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Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir HENRY J. ORAM K.C.B. F.R.S.

I'RESIUENT

Frontispiece

p^l

No. 1

1914

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

INSTITUTE OF METALS

VOLUME XI

EDITED BY

G. SHAW SCOTT, M.Sc.

Secretary

(Right of Publication and Translation is reserved)

LONDON

PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF METALS

CAXTON HOUSE, WESTMINSTER, S.W.

1914

THE INSTITUTE OF METALS

President.

Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir H. J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S., London.

Past- Presidents.

Sir Gerard A. Muntz, Bart., Birmingham.

Professor W. Gowland, F.R.S., A.R.S.M., London.

Professor A. K. Huntington, A.R.S.M., London.

Vice-Presidents.

G. A. BOEDDICKER Birmingham.

Professor H. C. H. Carpenter, M.A., Ph.D. . London.

Summers Hunter . . . . ■ . . . Tynemouth.

J. T. Milton London.

Professor T. Turner, M.Sc. {Ron. Treasurer) . . Birmingham.

Members of Council.

L. Archbutt Derby.

Professor A. Barr, D.Sc Glasgow.

T. A. Bayliss King's Norton.

G. T. Beilby, LL.D., F.R.S Glasgow.

A. Cleghorn Glasgow.

G. Hughes Horwich.

R. S. Hutton, D.Sc Sheffield.

W. Murray Morrison London.

The Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S. . Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Arnold Philip, B.Sc, A.R.S.M Portsmouth.

W. RoSENHAiN, D.Sc, F.R.S Teddington.

A. E. Seaton London.

Sir W. E. Smith, C.B London.

L. Sumner, M.Sc Manchester.

Cecil H. Wilson Sheffield.

Hon. Auditor. Secretary.

G. G. Poppleton, C.A., Birmingham. G. Shaw Scott, M.Sc.

Telegraphic Address— " Instomet, Vic. London." Telephone— Victorin, 2320.

The Institute of Metals,

Caxton House, Westminster, S.W. Jime, 1914.

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.— MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

Annual General Meeting .

Death of Mr. W. H. Johnson, Vice-President

Report of Council

Report of the Honorary Treasurer

Election of Officers

Election of Members

Election of Auditor

Induction of the new President .

Vote of Thanks to retiring President

Votes of Thanks .

" Presidential Address." By Sir Henry J. Oram

" First Report of the Committee on the Nomenclature of Alloys "

Discussion on the Report .....

Communications on the Report .....

" The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State." By C. H. Desch

(First Report to the Beilby Prize Committee) .
Discussion on Dr. Desch's Report
Communications on Dr. Desch's Report
" Muntz Metal : the Correlation of Composition, Structure, Heat Treatment,

Mechanical Properties, &c." By J. E. Stead and H. G. A. Stedman
Discussion on the paper by Dr. Stead and Mr. Stedman
Communications on the paper by Dr. Stead and Mr. Stedman
" Vanadium in Brass : the Effect of Vanadium on the Constitution of Brass

containing 50 to 60 per cent, of Copper." By R. J. Dunn and 0. F.

Hudson .........

Discussion on the paper by Messrs. Dunn and Hudson

"The Influence of Nickel on some Copper-aluminium Alloys." By A. A.

Read and R. H. Greaves .......

Discussion on the paper by Professor Read and Mr. Greaves

Communication on the paper by Professor Read and Mr. Greaves

" Bronze." By J. Dewrance

Discussion on Mr. Dewrance's paper

Communication on Mr. Dewrance's paper

" The Micro-chemistry of Corrosion. Part II. The a

Zinc." By S. Whyte and C. H. Desch
Discussion on the paper by Mr. Whyte and Dr. Desch
" The Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling upon the Constitution of Binary

Alloys." Part II. By G. H. Gulliver . . . . .

Fifth Annual Dinner ........

Obituary ..........

alloys of Copper and

PAGE

1
1

2
8
12
14
17
18
18
24
26
45
52
56

57
107
114

119
140
148

151
164

169
208
211
214
224
234

235
246

252
273
286

Contents

SECTION II.— ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS RELATING TO THE NON-
FERROUS METALS AND THE INDUSTRIES CONNECTED
THEREWITH,

PAGE

The Properties op Metals and Alloys ..... 290
I. Common metals ,

Condensation of zinc vapour

Nickel plating aluminium

Production of flat perforated copper tubing

Recrystallization of hard zinc

Refining copper with magnesium

Resistivity of copper from 20° to 1450° C.

II. Rare metals ....

Hydrocyanic acid as a solvent for gold
Method of making tungsten filaments
Preparation of rare metals

III. Alloys ....
Alloy for edge tools
Aluminium alloy
Aluminium and tin alloys
Bismuth, cadmium, and zinc alloys
Bismuth and thallium alloys .
Brass ....
Cerium alloys with silicon and bismuth
Copper, nickel, and aluminium alloys
Gold and arsenic
Gold, copper, and nickel
Improvement of aluminium
Light aluminium alloys
Malleable zinc alloy
Manganese and cobalt .
Manganese and silver alloys

Melting-points of commercial brasses and bronzes
Molybdenum and cobalt alloys
Monel metal

Nickel-silicon alloy for thermocouples
Nomenclature of alloys
Palladium and nickel alloys .
Silver and cuprous oxide
Soldering fluxes for soft soldei
Standard sheet brass .
Tin, zinc, and cadmium alloys
Turbine blade alloys

IV. Physical properties

AUotropy of cadmium .
Cold-working .
Corrosion of copper

Contents

Vll

Crystal growth in metals

Crystalline and amorphous metals

Density of liquid metals

Emission of electrons .

Erosion of bronze propellers

Feebly magnetic alloys

Grey tin

Hardness

Hardness and conductivity of alloys of cadmium and zinc

Melting-point of arsenic ....

Minimum annealing temperature

Molecular changes in metals and the quantam hypothesis

Optical orientation of metallic crystals

Palladium and hydrogen

Passage of X-i"ays through metals

Passivity of metals

Photo-electric effect

Polymorphic changes of thallium, tin, zinc, and nickel

Resilience of copper alloys

Resistivity of gold from 20° to 1500° C

Specific heat of alloys .

Specific heat of sodium

Surface films produced in polishing

Viscosity and density of fused metals

Volume changes in amalgams

ELECTRO-METALLURGtY

Adhesion of electrolytically-deposited metals
Duplicating phonograph discs
Electrolytic copper refining
Electro-metallurgy of zinc
Growth of electro-chemical industries

Analysis and Testing

I. Analysis ....
Aluminium analysis
Atomic and weight percentages
Calibration tables for thermocouples
Colorimetric estimation of nickel
Commercial nickel
Deposition of lead on the cathode
Electrolytic analysis of white metals, with tin basis
Fine-meshed brass gauze as a substitute for platinum in

analysis ....
German silver analysis
Micro-chemical recognition of aluminium
Palladium estimation .

II. Testing .....
Hardness testing
Testing of metals

electro-

VUl

Contents

FUKNACES AND FOUNDRY METHODS .

Durability of lime- sand brick

Electric brass-melting furnaces

Electric furnaces — design, characteristics, and commercial

applications ....
Electrical resistivity of refractory materials .
High temperature electric furnace for temperatures up to 1700° to

1800° C. .
History of electric furnaces
Improved Tammann furnace .
Melting-points of refractory oxides
New type of electric furnace .
Refractories — Kieselguhr
Refractory cement
Test- bars for non-ferrous alloys
Uniformity of temperature in furnaces
Use of the oxy-acetylene torch in foundries .
Vacuum electric furnace

Statistics

Algerian mining in 1913

British Columbia mineral output, 1912

British Columbia mineral output, 1913

Californian gold production .

Canadian mineral production, 1912

Federated Malay States tin output in 1913

French manufacture of aluminium

German production and consumption of metals in

Gold Coast gold exports in 1913

New Zealand mineral production in 1912

Peruvian minerals in 1912

Prolongation of zinc syndicates

Prussian mineral output, 1912

Prussian mineral production in 1912

Russian platinum production, 1913

Silesian zinc industry in 1913 .

South African mineral output .

Swiss aluminium production .

United States metal production in 191

Victoria mineral output in 1912

West Australian mineral production in 1912

World's production of copper .

World's production of zinc, 1913

Bibliography

1913

Contents ix

SECTION III.— MEMORANDUM AND ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION,
AND LIST OF MEMBERS.

PAGE

Memorandum of Association ...... 361

1. Name of the Association ...... 361

2. Registered Office of the Association .... 361

3. Objects of the Association ...... 361

4. Income and Property of the Association .... 364

5. Condition on which License is granted to the Association . 365

6. Liability of Members ...... 365

7. Contribution of Members in the event of the Winding-up of the

Association ....... 365

8. Disposal of property remaining after Winding-up or Dissolution

of the Association ...... 365

9. Accounts ........ 366

Articles of Association ....... 367

I. Constitution . . . . . . 367

II. Election of Members ....... 368

III. Council and Mode of Election ..... 370

IV. Duties of Officers . . . . .372
V. General Meetings ....... 373

VI. Subscriptions . . . . , . . . 375

VJI. Audit ......... 376

VIII. Journal. . . . . . .377

IX. Communications ....... 377

X. Property of the Association ...... 377

XI. Consulting Officers ....... 377

XII. Indemnity . . . . . . .378

List of Membebs ........ 379

Topographical Index to Members . . .413

General Index ........ 423

LIST OF PLATES.

Prontitpiece : Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir Heney J. ORAM, K.C.B.. F.R.S.,

President.

PAGB

Plate I., illustrating Report by Dr. C. H. Desch . . . .80

Plates II. to VII., illustrating paper by Dr. J. E. Stead and Mr. H. G. A.

Stedman ...... 136

„ VIII. to X., illustrating paper by Messrs, R. J. Dunn and 0. F.

Hudson . . . . . .160

,, XI. to XIV., illustrating paper by Professor A. A. Read and Mr.

R. H. Greaves . . . . . .184

Plate XV., illustrating paper by Mr. Dewrance .... 222

„ XVI., „ „ Mr. S. Whyte and Dr. C. H. Desch . 241

CORRIGENDA.

Vol. X., Frontispiece, for " de Beffroi " read *' du Beffroi."
*„ ,, p. 93, lines 41 and 43, foi- " lead-tin " read " tin."

THE INSTITUTE OF METALS

SECTION I.

MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

The Annual General Meeting of the Institute of Metals
was held at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Storey's
Gate, Westminster, S.W., on Tuesday and Wednesday, March
17 and 18, 1914, Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc.R.S.M.,
the retiring President, occupying the chair on Tuesday,
March 1 7, prior to the declaration of the result of the ballot
for the election of officers for the year 1914. Afterwards,
and on Wednesday, March 18, the chair was occupied by
the President, Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir Henry J. Oram,
K.C.B., F.R.S.

The Secretary (Mr. G. Shaw Scott, M.Sc.) read the
minutes of the previous meeting held at Ghent, Belgium, on
August 28 and 29, 1913, which were found to be a correct
record, and were signed by the Chairman.

Death of Mr. W. H. Johnson, Vice-President.

The President said that it was with very much regret
that he had to announce the death of one of the Vice-Presi-
dents of the Institute, Mr. W. H. Johnson. Mr. Johnson
was well known to all the members ; he attended most of
the meetings of the Institute from its commencement, and was
very largely responsible for its formation. In the early days
of the Institute he acted as its Honorary Secretary. He took
an immense amount of interest in it, and did a great deal of
unassuming work for it, especially at the beginning. Mr.

2 Annual General Meeting

Jolinson's death was a real loss, not only to the Council,
but he was quite sure to all those members who knew him.

Report of Council.

The Secretary read the following Report of the Council
upon the work of the Institute during the year 1913 : —

The Council have pleasure in reporting that the year 1913 witnessed
considerable and important advances in the Institute's activities,
notably in the direction of the first foreign meeting and the presenta-
tion of the Second Report to the Corrosion Committee.

The Roll of the Institute.

The number of Members on the roll of the Institute on December
31, 1913, was as follows: —

Honorary Members 3

Ordinary Members 604

Student Members 19

Total 626

The following table shows the development that has taken place
since the foundation of the Institute in 1908 : —

Dec. 31,
1908.

Dec. 31,
1909.

Dec. 31,
1910.

Dec. 31,
1911.

Dec. 31,
1912.

Dec. 31,
1913.

Fellows

Honorary Members .
Ordinary Members .
Student Members. .

Total . . ,

350
5

492
12

524

1
3

555'

1
4

578
23

604

355

505

551

586

606

626

The Council regret to have to record the death during 1913 of the
only Fellow of the Institute, the late Sir W. H. White, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., a memoir of whom, contributed by Engineer Vice-Admiral
Sir H. J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S., appeared in Volume IX. of the
Journal of the Institute.

The Council have also to record with regret the deaths of Mr.
G. Matthey, F.R.S., an Honorary Member, and of the following four
members : Mr. A. C. Claudet, Assoc. R.S.M. ; Monsieur A. A. F.
Corin ; Mr. C. H. Gadsby ; and Mr. A. E. Rowland.

Report of Council 3

General Meetings.

During the year 1913 two General Meetings were held. For the
first time the Annual General Meeting was held in the spring in-
stead of in January. This meeting took place in London on March 1 1
and 12, when the newly-elected President, Professor A. K. Hunting-
ton, Assoc. R.S.M., occupied the chair, and delivered his Inaugural
Address. On March 12 the following papers were read and
discussed : —

1. " Conosion of Aluminium." B3' G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D. (Kinlochleven,

Argyll).

2. "The Quantitative Efifect of Rapid Cooling on Binary Alloys." By G. H.

GULLIVEB, B.Sc. (Edinburgh).

3. " Microstructure of German Silver." By 0. F. Hudson, M.Sc. (Birming-

ham).

4. "The Corrosion of Distilling Condenser Tubes." By Arnold Philip,

B.Sc, Assoc.R.S.M. (Portsmouth).

5. "Practical Heat Treatment of Admiralty Gun Metal." By H. S. PRIMROSE

(Ghent, Belgium) and J. S. G. Primrose (Ipswich).

6. " Metal Filament Lamps," By Alexander Siemens (London),

The Autumn Meeting was held abroad for the first time, taking
place at Ghent, Belgium, on August 28 and 29. It was well attended,
and excellent arrangements were made by the Honorary Local Secre-
tary, Monsieur V. Renaud, to whom, as a token of their appreciation
of his services, the Council subsequently made a suitable presentation.
The Rector of the University of Ghent, Monsieur Schoentjes, attended
the opening meeting, and gave an address of welcome ; the second
day's proceedings included an official welcome by Sir Cecil Hertslet,
His Majesty's Consul-General for Belgium.

The following papers were presented at the Ghent meeting : —

1. Second Report to the Corrosion Committee. By G. D. Bengough, D.Sc,

M.A., and R. Jones, B.Sc. (both of Liverpool University).

2. "A Further Study of Volume Changes in Alloys." By J. H. Chamber-

lain, M.Sc. (Birmingham).

3. "The Micro-Chemistry of Corrosion. I. Some Copper-Zinc Alloys." By

Cecil H. Desch, D.Sc, Ph.D., and S. Whyte, B.Sc. (both of Glasgow
University).

4. " Metallographical Researches on Egyptian Metal Antiquities." By H.

Garland (Cairo).

5. " The Specific Volume and Constitution of Alloys." By W, M. Guertler,

Ph.D. (Berlin).

6. " The Copper-Rich Kalchoids (Copper-tin-zinc Alloys)." By Professor S. L.

HOYT (University of Minnesota, U.S.A.).

4 Annual General Meeting

7. " A Method of Improving the Quality of Arsenical Copper." Bj' F. John-

son, M.Sc. (Birmingham).

8. " The Influence of Phosphorus on Some Copper-Aluminium Alloys." By

Professor A. A. Eead, M.Met. (Cardiff).

9. " The Annealing of Gold." By T, K. Rose, D.Sc, Assoc.R.S.M. (The Royal

Mint, London).

10. '"The Intercrystalline Cohesion of Metals." Second Paper. By W. Rosen -

HAIN, D.Sc, F.R.S., and D. EwEN, M.Sc. (both of the National Physical
Laboratory, Teddington).

11. "The Determination of Oxygen in Copper and Bras.s." By T. West, M.Sc.

(Montreal).

In the evening of August 29 a Reception was given at the Town
Hall, Ghent, by the Bourgmestre, M. Braun. In the afternoon of
August 28, members visited the works of Messrs. Carels Freres and
of Messrs. Van der Kerchove. The following afternoon was spent
in the Ghent International Exhibition, the party being under the
guidance of Monsieur Renaud.

The Council desire to record their indebtedness to the Ghent Ex-
hibition authorities for their courtesy in allowing the Autumn
Meeting to be held in their buildings ; and also to the Council of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers for a similar courtesy on the
occasion of the Annual General Meeting of the Institute in March.

Committee Meetings.

The Council has held monthly meetings, and the four standing
committees, known as the Corrosion Committee, the Finance and
General Purposes Committee, the Library and Museum Committee,
and the Publication Committee, have met regularly during the
past year, and several occasional committees have been appointed
by the Council for the consideration of special matters. The Ab-
stracts Sub-Committee has been dissolved, its functions devolving
upon the Publication Committee.

Corrosion Committee.

A Second Report was received from the Committee's Investigator,
and was read at the Ghent meeting. This Report contained an
account of a large amount of experimental work.

Since the publication of the Report, experimental work has been
actively resumed and a number of improvements have been carried
out in the apparatus employed. A copper-aluminium alloy and
phosphor-bronze have been added to the list of alloys previously

Report of Council 5

studied, but work on Muntz metal has been discontinued. An elabo-
rate study is being made of the mode of action of estuarine waters,
which practical experience has shown to be particularly harmful.
Work is being continued on the subject of electro-chemical protection.
A salaried assistant to the Investigator has recently been appointed,
in order that the experimental work may be pushed on more rapidly,
Mr. W. E. Gibbs, M.Sc, having been selected for the position.

The Committee are very grateful for the substantial financial
assistance which several donors have provided to enable the work to
be carried on. For its further continuance and development, how-
ever, additional sums are required ; their receipt will be warmly
appreciated by the Committee.

The Beilby Research Prize.

The Investigator to the Beilby Research Committee — Dr. Cecil H.
Desch — has during the past year devoted his energies to the compila-
tion of a review of the literature dealing with the svibject of the
solidification of metals from the liquid state, and is presenting a
Report of his investigations at the present meeting.

Nomenclature Committee.

The Nomenclature Committee, appointed in 1912 as a result of a
suggestion contained in Dr. Rosenhain's Paper on " A Note on the
Nomenclature of Alloys," read at the Annual General Meeting in
January 1912, met several times diu-ing the year, and has formulated
many useful suggestions which are being laid before the members of
the Institute for their discussion at the present meeting.

May Lecture.

The Council did not find it possible to arrange for a May Lecture
to be given in 1913, but they have pleasure in stating that Professor
E. Heyn, of Berlin, has agreed to deliver the 1914 May Lecture, his
subject being " Internal Strains in Cold Wrought Metals, and some
troubles caused thereby." The Council have decided that the May
Lecturer will in future receive an honorarium of £10.

Birmingham Local Section.

The third session of the Section has been very successful, both as
regards meetings and finance.

6 Annual General Meeting

The membership at the close of the session was as follows : —

Members 69

Associates 21

Total ... 80

The membership last year was 72 — 51 Members and 21 Associates.
There has therefore been an increase of 8 Members during the year.
Six meetings were held during the session : —

1»12.
Oct. 22. Chairman's Address. By Professor T. TuRNEK, M.Sc.
Nov. 2(). Paper on " The Microstructure of German Silver." By 0. F. Hudson,

M.Sc.
Dec. 10. Discussion on "The Treatment of Waste Products."

1913.
Jan. 23. Notes on " Copper and Copper Alloys." By F. Johnson, M.Sc.
Feb. 18. Paper on " Annealing Muffles." By C. H. Wall, M.I.M.E.
April 15. Paper on " The Conductivity of Metals and Alloys." By A. G. C.
GwYER, B.Sc, Ph.D.

Most of the papers read at the meetings were illustrated by lantern
slides.

The Discussion on December 10 was the occasion of an interesting
and successful gathering.

The average attendance was 23 Members and Associates, and

7 Visitors.

Six Committee Meetings have been held during the session, the
average attendance being 8 Members.

The First Annual Dinner was held on May 15 ; it was well
attended and was very successful.

The Section has received permission from the Council of the Insti-
tute to elect Honorary Associates, and Mr. A. H. Hiorns was
unanimously elected the first Honorary Associate on January 23,
1913. Mr. Hiorns, who has recently retired from the responsible
position of head of the Metallurgical Department of the Birmingham
Technical School, is well known as a teacher, author, and investi-
gatoi'.

The fourth session, 1913-1914, coinuuniced in October.

Publications.

Two volumes of the Journal were published in 1913, Volume IX.
l>oing issued in June and Volume X. in December. The sales of
the Journal for the past year constituted a record, 255 volumes
having been sold duiing that period. This figure compares with

Report of Council 7

179 volumes for the year ended June 30, 1912, and 163 volumes for
the preceding year.

Library and Museum.

Many additions to the Library and Museum were made during the
past year, and these are enumerated on pp. 385-389 of the Journal,
Volume X. Attention is called to the collection of lantern slides
that has been started dming the year as a result of contributions
received from Mr. H. Garland, Member (Cairo). A list of the slides
presented by Mr. Garland is given in Volume X., p. 390, and the
Council will be glad to receive additional lantern slides. Gifts of
books dealing with the non-ferrous metals will also be gladly received.

Delegates to Conferences.

In connection with the 1915 Congress of Mining, Metallurgy,
Applied Mechanics, and Practical Geology, the Council have ap-
pointed as their representatives on the Publications Committee of
the Congress, Sir W. E. Smith, C.B., and Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S.
The Council have guaranteed the sum of .£50 towards the expenses
of the Congress. Other invitations to appoint delegates have been
received by the Council in connection with the following, and the
undermentioned appointments have been made : —

(a) Engineering Standards Committee, Automobile Parts : Professor

A. K. Huntington, Assoc.R.S.M.
(6) Sir William White Memorial Committee : Sir Gerard A. Muntz,
Bart. ; Professor W. Gowland, F.R.S., Assoc.R.S.M. ; Pro-
fessor A. K. Huntington, Assoc.R.S.M. ; and Dr. W. Rosen-
hain, F.R.S.
(c) Institution of Mechanical Engineers, General Engineering
Research Committee : Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc.
R.S.M. ; Mr. L. Sumner, M.Sc.

Annual Dinner.

The Fourth Annual Dinner was held on March 11, and there was

an attendance of about 1 50, amongst whom were many distinguished

guests, including the Presidents of allied societies and Sir H. F.

Donaldson, K.C.B. ; Sir J. Alfred Ewing, K.C.B., F.R.S. ; Colonel

H. C. L. Holden, C.B., F.R.S. ; and Professor W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.

Signed on behalf of the Council,

A. K. Huntington, President.

H, J. Oram, Vice-President.
January 29, 1914.

Annual General Meeting

REPORT OF THE HONORARY TREASURER.

(Professor THOMAS TURNER, M.Sc.)

For the Year ending June SO, 1913.

It is gratifying to be able once again to record a satisfactory result
on the financial side of the work of the Institute. The balance at
the beginning of the financial year was £563 10s. \\d.; this was
increased during the year to £699 6s. 3'/., which latter sum included
£50 put aside to meet a future liability in connection with Dr.
Beilby's prize. The actual addition to the reserves of the Institute
was therefore £85 15s. 4rf., which though less than in the previous
year is still satisfactory. Owing to additional responsibilities under-
taken by the Council the expenditure gradually increases year by
year. Such additional expenditure means better value to members,
and will doubtless be met by increased membership in future. Since
the close of the financial year now under review a substantial addition
has been made to the funds at the disposal of the Corrosion Reseai-ch
Committee. This welcome increase will permit of the continuance
and extension of the valuable investigation which is in progress.

Report of Council

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10 Annual General Meeting

The President, in formally moving the adoption of the Re-
port of Council, said that it was fairly voluminous, and covered
most of the ground that had been traversed by the Institute in
the course of the year. He hoped that the members would be
satisfied with the work which had been done during the past
year, and the progress which the Institute had made. He did
not think it was necessary to take up time by dilating on
that work ; the Report was sufficiently explicit in regard to
what had been done, and the members were acquainted with
the work through the medium of the Journal, if not through
attending the meetings of the Institute itself.

Dr. C. H. Desch, in seconding the motion, said that he
thought that the report was very satisfactory. Although
there had been a very satisfactory increase in the membership
since the previous year, and a still more satisfactory increase
since the beginning, he thought that members must feel that
the number of persons who were directly connected with the
non-ferrous metal industries of the country was much larger
than the membership of the Institute, and that individual
members should do their best to persuade those connected
with the industry to become members of the Institute.

The President said that Dr. Desch had called attention to
the fact that there was a very large number of people who
had not yet been " roped in." The Council had rather
preened itself on the fact that they had done so well since
the Institute was formed. Dr. Desch was quite right, hoAv-
ever, in saying that there was plenty of room inside the
Institute for more members, and the Council hoped they
would be forthcoming.

The resolution was then put and carried unanimously.

Treasurer's Rei'ort.

The President said that as all the members had received
copies of the Treasurer's Report, he thought it would be the
wisest plan to take it as read, especially as the Treasurer

Annual General Meeting 1 1

was unavoidably absent. At the same time he thought he
would not be expressing the real feelings of the members if
he did not propose a hearty vote of thanks to the Treasurer
for the work he had performed on behalf of the Institute.
Of all the officials of the Institute, the Treasurer had perhaps
the most ungrateful task. He had to perform a good deal
of his work by the use of midnight oil, and he did not appear
in the glare of the footlights. The Treasurer did a great deal
of useful work and received very small thanks for it, so that
he thought the least the members could do on the present
occasion was to express their appreciation of his services,
which had been very considerable. He proposed a hearty
vote of thanks to the Treasurer for his services during the
past year.

The resolution was carried by acclamation.

The President said that in consequence of the much-
regretted death of Mr. Johnson, it had become necessary to
appoint another Vice-President, and the Council were quite
unanimous in selecting Mr, J. T. Milton, who had done so much
useful work for the Institute. Owing to Mr. Milton's numer-
ous engagements, both in his official capacity and in connection
with the Institute of Naval Architects and other Institutions,
he had not been able recently to give all the time he wished
to the affairs of the Institute as an ordinary Member of
Council, and he expressed his wish to resign ; and although
the Council very much regretted Mr. Milton ceasing to be a
member of Council, they could not do otherwise, in the
circumstances, than accept his resignation. They thought,
however, that his past services had been such that he was in
every way entitled to be made a Vice-President, as a slight
recognition of the sterling work he had done for the Institute.
Mr. Milton was therefore asked to become a Vice-President,
and although he declined at first to accept the nomination
because he thought he had so little time, he (the President)
could now announce Mr. Milton's acceptance of the office.
One of the members of the Council, Mr. Clive Cookson, had also
resigned on account of pressure of work, but the Institute had

12 Annual General Meeting

been fortunate enough to secure the services of the Hon. Sir
Charles Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S., to fill the vacancy thus caused.
That vacancy had been filled up by the Council, as it occurred
before the ordinary ballot for the election of members of
Council. He was sure all the members would be gratified to
know that Sir Charles was able to spare the necessary time
to devote to the work of the Council of the Institute, and
he asked them to confirm that election.

The meeting unanimously confirmed the appointments made
by the Council.

Election of Officers.

The President called upon the Secretary to announce the
result of the ballot for the election of Officers to replace the
retiring President, three Vice-Presidents, and five members of
Council, the list as read being as follows : —

President.
Engineer Vice- Admiral Sir H. J. Oram, K.O.B., F.R.S., London.

Vice-Presidents.

Professor H. C. H. Carpenter, M.A., Ph.D. London.
R. Kaye Gray ...... London.

Summers Hunter Wallsend-on-Tyne.

Members of Council.

L. Archbutt Derby.

George Hughes Horwicb.

R. S. Hutton, ]3.Sc Sheffield.

W. Murray Morrison .... London.

W. RosENHAiN, D.Sc, F.R.S. . . . Teddington.

Dr. T. K. Rose, in proposing a hearty vote of thanks to the
Council for their services to the Institute during the past year,
said the Council was a body of very distinguished men,
who had given their services, most of them for years past, in
building up the Institute, and bringing it to its present
excellent position. Their work during the past year had been,
as usual, laborious and extremely successful. He was quite

Annual General Meeting 13

sure every member of the Institute felt personally indebted to
the Council for the work they had done in conserving and
promoting their interests. Probably their work during the
past year had not been more arduous than in previous years,
but it appealed to him personally more than it had done on
any previous occasion, because he had realized more than ever
its complete success.

Mr. G. G. PoppLETON, in seconding the motion, said that
those who had been associated with the Institute from its
inception knew the arduous work the Council performed. He
felt sure that, as time went on, and the work became even
more important, the members would recognize in a greater
measure the valuable services rendered by the Council. Per-
sonally he well remembered the first and the second meetings,
which the late Vice-President, Mr. W. H. Johnson, attended,
and he knew the interest that gentleman took in the forma-
tion work. He was sure the members joined with the Presi-
dent in his expression of great regret at his death.

The motion was put to the meeting by Dr. Rose, and carried
unanimously.

The President, on behalf of the Council and himself,
thanked the members for the very kind vote they had just
passed. Owing to the position he occupied as President, he
was perhaps better able to judge than anybody else the
individual interest taken by the Council in the Institute, and
he was able to say that all the members without exception
took the very greatest interest in its proceedings. He could
say without hesitation that the Institute had a Council which
worked, to say the least of it, as well as the Council of
any other important body in existence. It was a very great
pleasure to watch the growth of such an institution, and to
see that it did not flag and become difficult to manage. From
the very start the Institute had made steady and consistent
progress, and although Dr. Desch had just given the Council
a little " dig " that they ought to move faster, he thought
Dr. Desch recognized, as everybody el^e did, that very rapid

Annual General Meeting

progress had been made. If the progress of the Institute in
its earliest years were compared with that of the other Institutes
in the country, as it had been in his Presidential Address, it
must at once be recognized by everyone that rapid progress
had been made, and that of itself showed that the Institute was
really wanted, and that it was behind, rather than in front of,
its time. When the Institute attained a membership of 600,
some of its prominent members thought that very much
progress would not be made for some years, but personally he
was perfectly certain the Institute would go on increasing in
numbers even more rapidly than it had done during the past
two or three years. The Institute had thoroughly " caught
on " ; it was obtaining a good many foreign members, and he
did not think there was any likelihood of any serious arrest
taking place in the membership for some time.

Election of Members.

The Secretary read the following list of names of candi-
dates for membership who had been duly elected as a result of
the ballots taken in December 1913 and in February 1914: —

Name.

Address.

Qualifications.

Proposers.

Ayers, Eng. Capt.

15 Infield Park,

Engineer - Captain ,

Sir H. J. Oram.

Robert Bell,

Barrow-in-Furness

Royal Navy

J. McKechnie.

M.V.O., R.N.

H. B. Weeks.

(ret.)
Beer, Emil

120 Fenchurch St.,

Metal Merchant

). F. Sjogren.

E.C.

L G. Brookbank.
H. Griffiths.

Brotherhood, Stanley

Peterborough

Engineer

Sir H. J. Oram.
G. G. Goodwin.
F. W. Marshall. '

Bryant, Charles

Stanground House,

Engineer

Sir H. J. Oram.

William

. Peterborough

G. G. Goodwin. !
F. W. Marshall. 1

Buck, Henry Arthur

"Malahide," Har-

Secretary, London

P. W. Smith.

rowdene Road,

Metal Exchange

H. Gardner.

Wembley, Middle-

W. W. Letcher.

Burnett, Jacob Ed-

sex
53 Percy Park, Tyne-

Foundry Manager

S. Hunter.

ward

mouth

C. Morehead.
H. D. Smith.

Butler, Reginald

Box 247, Short Hills,

Metallurgical En-

A. K. Huntington.

Henry Brinton,

N.J., U.S.A.

gineer, Manager,

Sir W. E. Smith.

