeth's  House  of  Industry,  105. 
St.  Ferdinand,  Fort,  mention  of,  17. 
St.  Ildefonso,  Treaty  of,  14. 

St.  James,  Hotel,  32;  Parish,  mention  of,  82;  125. 
St.  John,  Bayou,  mention  of,  2;   4;   10;   17;   36;   37;   45;   70 

106;  149. 
St.  Joseph,  Fort  mention  of,  17 
St.  Landry  Parish,  mention  of,  76;   78, 
St.  Lawrence  River,  mention  of,  71;  13. 
St.  Louis,   Bourse,    34;    City,  mention   of,   61;    71;    91;    128; 

Fort,  7;  Hotel,  33;  36;  147;  Street,  mention  of,  12;  16. 
St.  Martin  Parish,  mention  of,  126. 
St.  Mary's  Market,  mention  of,  32;  Parish,  mention  of,  79; 

Orphan  Asylum,  105. 
St.  Patrick's  Church,  mention  of,  33;  Hall,  mention  of,  38;  40. 
St.  Peter  Street,  mention  of,  21;  103. 
St.  Philip,  Fort,  26;  28. 
St.  Roch's  133. 

St.  Tammany  Parish,  mention  of,  1. 
St.  Vincent's  Asylum,  105. 


State  Boards,  IX.-X.;  Public  Education,  IV.;  Agriculture  and 
Immigration,  IX.;  Charities  and  Corrections,  X.;  Liquida- 
tion of  State  Debt,  X.;  Commissioners  of  Port  of  New 
Orleans,  X.;  Conservation  Commission,  X. 

State  House,  mention  of,  33;  119. 

State  Journal,  mention  of,  II. 

State  Library,  119. 

State  Normal,  X. 

State  of  Louisiana,  3;  See  Louisiana. 

State  Superintendent  of  Education,  110. 

Steamboats,  1815-1860,  37. 

Stone,  Hospital,  33;  Dr.  Warren,  58;   100. 

Straight,  Seymore,  University,  118. 

Strawberry  Industry,  92. 

Street  Railways,  63. 

Streets,  in  1800,  20;  Lighting,  40;  153;  Paving,  147-148; 
Cleaning,  153-154. 

Stuart,  Mrs.  Ruth  McEnery,  126. 

Suffrage,  X.-XI. 

Sugar,  Introduced,  11;  Granulation,  17;  18;  Trade,  70;  73; 
Change,  80;  Cultivation  and  Manufacture,  79-80;  Ex- 
periment Station,  80. 

Sulphur,  84-85. 

Superintendent  of  Education,  New  Orleans,  111. 

Superior  Council,  14;  15. 

Supreme  Court,  25;  97;  99;  II.;  Jurisdiction,  Members,  Dis- 
tricts, Sessions,  TV. 

Switzerland,  mention  of,  73;  People  of,  129. 

Tampa,  mention  of,  61;  Bay,  7. 

Tampieo,  City,  mention  of,  72;  River,  7. 

Tangipahoa  Parish,  mention  of,  92. 

Tax,  Kate  of,   141. 

Taxation,  140-141;  State  Board  of  Appraisers,  VIII. -IX. 

Taxile,  Dr.,  mention  of,  100. 

Tehoupitoulas  Street,  mention  of,  2;   104;   151. 

Technology,  College  of,  116. 

''Te  Deum, "  mention  of,  8;  44, 

Telegraph,  60-61. 

Telephone,  40;  61;  62. 

Temperature,  5. 

Tennessee,  River,  25;  State,  73;  76;  96. 

Tensas  Parish,  mention  of,  76. 

Terminal  Stations,  67. 

' '  Terre  Commune, ' '  mention  of,  23 ;  128. 

Testut,  Dr.  Charles,  123. 

Texas,  mention  of,  7;  8;  32;  61;  72;  88;  124;  Crop,  76; 
Railroad  Commission,  76;  87;  Texas  and  Pacific  Rail- 
road, 67;  71. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  mention  of,  36 

Thanksgiving  Offering,   132-133. 

"The  Oaks,"  21. 

Thevis,  Father,  133. 

Thirteen  Colonies,  mention  of,  15. 

Third  District,  mention  of,  133. 

Thomas  Hall,  mention  of,  117. 

"Tignons,"  20. 

Tilton  Memorial  Library,  116. 

Timbalier  Oyster  Field,  95. 

Times-Democrat,  mention  of,  125. 

Tobacco  Trade,  34;   73;   82;  88. 

Tomy  Lafon  Orphan  Boys'  Asylum,  106. 

' '  Tonnage, ' '  64. 

Tonti,  Chevalier  de,  mention  of,  49. 

Topography,  1. 

Toulon,  mention  of,  100. 

Toulouse  Street,  mention  of,  12;   18;   103;   131. 

Tour,  Le  Blond  de  la,  10;  145;  149. 

Touro,  Judah,  58;  Infirmary,  .58;  Society,  58;  Touro-Shake- 
speare  Almshouse,  106. 


XXII. 


INDEX— Continued. 


Town  as  a  Unite  oi  Governiiieiit,  The;  Muuifipal  Corpora- 
tions; Officials,  VIII. 

Tuwnsend,  Mrs.  Mar}^  Ashley,  124. 

Trade,  64-75;  Laws,  15;  of  Valley,  69-70;  of  Lake,  70;  For- 
eign, 72-74. 

Trades — Professions,  97-102. 