B.Sc.

U.S. Ford Co.
(Aluminium
Dept.)

T. Turner.

Annual General Meeting

Name.

Address.

Qualification.

Carnt, Eng.-Com.
Albert John, R.N.

Carter, George John

Clark, William Ed-
wards

Clark, William
Wallace

Clarke, Walter G.

Dewar, James
M'Kie

Evans, Ulick Rich-
ardson, B.A.

Falk, Erik

Fitzbrown, George,
A.R.S.M.

Fleminger, Reginald
Edward

Gibb, Allan
Gibbs, Leonard

Gilley, Thomas
Barter

Gladitz, Charles

Gres ty, Colin
(Student)

Guernsey, The Rt.
Hon. Lord

Hill, Eustace Carey

"St. Bedes, "Walton, Engineer
Peterborough

Cammell, Laird &
Co. , Ltd. , Birken-
head

" Newnham," Holly
Lane, Erdington,
Birmingham

American Vanadium

Co. , Bridgeville,

Pa,, U..S.A.
39 Old Broad St.,

E.C,

Cammell, Laird &
Co., Ltd., 3 Cen-
tral Buildings,
Westmin ster,
S.W.

28 Victoria St.,
Westminster,
S.W.

Swedish Metal

Works Co. , Ltd. ,

Westeras
Ditton Copper

Works, Widnes

River Plate House,
Finsbury Circus,
E.C.

29 Buckingham
Palace Mansions,
S.W.

" Abermaw," School
Rd., Hall Green,
Birmingham

Walker Gate, New-
castle-on-Tyne

Managing Director,
Engineering and
Shipbuilding
Works

Electro-plate Manu-
facturer, Manager
Elkington & Co.,
Ltd.

Chief Chemist

•Metiil Dealer

Naval Architect

Consulting Electro-
Metallurgist

General Manager,
Metal Works

Copper Smelter

Contractor, inter-
ested in Alloys
for Railway Use,
Bearings, &c.

Metallurgist

Duram Works,
Han well, W.

Northumberland
Engine Works,
Walls ?nd-on-Tyne

9 Sussex Square, W

"Clifton House,"
Park Road, Co-
ventry

Brass Cased Tube
Trade, Works'
Manager, Brit-
annia Tube Co.

Non-ferrous Metal
Alloys Manufac-
turer, Man. Dir.
Metallurgical Co. ,
Ltd.

Tungsten Metal
Manufacturer

Analytical Chemist

Director of Metal
Works (Duram,
Ltd.)

Aluminium and
Bronze Founder,
Director and Tech
nical Manager,
Rowland Hill &
Sons, Ltd,

Proposers.

Sir H. J. Oram.
G. G. Goodwin.
J. McLaurin.
Sir H. J. Oram.
G. G. Goodwin.
J. McLaurin.

G. A. Boeddicker.
R. M. Sheppard.
L. J. Meyrick.

B. D. Sakkitwalla.
H. P. Tiemann.
H. O. Hofman.
H. Gardner.
W. W. Letcher.
R. Francis.
Sir H. J. Oram.
G. G. Goodwin.
F. W. Marshall.

F. W. Harbord.
C. T. Heycock.
A. K. Huntington.
A. S. Sjogren.

J. Echevarri.
Arthur Jacob.
L. Sumner.
W. Govvland.
W. H. Merrett.
R. Francis.
W. W. Letcher.
Pitt Becker.

E. L. Rhead.
W. Gowland.
T. K. Rose.

G. Bill-Gozzard.
S. M. Hopkins.
C. A. Russell.

E. C. Keiffenheim.
J. T. Dunn.
H. D. Smith.

Sir C. A. Parsons.
A. K. Huntington.
Sir H. J. Oram.
S. Hunter.
A. K. Huntington.
H. J. Young.
A. K. Huntington.
Sir W. E. Smith.
W. Rosenhain.
F. W. Gower.
J. Echevarri.
W. M. Morrison.

Annual General Meetino-

Name.

Jameson, Charles
Godfrey

Main, Eng.-Coiii.
Reuben, R.N.

Mannell, John

Morison, Eng.

C o m. Richard

Barns, R.N.
Nevill, Richard

Walter, B.Sc.

(Student)
Norton, Allen

Bullard (Student)

Phelps, John, M.A.

Quin, Laurence
Howard

Randall, Eng.
Lieut. Charles
Russell Jekyl,
R.N.

Rasquinet, Albert

Raworth, Benjamin
Alfred, Wh.Sc,
M.LMech.E.

Roberton, Charles
George

Ross, Archibald
John Campbell

Sanders, .Alfred

Skelton, Herbert
Ashlin

Speier, Leopold

Stewardson, George

Address.

British Aluminium
Co., Ltd., Kinloch
leven, Argyllshire

86 Cavendish Drive,
Rock Ferry, Che-
shire

G. Thomson & Co.,
Ltd., Aberdeen
White Star Line,
Billiter Square,
E.C.

C/o Admiralty,
Whitehall, S.W.

" Clovelly," Earls-
don Avenue, Cov-
entry

The Aluminium
Castings Co., De-
troit, Mich.

" Nevvcroft," Eg-
mont Road, Sut-
ton, .Surrey

3 East India Avenue,
E.C.

2Furness Park Road,
Barrow-in-Furness

84 Rue de Froid-
mont, Li^ge, Bel-
gium

36 Bedford Street,
W.C.

12 Cavendish Park,
Barrow-in-Furness

R. &W. Hawthorn,
Leslie & Co.,
Ltd. , Newcastle-
on-Tyne

5 and 6 Warstone
Lane, Birming-
ham

The British Alu-
minium Co. , Ltd. ,
Foyers, N.B.

Altheimer Speier &
Co. , Frankfurt-
am- Main, Ger-
many

Taranaki Street,
Wellington, New
Zealand

Qualification.

Metallurgist

Eiigi neer- Com-
mander, Royal
Navy

Superintendent En-
gineer

Engineer-Co m-
mander. Royal

Navy

Metallurgical
Chemist, Coventry
Chain Co. , Ltd.

Chemical Engineer
in Research De-
partment of Alu-
minium Castings
Co.

.Assistant Assayer in
the Royal Mint

Journalist and Pub-
lisher

lingi neer - Lieu-
tenant, Royal
Navy

Engineer, Soci^t^
Anonyme des
Usines a Cuivre
eta Zinc de Li6ge

Civil Engineer,
Joint Editor of
Engineering

Manager, Vickers,
Ltd. , Barrow-in-
Furness

Engineer

Gold and Silver Re-
finer and Smelter

Engineer and Man-
ager for the British
Aluminium Co.,
Ltd.

Metal Merchant,
Partner, Althei-
mer Speier & Co.

Brass Founder.

Proposers.

G. H. Bailey.
W. M. Morrison.
E. E. Eccles.
Sir H. J. Oram.
J. McLaurin.
J. A. Richards.
Sir G. A. Muntz.
R. M. Sheppard.
L. J. Meyrick.

Sir H. J. Oram.
G. G. Goodwin.
J. A. Richards.
T. Turner.
O. F. Hudson.
H. L Coe.
A. K. Huntington.
W. M. Morrison.
A. Philip.

T. K. Rose.

S. W. Smith.

A. K. Huntington.

H. Gardner.

R. Francis.

W. W. Letcher.

Sir H. J. Oram.

J. McKechnie.

H. B. Weeks.

Sir H. J. Oram.
T. Turner.
W. Rosenhain.

W. H. Maw.
Sir G. A. Muntz.
W. M. Morrison.
Sir H. J. Oram.
J. McKechnie.
H. B. Weeks.
Sir H. J. Oram.
G. G. Goodwin.
F. W. Marshall.

C. H. Wilson.

J. Howard Wilson.

E. A. Smith.

A. K. Huntington.

W. M. Morrison.

E. E. Eccles.

W. M. Morrison.
J. Echevarri.
Arthur Jacob.

Sir W. E. Smith.
W. Rosenhain.
W. M. Morrison.

Annual General Meeting

Name.

Address.

QUALIFIC.\TIONS.

Proposers.

Taylor, Eng. Capt.

Royal Naval College,

Engineer - Captain,

Sir H. J. Oram.

Charles Gerald,

Keyham, Devon-

Royal Navy.

G. G. Goodwin.

R.X.

port

J. McLaurin.

Tyschnoff, Wsewo-

Motowilicha, Perm

Metallurgist

Sir W. E. Smith.

lod

Gun Works,

W. Rosenhain.

Perm, Russia

Sir H. J. Oram.

Varley, John

" Honorville," Fin-

Mechanical Engineer

T. Turner.

William

nemon Rd., Ideal

R. M. Sheppard.

Village, Little

L. J. Meyrick.

Bromwich, Bir-

mingham

Walters, William

5 Knole Avenue,

Chief Analyst, The

E. Mills.

Llewellyn

Swansea

British Mannes-

J. Corfield.

man n Tube Co.,

R. W. G. Corfield.

Ltd.

Warburton, Frede-

Duram Works, Han-

Director of Metal

Sir H. J. Oram.

rick William

well. W.

Works (Duram,

A. K. Huntington.

Ltd.)

T. Turner.

Watts, Sir Philip,

10 Chelsea Embank-

Naval Architect,

Sir H. J. Oram.

K.C.B., F.R.S.

ment, S.W.

Adviser on Naval

T. McLaurin.

Construction , The

F. W. Marshall.

Admiralty

Webb, Herbert

18 Sheredan Road,

Mechanical Engin-

R. F. Hartley.

Arthur

Highams Park,

eer and Cartridge

I. J. Edwards.

N.E.

Maker

"E. L Thorne.

Wilkes, Joseph

75 Hillaries Rd.,

Metallurgist, Techi-

I. McKechnie.

Gravelly Hill.

cal Manager, Dur-

H. B. Weeks.

Birmingham

alumin l3ept. of
Electric and Ord-
nance Accessories
Co., Ltd. (Vickers,
Ltd.)

G. A. Boeddicker.

Woollven, Rolfe

" Fairview," Cedar

Demonstrator in

A. K. Huntington. ;

Armstrong

Road, Sutton,

M etallur gi cal

W. Gowland. '

Surrey

Lab., King's Col-
lege

W. H, Merrett.

The President said the Secretary informed him that the
list of fifty names that he had just read was the biggest list
that the Institute had had since its first year, and brought
the membership of the Institute up to 640. Another ballot
for the election of members would be held in connection with
the May Lecture, and, thanks largely to their worthy President-
designate, Sir Henry Oram, he was happy to say that several
applications for that election had already been received. The
nominations for the next election should be received not later
than April 29.

Election of Auditor.

He had now to propose the re-election of Mr. G. G. Poppleton
as the Auditor of the Institute. Mr, Poppleton had been the

18 Annual General Meeting

Honorary Auditor from the commencement ; he had been
exceedingly useful, and he was sure the members could not
possibly do better than re-elect him. He had very great
pleasure in moving the re-election of Mr. Poppleton as the
Honorary Auditor of the Institute.

Mr. G. A. BoEDDiCKER, in seconding the motion, said he
did so with much pleasure, as it gave him the opportunity
of expressing to Mr. Poppleton, on behalf of the Birmingham
Local Section, their very great thanks for the good work he
had done on their behalf.

The motion was then put and carried unanimously.

Induction of the New President.

The retiring President (Professor A. K. Huntington) said
it was now his exceedingly pleasing duty to induct into the
chair the new President, Sir Henry Oram.

The chair was then vacated by Professor A. K. Hunting-
ton, and taken amid hearty cheering by the President, En-
gineer Vice-Admiral Sir Henry J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S.

The President (Sir Henry Oram) thanked the members
most sincerely for the great honour they had done him in
electing him as their President. It was an honour done not
only to himself, but also to the navy in which he had the
honour to serve, and he assured the members he would do
his best to advance the interests of the Institute during his
year of office.

Vote of Thanks to the Retiring President.

His first duty was the pleasant one of proposing a vote of
thanks to Professor Huntington, the retiring President, for
his services during his year of office. It had been his (the
President's) pleasure to sit on the Council for many years,
and he could therefore testify to the hard work Professor
Huntington had done in the interests of the Institute. He

Annual General Meeting 19

also had a genial manner, which was a valuable asset ; in fact,
it was a pleasure to serve with him. He had, therefore, great
pleasure in formally proposing : " That the best thanks of
this meeting be accorded to Professor Huntington for his
Presidency of the Institute," a resolution which was carried
by acclamation.

Professor William Gowland, Past-President, in seconding
the motion, said that he was sure that all the members would
agree Avith him that their most hearty thanks were due to
Professor Huntington for the very able manner in which he
had conducted the aiFairs of the Institute during his Presi-
dency. During that time the Institute had made very great
progress, and although the membership might not have
increased as Dr. Desch desired, he wished to point out that
such a large accession of members annually could not now
be expected as was the case in the earlier years. The In-
stitute had on its roll a great proportion of those who took
a serious interest in the subjects with which it dealt. He
desired to take the opportunity of expressing his very grateful
thanks to Professor Huntington for the aid that gentleman
rendered him during his (Professor Gowland's) term of Presi-
dency. Professor Huntington not only acted as President
for the usual year of office, but he also acted as President
during part of his (Professor Gowland's) period of office, when,
owing to his long illness, he was prevented from doing what
he intended to do for the Institute. Professor Huntington
came forward in a very praiseworthy manner and offered to
do the work for him, and whatever he did he did with all
his might. He had the greatest possible pleasure in second-
ing the vote of thanks which Sir Henry Oram had proposed.

The resolution was then put and carried by acclamation.

Professor A. K. Huntington, in reply, cordially thanked
the members for the manner in which the motion had been
received, and the mover and seconder for the kind terms in
which it had been placed before the meeting. He had done
what little he could, and he was sure everybody else con-
nected with the Institute was doing likewise.

20 Annual General Meeting

Inaugural Address.

The President delivered his inaugural address, at the
conclusion of Avhich

Dr. Walter Rosenhain, F.R.S., in moving " That a very
hearty vote of thanks be accorded to the President for his
Address," said that he knew he was voicing the feelings of
everyone present when he said they had heard an Address
which contained something quite unique. Sir Henry had
given an inside view, as it were, of the history of one parti-
cular aspect of non-ferrous metals, a record based upon
the experience of what was probably the largest user of
those materials in the world. The members were not only
grateful that such history had been given to the makers and
users of non-ferrous metals generally for their guidance and
instruction, but they were particularly proud that it should
have been given to them through this Institute. The
President's Address was not supposed to be discussed, but he
desired to make a few informal remarks in reference to the
statements the President had made as to the decreasing use
of non-ferrous metals in connection with warship machinery.
That was a warning which those who were concerned in the
manufacture of non-ferrous metals should take very seriously
to heart. Sir Henry Oram in his position was impartial ; he j
was equally concerned with the uses of steel and of non-ferrous j
metals. He (Dr. Rosenhain) shared that impartiality of I
position, and might therefore perhaps be allowed to comment
on the point to which the President had alluded. He wished
to emphasize that if the uses of non-ferrous metals were not
to undergo continuous and systematic restriction and reduction
in favour of a more extensive use of iron and steel, it was time
for those who were interested in the non-ferrous metals to
bestir themselves and see that advances were made in their
materials as rapidly as, and if possible more rapidly than, the
advances that were being effected in iron and steel. The
subject was becoming a question of money and of commerce
for those who wanted to make and sell non-ferrous alloys.
One of the real lessons and points of Sir Henry's admirable

Annual General Meetins" 21

address was that the makers of those alloys should endeavour
to bring them up to date, and to find out not only the best
ways of using the materials which were at present in existence,
but to bring up their products, by the aid of scientific methods
and the means of interchange which the Institute afforded, to
such a level that they could meet requirements which iron and
steel could not meet. Personally he felt convinced that there
was ample room for the expansion of the use of non-ferrous
metals and alloys. He was not at all certain that the tendency
which the President indicated, that those alloys should be
used merely where steel could not be obtained, was a per-
manent one. He thought it was due to the fact that the
development of iron and steel had gone ahead very fast,
whereas the development of the non-ferrous alloys had to
some extent lagged behind. Signs were not wanting, however,
that better things might be looked for, and that there was not
only a field for the non-ferrous metals in those places to which
reference had been made, but in regard to many other require-
ments, which would arise increasingly in the future, which
ferrous metals could never meet. He asked the members to
accord a very hearty vote of thanks to Sir Henry Oram for
his most valuable and interesting address.

Mr. A. E. Seaton (Member of Council) said that it was his
privilege to second the resolution so ably proposed by Dr.
Rosenhain. He had known Sir Henry from his youth upwards,
not only as a man of considerable ability, of sound judgment
and knowledge, but as one who, when he took a thing in hand,
did it thoroughly. He was quite sure that, having undertaken
the Presidency of the Institute, he would follow successfully
the path of previous Presidents, and maintain that character
which had distinguished him through life, and in the office
that he now so ably filled, and that his work here would be
characterized by that thoroughness which they all delighted
to see. The Institute had been particularly fortunate, he
thought, in its Presidents, of whom there now had been five.
They had all been distinguished men, but in quite difierent
walks of life, and their addresses had been evidence of that
fact. In the present instance Sir Henry himself had given

22 AnniLal General Meeting

an address which, while differing distinctly from those of the
previous Presidents, had been in no way inferior to theirs. The
address had been not only to him, but he was sure to all the
members, exceedingly interesting and highly instructive. He
was not aware that the manufacturers were indebted to the
Admiralty for so much relating to condenser tubes as Sir
Henry had now stated. Time was when they dared not pro-
pose very much to the Admiralty, but such had not been
• the case since Sir Henry had presided there. In those older
days manufacturers had to accept what was dictated to them,
expected to ask no questions, and make no observations ; if
they got through their tests they had cause to be satisfied.
Sir Henry is distinguished by having an open mind on most
subjects brought before him for consideration. He had had
the pleasure of discussing many problems in the past with the
President, who dealt with them, not only from an academic,
but from a manufacturer's point of view, and had always found
that Sir Henry possessed the same open. and ingenuous mind
that he had displayed in his inaugural address. It was not
for the members to discuss the address in the same way as a
paper read before the Institute, but he hoped he would be
allowed to trespass, as Dr. Rosenhain had done, in making
a few remarks about it. Time was when manufacturers
looked upon lead in any of their compositions as something
very terrible. If a metal ingot contained a trace of lead it
often meant trouble, and manufacturers used to find it a very
difficult thing to get commercial copper entirely free from
lead ; even when they bought the best Silesian spelter the
chemist at Portsmouth was sure to report there was lead in
the bronze or brass casting; consequently he came to the
conclusion that there must be lead in everything, and that it
was no use attempting to get anything without some small
fraction of lead in it. That lead in the smallest quantity in a
bronze alloy was looked upon as a positive evil was the rule,
but now they find that if the Admiralty had not been so very
particular about lead they might have had long ago condenser
tubes superior to common ones because of the lead in them.
Whether the results would then have been more satisfactory
or not he did not know ; judging, however, by those obtained

Annual General Meeting 23

by the Research Committee, it was at any rate hardly doubtful.
He desired to express his personal thanks to Sir Henry for
having taken the office of President, and for having favoured
them with such an interesting and instructive address. He
knew he was voicing the feeling of the engineering world at
large when he said it was a great advantage to the Institute
that a gentleman should occupy the chair who could consider
such questions as came before it, not only from the academic
point of view natural to our professors, but also from that of
the practical metallurgist who had to produce material to pass
the Admiralty and other tests, and at the same time make a
Jittle money out of it. The Institute possessed among its
members all sorts and conditions concerned in the making and
handling of the non-ferrous metals ; it was therefore of the
utmost importance to them that they should have that gener-
ous display of facts and the free expression of opinion they
had been favoured with by Sir Henry that afternoon.

The resolution was then put and carried by acclamation.

The President thanked Dr. Rosenhain and Mr. Seaton
for the exceedingly kind way in which they had proposed the
vote of thanks, and the members for the cordial manner in
which they had received the address. The compliments
they had paid to him were, he was afraid, not quite deserved.
He would do his best to. further the welfare of the Institute,
but he asked the members to remember that he could not
devote too much time to its work. Luckily the Presidency
did not involve very much work in the daytime, and the
Institute possessed a splendid Council of keen and energetic
men, which made the work of the President very much lighter
than it otherwise would be.

The meeting was adjourned at 5 p.m. until 10.30 a.m. the
following morning, Wednesday, March 18, 1914.

24 Annual General Meeting

SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS.

Wednesday, March 18, 1914.

At the adjourned meeting, which was presided over by the
President (Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir H. J. Oram, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.), papers were read by Mr. J. Dewrance (London);
Messrs. R. J. Dunn, M.Sc. (Manchester), and 0. F. Hudson,
M.Sc. (Birmingham); Professor A. A. Read, M.Met., and Mr.
R. H. Greaves, M.Sc. (Cardiff) ; Messrs. J. E. Stead, D.Sc,
D.Met., F.R.S., and H. G. A. Stedman (Middlesbrough),
and Messrs. S. Whyte, B.Sc, and C. H. Desch, Ph.D., D.Sc.
(Glasgow). First Reports to the Beilby Prize Committee
and the Nomenclature Committee were presented by Messrs.
C. H. Desch, Ph.D., D.Sc. (Glasgow), and W. Rosenhain, D.Sc,
F.R.S. (Teddington), respectively. The paper by Mr. G. H.
Gulliver, B.Sc. (Edinburgh), was taken as read.

Each paper and report, except that of Mr. Gulliver, was
followed by a discussion, a hearty vote of thanks being ac-
corded in each case, on the motion of the Chairman, to the
respective authors.

CONCLUDING BUSINESS.

The President said that his next duty was to propose a
vote of thanks to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers for
the use of the hall in which they had been meeting, and the
rooms in connection therewith. He remembered quite well,
about thirty years ago, when he commenced attending the
meetings of the Institution of Naval Architects, which were,
as now, held in the rooms of the Royal Society of Arts. It was
only after five or six years' annual attendance, and when he
became a Member of Council of the Institution of Naval Archi-
tects, that he was disabused of the idea that the rooms belonged
to the Institution of Naval Architects. He hoped there were
no similar mistake being made in the minds of the members of
the Institute of Metals in connection with the hall in which
they had held the meetings. The Institute was greatly in-
debted to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers for their
great courtesy, and also for the kindness of their officials. He

Annual General Meeting - 25

begged to move : " That the best thanks of the Institute be,
and are hereby tendered to the Council of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers for their courtesy in permitting the
use of their rooms on the occasion of this meeting."

Mr. A. Philip seconded the motion, which was carried with
acclamation.

Dr. J. E. Stead, F.R.S., then proposed a most hearty vote
of thanks to the President, Sir Henry Oram. Sir Henry had
conducted the meetings with ability, geniality, and efficiency.
Because of his high position the members welcomed him as
their President ; not only that, but Sir Henry possessed great
practical experience, and also had induced a great many of
his friends to join the Institute. The resolution was : " That
a hearty vote of thanks be given to the President for his able
conduct in the chair."

Mr. C. BiLLiNGTON seconded the motion, which was carried
with acclamation.

The President briefly replied, and at 5.. 30 p.m. the meeting
terminated.

26 Presidential Address

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.*

By Sir HENRY J. ORAM, K.C.B., F.R.S.
(Enginker-in-Chief of the Fleet).

I DESIRE to thank the members of the Institute of Metals
sincerely for electing me to the position of President of the
Institute, and to acknowledge their action in doing so as a
compliment to that great branch of the public service — His
Majesty's Navy. — to which I have the honour to belong.

The objects aimed at in the formation of the Institute of
Metals and the circumstances connected with its early
history have been exhaustively dealt with by the late Sir
William White and by Sir Gerard Muntz in their Presidential
Addresses, while the relations of the Institute with other
similar bodies, and its duties to the public, have been recorded
by our retiring President, Professor Huntington. There is
nothing new to be said on these subjects, and I shall therefore
not further touch on them.

The activities of the Institute during the past year are
concisely set forth in the Report of Council, which has been
read by the Secretary, and this shows that the past year has
been a very busy one for the Institute of Metals, with much
good work done and progress made.

One paragraph in the Council's report to which I desire to
make some reference is that which records the death of my
friend and colleague of so many years — Sir William White,
our first President. Although Sir William had been associated
as President with practically all the engineering and allied
technical associations, his connection with the Institute of
Metals was close and special. He was one of its most active
founders, and we shall always be grateful for the great interest
he evinced, and the amount of work he undertook, in further-
ing the welfare of this Institute at its inception. He had
also the distinction of being our first Fellow, and everyone
who knew his capacity must regret that his membership,

* Delivered at Annual General Meeting, London, March 17, 1914.

Presidential A ddress 2 7

which would have been of such great value to the Institute,
has so quickly ended.

The Hon. Treasurer's report deals clearly with the finance
of the Institute. Our financial position is quite sound, but
requires the accession of many new members to enable the
Council to authorize that financial expenditure in various
directions which is an essential adjunct of research and enter-
prise. What has already been done indicates that the result
of such further expenditure would benefit our members and
add to the general credit and usefulness of the Institute,
and it is hoped that the growth of membership in the near
future will permit such desirable advances.

We are fortunate in possessing a treasurer who is inde-
fatigable in our interests, and under whose guidance we shall
not drift into a weak financial position. We are under no
small obligation to Professor Turner, one of our Vice-Presidents,
for the work he has done as Honorary Treasurer since the
formation of the Institute.

The papers presented during last session and to be read
during our present meeting are of a very useful character, and
are in my opinion well worthy of the Institute. Our Summer
Meeting at Ghent was particularly successful in this respect,
a considerable number of excellent papers being read, while
the social and holiday side of the meeting was probably con-
sidered by some to have been even more successful.

Our Journal is a great success. In addition to its valuable
contents, it is convenient in size, and the great demand there
is for the volumes, independently of those issued to members,
shows that their contents are highly appreciated. I believe
that we may fairly claim that our Journal, with its papers and
valuable abstracts, is worthy of the important industries which
the Institute has in its care.

This Institute, as is well known, was founded in 1908, the
number of members at the end of its first year being 355.
There has been a steady increase in membership, which at the
end of 1913 was 626, and if all those are elected whose
names appear in our present list the number will be 640.

Although there has been a continuous increase in member-
ship from the beginning, there are welcome indications at the

28 Presidential Address

present time that the usefulness of the Institute is being more
fully recognized, especially by the engineering profession, and
more particularly marine engineers and shipbuilders. I hope
that before long the Institute will receive a considerable access
of membership from these sources, which will assist it in
combining the work of research with the commercial require-
ments of the manufacturer and the needs of the designer and
user, or in other Avords the co-operation of theory and practice
in obtaining the best possible results.

With the limitations constantly being imposed on the
marine-engine designer, especially when dealing with warships,
in regard to weight, space, and first cost, and the obvious
necessity of obtaining great durability and reducing the cost of
upkeep, marine engineers and shipbuilders are aware, perhaps
more than the members of any other of the allied branches of
engineering, how difficult it is practically to obtain the ideal
conditions which laboratory experiments indicate to be desirable,
so that more frequent discussion by them of their view of the
problems dealt with at the meetings of the Institute would, I
am sure, be of great value to us all.

I feel somewhat guilty in accepting the presidency of the
Institute of Metals, seeing that I am often busily engaged in
endeavouring to dispense with non-ferrous metals in warships'
machinery in cases where experience shows, as it often does,
that the qualities of ferrous metals are more suitable.

New warship machinery of to-day is greatly different in
this respect from that of some years ago, and when these
newer ships come into the ship- breakers' hands many years
hence, there will not be found that wealth of copper, brass,
gun-metal, &c., which used to be common in the machinery,
and which added so largely to the scrap value of the older
ships.

It will be interesting to note the records showing the
amount of copper, brass, gun-metal, and other non-ferrous
metal work that a modern warship contains in her structure,
that is, the hull, machinery, guns and mountings, as compared
with the amount of steel and iron.

Although the non-ferrous metals cannot usually compare
with steel in structural strength, there are still many positions

Presidential Address 29

in which other qualities than strength are necessary, and
these metals are still indispensable. Approximately every
100 tons of iron and steel used in modern warships requires
to be supplemented by 6 tons of copper or its alloys in a
battleship, or 8 tons in a cruiser, to give the completed war-
ship her final and necessary qualities. The increase in the
non-ferrous requirements of the cruiser is due to the smaller
proportionate amount of armour, and the higher power of the
machinery, which latter contains a larger proportionate amount
of non-ferrous metals than the remainder of the structure.

The propelling machinery in the modern battleship referred
to above contains a weight of non-ferrous metals equal to
17 per cent, of that of the contained steel and iron. If we go
back twenty years and consider a battleship of that period, we
find that the non-ferrous metals in the propelling machinery
amounted to about 34 per cent, of the steel and iron, or
just double the percentage at present obtaining.

In the hull structure, excluding the propelling machinery, the
proportionate amount of non-ferrous metals has, however, not
loeen reduced as compared with twenty years ago. Although
steel has taken the place of copper and its alloys to a large
extent, this reduction has been counterbalanced by the con-
siderable increase in gun turrets and their machinery, fire
control appliances, electric lighting, telephones, &c., where non-
ferrous metals are requisite. Considering the hull structure
alone, excluding propelling machinery, the figures for the
modem battleship referred to are that the non-ferrous metals
amount to 4*4 per cent, of the iron and steel, while for the
battleship of twenty years ago the proportion was 4*2 per cent.,
thus showing a slight increase in non-ferrous metals.

Except for the very smallest pipes, copper steam pipes have
not been used in new ships for many years, and one recalls
the feeling of relief at the Admiralty when the last copper
steam pipes containing high-pressure steam had been safely
" wired " or replaced by steel before further loss of life
occurred.

Gun-metal ends for condensers have also disappeared, and
been succeeded by cast iron, to the great advantage of the
condenser tubes, and the condenser shells have now also for

30 Presidential Address

some years been made of sheet steel, which is lighter, and,
although not so durable as gun-metal, is sufficiently so having
regard to the probable life of the ship. Feed discharge pipes
and fire service pipes, made of copper for so many years, are
also now made of steel.

Although, however, in the directions indicated the non-
ferrous metals are giving place to steel in warships, the
application of these metals in some other directions is
steadily increasing, so that there is no material reduction in
the area of usefulness which exists for non-ferrous metals,
and in this area the need for further accurate knowledge and
experiments to enable these metals to reliably fulfil the pur-
pose for which they are fitted is perhaps greater than ever.
It is the object of the Institute of Metals to develop and foster
such experiments and to increase such knowledge, and I am
sure the Institute will not be .found lacking in this duty.
There is still a field of usefulness for non-ferrous metals not
yet closed, owing to the inability of makers to produce satis-
factory steel castings. Complicated machinery castings are
no doubt difficult to produce in steel, but whatever the reason
may be, the delay and occasionally even the impossibility of
at present obtaining them in cast steel have obliged the
Admiralty to rely more largely on gun-metal for certain parts
than the merits of that material appear to warrant.

In the event of a cast steel valve-box being found defective
there is often no option at present except to replace it in
gun-metal, otherwise we should have warships delayed in
delivery, or withdrawn from active service, for an undesirable
period.

This being so it is unfortunate that gun-metal loses at high
temperature so much of its strength and powers of elongation
under stress before fracture, but we may console ourselves
with the knowledge that under a steady load a large amount
of elongation is not really essential, although desirable, and
there is the fact that in the British Fleet there are thousands
of gun-metal valves which have been working at high tem-
peratures and pressures for years, in which there have been
no failures due to brittleness or loss of strength at high
temperatures.

Presidential Address 31

What exactly occurs with gun-metal at high temperatures
is at present not sufficiently established. In the last two or
three years three different and quite independent experiments
on this subject, carried out by competent workers, have come
under Admiralty notice, which differed considerably in the
results obtained both as regards the loss of ultimate strength
and elonofation before fracture.

One must conclude that considerations, such as the tem-
perature of pouring, the exact method of mixture, the time
the specimen is allowed to be under the influence of the heat,
and other factors, bulk much more largely in influencing the
results of such experiments than is usually admitted, and
exercise so large an effect on the results as to render them
unreliable as a guide to actual practice, unless fully considered
and allowed for. The exact effects of temperature and such
other influences, knowledge of Avhich would be of much value,
seem to require a lengthy and systematic series of experi-
ments, which I believe have not yet been undertaken so
thoroughly as the importance of the question warrants.

In connection with this subject, it is the fact that methods
in brass foundries are often still of the haphazard and rule
of thumb variety, and close supervision by the chemist
or other scientist, which is essential to continuous success,
is often wanting. Pyrometers, although more largely used
than formerly, are still often unknown, temperature being
frequently judged by the eye. One finds generally a lack of
scientific precision and knowledge in the melting, mixing, and
pouring, which, if it existed and were combined with practical
experience, would greatly add to the value of an estab-
lishment.

It has been stated that engineers are not able or willing to
give particulars of their experiences in such a way that they
can be used by research workers. I should not care for that
view to be accepted unreservedly. In the Royal Navy it is a
frequent occurrence for cases of corrosion or other deteriorating
action to be reported, the causes of which are obscure or be-
yond the power of the engineers in charge to discover. In
such cases our thoughts at once turn to our laboratory at
Portsmouth, and often the engineering reports, although incon-

3 2 Presidential A ddress

elusive, are sufficient to enable the more scientific and accurate
chemical knowledge of the laboratory to suggest remedial
measures for the evil.

Recently also we have had the opportunity of availing our-
selves of the resources of the National Physical Laboratory in
investigating cases of failure, the causes of which are not clear,
and one must acknowledge the value of this admirably con-
ducted establishment in dealing with and reporting on all such
investigations as are committed to the charge of its officials.

It has been by such methods, and with the valuable co-
operation of the manufacturers, that the Admiralty have dealt
with those failures of condenser tubes either by splitting,
corrosion, or in other ways, to which I refer in greater detail
later. By these means also, the Admiralty have determined
the practical tests which have guided manufacturers and
introduced methods of treatment and protection in use, which
together have practically relieved us from any considerable
anxiety in this matter.

This Institute has taken up the question of corrosion of
condenser tubes in great detail, having appointed a represen-
tative committee to deal with the matter. The second report
to this committee by its Investigator, which was presented
and read at the Ghent meeting last year, is a most valuable
document to those interested in the question, and both directly
and indirectly it will well repay the time spent in its perusal
and study. The report was of special interest to the Admiralty,
as it confirms Admiralty practice and experience of the last
twenty to thirty years.

I would like now to call the Institute's attention to, and to
emphasize the remarks in, the Report of Council on the top of
page 5 as to the necessity of further contributions to the funds
of the Corrosion Committee. The work this committee is
performing is of great practical utility, and our wealthy friends
could not find a worthier channel for contributions and assist-
ance than is provided by the work of this committee.

On examining the last report of this committee, it is of
interest to note the good results given by a condenser tube
alloy containing 2 per cent, of lead. Hitherto engineers have
had a considerable prejudice against lead in the copper-tin-

Presidential Address 33

zinc alloys, and perhaps the prejudice was not very definitely
founded, but the satisfactory results given by the alloy referred
to above, and those given by a gun-metal alloy containing a
small percentage of lead, at high temperature, should cause the
prejudice to come under review, and some light appears to be
forthcoming on this important matter.

It is possible that the percentage of lead in such alloys must
be confined within very narrow limits to give the physical
qualities required, and that outside these limits the alloy is
unsuitable for the purpose intended.

If this view be correct, and the proper percentage of lead,
and the limits of variation from this percentage that can be
allowed, can be determined in the case of alloys intended for
certain purposes such as for use with high-pressure steam, a
great want will have been met. This important subject, the
influence of varying proportions of lead in small quantities on
the physical qualities of the copper-tin-zinc alloys, might well
receive more consideration from the laboratory workers, manu-
facturers, and engineers of this Institute.

In order that progress may be attained, and an improvement
realized in the adaptability of a material to its designed end
and practical use in engineering, close co-operation should exist
between the scientist and designer, the maker, and the user,
and such an institution as this, forming a centre for the free
discussion and circulation of opinions, should be of the greatest
utility.

The number of papers read before this Institute dealing
with the finished product on the practical side and from the
user's point of view have been comparatively few, and on
this account the remarks respecting condenser tubes which
I propose to make may be of interest, for in this case it
was only by such mutual co-operation and interchange of
ideas that a real advance was obtained as regards increased
reliability of these important items of a warship's machinery
equipment. There is no part of the machinery of ships on
which more thought. and time has been bestowed, or which
has a more far-reaching effect on the reliability of the machinery
than that seemingly sirnple article — the condenser tube.

Although the corrosion of condenser tubes is a defect of

34 Presidential Address

serious importance, many of the worst troubles that the
Admiralty have experienced with such tubes have not been
from corrosion or perforation, but from splitting when at work,
which is a far more serious defect. The number of failures of
tubes due to corrosion and perforation is much in excess of
the number that fail due to splitting, but the more serious
consequences which result from splitting are such as place
these defects in the front rank of undesirable occurrences.

When a tube perforates or corrodes, the hole first made is
minute. It gradually gets larger with time, but before it
becomes enlarged to any considerable size there are usually
opportunities of detecting the presence of small quantities of
salt in the feed water and boilers, and when such presence is
discovered efforts are made to locate the tube which has
failed, generally with success, so that it can be plugged
temporarily and renewed later at a convenient opportunity.

In the case of a split tube, however, water being in most
cases inside, it is generally the case that the entry of sea water
from the tube into the condensed steam space is considerable,
and may even amount to water pouring into the steam space
full bore, from each end of the tube, so that the amount of
damage usually done in this way by a split tube is far in excess
of that due to a perforated tube.

In the effort to avoid the cause of this defect it will have
to be borne in mind that the tube has to be soft and ductile
so that it will resist any tendency to splitting or flying, but at
the same time it must not be too soft to resist the pressure of
the packing material which is applied at the ends to prevent
leakage. As these two requirements are necessarily mutually
antagonistic, difficulty is found in uniting them in condenser
tubes.

Condenser tube failures are of the greatest importance to
the Navy owing to their, ill effects as regards corrosion of steel
parts, priming, cleanliness of boilers, and in other directions.
In 1899 the number of such failures had become undesirably
important. They were held to be due to the rise of boiler
pressure and the use of water-tube boilers. The Fleet were
therefore given orders to report to the Admiralty each case
of failure of a condenser tube either by corrosion, perforation,

Presidential A ddress 3 5

splitting, or deformation occurring in ships with 150 lb. boiler
pressure or above.

A number of standard questions have to be answered by the
ships' officers making their report, including the position of
the defective tube in the condenser, the length of time it has
been at work, its maker, and other particulars, so that a post-
mortem examination is held on each condenser tube which
fails. By this means a large mass of information, as complete
as can be furnished by sea-going ships, is accumulated ; and
by gradual deduction from these reports, supplemented by
laboratory experiments where indicated to be necessary, and
by assistance step by step from the manufacturers, we see the
direction in which to work to eliminate those defects which
are due to known and remedial causes.

The efforts of the Admiralty to effect a reduction in the
number of failures of condenser tubes on service, which have
also caused them to consider the question of manufacture and
the detailed testing of condenser tubes, have extended over a
considerable time. We have not always at first been able to
carry the tubemakers with us, and some noteworthy diflfer-
ences of opinion have manifested themselves among the
various makers when approached by the Admiralty on appa-
rently simple matters. These differences of opinion seem to
indicate the desirability for greater co-operation among the
tubemakers themselves and a greater interchange of ideas
and experience, by which they themselves would benefit and
their customers would also reap advantage.

It is always difficult to convince a manufacturer who has
been occupied for many years in making a speciality, such as
condenser tubes, and whose plant and methods are ordered
and organized, that his products are susceptible of improve-
ments, or that defects occurring on service can be reduced by
improvements in the process of manufacture adopted by him.
The Admiralty, however, have been successful in enlisting the
hearty co-operation of tubemakers generally in this important
Naval requirement, and our thanks are due to them for their
valuable assistance in arriving at the present comparatively
satisfactory condition of affairs.

One of the many orders issued by the Admiralty with the

3 6 Presidential A ddress

view of minimizing corrosion in condenser tubes is an instruc-
tion to ships' officers to drive the circulating pumps at high
speed at frequent intervals to clear tubes of cinders, &c.
Although the Second Report to the Corrosion Committee ap-
pears to throw doubt on the influence of such matter in starting
local corrosion, yet as the Report also points out advantages
from the corrosion point of view in keeping low condenser
temperatures, and bearing in mind that any obstruction in the
tube reduces the flow of water and hence raises the tempera-
ture of the tube, the instruction is justified by this further
consideration. In addition, a single line of flow for condensing
water is pointed out as beneficial, and all these recommenda-
tions are worth bearing in mind and applying as far as practi-
cable ; but where high powers have to be squeezed into the
minimum of space, as in warships, we cannot insist on such
considerations, and are often thankful to be able to get reliable
machinery at all in the space allowed.

At one period the failure of condenser tubes, especially due
to splitting, was so frequent and important that it really
became a serious menace to the efficiency of the Fleet, and
the engineering branch of the Admiralty were naturally much
pressed by their Lordships to remove this serious cause of
inefficiency ; but a knowledge of the history of condenser tubes
in H.M. Fleet at that time, shows that everything practicable
had been done according to the information available. It
therefore became necessary for the stringency of the specifica-
tion to be increased and the inspection by Admiralty over-
seers to be made more strict to eliminate defective tubes, both
during manufacture and after delivery.

As the condenser tube has bulked so largely in the Report
of the Institute's Corrosion Committee, I propose now to give
a brief account of the development of these tests and condi-
tions during the last twenty-five years, and have referred to a
few of the opinions which the tubemakers have been good
enough to favour the Admiralty with, this information being
given in the hope that it will be of interest to various makers
in comparing notes of their competitors' opinions and also of
advantage to the Institute generally. A complete account
of the very large number of suggestions and opinions of tube-

Presidential A ddress 3 7

makers made in response to Admiralty inquiry Avould, I feel
sure, be of interest and value, but the limits of a Presidential
Address will not permit this.

Prior to 1890 the condenser tubes in the Navy were
made of the 70-copper, 30-zinc composition, but owing
to repeated failures of condenser tubes in the Fleet the
Admiralty specification was in that year revised, and the alloy
altered by adding 1 per cent, of tin in lieu of 1 per cent, of
zinc, the revised composition being 70 per cent, copper, 29 per
cent, zinc, 1 per cent. tin.

An effort also was made, even so long ago, to introduce a
flattening test, but it was not embodied owing to opposition
on the part of the makers, and instead heating and jarring
tests were introduced.

In 1891 the quality of the copper used was specified to be
not less than 99*3 per cent, pure, while a little later tubes
which were too soft were guarded against by a clause speci-
fying that they should be stiff' enough to stand the packing
being screwed up suflficiently tightly to hold 30 lb. pressure
of water.

The specification was next amended so as to require tubes
drawn from billets to be accurately bored and turned before
being subjected to the final draws. It was found that in
making the shells from which tubes were drawn, the bore was
frequently eccentric, and often excessively so, and therefore
the finished tubes were often thin on one side although the
total weight per foot was correct.

The defect of splitting became very common with the de-
velopment of torpedo-boat destroyer machinery, and in 1900
the tubemakers were asked several questions by the Admiralty,
among them being —

1. Whether boring and turning the shells before drawing

would facilitate the rejection of those which may pro-
duce tubes likely to develop splitting.

2. Whether any alteration of the alloy was considered to

be desirable, or whether the splitting might be due to
impurities introduced with either of the elements
employed.
As regards 1, the replies indicated that some firms thought

3 8 Presidential A ddress

that boring might be advantageous, but the general opinion
was against both boring and turning.

As regards 2, no alteration of the alloy was suggested,
except by one firm who thought 1 per cent, of tin was a dis-
advantage and that an alloy of 2 copper to 1 zinc would
render splitting less frequent ; while another represented that
splitting must not be attributed to impurities in the metal.

In 1901 some important tests were introduced; among
others :

1. A flattening test to one-half the original diameter with-

out previous annealing.

2. Heating to a dull red heat without splitting.

3. Selected tubes to be sawn through and examined for

internal defects.

4. The tubes should be drawn on a mandril.

The flattening test proved to be the most important addi-
tion, and produced a great stir among the tubemakers when
the results became known, and rejections were common.

Representations were made to the Admiralty by the tube-
makers concerning the flattening test, with the result that
after much consideration a letter was issued to the makers
informing them that this test would not be enforced at
present, as far as rejection was concerned, but would be
continued to be made for Admiralty information.

In acknowledging receipt of this letter, however, one firm
stated that they were strongly in favour of this test, " which
we consider to be both proper and desirable in order to ensure
freedom from splitting when the tubes are in use."

In 1902 the condenser tubemakers were again asked to
suggest alterations to the specification with a view to obvia-
ting splitting, pitting, &c.

They were asked to remark, among other matters —

1. As regards any alteration proposed in the alloy.

2. On the tests then specified, and with regard to the

flattening test then in abeyance, whether a bulging
or a flattening test was preferred.

3. Whether they could supply tubes having diameter

within narrow gauge limits.
As regards 1, firms either considered the specified alloy

Presidential Address 39

suitable, suggested mercantile marine practice (70 : 30
alloy) ; or

{a) One firm suggested 60 : 39 : 1 alloy, and offered to make
tubes of this material, but later withdrew the suggestion. They
also suggested 1 to 2 per cent, of manganese in lieu of tin.

(J) Others suggested various special tubes, but did not
bring any proof that they would be superior to the Admiralty
alloy.

As regards 3, the firms stated that they could work to a
margin ranging from 0'003 inch to 0*0 1 inch.

With regard to 2, most firms preferred flattening to bulg-
ing, but one firm preferred neither, stating that flattening and
bulging tests encouraged the making of tubes of a semi-soft
nature and of unequal densities throughout.

The great majority of firms, after a short time, adopted
more or less the Admiralty view, the use of electrolytic
copper becoming more common and the purest qualities of
zinc and tin commercially obtainable being used.

In 1904 there was another revision of the specification,
after personal visits to the firms by Admiralty overseers.
The following stipulations, amongst others, were introduced : —

1. The amount turned off and bored out of billets for con-

denser tubes should be sufficient to remove all surface
imperfections.

2. The external diameter of the tubes to have a limiting

variation of 0"005 inch.

3. The flattening test was reintroduced, -l-inch tubes to be

reduced to \ inch. All tubes to be left 2 inches longer

than the required length, so that every tube could be

tested.

There was some opposition to these new provisions, the

principal difficulty being as regards the boring and turning

conditions, which, however, were retained.

A Machinery Designs Committee was at that time in
existence at the Admiralty, consisting principally of engineers
outside the naval service, and they recommended that the
Admiralty should define the extent of the final draw in the
manufacture of condenser tubes, and a letter was addressed
in 1905 to four of the principal tubemakers asking their

40 Presidential Address

opinion on this matter. At the same time they were also
asked their opinion as to the exclusion of " scrap."

In their replies the firms were all in favour of clean " scrap,"
and gave their list of draws. One expressed the opinion that
the material used was far more important than the number of
draws, and asked that the original flattening test should be
reintroduced {i.e. flattening to half the original diameter).

All the firms were again consulted in 1906 as regards the
advisability of specifying —

1. The draws of the last but one, and last tubes, together

with the dimensions at each stage.

2. The amount bored out of the castings to be not less than

\ inch of diameter.

3. The copper used to assay not less than 99*7 per cent.

pure.

4. Scrap not exceeding 20 per cent, may be used, providing

it is strictly limited to the ends cut from tubes during
manufacture.

5. The flattening test to be applied to either end of the

tubes and the diameter of |^-inch tubes to be flattened
to ^^ inch.

The replies of the various firms were as follows : —

Only one firm objected to the limitation of scrap. Three
firms objected to the draws specified. Three others were pre-
pared to accept all the tests and requirements. Two others
considered the purity of the copper required was too strict,
and suggested 9 9 5 per cent.; while another considered 9 9' 7
per cent, copper a mistake, as it would involve the use of
electrolytic copper, which they deprecated.

One firm objected to the amount bored out ; while another
considered \ inch was too much, and that -^^ inch would be
sufficient ; and lastly, one objected to turning the castings,
but agreed that boring was beneficial, and also agreed with
the purity of the copper required and were prepared to agree
to the draws specified, but considered that variation of hard-
ness would result.

After considering these replies it was decided not to specify
anything concerning the drawing of the tubes, and a specifi-

Presidential Address 41

cation for condenser tubes was issued in 1906, which in-
cluded the following : —

1. The copper to assay not less than 99*6 per cent.

2. Scrap to be limited to ends removed from process tubes,

and not to exceed 20 per cent.

3. Total impurities not to exceed 0'625 per cent.

4. The amount bored out of castings to be not less than

\ inch of diameter.

This revised specification has held good to the present date
with the addition that electrolytic copper may be used, and
its success, when coupled with some improvements in con-
denser construction, has well repaid the time devoted to this
important matter.

In 1908-9 many cases of split tubes occurred in a new
battleship's condensers, and a suggestion was made to the
Admiralty that a tensile test should be made instead of a
flattening test. As at this time it was desired to take the views
of the tubemakers on some other points, this proposal was
included in the reference.

The eight principal tubemakers were therefore referred to
in 1910, and they were also asked, among other things,
whether they would propose any modification in the method
of carrying out the specified flattening test.

The replies indicated that three of the firms had no objec-
tion to a tensile test if applied to 1 per cent, of the tubes, but
all the remainder were strongly in favour of the flattening test
being retained, but made various suggestions for making the
test with lever presses or drop hammers instead of the hand
hammer.

In the words of one firm, "it would be a great mistake
to do away with the flattening test, which is an excellent
proof of proper alloying." This firm further stated that the
present specified impurities allowed, viz. 0"625 per cent.,
might with advantage be reduced by one half.

From the above it appears that the majority of the firms
were in favour of the flattening test, and the Admiralty saw
no reason for abandoning it.

It may be asked what has been the practical result of

4 2 Pres idential A ddress

these efforts on the part of the Admiralty and their tube-
making collaborators.

My opinion is that the most beneficial action taken by
the Admiralty during recent years is the practice adopted
in 1904 by which a test-piece was allowed for on each tube
for the flattening test, a small piece being left on extra to
the proper length, these pieces being sawn almost through
but not detached from the tube, and subsequently removed.

It is impossible to give the number of failures on service
in the Fleet in detail, except in recent years. The earlier
failures were very numerous. The following detailed figures
are available as evidence that they have been reduced to
more satisfactory proportions. In the year 1908, when the
approximate number of condenser tubes at work at sea in
the British Fleet was 2,500,000, the number of failures of
tubes occurring on service and reported were : splitting, 2 1 ;
corrosion and perforation, 69 ; total, 90, or at the rate of 1
in 28,000 per annum.

During the next five years there was a very considerable
addition of new condenser tubes in the ships added to the
Fleet, owing to the great increase in horse- power of modern
ships, also a considerable number of old tubes passed out of
the service. In the year 1913 the number of condenser
tubes at work in the British Fleet was approximately
3,800,000, and the total failures of tubes reported during the
two years 1912 and 1913 were: splitting, 16; corrosion
and perforation, 115; total, 131, or at the rate of 1 in
60,000 per annum — a very substantial reduction.

A further point is that of this proportion of 1 in 60,000,
the majority are probably the older tubes which have been
made under early specifications and which have not had the
present stringent regulations as regards treatment during
manufacture and inspection applied to them. As these
older ships and tubes fall out of service, the proportion of
tubes which fail may be expected to be less even than this
small figure.

The ideal to work for is to reduce the failures to zero,
but beyond a certain point further tests, restrictions, and
additional precautions, both in treatment when at work and

Presidential Address 43

during manufacture, becomes so expensive as to be not
worth the cost involved, in which case we must be satisfied
with the success already achieved.

In view of the number of failures of condenser tubes
caused by corrosion and perforation by salt water where the
circulating water passes through the tubes, close attention
has been recently given to endeavours to eliminate the
causes of these perforations. An incipient cause of some
of the cases appears to be the existence of original flaws
or breakages of the inside surface of the tube, and to endea-
vour to eliminate such tubes the Admiralty have recently
required a rigid internal examination. The result of this
internal sighting has been to indicate defects in the tubes,
and such tubes on being cut up have, in a large number
of cases, revealed imperfections such as to justify their
rejection, and which, if these tubes had been fitted in place,
would probably have caused early perforation.

I think I have shown that the Admiralty has endeavoured
to combine the observations and experience of the user, and
the experimental work of the laboratory, with the commercial
possibilities of the manufacturer, with the object, first, of
securing reliability in the machinery of warships, reliability
being of paramount importance in the time of war ; and
secondly, of securing that reliability with the minimum of
cost.

Similarly, in this Institute, we hope to see the same co-
operation and co-ordination of the work of the three main
groups of members, in striving for the elucidation of all the
problems connected with non-ferrous metals and their working
and use. I have devoted some time to the condenser tube,
as it has been the subject of special consideration by the
Institute, but there is a large field for work for the members
in other directions.

In order to obtain the best materials commercially possible
to meet the requirements of design, there is a great deal
to be ascertained as regards such matters as the obscure cases
of corrosion of copper pipes, and of pipes of other non-ferrous
alloys ; the characteristics and peculiarities of alloys sub-
jected under working conditions to stress under high and

44 Presidential Address

varying temperatures ; the question of suitable alloys for
propeller blades, especially with high speeds of revolution ;
and in many other directions.

There is, therefore, a large field for research work of
obvious practical utility, and as among the various members
of this Institute, differing as they do in their methods and
thoughts but working towards the same ends, there exists
a large body of scientific, experienced, and observant men,
their united efforts should aid largely in the solution of
such problems, which will be for the general good of the
engineering and industrial world. I hope that our present
meeting may bear fruit in this direction.

Report on the Nomenclature of Alloys 45

FIRST REPORT

OF THE

COMMITTEE ON THE NOMENCLATURE
OF ALLOYS.*

A Committee to consider the whole question of the nomen-
clature of alloys, as raised in a paper, " A Note on the
Nomenclature of Alloys," read by Dr. W. Rosenhain at the
annual general meeting of the Institute of Metals, held in
London on January 17, 1912, was appointed by resolution of
the Council of the Institute of Metals on April 24, 1912. It
was decided that the Committee should consist of eight mem-
bers appointed by the Council as representing the Institute of
Metals, and that the councils of allied societies and institutions
should be invited to nominate representatives on the Com-
mittee. The composition of the Committee as finally appointed
is as follows : —

Institute of Jfetals. — Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. {Chairman) ;

G. A. BoEDDiCKER, Esq.; Dr. C. H. Desch; Engineer Rear-

Admiral G. G. Goodwin, R.N. ; G. Hughes, Esq. ; Sir

Gerard Muntz, Bart. ; A. E. Seaton, Esq. ; and Professor

Turner, M.Sc.
Institution of Electrical Engineers. — W. Murray Morrison, Esq.
Institution of Mechanical Engineers. — George Hughes, Esq.
Institution of Naval Architects. — Sir W. E. Smith, C.B.
Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. — Alexander

Cleghorn, Esq.
North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders. — The

Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Society of Chemical Industry. — Professor W. R. Hodgkinson, Ph.D.,

M.A., F.R.S.E.

Some considerable time elapsed before the representation of
allied societies on the Committee could be completed, and the
fully constituted Committee was not able to hold its first
meeting until May 21, 1913. Since then the Committee has

* Read at Annual General Meeting, London, March 18, 1914.

46 First Report of the Committee on

held four further meetings, and has also carried on its work
by correspondence. As a result of these labours the Com-
mittee are now in a position to present a first report, embody-
ing their first series of recommendations on the subject of the
nomenclature of alloys.

The Committee at the outset have fully recognized the
difficulty of the task which they were approaching, but they
have felt no doubt as to the desirability or even the necessity
of reform in regard to the naming of alloys. The Committee
wish particularly to emphasize that they have not approached
this matter in any academic spirit, but have endeavoured to
bear in mind in the first place the needs of industry and
commerce. Had they merely wished to draw up a system of
nomenclature for the use of scientific men their task would
have been much easier, since practical and commercial con-
siderations are responsible for the more serious diflSculties to
be overcome in this matter.

The Committee further fully recognize that they do not
possess any power of enforcing the use of the system of
nomenclature which they desire to recommend ; on the other
hand, existing practice is so confusing that the majority of
alloy names as now used possess no rational meaning whatever,
and the resulting confusion has led to disputes, and even to
litigation. In these circumstances the Committee feel that a
rational system of naming alloys will naturally commend itself
both to practical men and to teachers and investigators, so
that ultimately such a system will find wide adoption, and
may, as a matter of usage, backed by the formal support of
the representatives of the leading technical societies of Great
Britain, attain even to a legal status. The Committee are
thus fully alive not only to the difficulty of their task, but also
to the responsibility which attaches to their work.

The Committee have from time to time received a very
large number of suggestions, both from their own members
and from outside, as to the method to be pursued in arriving
at a rational system of names for alloys. It would unduly
lengthen this report either to enumerate or to discuss these
proposals. Careful consideration of all such suggestions has,
however, led the Committee to adopt certain guiding principles

The Nomenclature of Alloys 47

in the conduct of their work. These may be briefly stated as
follows : —

(1) So far as names intended for use in industrial and com-

mercial practice are concerned, it is desirable to
adhere to existing names sanctioned by long usage
as far as possible, provided that all such names can
be so defined as to avoid all risk of confusion or
ambiguity.

(2) The coining of new names or the adoption of recently

coined names not in general use should be avoided
as far as possible.

(3) It is desirable to employ simple English names through-

out, avoiding the use of Latin or foreign names, and
of chemical or other symbols.

These principles require little explanation, but in regard
to (1) the Committee desire to point out that in view of the
admitted existence of confusion and ambiguity in the case of
many names in current use, the ultimate abandonment or
modification of some, existing terms is unavoidable if the pre-
sent state of affairs is to be improved. It is not suggested,
however, that any sudden change which might prove disturb-
ing to commercial relations should be made. If the new or
modified terms indicated in the present and in future reports
of the Committee are adopted by writers and teachers who deal
with alloys, their use will gradually permeate all ranks of
those concerned with metals, so that the necessary change will
be a gradual and natural one, and all sudden disturbance will
be avoided.

From the principles laid down above it follows that the
task before the Committee resolved itself into that of framing
rational definitions of the more widely used alloy names. In
order to accomplish this in a satisfactory manner the com-
mittee have found it desirable to establish in the first place a
rational or systematic nomenclature based upon some com-
pletely general principle. Such a system of nomenclature
would probably be too cumbersome for general use, and would
depart too widely from ordinary usage to be satisfactorily
employed for industrial or business purposes. Its main object,

48 First Report of the Committee on

apart from possible use by scientific Avriters, is to serve as a
basis for the definition of what may be called " practical
names." The Committee have, in fact, aimed at defining
practical terms as simple abbreviations of the systematic
names of alloys.

After much discussion the Committee arrived at the deci-
sion that the only principle of sufficiently wide applicability
upon which they could base a rational or systematic nomen-
clature was that of naming alloys according to their chemical
composition by weight. Although there are cases of some
difficulty even under this principle, the fact remains that
every alloy possesses a definite and definitely ascertainable
composition by weight, and that — speaking in the most
general terms — the properties of alloys are more universally
dependent upon their chemical composition than upon any
other single factor of general importance.

The principle which the Committee has adopted for the
construction of a system of nomenclature on the basis just
indicated is that of denoting any alloy by the names, in
English, of its component metals, placed in the order of
increasing numerical importance from the point of view of
chemical composition by weight. In adopting this order for
the names of the component metals, the Committee have en-
deavoured to follow existing usage as closely as possible,
although existing practice in this respect is not uniform.
Thus " phosphor-copper " follows the order adopted by the
Committee, while " cupro-nickel " does not. As examples of
what is implied by the principle adopted for the construction
of systematic names for alloys, a few instances may be useful,
in which the approximate composition of some typical alloys is
stated, together with the corresponding " systematic " name.

Composition of Alloy. Systematic Name.

Zinc, 30 per cent.; copper, 70 per cent. .... Zinc-copper.

Tin, 10 per cent. ; copper, 90 per cent Tin-copper.

Tin, 1 per cent.; zinc, 29 per cent.; copper, 70 per cent. . Tin-zinc-copper.

Aluminium, 8 per cent. ; copper, 92 per cent. . . . Aluminium-copper.

Copper, 3 per cent.; aluminium, 97 per cent. . . . Copper-aluminium.

Tin, 32 per cent.; lead, 68 per cent Tin-lead.

It will be seen that although this system is perfectly simple
and rational, this simplicity is accompanied by a considerable

The Nomenclature of Alloys 49

degree of cumbrousness when alloys of more than three metals
are to be described. A difficulty also arises with regard to
the question of impurities present in notable amount, and
another obstacle is found in the case of alloys in which two
or more metals are present in practically equal proportions.
The Committee have considered these difficulties, and propose
the following methods of dealing with them : —

(1) Where an alloy consists of more than three metals its

systematic name shall not as a rule contain more than
the names of those three metals present in the largest
proportion by weight, but the presence of additional
metals or elements shall be denoted by the prefix
" comp." or " complex." If, however, an alloy of this
kind contains an intentionally added element which,
although present in small quantity, gives the alloy
a distinctive character, that element may be named
first. To take an imaginary example : if an alloy
containing aluminium 75 per cent., tin 15 per cent.,
arsenic 4 per cent., cobalt 3 per cent., iron 2*75 per
cent., and (say) indium 0'25 per cent., owed its
(supposed) special qualities to the presence of the
last-named element, it would be denoted as " indium
complex tin-aluminium." This is obviously an ima-
ginary case of a very extreme type, and is given
merely to illustrate the principle. The resulting name
is still decidedly cumbersome, but not too much so
for the purposes of a systematic nomenclature which
is not intended for general practical use.

(2) As regards impurities present in notable quantities, the

Committee have reached the conclusion that since
the question of drawing up specifications for the
proper composition of alloys lies outside their pro-
vince, and is moreover governed by entirely different
considerations and conditions, the present Committee
cannot lay down any rules as to the quantities of
" impurities " which may be admitted without refer-
ence in the name of the alloy. When standard
specifications are available this point will be automati-

50 First Report of the Cominittee on

cally decided. Meanwhile the Committee recommend
that in the systematic names as here defined refer-
ence should be made to all elements whose presence
in the alloys in notable quantities is intentional.
(3) With regard to alloys which contain two or more metals
in equal or nearly equal quantities, the Committee
recommends that the principle should be followed
that where no numerical preponderance is established
the metals should be placed in alphabetical order.

Having thus established what they believe to be as simple
and rational a system of names as any that could be devised
in the circumstances, the Committee have approached the task
of defining, in terms of the systematic or rational names, the
ordinary names of alloys intended for everyday usage. The
principle which the Committee have adopted is that of defining
a few of the best known and most widely used terms simply
as definite abbreviations or contractions for certain names or
groups of names in the systematic nomenclature.

The Committee having in the first instance confined their
attention to the alloys of copper, the terms first defined on this
basis are " brass " and " bronze." The definitions recommended
and adopted by the Committee are as follows : —

Brass.

The term " brass " is to be used as an abbreviation of the
words " zinc-copper " as employed in the systematic nomencla-
ture. Thus when the word " brass " alone is employed it shall
denote an alloy of zinc and copper only, containing more
copper than zinc, i.e. containing over 50 per cent, of copper.
When an alloy containing a third metal, such as tin, is to be
denoted, the name of the additional element shall be used as
a prefix, precisely as in the systematic nomenclature. Thus
an alloy containing tin 1 per cent., zinc 29 per cent., and
copper 70 per cent., would be called " tin-brass." If additional
metals are present their names may also be prefixed, or the
general prefix " comp." or " complex " may be used if it is not
essential to mention the other elements specifically.

The Nomenclature of Alloys 51

Bronze.

The term " bronze " is to be used as an abbreviation of the
words " tin-copper " as employed in the systematic nomencla-
ture. Thus when the word " bronze " alone is employed it
shall denote an alloy of tin and copper only, containing more
copper than tin, i.e. containing more than 50 per cent, of
copper. The presence of one or more additional metals shall
be denoted in the same manner as has been indicated above in
the case of " brass."