Tranehepain,  Mother,  mention  of,   107;   108. 

Traus-0,ceanie  Steamship  Lines^  72. 

Treason,  VI. 

Treasurer,  40;  41;  State,  IIL;  IX. 

Treasury,  Department  of  United  States,  mention  of,  52. 

Trieste,  mention  of,  72. 

Trinidad,  mention  of,  152. 

Truelc  Farming,  91-92. 

Tulane,  Paul,  114-115;  Avenue,  mention  of,  103;  129;  Univer- 
sity, 114-116;  mention  of,   100;   104;   119;   124;   148. 

Turks,  mention  of,  129. 

Tuscany,  mention  of,  22. 

Twelfth  Night  Revelers,  132. 

Typhoid  Fever,  50. 

Typhus,  52. 

Ulloa,  Don  Antonio,  mention  of,  14;  15;   108. 

Union  of  Municipalities,  39. 

Union  Normal  School,  mention  ofj  118. 

United  Fruit  Company,  mention  of,  61;  72. 

United  States,  mention  of,  4;  5;  16;  18;  20;  21;  22;  23;  24; 
25;  42;  50-51;  70;  73;  76;  90;  128;  130;  Bank,  31;  98; 
Mint,  32;  33;  Census,  40;  Public  Health  Service,  51-52; 
57;  96;  104;  Post  Office,  59;  Control  of  Trade,  64;  65; 
Immigration  Station,  66;  Customs  Service,  74-75;  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  78. 

University  of  Louisiana,  114-116;  mention  of,  124;  125;  X. 

University  of  Virginia,  mention   ofj  125. 

Unzaga,  Governor,  mention  of,  109. 

Ursulines,  11;  12;  13;  16;  103;  107;  109;  117;  131;  145;  146; 
Street,  mention  of,  12. 

Vaca,  Cabeza  de,  7. 

Vacancies  in  Commission  Council,  137. 

Vaccination  49. 

Valley  Trade,  Loss  of,  31. 

Varieties  Theatre,  130. 

A'^audreuil,  Marquis  de,  12;  45. 

Venezuela,  mention  of,  152. 

Vera  Cruz,  mention  of,  72;  108. 

Verandah  Hotel,  33. 

Vermilion  Eiver,  mention  of,  71. 

Victor,  General,  mention  of,  22. 

Vieux  Carre,   19;   24;   30;   31;   35;   110;   131;   146;   147;   148. 

Villeneufve,  Le  Blanc  de,  122. 

Villere,    15;    General   Jacques,    27;    30;    53;    Street,   mention 

of,  116. 
Virginia,  State  of,  mention  of,  24. 
Vital  Statistics,  Department  of,  State,  54;   City,  56. 


A'olksfest,  133-134. 
Volta,  inventor,  mention  of,  60. 
Voting,   140;    Disbarment  from,   XI. 
A^olunteers  of  America,  mention  of,  57. 

Walker,  Judge  Alexander,  125;  Norman,  125. 

War  of  1812,  25-30. 

Warren  Easton  Boys'  High  School,  112. 

Washington,  George,  mention  of,  13;  145;  City,  5;  52;  59;  145; 

Patent    Office,    62;    And    Lee    College,    mention    of,    98; 

Avenue,    mention    of,    131;    Market,    mention    of,    32; 

Square,   mention   of,   150;   And   New  Orleans   Telegraph 

Company,  61. 
Water  Supply,  in  1800,  20;  System,  43;  Works,  48;  53. 
Waterways,  69-71. 
Weather   Bureau,   New   Orleans    Station,   5;    Distribution    of 

Forecasts,  Value  of  Forecasts,  Changes  of  Temperature, 

Warnings,  6;  82. 
Webster,  Daniel,  mention  of,  98. 
Weeks'  Island,  mention  of,  85;  86. 
Weight  and  Measure  Laws,  54. 
Well-governed  Home,  135. 
' '  West,  The, ' '  mention  of,  18. 
West  End,  mention  of,  36;  70;  146. 
' '  Westerners, ' '  mention  of,  18. 
Western  Multiple   Switchboard,   62. 
Western  Packing  house,  96. 
Western  Union,  61. 

West  Indian,  6;  Immigration,  24;  Port,  49;   61. 
West  Indies,  mention  of,  15;  25;  49;  87;  128. 
Westwego,  mention  of,  67. 
Wharton,  E.  C,  mention  of,  124 
Wharves,  40;  64;  66-67. 
Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles,  mention  of,  60. 
White,  Dr.   C.   B.,   mention   of,   53;   Dr.   Joseph   H.,   mention 

of,  51. 
White  Apple  Village,  12. 
White  League,  39. 
Whitney-Central  Bank  Building,  mention  of,  42;  101;  Morgan, 

mention  of,  149. 
Wilde,  Richard  Henry,  124. 

Wilkinson,  General  James,  mention  of,  18;  23;  24;  25. 
Winn  Parish,  mention  of,  84 
Wireless  Telegraphy,  61. 

Wisconsin  River,  mention  of,  7;  State,  mention  of,  73. 
Wortley,  Lady,  mention  of,  36. 
Wrought-iron,   146-147. 

"XarifEa"  (Mrs.  Mary  Ashley  Townsend),  124. 

' '  Yankee  Doodle, ' '  mention  of,  26. 

Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley  Railroad,  mention  of,  71. 

Yellow  Fever,  49;  50;  51;  52;  70. 

Yellow  Pine,  mention  of,  73;  152.