The Committee is not prepared at the present stage of its
work to recommend definitions of any further practical terms,
as further consideration is required for the framing of defini-
tions relating to smaller and more strictly limited classes of
alloys. But although the Committee thus only put forward
definitions for two practical alloy names, yet those two repre-
sent by far the most widely used alloys, and the general
adoption of the terms as thus defined would in itself do much
to remedy the state of confusion which exists at the present
time. The Committee therefore express the hope that all
those interested in the progress of the industries and sciences
connected with metals will use their best endeavours to sup-
port the work of the Committee.

Having laid down in the present report the principles upon
which a systematic nomenclature of alloys can be established,
and the method by which practical names can be defined in
terms of that systematic nomenclature, the Committee hope
that in their next report they may be in a position to put
forward a considerable number of " practical " names.

(Signed) Walter Rosenhain, Chairman.
g. a. boeddicker,
Alex. Cleghorn,
Cecil H. Desch,
G. G. Goodwin,

W. R. E. HODGKINSON,

George Hughes, \Member8 of

W. Murray Morrison, (Cow weY^ee.

Gerard A. Muntz,

Charles A. Parsons,

A. E. Seaton,

W. E. Smith,

Thomas Turner,

52 Discussion on Nomenclature Committee s Report

DISCUSSION.

Sir Henry J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S. (President), said that there was
no doubt that the subject dealt with was of vast importance. In his
(the President's) opinion there would be a general agreement with the
work of the Committee so far as it had gone, but there would be many
difficulties to be overcome in the future. If the Committee, in addition
to formulating recommendations, could induce all the people who iised
alloys to adopt the recommendations contained in the Eeport, they would
certainly render a great service to the country.

Dr. J. E. Stead, F.R.S. (Middlesbrough), said that as one who had
been often asked to define alloys, especially of a non-ferrous character, he
would be very pleased to accept the findings of the Committee, whatever
they might be, whether ideal or otherwise. Uniformity was the thing to
aim at. He hoped that all members would be loyal to the findings of the
Committee.

Mr. T. A. Bayliss (Member of Council) said that one way of making
the work of the Committee of more value, and getting it adopted, would
be for the Institute to call the attention of every manufacturer to the
Nomenclature Committee, and to ask that when quoting for any type of
brass or bronze they also should specify the " Systematic Name."

He ventured to think that if the Institute adopted his suggestion the
work of the Committee would be prominently brought before the manu-
facturers of the country, and it would also advertise the Institute.

As a manufacturer himself, he would at once follow the recommendation
of the Committee in every quotation made by his company.

Mr. H. H. A. Greer (Glasgow) spoke as one who was a buyer and
seller of old metals. He supposed that the intention of the Committee
was to develop the commercial side of the question, and he was wonder-
ing whether it would not be possible for them to subdivide the word
"bronze" and "brass" into '^special bronze," "medium bronze," and
" common bronze " ; and " special brass," " medium brass," and " common
brass." The nomenclature of brass and bronze at present was very
indefinite. Scotland had an additional term of " Bush brass," which was
really a mongrel metal in between brass and bronze. In America that
same material was called "composition metal," and sometimes it suited
American buyers and American sellers to decide what was "composition
metal " and what was not " composition metal." If it suited them to reject
the material on account of market conditions or otherwise, they would say
it was not " composition metal," but brass. Therefore if the Committee
could subdivide the terms "bronze" and "brass" into the three classes
he had mentioned, it would, from the commercial side of the question, be
of extreme value.

Mr. E. J. Bolton (Stoke-on-Trent) considered, as a manufacturer, that
it was an excellent plan to adopt some definite nomenclature for alloys.

Discussion on Nomenclature Committee s Report 53

It would be a good thing if people got into the habit of specifying what
they required in percentages of copper and zinc and abolished the present
terms of "best brass" or "red brass," and so on. The difficulty was
that certain manufacturers had special alloys of bronze, for instance,
what they called by fancy names. They were under the impression that
by so calling them they were able to sell them better. He was quite
certain, however, that it would be to the advantage of engineers and users
in general if, when buying alloys, they asked manufacturers to quote for
a certain percentage of copper and zinc. If they did so there would be
uniformity throughout the whole trade. As long as manufacturers gave
fancy names to different alloys there was bound to be confusion, and
people really not knowing what they were getting. As a manufacturer
he heartily approved of the Committee's Report, and would like to see it
universally adopted throughout the trade.

Sir William Smith, C.B. (Member of Council), said that he con-
sidered that the remarks during the discussion fully illustrated the kind
of difficulties to which Dr. Rosenhain had referred. It was, as the last
speaker had said, for contract purposes a matter of the utmost nece.ssity
that there should be clearness and great precision in the agreement made
between the purchaser and the manufacturer. He was not very familiar
with the practice of large mercantile concerns, but he had been very
closely connected with the practice of the Admiralty over a long period of
years. The Admiralty did not use colloquial names other than such old
established terms as "gun-metal," and they did not use even that term
without specifying the limits of chemical composition within which the
manufactured article had to lie. In addition to that they specified
certain mechanical qualities which the alloy had to possess.

As an instance of the difficulties which sometimes arose out of the
absence of precision, he remembered a case Avhich occurred at the
Admiralty many years ago. A contract was drawn up rather loosely,
and the material specified was to be gun-metal " of the usual Admiralty
quality," The man who drew up the specification thought that gun-metal
"of the usual Admiralty quality" was a gun-metal, the composition of
which was perfectly well known — and he (the speaker) thought that was
the case. It so happened, however, that the manufacturer had seen
previously in the newspapers that the Government were going to sell some
old guns at Woolwich Arsenal. He therefore went down, bought the
old guns, and from these guns manufactured the articles to be purchased.
The Admiralty found out that the articles were not made of gun-metal of
the usual Admiralty quality. The manufacturer, however, contended
that he was perfectly justified in calling the substance " gun-metal of
Government quality," inasmuch as it was metal used by the Government
in making guns. That case illustrated the necessity in all contract
matters of uniformity and precision of terms, and the further necessity,
referred to by the last speaker, of specifying in important contracts what
the limits of percentage composition should be. Of course it happened
that on some occasions the buyer had to go beyond that, and specify the
mechanical qualities desired.

54 Discussion on Nomenclature Committee' s Report

Mr. Charles Billington (Longport) said that the question of nomen-
clature of alloy Sj such as suggested by the Committee, was a very awkward
question when looked at from the manufacturer's point of view, especi-
ally when it was considered that some people objected to certain elements
being present in an alloy which were essential for the specific purpose
required. For instance, a manufacturer had been asked to produce an
alloy to give particular results, and he (Mr. Billington) had known such
alloys condemned when the composition was stated before the casting
was put to use, although afterwards, surprise had been expressed that
such an alloy would give satisfaction. It was quite different when deal-
ing with iron and steel, where the alloys were simple and engineers had
had more expei'ience of their nature and use than they had of the more
complex alloys of the copper and tin series. It would be cumbersome
to name a complex alloy containing five, six, or seven essential elements
in the manner suggested by the Committee, and to have the word
" complex " inserted would not elucidate the matter but cause confusion.
Personally, he thought difficulties would arise unless the Committee
could suggest names for alloys containing various metals. He quite
agreed with many of the suggestions in the Report. His firm had
named many of their alloys on the lines indicated, but he thought that
it would be a pity to discard the use of the word "gun-metal," as it has
been a household word for several generations for an alloy containing
copper, tin, and zinc, in contrast to bronze containing only copper and tin.

Professor Turner, M.Sc. (Vice-President and Honorary Treasurer), men-
tioned that there had been a meeting of the Birmingham section some
few weeks previously at which the proposals contained in the Report were
outlined. There was present at the meeting a fairly representative
gathering of men, connected with the local trades, who were given every
opportunity of expressing their views as to the proposals which the
Committee had then drafted, and he (Professor Turner) thought he
might say that those suggestions met Avith practically unanimous
approval. Other suggestions were made as the result of that meeting,
which the Committee would be able to consider in the future. From
that fact he had mentioned, and taking into account the trend of the
discussion that morning, it did seem to him that it could be considered
that the work of the Committee so far as it had gone — although, of
course, it was only preparatory — had been on right lines ; and it only
remained for members of the Institute to adopt as far as possible the
conclusions upon which there was agreement. He referred not only to
manufacturers, but to students and teachers, who should as far as
possible endeavour to adopt the system of nomenclature put forward in
the Report, so that it might become more generally adopted.

Sir Henry J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.8. (President), thought that the
general teuor of the discussion seemed to indicate that there would be
some difficulty in meeting the views of all the various members of the
Institute on this very difficult question of nomenclature. As far as the
Admiralty were concerned, there was no doubt that they would do all

Discussion on Nomenclature Committee s Report 55

they could to adopt the recommendations of the Committee and specify
certain existing materials under their new names, thus helping the work
of the Committee and assisting in familiarizing the country with them.
Mr. Billington had pointed out some difficulties which would arise
in meeting the views of certain manufacturers, and that illustrated
the obstacles he (the President) anticipated which would have to be
overcome in the further work of the Committee. He felt quite certain,
however, that the Committee, as constituted, was a very representative
one, and would be able to devise some scheme by which the views of the
various manufacturers of bronzes and other alloys would be met, at least
in a sufficiently satisfactory manner.

Dr. RosENHAiN, in replying to the discussion, thanked the members on
behalf of his colleagues and himself for their very kind reception of the
Report. The Committee were particularly gratified to have promises of
support from a number of members whose influential position would go
far towards securing the widespread adoption of the recommendations of
the Committee. Dr. Stead, Mr. Bayliss, Sir Henry Oram, Mr. Bolton,
and other gentlemen who spoke in support of the work of the Com-
mittee, had already contributed a very important element towards the
practical adoption of the recommendations ; and what really counted in
such matters was a lead in the right direction. Of course there were
many further difficulties to be faced. The work of the Committee had
only just commenced, and what Mr. Greer had suggested was really the
next step which the Committee had in mind. "Brass" and "bronze,"
as now defined, were fairly wide terms, and in a great many cases it was
very desirable to limit those terms. The terms suggested by Mr. Greer
did not quite appeal to him as being practical. From what he knew of
manufacturers and merchants generally, he did not think they would care
to call their material "common brass." The difficulty about any name
of that kind, however, was that the Committee had to avoid any name
which in itself suggested a quality ; all names must be simply and purely
descriptive. That was one of the conditions which he thought would
have to be followed. Mr. Bolton had referred to fancy names ; the
Committee did not propose to define these at all ; if the nomenclature
suggested in the Report was adopted, he considered it would lead to the
dropping of fancy names to a very large extent, very much to the benefit,
he felt sure, of the industry as a whole, and particularly of the users of
metals. The Committee had a difficult case to deal with in the matter
referred to by Mr. Billington, as it was by no means easy to understand
the position. Surely Mr. Billington did not believe that he could intro-
duce a metal into an alloy without the engineer knowing it, if the
engineer really wanted to know? It was perfectly easy to analyse a
metal and ascertain whether a certain substance was present or not.
There might be difficulties in special cases, but personally he had not
come across them so far. Therefore he thought that Mr. Billington's
was a difficulty which would have to be fought out between the maker and
the engineer. If a stupid engineer was not prepared to try a new alloy,
it was largely that engineer's loss. On the other hand, if there was a

5 6 Discussion on Nomenclature Committee s Report

maker who insisted upon inserting an element which did not produce the
effect he imagined, that maker would have to find out and know better
in the future. He (Dr. Kosenhain) did not think that this was essen-
tially a matter of nomenclature. All he could say was that the further
work of the Committee was likely to be more difficult even than the
work it had already performed, and the Committee would be extremely
glad to receive as many suggestions as possible. They were particularly
grateful to Mr. Bayliss for his suggestion that they should inform
manufacturers generally what the Committee was doing and make
certain suggestions to them as to how they could avail themselves of
the recommendations of the Committee. He felt sure when the Com-
mittee next met they would take steps to carry out that suggestion.

In conclusion, he desired, on behalf of his colleagues and himself, to
thank the members for the very encouraging and promising reception
which they had given to the Eeport, and for their kind vote of thanks.

COMMUNICATIONS.

Mr. H. H. A. Greer (Glasgow), in reference to the remarks which he
made at the meeting, wrote that he did not wish the Committee to think
that he was not in entire sympathy with the steps which were being
taken for the standardizing of the names of metals, but quite the reverse.
The suggestions he made and the names he gave for the different grades
of brass and bronze were nothing more than suggestions to subdivide
these two classes of metals. The railway companies at present almost
invariably, when asking prices for their borings and scrap metals, called
them brass axleboxes, brass fittings, brass borings, &c. These were
often bronze, and it might be well to ask the railway companies to
cooperate also for improvement in this respect. Further, as an example,
under classification, how would a metal containing 74'5 per cent, copper,
5-5 per cent, tin, 10 per cent, zinc, and 10 per cent, lead, be treated?
Was that a brass or a bronze? It appeared like a very " common "
bronze, but a great many castings made for the mercantile marine
were not of much better metal.

Dr. RosENHAiN, in reply to Mr. Greer, wrote that he quite understood
Mr. Greer's attitude, and was glad to receive suggestions, not only of
possible names, but also of difficulties which had to be encountered and
overcome. Mr. Greer's suggestion of the railway companies was a very
good one, and at an early stage of the further work of the Committee
efforts to secure the co-operation both of manufacturers, as suggested by Mr.
Bayliss, and of users, including the railway companies, would be made.

With regard to the alloy cited by Mr. Greer as a difficult one to clas-
sify, he thought that it could be quite easily classified under the definitions
given in the Report, namely, as a " lead-tin-brass," owing to the fact that
it contained more brass than any other alloying element except lead, and
that lead comes alphabetically before zinc ; for that reason its systematic
name would be tin-lead-zinc-copper, and the words " zinc-copper " would
be contracted into " brass."

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 57

FIRST REPORT*

TO THE

BEILBY PRIZE COMMITTEE OF THE INSTITUTE
OF METALS

THE SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS FROM
THE LIQUID STATE.

By CECIL H. DESCH, D.Sc, Ph.D.

(Graham Young Lecturer in Metallurgical Chemistry in the
University of Glasgow).

The present investigation is the outcome of a suggestion
made by Dr. G. T, Beilby in the May lecture of this Institute
for 191 l,f and more fully particularized by him in a paper
communicated at the Autumn meeting of the Institute in
1912. J According to a hypothesis first proposed by Pro-
fessor G. Quincke,§ the first step in the process of crystalliza-
tion is the separation of the liquid into two immiscible liquid
phases, one of which is formed in relatively very small
quantity. This " oily " liquid arranges itself in a manner
frequently observed in immiscible oils and aqueous solutions,
to form the walls of " foam-cells " {Schaumkammern) filled with
the liquid which is present in greater quantity. The arrange-
ment of the crystalline particles when actual solidification
takes place is then determined by the presence, dimensions,
and form of the foam-cells.

In his second paper, Dr. Beilby stated that it was not
intended that the inquiry should be restricted to an attempt
to prove or disprove this hypothesis, but that it should
embrace the general subject of the earlier steps in crystal-

* Presented at Annual General Meeting, London, March 18, 1914.

t Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1911, vol. vi. p. 16.

X Ibid., No. 2, 1912, vol. viii. p. 186.

§ Detailed references to Quincke's papers are given later. The application of the
hypothesis to Metals has been summarized in Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Metallo-
graphie, 1913, vol. iv. pp. 23, 79, 303.

5 8 Desch : First Report on

lization, both from the liquid and from the solid state,
together with the practical aspects of the question in relation
to foundry practice.

Following a precedent set by the reports to the Corrosion
Committee of this Institute, a first report is now presented,
summarizing briefly the present extent of our knowledge on
a part of this subject, and giving references to the original
publications. The bibliography is not exhaustive, but the
attempt has been made to include, as far as possible, the more
important original contributions to the study of crystallization
from this point of view. Considerable difficulty has been ex-
perienced in searching the literature for relevant memoirs, as
these are scattered through chemical, metallurgical, geological,
and physical publications, and important facts are sometimes
to be found in memoirs, the titles of which would not lead
the searcher to suspect their contents. In all cases, the
original publication has been consulted, in order to avoid
the errors which easily arise from quotation at second-
hand.

The subject of the formation of crystalline aggregates, such
as present themselves in metals, receives little attention in
text-books of crystallography. The geometrical study of
crystals, and the theory of the possible modes of regular
partitioning of space, by means of which the symmetry of
crystal classes has been accounted for, have been brought
to a very high degree of perfection, and other aspects of
the subject have been neglected in comparison. The most
perfect crystals are of the greatest value to the crystallo-
grapher, and the unequal development of different faces
receives only a general treatment from the geometrical
point of view, although much interesting work has been
published in recent years dealing with the influence of the
conditions of growth on crystalline habit.* Such researches,
however, refer mainly to comparatively small deviations from
the normal form, and distorted, branched, and dendritic forms,
which present themselves so frequently in metals, have
hardly been examined from the point of view of the crystallo-

* See, for example, P. Gaubert, RecJierches ricentes sur le fades des cristaux, Paris,
1911.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 59

grapher. The best modern text-book of crystallography does
not mention the words " crystallite " or " crystal skeleton."

A large number of investigations of a qualitative character,
dealing with such structures, is, however, in existence, but
has not been taken into account in the compilation of works
of reference. An exception should be made in respect of
the works of Professor 0. Lehmann,* which are an almost
inexhaustible storehouse of information relating to the internal
structure of bodies.

The mechanism of the process of solidification in relation
to the resulting structure has also attracted the attention
of numerous recent workers in petrography, in the course of
studies of the formation of igneous rocks. From a physico-
chemical point of view, the solidification of metals and alloys
is essentially similar to that of igneous rocks, the differences
in the resulting structures being sufficiently accounted for
by the much greater viscosity of the latter, and possibly also
by the, smaller power of orientation at high temperatures
possessed by silicates in comparison with metals.

The present summary is divided into the following
sections : —

1. The cellular structure of metals.

2. Crystallization from centres and the formation of crystal-

lites or crystal skeletons.

3. Foam-structures and Quincke's hypothesis.

4. Cellular structures in cooling liquids.

5. Liquid crystals.

6. The influence of surface tension.

7. Undercooling and the existence of a metastable limit.

8. Changes of volume on solidification.

9. The thrust exerted by growing crystals.

A few photomicrographs have been added for the purpose
of illustrating certain points mentioned in the report, but the
new experimental material is reserved for a later occasion.
The report therefore concludes with an outline of the experi-

* Molekularphysik, 2 vols. , Leipzig, 1888 ; Flussige Krystalk, Leipzig, 1904 ; Die
neue Welt derjlussigen Krystalle, Leipzig, 1911.

6 0 Desch : First Report on

mental work undertaken or proposed for the purpose of testing
the hypotheses which are here described.

1. The Cellular Structure of Metals.

The granular structure of metals must have been more
or less vaguely recognized from an early period, from the
examination of fractured surfaces. Their crystalline char-
acter was determined microscopically by Hooke in the
seventeenth century,* whilst Reaumur, from observations of
the fractured surfaces of iron and steel, arrived at a distinct
conception of the internal polyhedral arrangement of the
metal.*j* Modern advances in this direction have been made,
with few exceptions, by employing the method of etching
polished sections, first introduced in 1864 by Sorby, who had
previously applied similar methods with success to the ex-
amination of rocks and meteorites. J The subsequent de-
velopment of microscopical metallography is described in the
text-books of the subject. Even the earliest records of the
appearance of microsections prepared by Sorby's method
notice the division of most metals into cells or crystal grains.
Attempts have been made, on various occasions, to distinguish
between cells of a first, second, and third order. For example,
in a now familiar memoir on the cellular structure of iron
and steel, Osmond and Worth § distinguished simple cells,
bounded by carbide, and larger compound cells, composed of
dendritic crystals, in an ingot of high-carbon steel. They
also laid stress on the importance of intercellular materials,
or " cements," in modifying the properties of the metal. The
cellular structure of a variety of metals and alloys was ex-
amined from this point of view by Behrens,|| by Arnold and
Jefferson.H and by Osmond and Roberts- Austen,** both of the
latter investigations dealing with alloys of gold, in which the

* R. Hooke, Micrographia, London, 1665.

t R. A. F. de RiJtiumur, L Art de convertir le fer forgi en acier, Paris, 1722.
% H. C. Sorby, British Association Report, 1864, vol. ii. p. 189.
§ F. Osmond and J. Werth, Annates des Mines, 1885 [viii.], vol. viii. p. 1.
II H. Bchrens, Das mikroskopische GefUge dcr Metal le und Legieruttgen, Leipzig, 18}(4.
H J. O. Arnold and J. Jefferson, Engineering, 1896, vol. Ixi. p. 176.
** F. Osmond and W. C. Roberts-Austen, Philosophical Tratisactions, 1896, vol.
clx.xxvii. A, p. 417 ; I! Etude des Alliages, Paris, 1901, p. 73.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 61

effect of small quantities of impurity is very clearly marked.
Andrews, in a study of wrought iron, distinguished primary,
secondary, and tertiary crystals, the smallest of which would
now be described as etch-figures.*

It is evident from a consideration of the facts alluded to
below, and of the hypotheses which have been advanced for
the purpose of explaining them, that more than one apparently
cellular structure may be detected in metals under suitable
conditions, and that much confusion has arisen from a failure
to distinguish structures of different orders. Such a con-
fusion is particularly to be observed in the array of evidence
which has been brought forward in support of the foam-cell
hypothesis, but it is also present in many other writings on
the subject.

2. Crystallization from Centres and the Formation of
Crystallites or Crystal Skeletons.

The opportunities of examining isolated crystals of the
majority of the metals are comparatively few. With the
exception of bismuth, the preparation of crystals of which by
partial solidification of a molten mass is a familiar laboratory
experiment, the metals do not readily yield well-defined
crystals which can be separated from the mother-liquor.
Our knowledge of the forms assumed by freely growing
metallic crystals is therefore mainly derived from specimens
found in the native state as minerals, or from crystals acci-
dentally obtained in the course of manufacturing processes.

Native gold, silver, and copper, all of which crystallize in
the regular system, frequently assume arborescent forms. Of
these, the crystals of native copper from the Lake Superior
region have perhaps been studied in the greatest detail. "j*
Octahedral crystals are rare, and the most usual forms are
those of the tetrakis-hexahedron, sometimes approaching the
cube and the dodecahedron. More interesting than the
simple forms, however, are the branched crystals, produced by
the grouping of simple crystals along the axes of the cube, or

" T. Andrews, Proceedings of the Royal Society , 189.5, vol. Iviii. p. 59.
t E. S. Dana, American Journal of Science, 1886 [iii.], vol. xxxii. p. 413.

Desch : First Report on

along axes corresponding with the diagonals of an octahedral
face. A diagram of the first type is shown in Fig. 1. As
the branches of such arborescent crystals frequently meet at
angles of 120°, the symmetry is apt to be regarded as hex-
agonal. The same effect is observed in polished and etched
sections of many alloys, and intermetallic compounds have
been described as crystallizing in the hexagonal system, when
the symmetry is actually cubic, on account of the presence of
dendritic crystals branching at angles of 60° or 120°. Native
gold also frequently exhibits a similar pseudo symmetry.*

The earliest descriptions of arti-
ficial metallic crystallites refer to
iron, and are due to a French
ironmaster of the eighteenth cen-
tury, Grignon, whose descriptions
and drawings leave little to be
desired on the score of accuracy.*)*
The specimens were obtained from
cavities in large masses of grey pig
iron, which had cooled very slowly
beneath a protecting layer of hot
slag. Fig. 2 reproduces the struc-
ture described by Grignon as
typical of these isolated crystal-
lites. They are evidently formed
by growth along the octahedral
axes. Very similar, although
simpler forms, exhibiting branches at right angles, were ob-
tained by the same author from masses of brass.

Grignon's results have been repeatedly confirmed, and the
microscopical examination of etched transverse sections of
similar crystallites, which are occasionally obtained in great
perfection from the pipes of steel ingots, has verified the
accuracy of the original explanation.

The next step in advance was made by Professor Tchernoff. J

* E. S. Dana, American Journal of Science, 1886 [iii-], vol. xxxii. p. 132.

t Grignon, Mitnoires de Physique, Paris, 1775; reproduced by Cartaud (see footnote
on p. 64).-

X D. K. Tchernoff, Revue Universelle des Mines, 1880 [ii.], vol. vii. I. p. 129. Pub-
lished in Russian in 1878.

Fig. 1.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 63

By examining sections of steel ingots this author was able to
show that the mass of the ingot is made up of crystallites
similar to those which are occasionally obtained growing
freely into a cavity. When, however, there is a constant
supply of liquid material, the development of the primary and
secondary axes is followed by that of axes of a higher order,
until the addition of fresh material gradually leads to the
obliteration of the spaces between neighbouring axes of the
same order. The external form of the crystallite then dis-
appears. If the metal of which it is composed be perfectly
homogeneous, all traces of the original arrangement disappear.

Fig. 2.

but the position of the axes is revealed by etching if, as is
usually the case, impurities are present which are rejected
during growth, thus becoming segregated at the external
boundary of the crystal.

The structure of steel ingots — and by extension that of
ingots of any other metal — may be completely accounted for
in this way. Crystallization first begins at the cooling surface,
and the first crystallites grow perpendicularly to that surface
into the mass of the liquid, becoming greatly elongated in the
direction of their principal axis. Thus is produced the
system of crystallites, perpendicular to the sides of the mould,
which is so well exhibited when steel, brass, or (to cite an
example frequently used in illustration of this point) antimony

Desch : First Report on

sulphide is cast in a rectangular mould. In the interior of
the liquid mass, especially if the cooling be rapid, crystalliza-
tion may begin from numerous independent centres, each of
which becomes the starting-point of a new crystallite, which
may have any orientation whatever. The " crystal grains "
of ordinary cast metals arise in this way, their boundaries
being produced by the mutual interference of neighbouring
crystallites, as indicated in Fig. 3.

The further investigation of the internal structure of large
ingots of iron and steel has done much to elucidate the

Fig. :i

mechanism of the process of crystallization. Here it must
suffice to mention the memoirs of Cartaud * and Belaiew.")"
Deep etching reveals the fact that the crystals of iron may
be broken up into minute cubes, the structure being developed
with remarkable perfection in silico-ferrite.J Copper yields
octahedra when treated in a similar manner.

One of the most interesting peculiarities of the crystalliza-
tion of metals is their tendency to assume the form of branched
crystallites rather than of simple crystals. A salt, growing
slowly and freely in a solution, generally preserves approxi-

* G. Cartaud, Annales des Mines, 1900 [ix.], vol. xvii. p. 110.

t N. T. Belaievv, Crystallisation , Structure, and Properties of Slowly Cooled Steel
(Russian), St. Petersburg, 1909.
X J. E. Stead, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 1898, No. I. p. 145.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 65

mately the same form during growth. A minute octahedron
grows by the addition of solid material in directions parallel to
each of the faces, so that the crystal retains the general form
of an octahedron in spite of its increase in size. The con-
stancy of form is not exact ; new faces may make their
appearance, and others may develop very unequally, so that
the crystal assumes a tabular or an acicular form, but elaborate
branching is the exception. On the other hand, most metals
only exceptionally form simple polyhedral crystals, but by
preference assume the form of branched crystallites.

A theory of crystallites was proposed by Vogelsang, who
made a special study of these structures in vitreous rocks,
such as pitchstone, in blast-furnace slags, and in artificial
preparations.* He observed that by cooling solutions of
sulphur in viscous solvents, minute spherical or oval globules
were obtained, which then united to form chains, and then
gradually developed crystalline outlines, so that the typical
branched crystallites were thus produced. He therefore con-
sidered that crystallization always began by the formation of
spherical solid masses, and regarded crystallites as " embryonic
crystals." The view that the first stage of crystallization is
the formation of a globular or " utricular " mass, also based on
experiments with sulphur, had been previously suggested by
Brame.f It has now been disproved, as it has been shown
by many workers that the supposed solid globules of sulphur
and other substances are in reality drops of under cooled liquid
solutions, often of high viscosity. J

To decide whether the minute crystalline germ which first
makes its appearance in a liquid has a globular form deter-
mined solely by surface tension or possesses a distinct poly-
hedral boundary is difficult, and different observers have
recorded conflicting experiments. The question has, however,
been set at rest for practical purposes in regard to salts by
some studies of growing crystals by the method of instan-
taneous photography. § The photographs, mostly obtained

* H. Vogelsang, Die Krystalliten, Bonn, 1875.

t C. Brame, Comptes Rendus, 1853, vol. xx.xvi. p. 463.

X See, for example, R. Braun§' Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Beilag-Band, 1899,
vol. xiii. p. 39.

§ T. W. Richards and E. H. Archibald, Proceedings of the American Academy, 1901,
vol. xxxvi. p. 341.

6 6 Desch : First Report on

from barium chloride and potassium iodide, show that the
crystal, from the first moment that it is able to produce an
effect on the photographic plate, has a perfectly definite
crystalline outline. As is shown in a later section of this
Report, surface tension probably plays a much more important
part in modifying the forms of metallic crystallites, not only
in the earliest stages of growth, but also after a considerable
complexity of growth has been attained. When such salts as
barium chloride, copper sulphate, or lead nitrate are caused to
crystallize very rapidly by the addition of alcohol, the minute
crystals which are thus produced are perfect in form from the
beginning.*

In experiments with salts, the formation of branched and
dendritic forms in place of simple polyhedra is usually the
result of very rapid crystallization, of high viscosity of the
solution, or of the presence of colloidal material in suspension.
None of these causes will suffice to explain the dendritic forms
assumed by metals crystallizing from the molten state. The
specimens obtained by Grignon had cooled very slowly, and
the viscosity of molten metals is known not to be high. The
mechanism of the growth of crystallites has, however, been
satisfactorily explained, although the reasons why that mode
of growth should present itself with certain substances still
remain obscure. The principle of the explanation is mainly
due to Lehmann.f

A crystal can only grow in a supersaturated solution. In
the case of a molten metal, this is represented by liquid which
is to a certain extent under cooled. In the immediate neigh-
bourhood of a growing crystal there must be a zone of liquid
which is no longer supersaturated, owing to the removal of the
excess of dissolved substance. Further growth in this zone is
impossible until its concentration has been increased by diffu-
sion or by convection. The concentration thus depends on
the rate of growth of the crystal, and on the rate of supply of
dissolved material from the surrounding supersaturated solu-
tion. The presence of such a zone is easily observed in the
crystallization of salts in thin layers on a microscope slide, and

* p. Gaubert, Bulletin de la Sociiti fran^aise de Miniralogie, 1902, vol. xxv. p. 223.
t Molekularfhysik, vol. i. p. 337.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 67

has been confirmed in the case of crystals growing freely in a
mass of solution, by determinations of the refractive index.*

The " concentration currents " which are thus set up are
strongest where the concentration gradient is greatest, and
this is, as a simple geometrical construction will show, at the
sharp angles of the original crystal. Hence growth at these,
angles is accelerated, and deposition of material there goes on
with increasing velocity, resulting in the extension of the
crystal along certain axes, having a regular arrangement about
the centre. Should the supersaturation fall to such a point
that growth of the crystal can only proceed with extreme
slowness, the growth along axes ceases on account of the
practical disappearance of the concentration currents, and
further deposition of material takes place in such a way that
the spaces between the branches are gradually filled up.
These two stages of growth may be observed in the crystalliza-
tion of many salts under the microscope. When the crystal
is rapidly rotated during growth, a very regular polyhedral
form is obtained. f

In the solidification of molten metals, each crystallite con-
tinues to grow until interfered with by the growth of another
crystallite. Further solidification takes place between the
branches, and finally, when the whole mass has become solid,
the boundaries of the crystal grains are formed by mutual
interference, as in Fig. 3. This is one way in which the
cellular structure of metals may be accounted for. As each
grain is, properly considered, a crystal (of the kind termed by
mineralogists " allotriomorphic," that is, having an external
form determined by the interference of adjoining crystals) the
orientation of its component particles is uniform, whilst the
orientation varies in different crystal grains. This is rendered
evident by etching, and the familiar effect of etched metals
illuminated obliquely is due to the orientation. It has also
been found possible to determine the orientation from grain to
grain by determining the polarization of the reflected light,
and this method has certain advantages, but is not applicable
to metals which crystallize in the regular system. It has been

* H. A. Miers, Philosophical Transactions, 1903, vol. ccii. A, p. 515..
t De Watteville, Comptes Rendus, 1897. vol. cxxiv. p. 400.

6 8 Desch : First Report on

applied to the study of the groupings of crystallites in cast
zinc, antimony, and bismuth.*

The form and dimensions of the crystal grains depend on
number and arrangement of the nuclei from which crystalliza-
tion begins. A metal solidifying in a thin layer, so that the
nuclei may be considered to be in a single plane, and under
such conditions that they are evenly distributed in that plane,
will, assuming uniform velocity of growth in each direction,
form crystal grains which are either quadratic or hexagonal
prisms, having their prismatic axes perpendicular to the
cooling surface. Of these, the hexagonal arrangement is
the more stable (compare p. 80). In a large mass of metal,
on the other hand, there are two modes in which the nuclei
may be uniformly distributed, the cubic and the hexagonal,t
and uniform growth from these as centres results in the for-
mation of crystal grains of dodecahedral form, all the grains
being similar, but the dodecahedra differing in shape in
accordance with the presence of the cubic or the hexagonal
arrangement.^

The crystal grains in the interior of a slowly cooled ingot of
cast metal have a form which sometimes differs surprisingly
little from that which would be obtained under the ideal con-
ditions supposed above. Towards the outside of the ingot
the shape of the grains diverges very widely from that of the
simple dodecahedron, as the nuclei are then situated at the
cooling surface, and elongated crystallites are almost invariably
formed. The regularity of distribution of the nuclei in actual
cases depends on the uniformity of temperature throughout
the mass, and on the absence of disturbing currents. In-
equalities in the growth of the crystals in different directions
also play their part in determining the form of the crystal
grains. In the technical alloys, brass and bronze, the crystal
grains depart very widely from the simple polyhedral form,
and exhibit complex interlocking boundaries, which contribute
largely to the strength of the metal.

* K. Endell and H. Hannemann, Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Cheinie, 191.3, vol.
Ixxxiii. p. 267.

t W. Barlow, Nature, 1883. vol. xxix. p. 186.

X W. Barlow and W. J, Pope, Transactions of the Chemical Society, 1907. vol. xci.
p. 1150.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 69

It has been assumed in the above discussion that crystalline
growth continues until checked by actual contact with a
neighbouring crystal. That this is the case has generally
been assumed without discussion, but several investigators
have been led to question its accuracy. The other view which
may be taken is that crystal growth ceases when two neigh-
bouring crystals are still separated by a sensible distance,
that is, by a layer of more than molecular thickness, so that
an amorphous " cement " intervenes between the grains. Such
a cement must have many of the properties of a fluid, in-
cluding viscosity. The hypothesis of a viscous, amorphous
intercrystalline cement appears to have been first employed
by Brillouin * in order to explain the behaviour of metals
when subjected to deformation. The thickness of this layer
would be determined by the fact, which the author believed
to have established by experiment, that the molecules of a
crystal are capable of exerting an influence which is sensible
at five times the molecular distance, but probably insensible
at eight or ten molecular distances, "j" This hypothesis was
also employed by Sears % for a similar purpose. It was
independently reintroduced by Bengough § in order to explain
the change of mechanical properties of metals with change
of temperature, and has been adopted and elaborated by
Rosenhain and his collaborators, || in whose hands it has
developed into a working theory of the mechanism of de-
formation at different temperatures. As the theory has
recently been ably summarized and defended, with references
to the literature of the subject,1[ it is not necessary to discuss
it further in this place. It should perhaps be pointed out
that the well-known hypothesis of Beilby as to the production
of an amorphous material in metals by mechanical deformation
is independent of any assumption of an intercrystalline amor-

* M. Brillouin, Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1898 [vii.]. vol. xiii. p. 377.

t Ibid., 1896, vol, vi. p. 540.

X J. E. Sears, Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. xxi. p. 105.

§ G. U. Bengough, Jourtial of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1912, vol. vii. p. 170.

II W. Rosenhain and D. Ewen, ibid.. No. 2, 1912, vol. viii. p. 149, and later papers
in that Journal and in the Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute.

IT W. Rosenhain, Engineering, 1913: Paper read before Section B of the British
Association at Birmingham. Somewhat extended in hiternationale Zeitschrift fiir
Metallographie, 1913, vol. v. p. 65.

70 Desch: First Report on

phous layer as existing in metals in the normal, unstrained
condition.

With the resources now available in such institutions as the
National Physical Laboratory, it is possible to conduct experi-
ments with metals at high temperatures from which such
disturbing influences as that of oxidation are eliminated, and
much light may be expected to be thrown on this part of
the subject in the next few years.

The growth of crystallites from centres in the manner
described above is not restricted to pure metals or solid
solutions, whether growing in a liquid of similar composition
or in a eutectic mixture. It is also characteristic of many
eutectic alloys. Whilst the general microscopical appearance
of these alloys is often strongly suggestive of an alternating
mode of growth, there is now much evidence to show that
the two constituents grow simultaneously, although usually
with somewhat different velocities, from a centre.* The
structures thus produced have the character of spherulites,
and closely resemble the spherulites which are observed in
the devitrification of glassy rocks.*|" A eutectic alloy has thus
a tendency to arrange itself in masses which are completely
analogous with, and have a similar appearance to, the crystal
grains of pure metals or solid solutions. These compound
grains have been termed " colonies," % and are well seen in
white iron, and in phosphor-bronze. § Their structure may
be studied with facility in phosphor-copper. || Quenching
experiments have thrown much light on the mechanism of
their growth,1[ especially in regard to the segregation which
is brought about along the line of contact of the eutectic with
crystallites of the metal in excess.

* W. Rosenhain and A. P. Tucker, Philosophical Transactions, 1908, vol. ccix. A,
p. 89; R. Vogel, Zcitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1912, vol. Ixxvi. p. 425.

t W. Cross, Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 1891, vol. xi.
p. 411.

X C. Benedicks, Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Metallographie, 1911, vol. i. p. 184;
\V. Guertler, ibid., l'.»13, vol. iv. p. 2G1.

§ O. F. Hudson and E. F. Law, Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 19in, vol.
iii. p. IGl.

II C. H. Desch, Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgo-u<, 1912.
vol. xliii. p. 107.

H Unpublished ex|jeriments by F. E. E. Lamplough, communicated to Section B of
the British Association, Birmingham, 1913.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 71

3. Foam-Structures and Quincke's Hypothesis.

When two liquids which are only partially miscible are
shaken together, an emulsion is formed, and when one of the
liquids is in large excess, the other may become distributed
in such a way as to form thin cell-walls, enclosing the drops
of the first liquid. Such a structure is known as a foam.
The experiment is easily tried by shaking benzene with a
strong solution of potash soap, in which the soap solution
forms the walls, enclosing drops of benzene. The form of
the cells is definite, and corresponds with that determined by
Plateau * in his beautiful experiments with froths, in which
the cell- walls are of soap solution and the contents of air. A
foam may possess considerable stability and even mechanical
strength. For example, an emulsion may be prepared con-
taining 99 per cent, of paraffin, and only 1 per cent, of a 1 per
cent, solution of soap. The watery liquid then forms very
thin cell-walls separating and enclosing the oil globules.*)"
Such an emulsion forms a stiff jelly, which only de-emulsifies
spontaneously in the course of many months, if kept in a
closed vessel.

Professor Quincke has devoted much attention to the study
of foams, using mostly solutions containing colloidal sub-
stances. Having found that cellular structures might be
produced by the contact of two dissimilar liquids under a
great variety of conditions,J and that a surface tension could
be recognized in the surface of contact of two colloidal solu-
tions of different concentration,^ he proceeded to the study
of solutions free from colloidal material. The surface tension
between ether and water changes with time, owing to the
solution of ether by water, and of water by ether. If a thin
stream of water flows into alcohol, the liwisted stream forms
which are observed indicate that a surface tension exists at
the contact of the two liquids, but that it becomes less as
the alcohol and water interdiffuse, vanishing when mixture
is complete. If a concentrated salt solution be used in place

* J. Plateau, Statique expMmentale et tMoriqne des liquides, Paris, 1873.

t S. U. Pickering, Transactions of the Chemical Society, 1907, vol. xci. p. 2001.

X G. Quincke, Annalen der Physik, 1902 [iv.], vol. vii. pp. 631, 701.

§ Ibid., 1902 [iv.], vol. ix. pp. 793, 969.

7 2 Desch : First Report on

of water, actual drops, as of oil in water, may appear, changing
to stream forms as more and more dilute salt solutions are
employed.* The conclusion is drawn from these experiments
that there may be a surface tension at the contact of two
solutions of the same salt, of different concentration, and that
foams may therefore exist, in which the cell-walls differ from
the contents only in the concentration of the dissolved salt.
This view is considered to be supported by an elaborate series
of experiments on the freezing of ice."j* The small quantity
of salts present even in distilled water furnishes the " oily "
liquid for the foam-cells, the contents of which are pure water.
The existence of the cells is revealed during melting by the
formation of Tyndall's liquefaction figures. Repeated frac-
tional melting and freezing, by eliminating dissolved impurities,
increases the size of the foam-cells.

Crystals generally are regarded as foam-structures, differing
only from the cells of colloids in the extreme minuteness of
their cells.J Nevertheless, cleavage tends to take place along
the cell-walls, so that a cleavage plane has the optical pro-
perties of a Japanese mirror, exhibiting minute rounded
elevations, corresponding with the individual cells. This pro-
perty is illustrated by the examples of quartz, specular iron,
and other minerals.

Where three foam-walls meet one another, the angle between
them is one of 120°. On the other hand, where a foam-wall
meets a plane solid surface, the angle is one of 90°. It follows
that, during the process of crystallization, angles of 120° are
produced if three foam-walls meet while still liquid, but angles
of 90° if one such liquid wall encounters one which has already
become solid.

Plateau's soap solution, shaken in a flask, yields a froth with
very regular cells, the properties of which are easily observed.
A clear, colourless liquid, such as benzene, when allowed to
freeze in a similar flask, and examined by a strong transmitted
light, shows a division into grains which recalls the structure
of a foam, the walls of which fulfil the primary condition of

* Annalcn der Physik, 1902 [iv.], vol. ix. p. 1.

t G. Quincke, ibid., 1905 [iv.], vol. xviii. p. 1; Proceedings of the Royal Society,
1905, vol. Ixxvi. A, p. 431.
:J: Berichte der deutschen physikalischeu Gesellschaft, 1903, vol. v. p. 102.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 73

meeting at angles of 120°. Dendritic forms are obtained in
the course of melting.*

Passing to metals, the crystal grains are regarded as foam-
cells, the boundaries of which are the foam-walls. On this
view, the coalescence of small grains to form larger ones during
the process of annealing is a manifestation of the general
tendency of foams to become coarser in structure. Further
evidence for the hypothesis is derived from the corrosion of
the boundaries of the crystal grains by etching reagents,
pointing to a difference of composition between the foam-walls
and their contents, and from the increased volatilization at
the boundaries when metals are heated to a high temperature
in vacuo.^ The foam-structure is a complex one, as smaller
foam-cells are indicated by etch-figures, casting pits, and other
minor markings.

Foam-cells in metals are distinguished as of the first class
if solidification has taken place before the liquid films assumed
their position of equilibrium. They tend to have tubular,
spiral, or branched forms, whilst foam-cells of the second class,
produced in metals of lower viscosity, especially when the
cooling is slow, approach more nearly to the form of the cells
in a soapy froth. Crystallization within such cells frequently
results in the formation of spherulites. The crystallization of
a molten metal takes place periodically, not continuously, as
the mass successively falls below the freezing-point, and is
again warmed by the heat liberated by crystallization.

Even metals deposited from aqueous solutions of their
salts are regarded as having a foam-cell structure. Beilby's
amorphous layer due to mechanical deformation is not homo-
geneous, but consists of foam-tubes, warmed by friction and
rapidly cooled by conduction, and in this way frequently con-
verted into allotropic modifications.

It would occupy too much space to enter in detail into
the applications of this hypothesis, and reference must be
made to Quincke's recent paper, cited on p. 5 7. It is im-
possible to avoid the impression that the theory of foam -cells

* G. Quincke, Proceedings of the Royal Society , 1907, vol. Ix.wiii. A, p. GO.
t L. Holboin and F. Henning, Sitziaigsherichte der Akademie, Berlin, 1902, p. 936;
W. Rosenhain and D. Ewen, loc. cit.

74 Desch : First Report on

is made responsible for too much, and that a great variety of
essentially different structures has been brought under the
one head. The hardening of metals, the formation of marten-
site in quenched steels, and some other metallurgical pheno-
mena are explained in a somewhat forced manner. Thus, a
hardened steel is regarded as containing foam-walls of the
thickness of only one-fifth of a light-wave, in which minute
diamonds are imbedded. It is also to be remarked that no
quantitative test has been applied to the hypothesis, but that
the descriptions and explanations of phenomena remain purely
qualitative. This defect is specially noticeable in regard to
the question of crystals. No explanation of the geometrical
properties of crystals, based on the hypothesis of foam-structure,
has yet been given, and indeed it is not easy to see how any
constant angles, other than those observed by Plateau in soap-
films, could be produced. As it is precisely the geometrical
properties of crystals which have been most fully determined,
and rest on the most firmly established scientific basis, this
defect must be regarded as a serious one.

Another difficulty is of a physico-chemical character. It
has been proved experimentally that a true surface-tension
exists between two liquids, such as water and alcohol, and
some evidence has been produced in favour of the view that a
similar tension exists in the surface separating two solutions
of unequal concentration. This is, however, a temporary
phenomenon, disappearing as the solutions mix ; it does not
represent a state of equilibrium. There is no reason why a
liquid, originally homogeneous, should separate on cooling
into two liquid phases, these two phases being miscible. The
process of mixture is an irreversible one. It is, of course,
possible for a liquid, homogeneous at a certain temperature,
to separate into two immiscible liquid phases on cooling.
Plate I. Fig. 6 shows a structure obtained by the slow drying
of a homogeneous mixture of collodion with a vegetable oil on
a glass slip. As the solvent evaporates (a process comparable
with the cooling of a hot solution) separation into two im-
miscible liquids takes place, resulting in the formation of a
very distinct foam-structure. In the assumed cases of metals
and salt solutions, however, the two phases can be only solu-

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 75

tions differing slightly from one another in composition (in the
case of highly purified metals, by an infinitesimal amount), and
there is no reason to assume that they would be immiscible.

It is possible that these difficulties are not insuperable.
The structure of some metals is such as to render the assump-
tion of a foam-structure very tempting. Plate I. Fig. 7 repre-
sents a piece of cast 70:30 brass, in the unannealed condition.
There is no second constituent here ; but the a-solution, owing
to imperfect equilibrium, exhibits coring, and the differences
of composition between the cores and the periphery of the
crystallites, as brought out by the action of the etching
reagent, produce an effect which is very similar to that of an
artificial foam.

It is not a sufficient objection to urge that Quincke's expe-
riments have dealt with colloidal substances, the extension
of the conclusions to crystalline substances proceeding by
inference and analogy. There has been a marked tendency
amongst chemists who deal with colloids to lessen the distinc-
tion between colloidal and crystalline substances. Thus, the
electrical conductivity of solid solutions of metals has been
accounted for, at least qualitatively, by the hypothesis that
such substances are not homogeneous, but are colloidal
systems of a high degree of dispersity,* and a tendency to
revive this, the older, view as to the constitution of solid
solutions, has shown itself independently.! Only experiment
and microscopical observation can decide how far the foam-
cell hypothesis, which has rendered good service in the study
of amorphous, colloidal substances, may be legitimately ex-
tended to crystalline solids. It has been experimentally
shown J that the crystal grains are not distorted when solidifi-
cation takes place under the influence of centrifugal force, as
might be expected to be the case on the foam-cell hypothesis.

4. Cellular Structures in Cooling Liquids.

An attempt has also been made by several recent writers to
connect the cellular structure of metals and other solids with

* p. p. von Weimarn, Internationale Zeitichrififiir Metallographie, 1913, vol. iii. p. 65.
t C. A. Edwards, Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1911, vol. v. p. 150;
No. 2. 1911, vol. vi. p. 259.
X W. Rosenhain, Nature, 1913, vol. xci. p. 124.

76 Desch : First Report on

a remarkable partitioning which is observed under certain
conditions in cooling liquids. The earliest notice of a par-
titioning of this kind appears to be due to Weber, whose
observations were not suspected to bear in any way on the
question of crystallization. Weber * found that drops of a
mixture of alcohol, gamboge, and water, if allowed to evapo-
rate slowly on a glass slide, showed convection currents, and
at a certain point the upper surface became divided into well-
defined polygonal areas, which could be observed under the
microscope. Weber's explanation of the phenomenon was
incorrect ; but Lehmann,! in discussing these observations,
succeeded in interpreting them correctly. The upper surface
of the liquid is cooled by evaporation, and the difference of
temperature between the upper and lower surfaces then gives
rise to convection currents, the warmer liquid ascending in a
vertical column, spreading out radially at the top and then
descending. The polygonal outlines are then the boundaries
along which descending currents meet. (Weber had incor-
rectly supposed the liquid to ascend at the boundaries and
descend in the centre.) The currents are rendered visible by
the suspended particles of gamboge.

The drops of undercooled sulphur obtained by evaporating
a solution of sulphur in turpentine have sometimes been
observed J to space themselves evenly. The cause of this
arrangement was not at first realized, but later experiments
have shown that each such drop represents the centre of a
convection prism.

The first detailed study of this kind of partitioning is due
to James Thomson, when Professor of Engineering in the
University of Glasgow. Having observed a " tesselated "
pattern on the surface of a vessel of soapy water, he succeeded
in reproducing the conditions artificially and in demonstrating
the origin of the structure.^ On filling a glass pan to a depth
of 10 or 12 centimetres with soapy water the surface was
seen to become tesselated, or divided into polygonal areas with

* E. H. Weber, Poggendorff' s Arinnlcii, 1855, vol. xciv. p. 452.
f Molekularphysik, vol. i. p. 279.

% Ij. Frankenheim, Poggendorff's Atuialen, 1860 [ii.], vol. c.xi. p. 1.
§ Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgo'w, 1882 ; Collected Papers, 1912,
p. 136.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 77

distinct boundaries, the position of which was not constant but
gradually changed, the larger areas absorbing the smaller and
then again subdividing. It could be seen that each such area
was the upper surface of a prismatic column, the convection
currents due to cooling ascending in the central part of the
column and descending along its walls. These convection
currents were rendered visible by the insoluble particles, which
give the characteristic pearly lustre to soapy water under
suitable conditions.

Thomson's results did not become generally known, and
although similar phenomena must have been frequently
observed, very few observations of this nature have been
recorded. The convection prisms have occasionally made
themselves evident in a shallow bath of developing solution
by their localized action on a photographic plate,* but with-
out their true character being perceived. The first thorough
study of the subject was made by Henri Benard, who was
unaware of the earlier work of Thomson, "j" Benard's experi-
ments were carried out with substances melting in the
neighbourhood of 50°, which were consequently quite fluid
at the temperature of the water bath. The best results were
obtained with spermaceti. In order to obtain the greatest
possible regularity of structure, a special form of heating
apparatus was used, in which the liquid was exposed in a layer
0*4-2 -0 millimetres thick in a metal trough 15 centimetres in
diameter, so arranged that the lower surface, in contact with the
metal, was constantly at a very uniform temperature. Under
these conditions the prismatic arrangement of convection
currents {tourhillons cellulaires) became extremely regular. When
a steady state had been reached, the section of the prisms
became hexagonal, the partitioning approaching more nearly
to an arrangement of regular hexagons of equal size, the
greater the care taken to eliminate disturbing influences.

Benard devised several different methods for rendering the
structure visible and recording it photographically. The
simplest of these depends on the use of fine solid particles in
suspension, and in this form the experiment is easily repeated.

* A. Gu6bhard, Stances de la SociiU franfaise de Physique, 1897, p. 107.
t Thhepour le Doctoral, Paris, 1901.

Desch : First Report on

The particles may be lighter than the liquid ; for example,
lyeopodium spores, in which case a photograph, taken in-
stantaneously at a certain interval after strewing the sur-
face, shows very clear outlines of the polygons. On the other
hand, the particles may be heavier than the liquid, but of a
lamellar character, so that they are readily conveyed by the
convection currents, and betray by their change of lustre with
inclination the direction of their motion. The most suitable
solid particles for this purpose are those of graphite, especially
in the form of "kish" (Plate I. Fig. 8). Bdnard's other
methods are optical in character, and depend on the difference
of level between the centre and periphery of the surface of a
convection prism. Satisfactory photographs have been obtained
by several such methods, and by combining the results a com-
plete insight has been obtained into the prismatic structure.

Fig. 4.

The distribution of the convection currents in a single prism
is indicated in Fig. 4. The centre of each polygon on the

surface is a depression, whilst each point as a (Fig, 5), in
which three bounding lines intersect, is a summit. The

The Solidification of Metals froTn the Liquid State 79

bounding lines themselves are ridges, the difference of height
between the middle point of each ridge and a summit being
about three -fourths of the difference of height between a
summit and a depression. Consequently, particles of lycopo-
dium tend to accumulate at the summits, whilst heavy particles
are ultimately deposited in small conical heaps, each of which
occupies the centre of the base of a prism — that is, the base
of an ascending current. The differences of level increase
with the thickness of the liquid layer, and with the difference
of temperature between the upper and lower surfaces.

With layers of spermaceti of the order of a millimetre thick,
the ratio of the depth e to the mean distance between the centres

of two prisms, X, that is ^, is approximately constant for a

given liquid at a given temperature. Actually, the deviations
of this ratio from equality have been observed to follow certain
definite laws, an examination of which would, however, be
beyond the scope of the present report. A relation between
the values of this ratio and the other physical properties of
the liquid has not yet been determined.

As the temperature of the liquid falls to the freezing-point,
the movements become more sluggish, and the surface becomes
more nearly plane, so that the prismatic structure is often
completely obliterated before actual solidification takes place.
This is not always the case, however, and in beeswax, or
mixtures of beeswax with paraffin or salol, the structure is
retained after solidification, so that the cells are easily ex-
amined and photographed.* With a layer 1 millimetre
deep, the distance from centre to centre is of the order of
4 millimetres. Crystallization begins at the bounding surfaces
of the prisms, and extends inwards.

The prisms thus produced are due to convection currents,
brought about by differences of density between the warmer
and cooler portions of the liquid ; they are therefore always
disposed vertically. When a test-tube containing molten
spermaceti and fine graphite is immersed in a vessel contain-
ing water at a slightly lower temperature, vertical convection
currents are at once set up, and it is not possible to produce

* C. Dauzfere, Journal de Physique, 1907 [iv.], vol. vi. p. 892 ; 1908 [iv.], vol. vii. p. 390.

8 0 Desch : First Report on

prismatic cells with their axes horizontal — that is, at right
angles to the cooling surface. This appears to be a fatal ob-
jection to an explanation of the cellular structure of solid metals
by reference to B^nard's discoveries, as the external prismatic
crystals in cast metals are always perpendicular to the cooling
surface, and are independent of the direction of gravity. It
is therefore somewhat surprising that two recent works on
metallography * ^ should have quoted these results without
remarking the fundamental distinction between the two cases.

When a metal solidifies in thin layers, it is quite possible
that prismatic convection cells may be formed, and may even
exercise a determining influence on the arrangement of the
crystal grains. This may have some connection with the
" casting-pits " obtained with metals which have solidified in
contact with glass or mica,J and some experiments in this
direction, cut short by the early death of the investigator, were
made by Georges Cartaud. § Metals are allowed to solidify
by pouring while molten on to an inclined slip of glass.
Whilst the surface of a thin layer of bismuth prepared in this
way is completely crystalline, that of lead, tin, zinc, or cad-
mium is marked with a reticular pattern, and crystallites,
when present, are built up of a number of these small cells.
Occasionally, however, the boundary of a crystal grain cuts
completely across the boundaries of the cells. ||

The interpretation of Cartaud's observations is not easy.
The boundaries of his cells are marked by grooves, and not
by ridges, as in Dauz^re's experiments with wax. Further,
an examination of some of his photographs, especially of
Fig. 10 in the series published by Osmond, certainly suggests
that the supposed cells in relief have been produced by the
short axes of crystallites growing vertically in the metal, and
are therefore subsequent, and not anterior, to the formation
of the crystalline structure. A repetition of some of these

* F. Robin, Traiti de Mitallographie, Paris, 1912.

t E. Heyn, Metallographie (vol. ii. of Martens' Materialenkunde), Berlin, 1912.

X J. A. Ewing and W. Rosenhain, Philosophical Transactions, 1899, vol. cxciii. A,
p. 353.

§ Republished, with photomicrographs added, by F. Osmond, Revue de Mitallurgie,
1907, vol. iv. p. 819.

11 Comptes Rendus, 1901, vol. cxxxii. p. 1327.

Plate I

Fig. 6.

Foam-structure in Mixture of Oil and

Collodion.

Magnified 5 diameters.

Fig. 7.

Cellular Structure in Cored a-Brass.

Magnified 40 diameters.

Fig. 8.

Convection Cells in Liquid Spermaceti.

Two-thirds actual size.

Fig. 9.

Rounded Crystallites in Alloy containing

Aluminium 76%, Copper 24%.

Magnified 60 diameters.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 81

experiments also produces the conviction that thin films of
oxide exert a certain influence on the production of some
of the patterns described. The close resemblance, noted in
a later paper, * between certain cellular structures in metals
and the patterns produced by the wrinkling or contraction
of thin films of amorphous material, might be partly accounted
for in this way. The relations between this cellular structure
and the arrangement of the crystal grains revealed by etching
is by no means a simple one, j" and it is evidently impossible
to assume, without further evidence, a causal connection
between the convection cells and the crystalline structure.

5. Liquid Crystals.

The existence of substances which unite the properties of
a crystal and of a liquid, although seemingly so improbable,
has been established beyond doubt by the researches of
Lehmann.J It is mainly organic substances which exhibit
this behaviour, liquid crystals being formed by the choles-
teryl esters of organic acids, by many azoxy-compounds,
and by the alkali salts of the higher organic acids, especially
those with branched chains. § The crystalline structure is
rendered evident chiefly by the optical properties, globules of
the liquid acting on polarized light in such a way as to indi-
cate a regular orientation of the molecules. Although the
nature of these remarkable structures has been denied, and
their properties attributed to the presence of two liquid phases
in an emulsified state, || there appears to be no doubt that a
definite arrangement of the molecules may, under certain con-
ditions, persist in the liquid state, and this view is not now
regarded as incompatible with the space-lattice theory of the
constitution of crystals.il

It is characteristic of liquid crystals that they behave as

* Comptes Rendus, 190.S, vol. cxxxvi. p. 51.

t Hid., 1904, vol. cxxxix. p. 428.

+ O. Lehmann, Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, 1889, vol. iv. p. 462. See the
books by this author, referred to in footnote to p. 59.

§ D. Vorlander, Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1910, vol. xliii. p. 3120.

II G. Tammann, Annaleti der Physik, 1905 [iv.], vol. xix. p. 421; G. Friedel and
F. Grandjean, Comptes Rendus, 1910, vol. cli. p. 327.

IF A. E. H. Tutton, Crystallography, London, 1911, p. 931.

8 2 Desch : First Report on

distinct phases, having a definite position in the equiUbrium
diagram between determined limits of temperature. There is
thus a definite temperature at which the soHd phase passes
into the liquid-crystalline phase, and another higher tempera-
ture at which this again passes into the isotropic liquid
phase. Some substances even pass through two liquid-crys-
talline phases before becoming isotropic, and in this case also
a definite transition temperature is observed.* In binary
systems of substances which yield liquid crystals, the curves
which represent the variation of transition temperature with
composition have precisely the same general form as the curves
of freezing-point or of the transformation of solid phases."]*

As the crystalline structure in such cases is only recogniz-
able by optical means, the formation of liquid crystals in
metals has not been observed. Nevertheless, the suggestion
has been made on more than one occasion that some of the
phenomena which occur at or near to the melting-point of
metals may be connected with the formation of a liquid-
crystalline phase. Thus, in some comments on Lehmann's
work, H. Le Chatelier J drew attention to the analogy
between the growth of crystal grains in a metal on annealing
and the coalescence of the crystals of ammonium oleate,
referred to below. A bolder suggestion was made by Car-
penter and Edwards. § In the course of experiments with
alloys containing 90 per cent, of copper and 10 per cent, of
aluminium, these authors observed that remelting the alloy
was almost without effect on the composition or the mechanical
properties, but that the size of the a-crystals was modified to
a considerable extent, becoming greater in the second and
again in the third cast. From these facts the conclusion is
drawn that : " . . . the growth of the crystals with successive
remeltings may constitute evidence that when crystalline
metals and alloys pass from the solid into the liquid state
they do not forthwith lose their crystalline character ; that

* O. Lehmann, Zeitschriftfurphysikalische Cheviie, 1906, vol. Ivi. p. 750 ; F. M. Jaeger,
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam, 1907, vol. ix. p. 472.

t A. C. de Kock, Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, 1904, vol. xlviii. p. 129.

X Editorial, in Revue de Mitallurgie, 1906, vol. iii. p. 105.

§ H. C. H. Carpenter and C. A. Edwards, Eighth Report to Alloys Research Com-
mittee, Proceedings of the Itistitution of Mechanical Engineers, 1907, p. 164.

The Solidificatio^i of Metals from the Liquid State ST

although the chief attribute of the crystal, namely form, is
lost, yet the essence remains in the shape of a systematic
orientation of its material ; that the crystal units persist in
what is probably a very mobile condition, at any rate for
a certain range of temperature above the melting-point."

This hypothesis has not remained without criticism. On
the large scale, the remelting of alloys of copper with
aluminium is usually necessary for the purpose of eliminat-
ing the tough pellicle of aluminium oxide which is formed
by oxidation during melting and, by remaining suspended in
the liquid metal, prevents complete adhesion between the
crystals, and so reduces the strength and ductility of the
alloy. That this factor did not produce any serious effect in
the authors' experiments, which were conducted with small
castings, is shown by the similarity of the mechanical pro-
perties of the three castings, shown in the following table : —

Sand

Casting.

No.

Per Cent.
Copper.

Yield-point.

Tons per

Square

Inch.

Ultimate

Stress.

Tons per

Square Inch.

Per Cent.
Elongation

on
2 Inches.

1
2
3

90 -15
90-10
90-18

11-7
10-8
1.3 0

.31-90
.31 92

.30-77

2f;-5

29-2
22-5

There is thus no perceptible improvement in successive casts.
Nevertheless, it is quite possible that minute films of
aluminium oxide, insufficient to produce any appreciable
weakening effect, might suffice to check the growth of the
crystals, and such films would be eliminated on remelting.
Further experiments are necessary to decide whether such
films are actually present, whilst it is also desirable to deter-
mine, in the case of some readily fusible, transparent sub-
stance, the relation between the size of the crystals in the
solid state and that of the liquid crystals into which they pass
on fusion.

The crystals of ammonium oleate, to which allusion has
been made above, differ from the liquid crystals of such sub-
stances as ^-azoxy-anisole in this respect, that whilst the

84 Desch : First Report on

latter when unconstrained become spherical, the former have
a definite geometrical figure, that of a long, narrow double
pyramid. When two such crystals come into contact, they
coalesce to form a single crystal, having the same shape but
twice the size. When a crystal of ammonium oleate is
deformed by pressure, it returns to its original shape on
removal of the pressure.* The bearing of these facts on the
crystallization of metals is further discussed in the following
section.

G. The Influence of Surface-Tension.

The influence of surface-tension in determining or modify-
ing the forms assumed by metals and other substances during
solidification has been taken into consideration by many who
do not accept in its entirety the foam-cell hypothesis. That
dendritic forms, closely resembling the crystallites of metals
or of ice, may be produced by surface-tension in colloidal
materials has been abundantly shown by the investigations
of Lehmann and Quincke, and many workers with the micro-
scope must have observed structures of this kind. An inter-
esting recent study of the subject f utilizes films of viscous
liquid between glass plates. On separating the plates at one
corner, air enters, and the liquid retreats. The boundary
between liquid and air in such cases is not simple, but
assumes dendritic forms, the air dendrites, with rounded out-
lines, resembling those of many metals. With very viscous
liquids, such as Venice turpentine, bubbles also appear in the
mass of the liquid during separation, and these bubbles spread
and branch, producing an appearance like that of eutectic
colonies. The structures have only a temporary existence,
and are recorded by means of instantaneous photography.
The author draws attention to the close similarity between
certain of the structures obtained in this way and the eutectic
arrangement in white iron, the dendrites of austenite repre-
senting those of ail", and the intervening cementite the films
of liquid.

Whilst such analogies must not be pressed too far, it is

* G. Quincke, Annalen der Physik, 1894 [iii.Jp vol. liii. p. 593.
+ R. Arpi, Arkivfor Matematik och Fysik, 1912, vol. viii. No. 14.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 85

impossible to resist the conclusion that surface-tension plays
a part, and in all probability an important part, in deter-
mining the external form of metallic crystallites. Plate I.
Fig. 9, which represents crystallites of the solid solution rich in
aluminium in an alloy containing 24 per cent, of copper and
76 per cent, of aluminium, is typical of a very large number of
alloys. The axes terminate, not in octahedral or similar
sharp angles and plane faces, but in rounded expansions,
suggestive rather of the shrinkage patterns of Arpi's experi-
ments than of crystals. Such an effect is very frequently,
but not invariably observed. Antimony separates from alloys
containing 15 to 20 per cent, of copper in branched crystal-
lites, terminated quite sharply, and some compounds are
characterized by their sharp angles and a comparative absence
of branching. The compounds SbSn, FcgP, and CuAlg are
of this kind. The nature of the mother-liquor from which
crystallization takes place, may have an influence on the form
assumed by the primary constituent. Thus FeSbg crystallizes
in rhombs if present in only small excess over the eutectic
proportion, but in larger excess forms characteristic branched
crystallites.

How far surface-tension is capable of modifying the shape
of crystals is still a matter of some uncertainty. Quincke *
attempted to determine the " capillary constant " of solid
metals, but as the method adopted by him depended on the
measurement of the strength of hard-drawn wires, the results
cannot now be accepted, such wires now being known to be
in part amorphous, f An important step was taken by
Curie.J A drop of liquid, so placed as to be free from the
action of external forces, assumes, under the influence of
surface-tension, the shape in which the surface is a minimum ;
that is, it becomes spherical. In similar manner, a solid
crystal tends to assume that shape in which the sum of the
surface energies is a minimum. As the different faces have
different capillary constants, crystals do not become spheres,
but strive to attain a condition in which the total surface

* Poggendorff' s Annalen, 18G8 [v.], vol. xiv. p. 356.

t See Dr. Beilby's papers, including summary cited on p. 57.

X p. Curie, Bulletin de la SocidU miniralogique de France, 1880, vol. viii. p. 145.

8 6 Desch : First Report on

has the minimum area compatible with the crystalline struc-
ture. It follows from this fact that, when crystals of various
sizes are placed in contact with a saturated solution of the
same substance, the smaller crystals tend to disappear,
the matter of which they are composed passing into solution
and being re-deposited on the larger crystals. Equilibrium
is only reached when the whole of the material has been
collected in one large crystal. This process, shown to be
theoretically necessary by Curie, does actually occur. It has
been most fully studied, from a quantitative point of view,
in aqueous solutions, and may be used to calculate the
surface-tension between a solid and a liquid,* but it also
occurs in solids. The segregation of the cementite lamelhc
in a pearlitic steel to form granules, or that of a-crystals
in a Muntz metal to form large plates, is a phenomenon of
exactly the same kind. So, also, is the growth of crystal
grains when kept at a favourable annealing temperature. f

The view that surface-tension may, under certain conditions,
overcome the crystallizing force was put forward in 1903 by
Dr. Beilby. J The most favourable condition is that the
surface of the metal shall be large in proportion to its mass.
The larger the mass, the less is the influence of surface-
tension. Thin metallic films lend themselves well to the
demonstration of these phenomena. Faraday observed § that
thin gold or silver leaf supported on glass, which was nor-
mally translucent and brilliantly reflecting, was changed by
heating to a moderate temperature, becoming highly trans-
parent, but losing its high reflecting power. The study of j
such films by means of the microscope shows that the effect
of heat, by increasing the molecular mobility of the metal,
is to cause the film to collect itself into aggregates, tending
to become globular. Evidently, a very thin film can morel
readily undergo such a process than a thick one, as the surface
is very large in proportion to the mass. The condition thus

* W, Ostwald, Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, 1900, vol. xxxiv. p. 495; G. A.
Hulett, ibid., 1901, vol. xxxvii. p. 385.

t A summary of the literature on this subject is given by the writer, Report of the
British Association, 1912, p. 348.

X G. T. Beilby, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1903, vol. Ixxii. p. 226.

§ M. Faraday, Philosophical Transactions, 1857, p. 145.

The Solidification of Metals front the Liquid State 87

produced, resembling that of a viscous fluid, is akin to that
which exists on the surface of a metal strained by polishing.*
In such a film, also, surface-tension is able to hold the crys-
tallizing force in check.

The complete resemblance in this respect between the
behaviour of a thin film of metal and one of a viscous liquid
under the sole influence of surface-tension is well illustrated
by a comparison between the forms assumed by gold or silver
leaf on annealing and those assumed by a thin film of oil on
water as it breaks up and collects to form globular aggre-
gates. The similarity is very striking. "j*

It is possible to corroborate these conclusions abundantly
from the mass of data published by Quincke, Lehmanu, and
Biitschli. Quite recently the theory of the subject has again
been treated by Tammann,J whose conclusions are identical
with those quoted above, but are expressed in precise mathe-
matical form, confirmed by determinations of the tensile
strength of metallic films at high temperatures.^ The for-
mation of curved crystallites in binary mixtures is explained
in the same way. Unfortunately, owing to our ignorance of
the capillary constants of metals at different temperatures, it
is not possible to subject the formulae at present to quanti-
tative verification.

A case in which the cohesive or directive forces are almost
balanced by the surface-tension is that of the oleates and
similar " fliessende Krystalle." || If two of the elongated,
somewhat rounded crystals of potassium oleate are brought
into contact in such a way that the long axis of one is at
right angles to the other, they retain their position and form
unchanged, except that the sharp end of the one crystal is
flattened where it touches the other. On rotating one of the
crystals so that their directions become more nearly parallel,
deformation takes place, and union of the two crystals takes
place at the junction. Then, with increasing velocity, one is

* G. T. Beilby, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1903, vol. xxii. p. 1166.
t G. T. Beilby, Transactions of the Optical Society, 1{)07, p. 22.

X G. Tammann, Nachrichten der k. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften , Gotlingen, 1912.
§ H. Schottky, ibid.

II O. Lehmann, op. cit. on p. 59, and Zeitschrift fur physikalisclu Chemie, 1895, vol.
xviii. p. 91.

88 Desch: First Report on

absorbed by the other, until at last a single crystal is obtained,
similar in form to the parents. The union is obviously the
effect of surface-tension, and takes place in the same general
way as the union of two suspended drops of oil in Plateau's
experiments, with this difference, that the existence of a
directive force in potassium oleate is rendered quite evident
by the assumption of elongated forms, which are shown
optically to belong to the tetragonal system. This is an
extreme instance of the conditions which probably prevail in
many alloys during the process of solidification.

7. Undercooling, and the Existence of a
Metastable Limit.

That a pure liquid may be cooled below its freezing-point
without solidifying was first observed by Fahrenheit * in the
case of water. The analogous phenomenon of supersaturation
in salt solutions, that is, the undercooling of a binary system
below the temperature at which a solid phase should make its
appearance, was investigated by Lowitz,f who found that the
supersaturation could be removed by introducing a crystal
of the same salt, but not of a foreign substance. The sub-
sequent history of the subject has been described very fully
by Ostwald,| who, however, does not notice the earliest English
work on the undercooling of metals. The cooling of mercury
several degrees below its freezing-point without crystallizing
was observed in the course of experiments carried out at
Hudson's Bay,§ and was confirmed by Cavendish, who was
unable to detect any undercooling of molten tin or lead,
although he considered that such must occur, at least to some
small extent.|| The "flashing" of gold beads during cupella-
tion, which had been long familiar to assayers, was not shown
to be due to the crystallization of an undercooled liquid until
much later.^

* D. G. Fahrenheit, Philosophical Transactions, 1724, vol. xxxix. p. 78.
t J. T. Lowitz, Crell's Chemische Annalen, 1795, vol. i. p. 3.

X W. Ostwald, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie, 1S96-1902, vol. ii. Part 2, Sect. i.
pp. 379, 704.

§ T. Hutchins, Philosophical Transactions, 1783, vol. Ixxiii. p. 303* (double paging).
II H. Cavendish, ibid., p. 303.
H A. D. van Riemsdyk, Annates de Chimle et de Physique, 1880 [v], vol. xx. p. 6G.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 89

The first accurate measurements of the extent of under-
cooling in metals are due to Roberts-Austen,* who used a
photographic method of recording the cooling curves, and
obtained very sharp and definite records of the process of
freezing. Gold was undercooled to the extent of 3°, and
copper to 7°, whilst some alloys of lead and tin showed a rise
of 11° when crystallization set in. The experiments did not
decide whether liquid metals could be maintained for any
length of time in the undercooled condition, and evidence
was obtained for the view that crystallization was often
started by the deposition of minute crystals directly from the
vapour.

The size of the crystalline particle which is capable of
initiating crystallization has not been determined for metals,
but some extended experiments have been made with salts,
and also with organic substances, especially salol."f* The latter
substance, which can be long preserved in an undercooled
condition, lends itself well to such experiments. By grinding
salol with increasing quantities of finely powdered quartz,
mixtures of increasing dilution could be obtained, until at
last a dilution was reached at which the power of initiating
crystallization disappeared. The limit for salol was found to
lie near to 10~^ gramme of the solid, whilst the quantity of
sodium chlorate which would bring about the crystallization
of a supersaturated aqueous solution was considerably smaller,
namely 10~^° gramme. The difference was attributed to the
volatility of salol.

Ostwald has concluded, on theoretical grounds, that there
are two stages of undercooling or supersaturation (the con-
ditions in one- and in two-component systems being funda-
mentally alike), and that these stages are probably separated
by a definite boundary. A liquid which is so far undercooled
as to be incapable of crystallizing spontaneously, but which
crystallizes when brought into contact with a particle of the
solid phase, is termed metastdble, whilst a further degree of
undercooling renders the liquid liable to spontaneous crystal-
lization, and it is then termed labile. The existence of a

* W. C. Roberts- Austen, Proceedings of the J?oy a I Society , 1898, vol. Ixiii. p. 447.
t W. Ostwald, Zeitschrift fUr fhysikalische Cheinie, 1897, vol. xxii. p. 289.

9 0 Desch : First Report on

definite boundary between these two regions of instability,
the iiutastahle limit, has been denied by Tammann,* who
considers that they pass continuously into one another. The
principal experimental evidence relied upon by Ostwald was
that furnished by Liesegang's phenomenon.f When silver
nitrate diffuses into a jelly containing potassium dichromate,
the silver chromate which is precipitated does not form a
continuous deposit, but arranges itself in parallel bands at
regular intervals. Thus, if a drop of silver nitrate be placed
in the middle of a plate of dichromated gelatin, the silver
chromate is deposited in concentric rings of crystals, separated
by clear spaces. A similar effect is obtained with many other
substances. The only satisfactory explanation which has been
proposed depends on the existence of a metastable limit. As
the silver nitrate diffuses outwards silver chromate is formed,
but remains in metastable solution until the limiting con-
centration is reached, when crystals are suddenly deposited,
withdrawing the salt from the gelatin through an appreciable
distance. The nitrate then diffuses further, and the reaction
is repeated in a zone exterior to the first rings. As the
silver nitrate becomes more dilute as it extends further from
the centre, so the distance between successive rings increases
regularly.

The earlier attempts to decide the question by direct ex-
periment failed by reason of the difficulty of preventing
accidental contamination by crystallizing particles, and of
determining the exact degree of undercooling in the neigh-
bourhood of growing crystals. Both difficulties have been
overcome in the brilliant investigations of Miers and his
collaborators.^ Determinations of the refractive index have
been employed to ascertain the concentration of the solu-
tion at different points. These experiments show that for
each substance there is a definite temperature, lower than
the freezing-point, above which inoculation with the solid

* Kristallisieren und Schmelzeti, Leipzig, 1903.

t R. A. Liesegang, Chemische Reaktionen in Gallerten, Diisseldorf, 1898 ; Ucber die
Schichtungen bet Diffusionen, Leipzig, 1907.

:J: H. A. Miers and F. Isaacs, Transactions of the Chemical Society, 190C, vol. Ixxxix.
p. 413 ; and later papers in that journal and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society.
Well summarized in Science Progress, July 1907.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 91

phase is necessary to induce crystallization, whilst below it
crystallization can begin spontaneously. The same is true
of binary systems, so that it is possible to draw, below and
approximately parallel with the solubility curve, a super-
soluhility curve, which shows the relation between the
metastable limit and the concentration. This has been
verified for a number of pure substances and mixtures, in-
cluding systems in which solid solutions are formed, and in
which the solid may crystallize in several polymorphic modi-
fications. Corresponding determinations have not yet been
made with metals or alloys.

There still remains the possibility that a metastable liquid
may be caused to crystallize in some other way than by the
introduction of a solid crystal, but that the operation is so
difficult that shaking, scratching, and similar devices employed
in experiments of this kind are insufficient to provide the
necessary stimulus. If this should be the case, it would be
possible in some measure to reconcile the views of Ostwald
and Tammann. A remark of Miers in this connection may
be quoted :

" If the growth of a crystal is really the coming together
of vibrating particles which cohere because they are in tune
with one another, . . . then is it not possible that we may
be able to communicate these vibrations to a supersaturated
solution, which is so densely crowded that it is ready to
crystallize, by some other means than by inoculating it with
the appropriate crystal ? " *

This expectation appears to be fulfilled. f It has been
found possible to make water, benzene, or salt solutions
crystallize when in the metastable condition by applying
mechanical shocks of sufficient intensity, by means of metallic
hammers striking on hard metallic anvils. AVith a sufficient
intensity of the repeated -blows, water may be caused to
crystallize without the addition of ice when the undercooling
is as little as 0-02°.

The extension of such experiments to the metals is attended

* H. A. Miers, The Growth of a Crystal {^ohen Boyle Lecture, Oxford, 1911).

t S. W. Young, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1911, vol. xxxiii. p. 148 ;
S. W. Young and R. J. Cross, ibid., p. 1375 ; S. W. Young and W. van Sicklen, ibid.,
1913, vol. XXXV. p. 1067.

92 Desch : First Report on

by considerable difficulty, occasioned in large part by the
absence of transparency ; but the existence of a metastable
limit in metals should be capable of experimental verification.
It should be said that there is no evidence of a mass of liquid
metal being so far undercooled as to form a glass, that is, to
assume a rigid amorphous condition, although this condition
has been observed in water. The vitreous water passes at
once into crystalline ice when scratched with a needle, and is
therefore labile.*

Miers' experiments have shown that the habit of crystals is
diiferent according as they have separated from a metastable
or a labile solution. The fact that the formation of spheru-
lites is dependent on crystallization under labile conditions f
may have some bearing on the origin of certain structures in
alloys.

A few isolated experiments with metals have been pub-
lished, the object of which was to discover the relation of the
number of centres produced in spontaneous crystallization to
the degree of undercooling. The experiments were confined
to bismuth and antimony, J and the method adopted was that
of pouring the molten metal, previously heated to a definite
temperature, into a mould kept at constant temperature by
xneans of a bath. After solidification the number of crystal
grains in a given area was counted, this being a measure of
the number of centres of crystallization. The temperature of
the mould was varied in different experiments from above the
melting-point of the metal down to — 70°. The method is
faulty, because it gives no information as to the extent of
undercooling. A cold mould increases the rapidity of the
cooling, but crystallization undoubtedly sets in before the
metal reaches the temperature of the mould. It is perhaps
legitimate to infer that the undercooling will be more con-
siderable the greater the difi'erence of temperature between
the mould and the metal at the time of pouring ; but the two
magnitudes are not necessarily in direct proportion to one
another.

* G. T. Beilby, May Lecture, 1911, Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1911, No. 2,
vol. vi.
t J- Chevalier, Mineralogical Magazine, 1909, vol. xv. p. 224.
X E. Bekier, Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1912, vol. Ixxviii, p. 178.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 93

It was found that the crystal grains became smaller (that
is, the centres more numerous) the greater the rapidity of
cooling ; but at the lowest temperatures examined the number
of centres once more increased in the case of antimony, but
not in that of bismuth. This was considered to show that
antimony lost its power of crystallizing spontaneously at low
temperatures ; so that, with a sufficient degree of undercooling,
it might conceivably be obtained in an amorphous condition.
Amorphous antimony has in fact been obtained by condensing
the vapour of the metal very rapidly by contact with a surface
cooled by liquid air.* This may, however, be merely the effect
of deposition in minute globules, the size of which allows
them to assume forms governed by surface tension. Many
metals may be obtained in the form of minute globules by
electrical dispersion (^Zerdcivhuwj) or sublimation. i*

8. Changes of Volume on Solidification.

The change from the liquid to the solid state is usually
accompanied by a change of volume. The density of a solid
metal may be either greater or less than that of the liquid
metal at the same temperature, and instances of both condi-
tions are known to occur. The experimental determination
of the change of volume is accompanied by serious difficulties
where metals of high melting-point are concerned. Similar
difficulties present themselves in the study of minerals and
rocks, in which a knowledge of the change of volume on solidi-
fication is of importance for geology ; but here they may be
in part overcome by resort to an expedient. Many minerals
and rocks may be obtained in the state of glass by rapid cool-
ing from above the melting-point, and a comparison of the
density and coefficient of expansion of the crystalline solid
with those of the glass, which are continuous with the corre-
sponding properties of the liquid, furnishes the information
with a fair degree of certainty. This device is not applicable

* A. Stock and W. Siebert, Berichte der deutschen chemisclien Gesellschaft, 1905, vol.
xxxviii. p. 3837.

t V. Kohlschutter and C. Ehlers, Zeitschrift fur Elektrochemie , 1912, vol. xviii.
p. 373.

94 Desch : First Report on

to metals, which cannot be brought in mass into the form of
glass, and direct measurements, therefore, become necessary.

It was formerly thought that the solid substance must
necessarily have a greater density than the liquid at the same
temperature, on the ground that the solid state corresponds
with the most closely packed arrangement of the molecules.
This opinion was challenged by Duvernoy,* who observed that
many metals, when allowed to solidify in glass tubes, burst
the tubes, thus indicating an expansion (diminution of den-
sity) during the act of freezing. Duvernoy 's results were
somewhat variable, and led him to conclude that the volume
change is dependent on the rate of cooling, so that pure zinc
or tin, for example, may contract during solidification if cooled
rapidly, but will expand if cooled slowly. For reasons which
are discussed in the next section, observations of this kind
prove nothing as to the direction of the volume change.

The density of liquid metals has been determined t ijl § by
filling a vessel, the capacity of which at the temperature of
the experiment is known, with molten metal. The vessel is
then weighed. In this way the difference of density between
the cold solid and the hot liquid metal is obtained, but a
knowledge of the exact expansion of the solid metal up to
its melting-point is necessary before the actual change of
temperature at that point can be determined. As carried
out before the introduction of silica dilatometers, the method
was not susceptible of high accuracy. Metal containing-
vessels were used, which became permanently distorted as
the result of heating and cooling, and it was impossible to
determine the volume at the moment of freezing exactly.
The density of the liquid metal could, however, be determined
approximately in this way, and the data so obtained have
proved to be of some value.

From the time of Reaumur onwards, it has been observed
that masses of solid metal will frequently float when thrown
into a vessel containing the same metal in a molten condition.

* G. Duvernoy, Neues JahrbuchfUr Mineralogie, 1862, p. 781.
t L. Playfair and J. P. Joule, Memoirs of the Chemical Society, 1845, vol. ii. p. 401.
X R. Mallet, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1873, vol. xxii. p. 366; 1874, vol. xxiii.
p. 209.
§ W. C. Roberts (Austen), ibid., 1874, vol. xxiii. p. 481.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 95

This has been recorded for iron, copper, silver, gold, antimony,
and lead, and has occasionally been cited as evidence that
such metals are lighter in the solid than in the liquid state,
but this is by no means necessarily the case. Mallet showed
that the flotation did not always correspond with any true
buoyancy of the solid, and explained it by the influence of
convection currents. Actually, several different causes may
combine to produce the effect. Flotation has been used as
a means of determining the density of liquid metals. Thus
the method commonly adopted by mineralogists of determin-
ing the density of solid particles which just sink or just float
in the liquid has been applied to metals.* For measurements
with tin the solid masses employed were lumps of tin, in
which copper was enclosed to increase their density. This
method led to very incorrect conclusions. Obviously, the first
condition of the mineralogical method, that the solid particles
should not be acted on by the liquid, is not here fulfilled.

A special form of instrument, the oncosimeter, was also
devised, in which the force acting on a metal ball suspended
in the liquid metal by a spiral spring was measured."]" In this
way it was shown that grey cast iron and bismuth expand on
solidification, whilst copper, silver, lead, tin, and zinc contract.

More satisfactory results have been obtained by means of
the dilatometer, which has hitherto been usually of glass, but
may now be advantageously constructed of silica. The prin-
cipal difficulty in making such determinations is that of find-
ing a suitable filling liquid. Molten metals are inapplicable,
on account of their miscibility with the metal which is being
studied, whilst oils and other organic substances decompose
or volatilize at relatively low temperatures, restricting the
experiments to the more readily fusible metals. The use of
fused salts should here present some advantages.

The first metals which were shown in this way to contract
on freezing were sodium and potassium \ and tin. § A more

* F. Nies and A. Winkelmann, Annalen der Physik, 1883 [iii.], vol. xviii. p. 364.

t W. C. Roberts (Austen) and T. Wrightson, Philosophical Magazine, 1881 [v.], vol.
xi. p. 295 ; 1882 [v.], vol. xiii. p. 360.

X E. Hagen, Verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft, 1882, vol. i.
p. 94.

§ E. Wiedemann, Annalen der Physik, 1888 [iii.], vol. xx. p. 228.

Desch : First Report on

extended series of measurements * included the determination
of the density and of the coejfficient of expansion of both the
solid and the liquid metal in the case of lead, cadmium, tin,
and bismuth, expansion during solidification being clearly
proved to occur in the case of the last-named metal. The
volume changes of bismuth were also studied in detail,f and
it was found that this metal resembles water in having a
maximum density at a temperature just above its melting-
point. On cooling below this temperature, therefore, the
liquid undergoes slight expansion, followed by a much larger
expansion as the metal freezes. The change of volume is,
however, much smaller than in the case of water.

The dilatometric method was further improved by Toepler, J
who studied a larger number of elements, and took the im-
portant precaution of ensuring that solidification of the metal
proceeded slowly from below upwards, in order to guard
against the formation of internal cavities. The results hitherto*
obtained by these observers are summarized in the following
table : —

Metal.

Percentage

Increase of Volume on Melting.

Sodium

2-5 (T).

2-5 (H).

Potassium

2-5 (T).

2-() (H).

Tin .

2-8 (T).

2-8 (V and O).

Cadmium .

.5-2 (T).

4-72 (V and O).

Lead

3-7 (T).

3-.S9 (V and O).

Thallium .

31 (T).

Zinc .

0-9 (T).

Aluminium

4-8 (T).

Tellurium .

7-3 (T).

Antimony .

! 1-4 (T).

Bismuth -3-27 (T).

-3-31 (V and O). -3-0 (L).

The initials in brackets refer to the authorities quoted in
the footnotes, and it will be seen that the agreement between
the results obtained by different observers is very satisfactory.

The change of volume on solidification was found by Toepler
to be a periodic function of the atomic weight, and the curve

• G. Vincentini and D. Omodei, Atti R. Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, 1887,
vol. xxiii. p. 8.

t C. Ludeking, Atinalen der Physik, 1888 [iii.], vol. xxxiv. p. 21.
X M. Toepler, ibid., 1894 [iii.], vol. liii. p. 343.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 97

exhibiting the relation is very similar in form to the atomic
volume curve.

Organic substances have been examined with much greater
precision than metals. In a recent investigation * the sub-
stances examined were enclosed in capillary tubes sealed at
one end, and immersed in a bath the temperature of which
was only very slightly below the freezing-point of the sub-
stance. In this way freezing may be made very gradual, the
process occupying many days, so that the formation of cavities
in the solid is avoided. The level of the upper surface of
the solid having been noted, the substance is melted and the
level again determined. Subsequent calibration of the tube
with mercury gives the change of volume directly. The
results obtained in this way are in excellent agreement with
those found by the indirect method of determining the density
of the solid and the liquid metal at temperatures not far
removed from the freezing-point. It is very desirable that
determinations of this kind should be extended to metals.

For most substances hitherto examined, Tammann's relation
holds good : —

\dT dTj

where Sv is the change of volume on fusion in cubic centimetres
per gramme, T^ is the absolute temperature of fusion, and

dv' J dv"
dT ""^ dT

are the changes of volume, in cubic centimetre per gramme,
of the liquid and solid respectively per degree C.

Very few alloys have been studied in this way. Hagen
examined the liquid eutectic of sodium and potassium, and
Roberts-Austen examined Level's alloy, the eutectic of silver
and copper, finding that it behaved similarly to the pure
metals. Wiedemann found that the eutectic of lead and tin
expanded 2 per cent, of its volume on melting, and that alloys
of lead and bismuth expanded or contracted according to the
proportions of the component metals.

It is also necessary to discuss a series of experiments bear-

* H. Block, Z.eitschrift fiir fhysikalische Chemie, 1912, vol. Ixxviii. p. 385.

98 Desch : First Report on

ing on this question, but based on a different principle. For
the practical purposes of the foundry it is important to know
how far a finished casting will differ in size from the pattern
used in preparing the mould. The contraction of the solid
metal during cooling is allowed for by making the pattern
slightly larger than the casting is required to be, the ratio
being determined by experiment. The contraction is usually
expressed as a linear fraction, such as " \ inch per foot,"
instead of, as in the above laboratory experiments, as a volume
ratio.

An apparatus for this purpose was devised by Keep,* and
improved by Turner.j The metal to be tested is cast in a
sand mould, in the form of a T-shaped bar, one end of which
is held by a fixed pin, whilst the other is in contact with a
freely movable rod attached to an extensometer. The pouring
gate is on one of the branches of the T, and a thermocouple
is inserted at a convenient point. In later work with this
apparatus, a chronograph has been used for the purpose of
recording the variations of temperature and of length with
time more exactly. In its most recent forms, the instrument
is very sensitive.

As long as the metal in the mould is liquid, no record is
made by the instrument, provided that the movable rod has
sufficient friction to resist the thrust due merely to the weight
of liquid metal, but the extensometer indicates all changes
which take place after solidification has proceeded so far that
there is a rigid connection between the fixed and the
movable pin.

It is evident that the records of such an instrument do not
necessarily correspond with those of the dilatometer. The
volume of liquid metal is undefined, as there is a gate in
which the liquid can rise and fall to compensate for variations
in the volume of metal in the mould. Moreover, as is shown
in the next section, many metals, especially those which do
not crystallize in the regular system, are capable of exerting
a considerable thrust in the direction of one axis during
growth, forcing themselves apart in the process and simulating

* W. J. Keep, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 1895, No. II. p. 227-
t T. Turner, ?^i(/. ,1906, No. I. p. 48, and papers cited below.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 99

expansion. In dilatometric measurements, this complication
has to be guarded against as completely as possible by allow-
ing cooling to occur very slowly and progressively along the
length of the containing vessel, so that cavities as they are
formed are filled up, either by the liquid metal or by the
fluid used to fill the capillary of the dilatometer. This is
impossible in the present instrument, in the mould of which
the metal crystallizes irregularly, and cavities may remain
unfilled. In point of fact, the test-bars often reveal a con-
siderable degree of porosity when examined under the micro-
scope. It is also impossible, in this method of working, to
eliminate the influence of dissolved gases.

A similar instrument has been employed by Wiist.* In
this form, however, there is no fixed pin, and the two ends
of the bar solidify around sliding rods which actuate pistons,
the changes in length being indicated by the displacement
of a column of liquid. The same criticisms of the method
are applicable here.

Professor Turner and his students have obtained some very
interesting results in the course of experiments with the
mould and extensometer, some of which are difficult to
explain without further investigation.^— 1| Copper, tin, lead,
and bismuth were found to solidify without expansion, whilst
zinc, aluminium, and antimony were observed to expand.
These results cannot be accepted without some hesitation.
Dilatometric measurements, which are necessarily more trust-
worthy owing to the elimination of disturbing factors, clearly
prove that whilst tin and lead contract during solidification,
bismuth expands. The apparent expansion of aluminium is
attributed by Chamberlain to the influence of dissolved gases,
and Wlist has observed a similar effect in copper. Effects
of this kind may be disregarded, but there remain some re-
markable cases of apparent expansion during solidification,
indicated by movements of the extensometer. In such cases

* F. Wust, Metallurgie, 1909. vol. vi. p. 769.

t T. Turner and M. T. Murray, Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1909, vol. ii.
p. 98.

+ D. Ewcn and T. Turner, ibid., No. 2, 1910, vol. iv. p. 128.

§ T. Turner and J. L. Haughton, ibid., No. 2, 1911, vol. vi. p. 192.

II J. H. Chamberlain, ibid.. No. 2, 1913, vol. .x. p. 193.

100 Desch: First Repaid on

a general correspondence has been observed between the
amount of expansion and the " crystaUization interval " — that
is, the vertical range of temperature between the liquidus and
solidus curves in the equilibrium diagram. Very large ex-
pansions were observed in the freezing of an alloy of 15 per
cent, copper and 85 per cent. zinc. In this case the expan-
sion begins at 590°, the temperature of formation of 6-crystals
from ^-crystals and liquid, and continues until the mass is
completely solid at about 420°. The eifect is thus connected
with the formation of a new solid phase from the liquid and
the solid phase initially deposited. Some of the alloys of
copper with large proportions of aluminium also give large
apparent expansions. The reasons for doubting whether the
results are in all cases due to actual increase of volume are
dealt with in the next section.

Experiments in the dilatometer have not yet been made
with metallic solid solutions, or with intermetallic compounds,
so that a comparison of the extensometer results with those of
the control method is not yet possible. As regards eutectics,
the extensometer records a small expansion in several cases.
The eutectics mentioned on p. 97 contract, like their com-
ponent metals, on solidification, but it is quite possible for a
eutectic, composed of two metals which contract, to solidify
with increase of volume, although the occurrence of such an
expansion awaits experimental verification.*

Whatever may be the theoretical significance of the results
obtained with the extensometer, there can be no doubt of the
value of its indications for the practical work of the foundry.
The increase in external dimensions of the test-bar before
contraction sets in is a fact, and one of importance in the
practical casting of the alloys in question, as it affects the
allowance to be made in constructing the pattern. Moreover,
these investigations, if they have not solved the problem of the
changes of volume in the solidification of alloys, have raised
many questions of high scientific interest, and have pointed
the way to new knowledge.

Some of the expansions observed are no doubt due to re-

* H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom, Die heterogenen Gleichgewichte (Brunswick, 1904),
vol. ii. I. p. 416.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 101

actions between previously existing phases or to the decom-
position of such a phase. The principal expansion in the
solidification of grey cast iron is due to the liberation of
graphite, a solid phase of high specific volume, and such cases
as that mentioned above, of the ^ e alloys of copper and zinc,
may be partly accounted for in the same Avay. There still
remains, however, an important residue of anomalous observa-
tions, which still await explanation.

Qualitative, if not quantitative, evidence of the change of
volume at the melting or freezing point is also furnished by
measurements of the electrical conductivity of metals in the
liquid and solid states. The conductivity of solid metals is
increased by pressure,* and the same is true of liquid mer-
cury. "I" Therefore, as Tammann has pointed out, the con-
ductivity should increase at a change of state accompanied by
diminution of volume, and decrease when the volume in-
creases. The data at present available on this point confirm
the conclusions already arrived at by means of the dilato-
meter, the single exception hitherto being antimony, as to
which considerable uncertainty still prevails, owing to its
anisotropic character, which renders its crystallization very
liable to vary irregularly.

The data are collected in the table, the authorities being
given in the footnotes !jI-§§. The specific resistance has
been used in place of the conductivity.

Only a few alloys have been examined in this way.
Northrup found that the eutectic alloy of sodium and potas-
sium behaved like its component metals, and the solid solu-
tions of copper and nickel have been found to increase in

* O. Chwolson, Beibldtter der Physik, 1881, vol. v. p. 449; author's abstract from
Russian publications.

I R. Lenz, ibid., 1882, vol. vi. p. 882, from separate publication.

X A. Matthiessen, Poggendorff' s Annalen, 1857 [iv.], vol. x. p. 177. (Communicated
by G. Kirchhoff.)

§ W. Siemens, ibid., 1861 [iv.], vol. xxiii. p. 91.

II L. de la Rive, Compfes Rcndus, 1863, vol. Ivii. p. 698.

H G. Vincentini and D. Oniodei, Atti R. Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, 1889,
vol. XXV. p. 30.

*• G. Vassura, Nvoi'o Ciinento, 1892 [iii.], vol. xxxi. p. 25.

tf E. F. Northrup, Transactions of the American Electrochemical Society, 1911, vol.
XX. p. 185.

4i;J: L. Grunmach, Annalen der Physik, 1888 [iii.], vol. xxxv. 764.

§§ L. P. Cailletet and E. Bouty, Journal de Physique, 1885 [ii.], vol. iv. p. 300.

102

Desch : First Report on

resistance on melting, indicating that the solid is denser than
the liquid at the melting-point.*

Metal.

Resistance of Liquid

-5 — ^-. , , . . . , at Melting-point.

Resistance of bolid ^ '

Sodium
Potassium
Tin .
Cadmium
Lead

Thallium .
Zinc

Mercury .
Antimony
Bismuth .

1-35 (M) 1-47 (N)

1-36 (M) 1-.54(N)

2-2 (dlR) 2-21 (V and O) 21 (S) 2-]2 (Va)
1-8 (d 1 R) l-9(i(VandO) l-»7 (Va)

1-9 (dlR) 1-95 (V and O)
2-00 (V and O)

4-08 (C and B) 1-5 (G)

0-46 (d 1 R) 0-45 (V and O) 0-46 (Va)

2 0

4
0-7

(dlR)

(W)

(dlR)

9. The Thrust Exerted by Growing Crystals.

Reference has been made to eftects produced in the crystal-
lization of certain metals, which may be readily confused with
changes of volume. A great many experiments were made
by Duvernoy,| tending to show that many substances,
ordinarily supposed to contract on solidifying, really expanded.
Thus, an iron vessel provided with a neck was filled with
molten lead, which contracted during cooling, but towards
the close of the solidification the remaining liquid rose in the
neck, indicating expansion.

These experiments were criticized in detail by Volger, J
who showed that Duvernoy's conclusions were incorrect. The
greater part of the apparent expansion might be accounted
for by the thrust exerted by the growing crystals. In the
lead experiment, for example, crystals grew from the Avails
of the vessel inwards, pushing the liquid metal before them.
As precautions were not taken to ensure a progressive solidi-
fication from the closed to the open end of the mould, the
mass was closed at some distance below the neck, and cavities
formed in the body of the solid metal. A spherical casting of
lead always contains a central cavity. Hence the necessity,
in dilatometric experiments, of allowing freezing to proceed

* K. Borneman and G. von Rauschenplat, MetaUurgie, 1912, vol. ix. pp. 473, 505.

t Loc. cit. See p. 94.

X G. H. O. Volger, Poggeiidorff' s Aimalen, 1854 [ii.], vol. .xciii. pp. 66, 224.

The Solidification of Metals from the Liquid State 103

very slowly from the closed end of the containing vessel
onwards, so that liquid may be continually supplied, and the
formation of a cavity avoided.

The difference between a true increase of volume and an
apparent expansion due to the thrust exerted by growing
crystals is well illustrated by the case of plaster of Paris.
When a test-tube is partly filled with a paste of plaster and
water, the mass sets with apparent expansion, and the tube
is often burst. Nevertheless, the reaction

2CaS04, H20 + 3H20=-2[CaS04, 2H2O]

is accompanied by a diminution of volume of about 7 per cent.
The force acting on the glass walls is a thrust due to the
power of orientation of the crystals. The power possessed
by growing crystals of gypsum, of pushing aside large masses
of clay, was observed in volcanic deposits by Bunsen. * It is
a factor of some importance in geology. Thus, crystals of
pyrites may grow outwards, thrusting rock before them with
considerable force, "j" and similar phenomena have been shown
to occur in the formation of metallic veins. The evidence
on this point has been recently summarized. J

The disintegration of earth by the growth of ice-crystals
has been recorded by many observers. § || The columnar
crystals may raise masses of earth vertically in the course of
their growth, and it appears that the disruptive action of frost
on rocks is probably due as much to thrust exerted in this
way as to the actual expansion during freezing. This con-
clusion was emphasized by Volger, and receives further con-
firmation from the behaviour of crystallizing salts when
absorbed by porous materials. Thus, porous tiles and bricks
are disintegrated by soaking in a solution of sodium thio-
sulphate and allowing this to crystallize, although the crystal-
lization of the salt takes place with diminution of volume.

* R. Hunsen, Liebi^s Attiialen, 1847, vol. Ixii. p. 1.
t F. PoSepny, Archiv fur praktische Geologic, 1880, vol. i. p. 28!l.
X W. Bornhardt, Archiv fur Lagerstdttenforschung , 1910, Heft ii.
§ James Thomson, Collected Papers, p. 269 ; observations made in 18U4.
y B. Schwalbe, Verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft, 1885, vol. iv.
p. 26.

104 Desch: First Report on

This process is employed in the testing of porous ceramic
materials.*

The thrustmg aside of impurities by the advancing tip of
a growing crystal is easily observed under the microscope, and
many examples are given by Lehmann. The measurement
of the force exerted is not easy. In a single experiment, a
crystal of alum, the area of which could not be accurately
measured, was observed to exert a vertical lifting force of one
kilogramme, when growing upwards in a flat-bottomed vesseLf
The thrust measured in Chamberlain's experiments is, of
course, the resultant of actual volume changes and of many
individual thrusts varying in direction.

Effects of this kind may be expected to be most pro-
nounced in anisotropic metals, but it is not confined to them.
The metals which crystallize in the cubic system commonly
exhibit a tendency to skeletal growth in the direction of a
single axis, which may result in a thrust. The whole subject
calls for further investigation.

It is not necessary to assume the existence of a separate
" crystalline force." The ordinary cohesive forces in solids
have, in crystals, vector properties, and act more strongly in
certain directions than others. This is in fact implied in the
idea of a crystal, and the phenomenon of crystal thrust is to
be expected as a result of the vectorial character of cohesion.

Programme of Experimental Work.

The scheme proposed by Dr. Beilby included the preparation
of a summary of the existing knowledge on the subject of the
solidification of metals, and also an experimental investigation
of some of the factors. Only the first of these objects has
been dealt with, and that very briefly, in the present report.
It is probable that many publications bearing on the subject
have been overlooked ; whilst many others, although consulted,
have been omitted owing to considerations of space. An
attempt has been made to include all relevant Avork in the

* J. \V. Cobb, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1907, vol. xxvi. p. 390.
f G. F. Becker and A. L. Day, Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Science,
1905, vol. vii. p. 283.

The Solidification of Metah from the Liquid State 105

preliminary survey ; but, from the nature of the subject, it is
almost impossible to make an exhaustive search. The discus-
sion of the phenomena of crystallization from solid solution
has been postponed to a later occasion.

One point which an examination of previous work has
made clear is that more than one cellular structure may be
present in a solid metal at the same time. This is clearly
shown by some of Cartaud's photographs ; and it is evident
that some observers, seeking to explain the origin of the
cellular structure, have confounded cells of different orders.
One series of experiments now in hand is therefore directed
to determining the relation between different cellular struc-
tures. For this purpose it has been found advisable not to
confine the experiments to metals, but to include readily
fusible salts and organic compounds, the use of which presents
several advantages.

Another fact which has become strikingly evident is that
very similar structures may arise from very different causes.
Plane sections through a bees' honeycomb, a Lithostrotion
coral, a cake of wax solidified in Dauzere's apparatus, a mass of
columnar basalt, a benzene-water foam, and an over-annealed
/3-brass, are all very similar in appearance, being divided into
approximately equal cells, tending towards a more or less
hexagonal outline. Yet the origin of the hexagonal cells is
very different in the cases quoted, the first two being the
product of living organisms ; the third, and probably also the
fourth, being produced by mutually repelling convection cur-
rents ; the fifth by surface tension ; and the last, in all proba-
bility, by crystallization from independent centres or nuclei.
The property common to all of them is a geometrical one,
connected with the regular distribution of points in a plane
or in space. Some writers who have sought to explain the
structure of metals have fallen into the error of assuming
community of origin where there is only similarity of arrange-
ment, due to merely geometrical causes.

Preliminary experiments have shown that some of the
effects recorded by previous observers are connected with the
presence of a thin film of oxide at the surface of the metal.
It is therefore proposed to use, as a standard of structure in

106 The Solidification of Metals fi'om the Liquid State

freely crystallized metals, buttons of metal whicli have been
fused and allowed to solidify in a high vacuum. It should be
possible in this way to obtain a structure which is fully repre-
sentative of the process of crystallization of an undisturbed
metal.

For metals of low melting-point, the method is also being
adopted of observing the process of crystallization in a small
mass of metal, melted on an electrically heated microscope
stage, and covered by a thin cover-glass of transparent silica.
In this way it is possible to compare the process in metals
with that in salts and organic compounds.

Lastly, a series of experiments on volume changes is in
progress, using silica dilatometers and fused salts as filling
liquids. It is hoped that the results may be presented to the
Committee at an early date.

Discussion on Report to Beilby Prize Committee 107

DISCUSSION.

Sir Henry Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S. (President), said that he was very
pleased to announce, on behalf of the Council, that the further experi-
mental work indicated by Dr. Desch as being necessary would be able
to be carried out owing to the generosity of Dr. Beilby. Dr. Beilby was
deeply interested in this subject, and he had placed an adequate sum at
the dispo.sal of the Committee, which would ensure the continuance of the
work. Dr. Desch had very kindly accepted the invitation of the Council
to carry out the further experimental research required. He had read
through the Report, and had been struck with the amount of work which
Dr. Desch had performed. The number of authorities and papers which
had been consulted was enormous, and represented a very considerable
amount of time devoted by Dr. Desch to this important subject.

Dr. G. T. Beilby, F.R.S. (Member of Council), said that he thought the
first feeling the members must all have in reading Dr. Desch's Report was
that the Committee had been extremely fortunate in securing Dr. Desch's
co-operation. They must all, as scientific and practical peoi)le, recognize
that it was only too easy to criticize. The critical attitude was a
very easily assumed attitude, and criticism could be very cheap. In
Dr. Desch had been found a worker who had not merely the critical
attitude, but who possessed what was much more important, namely,
the judicial attitude ; and one felt that that judicial attitude was
always to the fore in the Report. Possibly, as Dr. Desch proceeded
with his work, he might have to become more enthusiastic on special
views and theories than he had allowed himself to be up to the present
time.

He was interested in what Dr. Desch had written in the final para-
graph of the Report, namely : " Preliminary experiments have shown
that some of the effects recorded by previous observers are connected
with the presence of a thin film of oxide at the surface of the metal."
In bringing the matter originally before the Institute, he (the speaker)
had cited some experiments of his own performed upon globules of
metal which had cooled in entire freedom from any attachments which
would cause particular strains in cooling. This was done by fusing a
globule at the end of a wire, and then examining the globule to find
what the condition of crystallization in the globule was. At the May
Lecture he had exhibited some photographs obtained in that way.
Although the metal he had always preferred to use was gold, he was
quite prepared to read into his experiments the suggestion of Dr. Desch's,
that even in the gold globule, which had been melted in a clean gas
flame, it was quite conceivable that some of the crystalline sacs which his
(the speaker's) photographs showed existed — sacs of different orientation
— might have had their origin in films formed on the wire before it
ran into the globule form. Therefore, he was glad that Dr. Desch was
now preparing to follow up that matter by experiment. He might
suggest that, even apart from Dr, Desch's method of using a high

108 Discussion on First Report to

vacuum, it might be possible to obtain globules which were entirely free
from internal films of oxidized material by mere subdivision of a molten
mass of metal into globules. If one were to drop mercury on a clean
surface and then freeze the resulting globules one might have this con-
dition, and it would be very interesting to see whether in that case the
orientation was uniform throughout the globule — in other words, whether
one crystal was produced, or many.

Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc.R.S.M. (Past-President), con-
sidered that the Institute was very much to be congratulated on the
First Beilby Report. It was remarkably clear, and contained an
enormous amount of information. If he did not know Dr. Desch very
well, he should have thought the Report must have taken an infinitely
greater time to compose than probably it actually did. Dr. Desch
seemed to possess a most extraordinary facility for looking up and
abstracting all sorts of papers ; he (the speaker) did not know anybody in
any way equal to him in that direction, and he considered the Institute
might congratulate itself in having such a man to draw up reports
for it.

It came out very clearly from the Report that there were many ways
of obtaining polygonal structures. Some people seemed to have been
carried too much away in one direction, losing sight of the fact that
there were so many ways. On page 76, Weber and Lehman n were
referred to, and also a mixture of alcohol, gamboge, and water — a most
horrible mixture, he should imagine, completely denaturized ! On several
occasions when he had been suifering from an attack of influenza he had
been brought back into his ordinary robust condition with the help of
beef-tea. The beef-tea, being served very hot in a bowl, and not in a
soup plate, he had on several occasions noticed that the whole of the
surface of the beef-tea was divided into very perfect hexagons, which
were in active movement. The flocculent matter which existed in that
succulent product of the culinary art when well made was violently
agitated and circulated in each hexagon in a perfectly definite way.
Therefore it was possible, even in one's home, to be pursuing, by very
ordinary means, most interesting scientific facts without going into the
laboratory as Weber and Lehman n had done, and using comparatively
complicated apparatus. He did not consider that the beef-tea experi-
ment had any direct bearing on the crystallization of metals. Dr. Desch
brought out the fact in his paper that the crystallization of metals was
perpendicular to the bounding surfaces, whereas the sort of effect to
which he (the speaker) had been referring were necessarily taking place
vertically lay means of convection currents.

On page 85 Dr. Desch brought up the question of the crystalline
structure of metals and the difficulty of examining the crystals which
formed a mass of metal. The ordinary way, of course, was to polish
and etch a surface and to examine the crystals and their orientation as
shown on that surface. It had come to his knowledge, without any
significance of a practical or scientific character being attached to it in
any way, that if a copper-zinc ^-alloy containing about 2 per cent, of

The Beilby Prize Committee 109

aluniinium was treated with mercury, the crystals composing the piece of
metal would absolutely separate at their boundaries without — if, at any
rate, a moderate time only was used — the crystals in any way being
attacked. So that there were actually shown the contact surfaces of the
crystals. It had occurred to him that that might prove of very great use
in studying the structure of crystallites and their boundaries. He men-
tioned the fact because it might be of interest to others to follow it up as
it was so exceedingly simple to carry out and gave what hitherto it had
not been possible to obtain, namely, a parting of the crystals at their
boundaries without any damage. It raised all sorts of questions. For
instance, what was the meaning of it? How had the crystal boundaries
been acted upon by the mercury ? Was something existing there in the
nature of a cement which had been dissolved out, or was it due to capillary
action ? It would be worth while to analyse the mercury when it had
passed through the boundaries, and to determine the amount of mercury
retained by them.

Dr. Walter Rosenhain, F.R.S. (Member of Council), said that he
desired first of all to add his quota to the volume of congratulation
which was flowing towards Dr. Desch. It was extremely M'ell deserved,
as the Report was one of the most interesting documents of its kind that
he had ever read. It would prove for some time to come a mine of
information, and, like some of Dr. Desch's other publications, a constant
source of comfort to the man in search of a reference. Whenever he
(the speaker) required a reference to the literature of metallography, he
turned to Dr. Desch's books and papers to find it, feeling tolerably
certain that any paper he had ever read would be referred to there, and
probably a good many more.

Dr. Beilby had characterized the Rejiort in two words by referring to
Dr. Desch's judicial attitude. One could read between the lines of that
judicial attitude towards the end of the Report. It was like a judge's
summing up. After all, the judge had sometimes to pass sentence also,
and there was very little doubt as to what the sentence on the Quincke
hypothesis would be on the evidence as far as it went at present. He
considered that a judgment adverse to that hypothesis would only con-
firm the opinion of every metallographer who had considered the matter.
It was all very well to say that there were many ways of forming cellular
structures, but it had yet to be proved that the structure of a metal was
really cellular, except in the purely geometrical sense. The real distinc-
tion between the various forms of so-called cellular structure was in their
mode of origin, and in the case of a great many metals that mode of
origin could be clearly traced in the structure of the resulting mass.
Taking, for instance, a solid solution which had been crystallized
with moderate rapidity and in which the dendritic cores were well
developed, there was a "cellular structure" indicated by the crystal
boundaries, but within each of those crystal boundaries the history of
the crystal was written in the outlines of the dendritic core, which, if it
had any meaning at all, showed the real mode of formation of that struc-
ture. It showed that it had been formed by the growth of the dendrite

110 Discussion on First Rep07't to

from a centre, and not by the subsequent internal crystallization of a
previously-formed sac. He could see no way of accounting for the
dendritic cores of solid solutions by supposing that their structure had
been governed by the previous existence of cellular envelopes in the
liquid before crystallization began. It was obvious that there was only
one centre inside each cell, and that growth had taken place outwards
from that centre. He cf)nsidered that fact alone almost sufficient to
dispose of the foam-cell hypothesis.

There were a great maiiy matters in Dr. Desch's Report which gave
food for interesting discussion, but he would not attempt to touch on
many of them. He had to make one or two points of minor criticism
on some matters, which Dr. Descli might consider. For instance, on
page 59, line 18, Dr. Desch spoke of "the smaller power of orientation
at high temperatures possessed by silicates." He (the speaker) desired
to ask what was meant by the "smaller power of orientation." Was
there such a thing as " power of orientation" at all? Was not that a
sort of reversion to an old idea, something like that of " vital force " and
other forces of that kind of which nothing was known % He should feel
inclined to say that the real explanation of the difference between
silicates and metals in regard to the facility of undercooling lay in
differences in the linear velocities of crystallization. That was a
physical quantity which had a definite meaning, whereas the "power
of orientation," he ventured to think, was something to which no very
definite meaning attached at the moment.

Then, on page 61, Dr. Desch referred to the difficulty of studying
isolated crystals of the majority of metals. There were many other
ways besides those mentioned by Dr. Desch in which isolated crystals
of metals could be and had been studied. For instance. Dr. Desch
referred chiefly to the study of the crystals of native copper and gold,
but there were other waj'S of obtaining metals in isolated crystals.
Dr. Desch spoke of bismuth being obtained in beautiful crystals when
the crust of an ingot was broken. He (the speaker) had in his pos-
session, by the courtesy of Messrs. Cookson, a very fine piece of anti-
mony which exhibited exactly that same feature. A great many of
his friends thought it was bismuth when they first saw it. He had
succeeded in producing crystallites of a great many other metals by
exactly the same process. The copper-aluminium compound CuAl,
was well known as an example, and there were a good many others
besides. Further, Osmond and Cartaud produced complete crystals
of iron at various temperatures by the reduction of ferric chloride in
hydrogen, and they were able to examine and even to measure those
crystals with considerable success. Recently he himself had pro-
duced crystals of zinc by sublimation, which were so large that they
could be handled without the use of the microscope, and had been
employed by Messrs. Kaye and Ewen in some of their researches.
Therefore he considered the field for the examination of isolated
crystals was rather larger than Dr. Desch's remarks would suggest.
He was saying that not in any criticism of Dr. Desch, but because

The Bcilby Prize Commilfee 111

he wanted to be sure that anyone referring to the Eeport would not
be discouraged from an attack on the geometrical crystals of metals
by the remarks of Dr. Desch.

He desired next to refer to a point on which he had addressed
the Institute previously at some lengtli, namely, the influence of
surface tension on crystals. He did not desire to go into the matter
very fully, but he did want to say one thing, namely, that surface
tension, after all, exerted forces whose one and only reason for exist-
ence was the tendency to diminish the total surface area. That
tendency, it appeared to him, could result, and, in fact, in very small
crystals did result, only in an approximation to the spherical form. That
approximation was almost complete — he thought quite complete — if
the crystal was small enough. Then, after that, there was a ten-
dency towards the formation of angles, which ultimately became fully
developed. But how it was possible to ascribe the formation of a
dendrite, such as that sketched by Dr. Desch in his paper, to the
action of surface tension, he failed to see. There, one had a structure
which, so far from having a minimum surface area, tended at any
rate towards a maximum surface area ; and the effect of .surface
tension could only, he thought, be traced in the rounding, which
did occur in some cases, in the angles and edges of that dendrite.

Dr. Desch frequently referred to the influence of surface tension
in affecting the re-crystallization of metals. First of all it had to
be proved that there was surface tension between the crystals of
a solid metal. That was entirely an assumption at the present time
which had yet to be proved, but even if it were admitted, what would
be the result ? If a crystal was strained it was elongated, and if
surface tension came into play its tendency would be to make the
crystal revert to its original equi-axed form when annealing took
place ; that return would produce a diminution of surface area. That,
however, was not what happened ; on annealing, the elongated crystal
first breaks up into a multitude of small crystals, having a total surface
area enormously greater than the elongated crystal itself. How could
surface tension play a controlling part in that process ?

The points he had mentioned had been suggested to him by the
reading of the Report. There were a great many others, and he was
sure that the members would all value the Report more highly as
time went on, when they could digest its contents and make use of
its information more fully.

Dr. J. E. Stead, F.R.S. (Middlesbrough), said that he agreed
entirely with the remarks of previous speakers who had complimented
Dr. Desch on his admirable communication. One was impressed by
the fact that the author was an indefatigable worker, judging by the
immense amount of foreign and English literature he had referred to.

He (Dr. Stead) had on more than one occasion referred to the way
antimony crystallized.

Quite recently he had had proof that very pure 4 per cent, silicon
steel, when solidifying, crystallized in a manner very similar to anti-

112 Discussion on First Report to

mony. When the metal commenced to freeze against the cold sides
of the mould a multitude of crystals of varying orientation were first
formed, but it was only those which had cleavages parallel with the
flat side of the mould that survived. The reason for this appeared
to be that the crystals, arranged as described, developed vertically to
the surface of the mould, whereas the others grew at varying angles, and
therefore at less speed in a vertical direction. At a distance of about 10
mm. from the surface all but the vertical-growing crystals disappeared.

On breaking up the metal when it was cold, the fracture had the
appearance of the basaltic column of the Giant's Causeway, the flat
faces being, however, cleavages, and not intercrystalline junctions between
the crystals. When broken through the columnar crystals, the fractures
of the cleavages were at right angles to the vertical columns and parallel
to the sides of the mould.

Dr. Desch, in reply, thanked the speakers for their kind apprecia-
tion of the Report, which did not claim to be anything more than a
collection of facts bearing on the subject. Dr. Beilby's remarks had
been very valuable, and he would certainly bear in mind his sugges-
tions as to the possible means of getting masses of metal free from
external complicating influences. He had been also much interested
in Professor Huntington's account of his very simple method of iso-
lating crystal grains, which was probably quite widely applicable. It
would be very interesting to see the results of microscopical examination
of those grains. Professor Huntington had referred to the hexagonal
partitioning which was to be seen in beef-tea. That hexagonal par-
titioning was first noticed by Professor James Thomson, about thirty
years ago, in a tub of soapsuds. Professor James Thomson, being one
of those men to whom no fact was trivial, at once sought for and
found an explanation. His work, however, was completely overlooked,
and the fact was rediscovered a few years ago by Benard in France,
and since then had attracted attention. On reading Professor Thomson's
paper he (Dr. Desch) at once remembered that he had seen the structure
referred to in beef-tea. The eJBfect was quite beautifully produced, but
he supposed hundreds of people must have seen the structure, and yet it
had never occurred to them, as it had never occurred to himself, to
inquire why the particles arranged themselves in hexagons. He had
lately come across another form of partitioning in liquids which was
not vertical, and was not due to convection currents, but was actually
a horizontal partitioning. It was very curious that those structures
were set up in liquids. However, he did not think that that particular
one occurred in metals, but he was making some experiments on the
subject which he would communicate to the Institute in due course.

Dr. Rosenhain had raised a good many points, all very interesting
in themselves, and as to some of which there was a possibility of a good
deal of diflference of opinion. He (Dr. Desch) did not desire to admit
that he had condemned Quincke's hypothesis in advance ; he hoped
still to keep an open mind. Professor Quincke's suggestion was based
on an enormous amount of experimental work, and he (Dr. Desch)

The Beilby Prize Committee 113

would not like to say that it could be dismissed at once. He could
quite agree that the crystal grains bore, in their internal structure,
evidence of the way in which they were formed ; they certainly did
crystallize from centres, but the history of the crystal grain perhaps
began a little earlier than that. Professor Tammann had worked out
a mathematical relation between the number of centres and the degree
of undercooling, but why did those centres arise in that particular way?
Was it merely a question which could be calculated by the calculus
of i^robabilities ? Was it merely a chance distribution, or was there
something else governing it ? Such a hypothesis as that of Professor
Quincke suggested a reason for a partitioning taking place before
crystallization began from the centres. So with Bt'nard's work on
the convection cells. It appeared that sometimes, as the liquid cooled,
on changing to the solid state, the arrangement of the cry.stal centres
was determined by the arrangement of convection cells, and each
convection cell became a crystal gi-ain ; in fact, with some masses
of wax one could always break the solid mass into little hexagonal
prisms, each of which represented an original convection cell.

He still thought it was very difficult indeed to obtain isolated crystals
— he meant crystals of which one could study the crystallographic pro-
perties. Even masses of bismuth or of antimony which looked so beau-
tiful were quite useless to a crystallographer, as they were merely
skeleton forms. Professor Pope, one of the leading crystallographers at
the present time, told him a short time ago that there was no metal,
except those that crystallized in the regular system (in which one had
only to calculate the crystallographic properties), of which the crystallo-
graphic measurements were known with accuracy. Gold and copper
belonged to the regular system, and there was no need to make measure-
ments ; but of the anisotropic metals practically no accurate measure-
ments existed.

As to the part played by surface tension, he agreed there was room
for discussion. By power of orientation he did not wish to imply any-
thing at all metaphysical; he merely meant that certain substances
formed skeletons much better than other substances. For instance
antimony, crystallizing with other substances, quite readily formed
sharp dendrites. Taking antimony alloyed with 20 per cent, of copper,
there were dendrites which were perfectly sharp, and even in the
eutectic it would be found that the antimony particles were as sharp
as in isolated crystals of antimony. That was not so with copper or
silver. With these metals the dendrites were always rounded when they
were alloyed w'ith other substances.

He had been very much interested in Dr. Stead's remarks as to vertical
crystallization. He quite agreed that Dr. Stead was correct in saying
that it w-as a case of the survival of the fittest, and that the perpendicular
crystals had an advantage over the others. With regard to the columnar
structure in basalt, as in the Giant's Causeway, there was the diflference
that the columns were not crystals. Each of those columns was made
up of an enormous quantity of minute crystals with all kinds of
orientation, and he believed now that the columnar structure was Benard's

114 Communications on First Report to

convection structure. The columns in basalt were originally vertical.
He (the speaker) thought that it would be seen that in the original sheet
of molten lava convection currents were set up, and crystallization then
took place within the cells. The convection currents would explain that
structure of igneous rocks ; but he did not think they would go far to
explain cast metals, except when cast in thin sheets.

COMMUNICATIONS.

Professor Georg Quincke (Heidelberg) wrote that it was not correct
(p. 69) that Brillouin in 1898 first explained the behaviour of metals on
deformation by thin layers of an amorphous cement. The writer,* in
1868, explained the difference of strength of hard-drawn and annealed
wires by such thin layers.

It was not the case (p. 74) that the writer explained the hardening of
metals in " a somewhat forced manner." Tresca's experiments and
technical experience showed that metals flowed like highly viscous
liquids, consequently they exhibited surface tension at their contact
with air and other substances. The surface of mercury and other liquids
is rendered immobile by films of foreign matter,! and metals through-
out which films of foreign matter are distributed must therefore be
harder and less mobile than annealed metals without such films.
From the experiments of Knut Angstrom, J the molecular pressure of
water on absorbed gases was seen to be about 2500 to 3000 atmosj^heres.
A pressure of this order must also exist in the invisible foam walls of
fused and rapidly-cooled carburized iron.§ The carbon must then, from
Moissan's experiments, || be dissolved as diamond, and on rapid cooling
must solidify as diamond.

That the walls of foam-cells met at angles other than 120° and 90°
was explained by the presence of invisible films of foreign matter, which
collected at the surface of the cell walls and lessened their surface
tension.

As even the purest vacuum-distilled metals and other substances
showed more foam-cells the more rapidly they were cooled, the writer
assumed that on solidification or on the transformation of a high tempera-
ture into a low temperature modification, a small quantity of the material
stable at a high temperature remained and behaved as a foreign sub-
stance. Its quantity was greater the more rapid the cooling.^ This
assumption also explained the varying values (p. 93) for the density of
the liquid and solid metals, and for the expansion or contraction at the

* Berliner Monatsherichie, February 27, 1868, p. 139.

t G. Quincke, Poggendorff' s Aiinalen, 1870, vol. cxxxix. p. 71 ; Pflii^er's Archiv,
1879, vol. xix. p. 141 ; Awialen der Fliysik, 1888, vol. xxxv. p. 589.
+ Ibid., 1882, vol. xv. p. 351.

§ International Jou7-nal of Metallography, 1912, vol. iii. p. 95.
II Annalesde Chimie, 1896 [vii.], vol. viii. p. 558.
"IT Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1906, vol. Ixxviii. A, p. 87.

The Beilby Prize Committee 115

change of state, which had been obtained by experienced observers, using
diflferent rates of cooling.*

The writer's views on liquid crystals and myelin forms, referred to on
pp. 81 and 87, were ojjposed to those of Lehmann.

Referring to the statements recorded on p. 76, he (Professor Quincke)
desired to say that if a second liquid spread out on the surface of a liquid
the original surface tension were thereby lowered, as was first shown
by himself, t Vortex movements were thus set up, which deformed the
surface in different ways, according to the varying velocity of spreading.
The operation became periodic or apparently continuous.! Such vortices
explained the peculiar movements observed by Weber and the so-
called convection currents of Benard and the formation of hexagonal
prismatic cells in thin layers of liquid warmed from below. The ascend-
ing filaments of warm liquid collected at the warmest, most rapidly
ascending columns, reached the colder surface with the higher-surface
tension, and spread out over it. Through the vortex thus set up the
centre was depressed. The prismatic cells were formed by the meeting
of opposite currents from neighbouring centres. In Lehmann's Mole-
kularphysik , vol. i. p. 271, vortices due to the spreading out of liquid
were described as " contact movements," but without reference to the
writer.

Similar hexagonal prismatic cells were formed by neighbouring sjAairo-
crystals when radial tubes of oily liquid arranged themselves normally
to the central nucleus. § The radial tubes might have expansions and
contractions or break up into chains of drops.

Fused sulphur, referred to on p. 65, did not first separate as globules
and then as chains, as stated by Vogelsang and Brame. Tubes of oily
foreign matter filled with liquid sulphur were first formed, which then
broke up into connected or disconnected rows of drops. ||

Liquids, referred to on p. 88, were more readily undercooled, the
smaller their mass and the greater their surface.^

When molten metal or ice was cooled {vide pp. 64 and 65), there
existed between the solid layers of frozen liquid A with little impurity,
liquid layers of B with more impurity, which solidified subsequently.
The impurities might be gases or allotropic modifications of the metal or
water. The less impure layers were thicker ; the less impurity the liquid
contained and the more slowly it solidified. The periodic separation of the
liquids A and B in the solidification of metals was thus explained. The
reason why the two liquids B and A remained side by side without
mixing was unknown, as was the reason for gravitation. Both were
facts. In general, the liquids A and B contained the same constituents,

* International Journal of Metallography, 1912, vol. iii. p. 89.

t Poggendorff's Annale/i , 1870, vol. cxx.xix. p. 28.

X Pfluger^s Archiv, 1879, vol. xix. p. 129 ; Annalen der Physik, 1888, vol. xxxv.
p. 601, and Plate vii. Fig. 2.

§ Annalen der Physik, 1903, vol. vii. p. 734.

II Ibid.. 1908 [iv.], vol. xxvi. pp. 657, 694.

IT H. C. Sorby, Philosophical Magazine, 1859 [iv.], vol. xviii. p. 105; L. Dufour,
Poggendorff's Annalen, 1861, vol. cxiv. p. 534; G. Quincke, International Journal of
Metallography, 1912, vol. iii, pp. 28, 91.

116 Communications on First Report to

but in diflferent concentrations. Unfortunately there was no method
known of separating the foam-wall liquid B from the liquid contents A,
or to determine their composition by chemical analysis. This could
not be determined theoretically by the principle of energy, as the
quantity of foreign matter (allotropic modification) depended on the
rate of cooling.

The objection that the writer's investigations yielded only qualitative
and not quantitative evidence for the foam structure of metals was
unfounded. The determinations, indeed, did not yield figures, but the
influence of changes in the quantity of foreign matter on the number and
form of the foam-cells at different rates of cooling had been shown.*

The formation and shape of crystallites, crystal skeletons, dendrites,
ifec, referred to on pp. 61, 74, and 85, were mainly dependent on the
thickness of the solidifying layers of liquid and on the velocity of solidifi-
cation, as was shown by his (Professor Quincke's) experiments of 1903-
1904).t All possible forms of metallic salt vegetations \ and foam-cells
of the types I. and II. might present themselves.

Dr, T. K. Rose (London) wi-ote that Dr. Desch's summary of the
existing state of knowledge was so excellent that he considered it almost
beyond either praise or criticism. Nevertheless, he hoped that Dr. Desch
would not omit from his final reports adequate consideration of what
was often called recrystallization on annealing. Changes of structure
took place after solidification in all cases, although no doubt they could
be reduced to a minimum by rapid cooling. It followed that it was
necessary to bear in mind the modifications due to these changes, and
they could best be made clear by studying the recrystallization which
occurred when the solid metals were reheated.

Mr. Sydney W. Smith, B.Sc, Assoc.R.S.M. (London), wrote with
regard to the methods which were available for the determination of the
fluid densities of metals referred to by Dr. Desch on pages 93-101 of his
Report, that it might be of interest to record a method by which he (Mr.
Smith) had succeeded in making some determinations of this kind four
years ago (1910).

The method adopted was an application of the principle of Matthies-
sen's method of determining the coefficient of expansion of a liquid by
weighing a " sinker " in it at different temperatures. The "sinker"
used consisted of a quartz bulb filled with metal of a higher density than
that to be examined. In the experiments referred to both gold and
silver were used for this purpose.

The bulb, after filling, was exhausted and sealed ofi", and then suspended
by a fine wire from the beam of a balance and completely immersed in
the molten metal. The temperature was recorded autographically as
each weighing was made. In this way determinations of the fluid den-

* G. Quincke, Annalen der Physik, 1905 [iv.], vol. xviii. p. 38.

t Ibid.^Vd^'i. [iv.], vol. i.x. pp. 819 seq.. Figs. 93, 94, p. 805, Fig. 87 ; ibid., 1904 [iv.].
vol. xiii. pp. 71 seq., Figs. 175 a, b, c, 179-181, 182.
X Ibid., 1902 [iv.], vol. vii. pp. 631 seq.

The Beilby Prize Committee 117

sities of lead and of bismuth were made over a considerable range of
temperature ; those in the case of bismuth confirming, of course, its
greater density in the liquid state. It was hoped to submit the results
of this work to the Institute shortly.

This method would be seen to bear a close analogy to the admirable
work recently published by MM. Pascal and Jouniaux.*

Some discussion had arisen on the remarks of the author of the Report
concerning the effect of films of oxide on the behaviour of metals preced-
ing or at solidification. In a paper on " The Behaviour of Tellurium in
As.saying " f he (Mr. Smith) had drawn attention to the striking part
which films of fused litharge might play when certain alloys were melted
on a cupel.

It was shown that molten alloys of lead with gold (or silver) and
tellurium which, in a reducing atmosphere, remained in the spheroidal
state on a '• dry " cupel, were immediately absorbed by a cupel which
had been previously " wetted " by cupelling a little lead upon it.

The cohesion of the alloy, already weakened by the presence of
tellurium, broke down to such an extent under these conditions that
the metal spread itself out over the cupel and was completely absorbed.

The same eflfect was produced by admitting sufficient air to form a
film of litharge on a molten button of an alloy of lead, gold (or silver),
and tellurium. The spheroidal surface at once flattened out, and the
metal sank into the cupel. This was also shown to occur \A\\\ alloys of
gold (or silver) and tellurium in the absence of lead if the temperature
were sufficiently high to fuse the tellurium dioxide which was formed.

Further work in this direction was in progress.

Dr. Desch wrote in reply to Professor Quincke's interesting communi-
cation, that a full discussion of the points raised must be postponed to
a later report. There was a difference between the explanation of the
hardening of metals given by Professor Quincke in 1868 and that which
was now under discussion. The early explanation was based entirely on
the phenomena of surface tension, and the films enclosing the crystal
grains were therefore assumed to be of only molecular thickness. Pro-
fessor Brillouin, however, assumed the presence of relatively thick layers,
and Dr. Beilby's amorphous layers were also of appreciable thickness.
Dr. Rosenhain, in expounding the hypothesis of crystal structure associ-
ated with his name, had insisted that a layer of molecular thickness was
insufficient to i)roduce the observed efi"ects, and that other factors than
surface tension were at work. The writer was in agreement with Pro-
fessor Quincke that surface tension played a very important part in the
jihenomena under discussion, which had been insufficiently appreciated.

The writer had mentioned two main difficulties in the way of acce])ting

Professor Quincke's hypothesis, namely, the irreversible character of the

diff"usion process, whilst the foam-cell hypothesis presupposed segregation

in a homogeneous liquid, and the absence of any quantitative treatment.

* Comptes Rendus, January 1914, No. 158, pp. 414-41fi.

t Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. xvii. (1907-1908), pp.
453-476.

118 Author's Reply to Communications

The first difficulty was perhaps not insurmountable. The writer could
not accept the view that the segregation was a fact, and must be accepted
as such, like the fact of gravitation, notwithstanding our inability to
conceive the manner in which it acted. On the contrary, it was the
experimental evidence for the supposed fact which the writer was unable
to regard as fully convincing. Should it be demonstrated, an explanation
of its apparent contradiction with thermo-dynamical laws might possibly
be found in some facts connected with the physics of colloids.

The second difficulty had not been met. The mathematical theory of
crystal structure was now almost perfect, and the foam-cell hypothesis
failed to account for the extraordinary regularity of arrangement which
prevailed in crystals. There seemed to be no way in which that hypo-
thesis could, in its present form, be applied quantitatively. The writer
wished to repeat that he had not expressed an opinion as to the truth
of the hypothesis, but had merely presented an account of the principal
facts which fell to be considered in forming any conclusion. He hoped
to investigate experimentally several questions which had presented
themselves in the course of a study of the extensive researches con-
tinued by Professor Quincke over so many years. In the meantime,
he was glad that Professor Quincke had added to the value of the dis-
cussion by his interesting notes and references.

The point mentioned by Dr. Rose would not be overlooked. Whilst
it was thought advisable to confine the first report to the subject of
crystallization from the liquid state, information regarding crystalliza-
tion from solid solution had also been collected and was in course of
classification.

Mr. Smith's observations on cupellation were interesting, and would
be noted. The method of determining fluid densities employed by him
was no doubt susceptible of great accuracy, but it might be pointed out
that it was subject to one source of error which was difficult to eliminate,
namely, the adhesion of the surface film of metal to the suspending
thread. In conclusion, the writer desired again to thank those gentlemen
who had taken part in the discussion for their kind expressions.

Stead and Stednian : Muntz Metal 119

MUNTZ METAL:

THE CORRELATION OF COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE,
HEAT TREATMENT, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, &c.*

By J. E. STEAD, D.Sc, D.Met., F.R.S., and H. G. A. STEDMAN.

PART I.

Although a great amount of general work has been done on
brasses, there is still necessity for more.

As the structure of Muntz metal varies according to the heat
treatment and rate of cooling to which it has been subjected,
we decided on making trials to correlate the composition, micro-
structure, heat treatment, and physical properties of metal
containing about 60 per cent, copper and 40 per cent. zinc.

Our scheme was to heat duplicate series of the metal of
determined composition for 48 hours at temperatures between
470° C. and 860° C, allowing one set of bars to cool in the
air, to quench the other set in cold water, and then to examine
them afterAvards.

After our work was completed and the paper written, we
found that Dr. G. D. Bengough and Mr. O. F. Hudson had
previously published a most elaborate research on the heat
treatment of Muntz metal, and, in justice to these gentlemen,
we introduce a short review of their premier research. The
paper was published in the Journal of the. Society of Chemical
Industry, January 31, 1908.

It is impossible to do justice in a short review to their
very careful work, and we must strongly advise all those who
are interested in brasses to refer to the original. The Muntz
metal used contained : — p^^. ^^^^^

Copper 60"43

Zinc 39-21

Lead OBS

Iron 008

Tin 003

Bismuth 0 01

100-09
* Read at Annual General Meeting, London. March 18, 1914.

120

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

The correlated temperatures of heating and the mechanical
properties are summarized below.

The cast bars from 3 -inch moulds, whilst still hot, were
rolled to If inch diameter at a dull red heat and finished at
about G50° C. These bars were reheated and again reduced
by rolling, and after cooling were pickled and cold rolled to
f inch diameter. The bars were turned to size for tensile

testing 2 inches by \ inch,
tested for impact resistance,
follows, namely : —

Pieces were cut, notched, and
The results of testing were as

As Cast. As Rolled.

Maximum strength in tons per square inch .
Elongation in 2 inches ....
Impact resistance

23-2

18 -5 per cent.

3-9 lbs.

29-8

37 "1 pe.- cent.

5-3 lbs.

The mechanical properties of the annealed metals were as
follows, namely: —

Tensile

Temperature,
Degrees C.

Number of Bar.

Time.

Strength
Tons per
Sq. Inch.

30-2

]-21ongation
per Cent.

As rolled

Slowly cooled

37-7

As cast

Air slowly cooled

23-4

17 1

310

Slowly cooled

7 hours

28-6

43 0

335

16.

7 days

27-4

451

400

12.

4 hours

28T

46-3

410

15.

7 „

27-4

48-0

450

20.

Quenched

2 days

24-8

45-7

470

17.

Slowly cooled

\ hour

28-0

44-4

490

30.

7 hours

261

56-0

540

21.

24-4

57-7

590

13.

Quenched

7 ,,

26-4

45-7

14.

Slowly cooled

7 ,1

23-8

52-5

605

0(i.

7 ,,

23-3

53-3

650

25.

\ hour

25 1

48-0

685

23.

, ,

7 hours

23-5

53-5

690

03,

Quenched

{s hour

26 15

14 0

50.

, ^

4 hours

23-76

100

60.

7 ,.

26-55

14-0

05.

Slowly cooled

7 .,

26-00

45-0

765

\ hour

26-5

54-9

4 hours

25-8

56-5

795

26.

7 „

23-4

44-0

820

4 ,,

24-1

55-7

28.

\ hour

24-11

52 0

840

Quenched

5 hour

25-4

120

Stead and Stedman : Mtuitz Metal 121

The authors show by their micrographs that heating for a
week at 335° C. causes a great diminution of /3, and that even
heating at 450° C. for two days also results in the absorption
of /8 by a.

The bar quenched after heating at 690° C for seven days
consists of cells of /3 surrounded by a — a structural arrange-
ment which fully accounts for the low elongation of 14 per cent.

Summarizing their results — in the seven-hours' annealing
the tensile strength falls gradually with increasing temperature
up to a little above 600° C, but after this the fall is slight.

In the half-hour annealings the fall of tenacity is more
gradual — rather rapid at first, but less rapid as the tempera-
ture rises above 600° C.

The elongation in the seven-hour annealings rises rapidly
from 3 7 per cent, up to about 56 per cent, at 500° C, then
rapidly falls to 45 per cent, after heating to 690° C, and
rises again to 56 per cent, after heating to 765° C.

In the half-hour annealings the elongation rises steadily
until a maximum is reached at about 765° C, after which it
falls rapidly.

The authors quote the results of Lewis {Journal of the Society
of Chemical Industry, 1903, 12), who found that the heating of
Muntz metal for thirty hours resulted in complete disappear-
ance of /3, leaving pure a.

The second part of their research, published in July 1908,
gives information about the mechanical and other properties
of Muntz metal, and the manner in which it fractures under
tensile and impact stresses.

As will presently be shown, our results confirm in many
respects those of Bengough and Hudson, and as the latter were
obtained on bars heated for a much shorter time they are more
valuable from a practical point of view than ours. It is, how-
ever, remarkable that whilst the above-mentioned authors
obtain the weakest bar by a seven-hours' heating and quench-
ing from 700° C, our weakest material was obtained by heating
for forty-eight hours at about 770° C.

Mr. F. Tomlinson of Messrs. The Broughton Copper Company,
Limited, Manchester, most kindly supplied us with bars of brass
in the form of cold-drawn round bars, \ inch in diameter.

122

Stead and Stedi7tan : Muntz Metal

The apparatus for heating the metal was supplied by the
Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge, and
consisted of a resistance tube electric furnace and a Whipple
pyrometer.

The bars in duplicate were placed in the centre of the
furnace and the pyrometer tube placed over them. When
in position the open ends of the furnace were closed by loose
asbestos.

Soon after commencing the experiments it was found im-
possible to maintain a constant degree of heat owing to changes
in the room temperature. Consequently there was consider-
able variation during the 48 hours' heating in the furnace,
amounting to between 17° and 50° C. The structure, how-
ever, varied proportionately to the mean temperature, and,
our object being to correlate microstructure and mechanical
properties, the bars, after heating over ranges instead of at
fixed temperatures, answered the purpose.

Two bars were heated at the same time in each trial : one
was quenched as soon as removed from the furnace, and the
other was allowed to cool in the air. The bars most highly
heated cooled down to below 400° C. in ten minutes.

The following table gives a record of the temperature : —

No.

Maximum,

Minimum,

Mean,

Range,

Degrees C.

4!I5

4(i2

475

580

55(>

565

685

(i65

675

742

715

720

757

740

749

783

7()5

773

835

785

812

845

820

833

880

846

860

As will be shown in Part II. on the microstructure, the /3
constituent of the bar heated to about 475° C. was apparently
in less proportion than was present in the 1-9 series. It was
decided to heat other bars at a much lower temperature for a
longer time, to determine whether it was possible to effect the
complete absorption of the /3 constituent. Having found a
heated Hue at the Middlesbrough Gas Works, where the

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

123

temperature varied between 430° C. and 500° C, an iron pipe
closed at one end was inserted in the flue ; the bars of
brass were placed in it, and were allowed to remain there
for three months. Strips of zinc were also introduced, and
when the specimens Avere removed it was found that the bar
nearest the outer Avail of the flue had not been heated to above
430° C, for only the inner end of the zinc strip had melted.

In order to determine the effect of still lower temperatures
another bar was put into a superheater at one of the Cleve-
land & Durham Power Co.'s stations operating at 270° C,
and kept there for 984 hours.

Mechanical Properties.

The bars were tested by the Sheffield Testing Works,
Limited, Blonk Street, Sheffield, with results shoAvn on p. 125.

Hardness Tests.

All the specimens were also tested by the Brinell method,
using a 10-millimetre ball and a pressure of 500 kilos.

By dividing the average tenacity by the average hardness
numbers a ratio factor of 0*3 6 5 for air-cooled brass was ob-
tained, which is very useful, for by multiplying the hardness
numbers by this factor the approximate breaking load is
obtained.

The actual and calculated tenacities, together with the
Brinell number, are given in the following table : —

Quenched.

Air-Cooled

Description.

A as received .

...

26-18

1 to 9 as received .

39-10

A . . . .

25-85

22-90

2()-64

2()-(i

25 00

25-5

25-91

27-0

25-11

23-7

28-67

.30-3

26-04

24-4

27-40

33-5

24-48

24-4

28-73

33-9

26-38

25-5

23-20

100

3()-5

25-00

25-5

29'53

100

3(J-5

25-50

25-5

29-38

100

3(5-5

25-55

25-5

!i .

27-22

33-9

24-50

25-5

124 Stead and Stedman : Mttntz Metal

Column 1 gives the determined tenacity in tons per square
inch, cokimn 2 the determined Brinell hardness number, and
column 3 the tenacity calculated from the hardness number
and the factor already mentioned, namely, 0'365.

It will be observed that while the hardness of the quenched
specimens rises with the temperature of quenching, the calcu-
lated tenacity is too high.

The appearance of the broken test-pieces is shown in
Figs. 1 and 2.

The surfaces of the normal cold-drawn piece of brass and
Nos. 1 to 3 were smooth. No. 4 was crinkled on the surface.
No. 5 was very uneven, and, owing to the peculiar orientation
of the crystals, the test-piece had during extension become
elliptical in section — 6 "5 millimetres through the longer axis
and 5 "4 millimetres through the short axis. The length of
some of the crystals could be traced on the surface, and varied
between half and one inch.

No. 6 test-piece, quenched in water, owing to the small
extension, was smooth on the surface, but the fracture con-
sisted of several terminations of very large crystals which had
evidently not been strongly held together, or which had en-
velopes surrounding them of a weaker substance than their
mass. The test-piece of No. G, cooled in air, had a crinkled
surface, due to the presence of large crystals which flowed un-
equally during the extension in the testing machine.

No. 7 and 8 were less crinkled on their surfaces than Nos.
4 and 5, and Nos. and 9 were oval in section — 6 7 milli-
metres by 5-7 millimetres and 6*5 millimetres by 5*7 milli-
metres respectively.

With the exception of No. 6 all the fractures were
fibrous.

"A." The bar heated for three months at about 430° C.
broke with a fibrous fracture, and the surface was smooth.

" B." The bar subjected to the influence of superheated
steam also yielded a fibrous fracture.

The result of heating upon the physical properties of the
metal is most marked.

In geneml terms the effect of heating followed by quench-
ing, as compared with heating followed by cooling in air, is to

Stead and Stedman : Mtmtz Metal

125

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-f

•*.

•o

-I<

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0) *?; K

O jf «

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ci C U

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lit

-t"

1»

-r

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-r

i . s^-

i "s

2 <2 D.U

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.5 1) m„

o
lb

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rtc/3,o cr

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•a « Q. i>

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C<I

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"iJ 1) tn ^

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C-l

-f<

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rH
lb

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l-H

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r^'Ji

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r-"

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Q =

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ai^'

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•V*

126 Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

Qu«r)chedl in wotar.

Fig. 1,

12 3 4

6 7 s '.

Fig. 2.
Broken Test-pieces of the 20 Bars used in the Experiments.

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

127

raise the tenacity and to reduce the elongation and contraction
of area at the point of fracture.

On comparing the results obtained on the two bars of No. 1,
heated to just above the critical point, it will be noticed that
there is practically no difference in the tensile strength, the
tenacity of the quenched bar being only 0'45 tons greater, the
elongation 5 per cent, less, and the reduction of area at the
point of fracture is 0*6 per cent, more than the respective
results obtained on testing the air-cooled material.

The mechanical properties of the highly heated, air-cooled
bars are surprisingly good, and not what was expected.

The best results, so far as ductility is concerned, are those
obtained in the case of the bar heated for three months at
430° C. The lowest tenacity is found in the bar heated to
720° C, while that heated to 773° C. has the lowest ductility.
The most astonishing results, however, are those produced on
heating to 860° C, which show only 1"1 ton less tenacity and
2 per cent, less elongation than the bars heated to 475° C.

Generally speaking, the ductility of the air-cooled bars de-
creases with rise of temperature until 773° C. is reached, and
then increases with higher heating — a remark which is equally
applicable to the bars quenched in water, for the elongation
decreases from 45 per cent, in the bar heated and quenched
from 475° C. to 10 per cent, in that heated and quenched
from 773° C, and rises with higher heating to 30 per cent, in
the bars heated to and quenched at 860° C.

In the quenched bars, however, the tenacities compared
with the duplicate air-cooled bars are, with the exception of
No. 6, greater, as is shown in the table hereunder: —

Difference of Tenacity between

the Quenched and Air-cooled

Respective Bars.

Plus.

Minus.

Tons.

Bars heated to 475° C. .

0-45

...

565° C.

0-80

675° C.

0-80

720° C.

2-92

749° C.

2-35

773° C.

l'74

812° C.

4-03

833° C.

3-73

8G0°C.

2-80

128

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal
MuNTZ Metal - slowly cooled

''eductio

V OF Arl

-—

E LONG AT:

\ ,

^AX"Sn

'ESS^.^^

,* — 1

,--

YiELL

' Stress

^^^

J^^

^00 500 600

DEGREES CENTIGRfiDE
Diagram A.— Results of Mechanical Testing.

MuNTZ Metal - quenched in water

700

Ma)^-SI

?£SS^.-~.

Yield St

?ESS

L-*^

200 300 too 500 600 700

DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Diagram B.— Results of Mechanical Testing.

800

300

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal 129

It is obvious from these results that in the neighbourhood
of 773° C. there is a critical or weak point for this particular
brass. Some authorities maintain that 750° to 780° C. is
a dangerous zone. Brass heated in that zone has been de-
scribed as " burnt " — a term, however, obviously inappropriate,
for, on higher heating, the material again becomes ductile.

PART II.

MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE ALLOYS.

All the specimens referred to in Part I., after polishing, were
etched with a dilute solution of ferric and hydric chloride.
The i8 constituent was fully developed in about ten seconds.
After etching, the surfaces were dried with a clean linen rag.

Speaking broadly, as the temperature rises above 470° C.
the /3 constituent increases in accordance with the equilibrium
diagram of Shepherd, and when the temperature of heating
is a little above 773° or 812° C. the metal specimens con-
sist wholly of the /8 constituent, which is retained as such —
after quenching.

" A " Alloy. — In the brass designated " A " the ^ constituent
gradually diminishes during heating to about 430° C. until
most of it disappears, and it seems to be probable that if the
heating had been prolonged for six months instead of for
three, all the /3 constituent would have been absorbed, or, in
other words, the alloy would have become entirely a. The
result apparently indicates that the curve b2— b3 in Shepherd's
diagram should turn to the right after passing about 500° C.
instead of being vertical.

The gradually diminishing size of the /3 segregations does
not suggest that the /3 constituent changes to the 7 and a
constituents, but that the change is similar to what occurred
on reheating to 500° C. one of the specimens that had been
heated and quenched from 700° C. or above, for by such
treatment the /8 constituent gradually diminishes, and the
a constituent increases.

Careful microscopic examination of the /3 constituent in

130 Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

the long-heated alloy failed to detect any clear evidence oi
segregated 7, and one is therefore tentatively inclined to hold
the view that the /3 constituent which disappeared simply
dissolved in the a, increasing its total mass and producing the
a with a less amount of copper than 62 per cent.

"B"^^%, heated for 984 hours at 270° C. (Photo No,
4a, Plate II.).

The structure of this alloy is but slightly different. Some

of the a particles appear in globular form embedded in the

' (8 constituent, which were not present in the original alloy.

The mechanical properties are but slightly different from those

of the original annealed bar.

Nos. 1 and, 2 Bars, heated respectively to 475° and 565° C,
(Photos Nos. 5a and h, 6a and h, Plate III.).

Here the structure is that of particles of the /3 constituent
embedded in a, and generally separated from each other.
The a is in greater mass, and the amount of /3 is about the
same in both the quenched and air-cooled material. These
facts explain why there is little difference in the physical
properties of the quenched and air-cooled bars, the quenched
bars having a greater tenacity of 0-45 and 0"8 ton respectivel})
than the duplicate bars cooled in air.

Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 Bars, heated respectively to 675° C,
720° C, 749° C, and 773° C. (Photos Nos. 7a and I, 8a and I,
9a and h, 10a and h. Plates IV. and V.).

The proportion of /3 in the quenched bars increases with
the temperature of heating, which accounts for the increased
tenacity of the quenched bars, because ^ is the harder con-
stituent. The elongation decreases considerably, with the
appearance of strips of a connecting the larger grains of the
same substance. The envelopes of a in No. 6 account for
the great weakness. The photograph No. 17 shows that on
bending this alloy it is the a which first gives way.

Nos. 7, 8, and 9 Bars, heated respectively to 812° C, 833° C,
and 860° C. (Photos Nos. 11a and I, 12a and b, 13a and h
Plates V. and VI.).

Heated at temperatures sufficiently high to produce homo-
geneous (B constituent, free from any a, these alloys aftei
quenching in water are, as one would expect, of highei

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal 131

tenacity than those heated to, and quenched at, lower tempera-
tures.

No. 8 alloy quenched from 833° C. has a greatly increased
tenacity and ductility as compared with No. 6 alloy. The
tenacity has risen 6 tons, the elongation 16 per cent., and the
contraction of area 1 1 per cent.

No. 9 alloy, when removed from the furnace, showed signs
of incipient melting.

The microstructure of the air-cooled alloys resemble each
other, and are all of the banded type, consisting of strips of a
separated by /3. The same type of structure can be traced
in the quenched specimens when highly magnified, as is shown
in Photo No. 14, Plate VI., which somewhat resembles the
martensite structure of highly heated and quenched low-carbon
steels. It is possible that had the pieces of metal been
smaller and the quenching more sudden, the ^ constituent
would have been more homogeneous, for, in our opinion, the
structure shown in Photo No. 14 is caused by incipient separa-
tion of the a constituent, due to insufficient rapidity of cooling.
The structure is analogous to that of steels containing 0*20
per cent, carbon quenched in water from 1000° C, in which
the triangular markings, in lighter shade, represent the in-
cipient separation of ferrite, or free iron, from the martensite.

When a bar of brass containing about 60 per cent, copper
is heated to 860° C. at one end, and to about 500° C. at the
other, and is then cooled in the air or quenched in water, all
the structures illustrated in Photos Nos. 5 to 12, Plates III.,
IV., and v., are obtained in one piece. When a bar is heated
and cooled alternately for 30 or 40 times in the range of
temperature between 600° C. and 700° C, and is cooled slowly
after each heating, the independent particles of a constituent
increase to a great size, and suggest by their shape a tendency
to form idiomorphic crystals. One is not prepared to give a
definite reason for this; it is probably due to the very slow
cooling after each heating.

Before the larger bars were heated for mechanical testinsr,
small pieces were Heated to approximately the same tempera-
tures, and it is remarkable how close the corresponding struc-
tures really were. It may be concluded, therefore, that having

132 Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

the structure of 60/40 brass, the temperature of annealing
between 500° C. and 860° C. may be judged approximately.

The whole of the illustrations in this paper, excepting those
of Part III., were obtained by slightly etching the metals so as
to show only the a and ^ constituents. On stronger etching
the orientation of the /3 constituent can be developed. In
the specimens heated to above 500° C. and under 812° C, the
/3 constituent develops into larger crystals, which are readily
detected by the reflections from the etched surfaces when the
specimens are rotated and illuminated by raj'^s of incident
light. The a particles appear as islands in the ^ crystals, but
the orientation of the a has not been determined.

In a bar heated and cooled many times gradationally, the
/3 crystals extended continuously side by side in long parallel
columns for a distance of nearly three inches, within the
temperature range of 550° C. and 800° C. The crystalline
orientation was heterogeneous in the parts of the metal heated
above 800° C. and below 550° C. Heating at about 812° C.
does not appear to lead to the growth of such large crystals as
are formed below 800° C. They do, however, steadily increase
in size as the temperature is raised above 800° C. On strain-
ing the crystals of /3 of No. 6, quenched alloy, slip bands
appeared, as shown in Photo No. 15, Plate VI.

The Property of Brass in Resisting Oxidation on
Heating in Air.

Incidentally during this research it was found that on heat-
ing yellow brass in air, even for 48 hours, the loss by scaling
and oxidation was remarkably low. The bars used for mecha-
nical testing were weighed and measured before and after
heating, and the losses in weight were determined, with the
following results : —

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 lost less than 0*2 per cent.
Nos. 5 and 6 lost about 0 3 per cent.
Nos. 7, 8, and 9 lost about 0*8 per cent.

Bars of cupro-nickel heated at 860° C. for 48 hours lost
nearly 12-5 per cent, by scaling, or about 18 times more

Stead and Stedjnan : Muntz Metal

133

than the yellow brass that had been heated under the same
conditions. The scale from the yellow brass consisted entirely
of zinc oxide free from even a trace of copper.

The analyses of the bars before and after heating were as
follows : —

Hard-drawn

After heating

Bars used for

Original Bar,

to 860° C.

Series A

Series 1-9.

for 48 hours.

andB.

Per Cent.

Copper

60-40

60-89

61-04

Zinc

39-43

38-93

38-72

Lead

0-09

Arsenic

0 01

0-01

Iron

Total ....

0 05

99-98

99-97

99-91

The increase of copper shown in the second column corre-
sponds most closely with the analyses calculated on the basis
of the loss of 0'8 per cent. zinc. The outer layer of the alloy,
Nos. 3 to 12, consisted of a only (Photo No. 16, Plate VI.).

As the bars were placed close together during heating, and
free circulation of air was restricted by the plugs of asbestos
at each end of the heated furnace tube, other trials were made
in which pieces of brass and copper, of the same shape and
dimensions, were heated side by side for several hours, at
about 850° C. in a large gas-heated muffle furnace. The
muffle was not closed in front, and air freely circulated round
the metals. The weight of each metal was about 5 0 grammes.
After removing them from the muffle, the scale was carefully
detached from each bar. The scale from the Muntz metal
weighed 0*49 gramme, and consisted entirely of zinc oxide
free from the slightest trace of copper.

The scale from the copper weighed 2'88 grammes.

The bars lost in weight : —

Per Cent.

Copper 4-60

Brass 080

Ratio of loss, copper to brass, 5*7 to 1.

After the trials of Professor Turner, in which he heated
brass in vacuum and obtained a much greater removal of zinc

134 Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

than is here shown, it must be concluded that pressure plays
an important part in preventing the escape of zinc from such
material. The remarkable feature here proved is that the
presence of zinc completely prevents the oxidation of
copper.

Summary of Results.

It is sufficient to state that under the conditions named —

1. Cold-drawn Muntz metal is obtained in the most ductile

condition by annealing at 430° C. for 3 months.

2. It is dangerous to anneal between 750° C. and 800° C,

because the /3 crystals are liable to become enveloped
with a — a structural arrangement conducive to weak-
ness in both chilled and air-cooled material.

3. Heating to between 800° C. and 830° C, followed by

quenching, leaves the metal as homogeneous /3 con-
stituent, which has a tenacity of about 29 tons per
square inch, as compared with 26 tons per square
inch in the metal annealed at 500° C, with an elon-
gation of 25 per cent, in 2 inches.

4. Heating to between 800° C. and 833° C. and cooling

in air leaves the metal almost as good as it was after
annealing at 500° C, and heating the metal at just
above 800° C. causes it to re-crystallize into finer
grains than are formed at between 500° C and
800° C.

5. Brass is remarkably immune from oxidation during

heating, and only 0*8 per cent, was oxidized on heat-
ing for 48 hours at about 860° C. compared with
4 per cent, for copper, heated under similar conditions.

6. It is only the zinc which is oxidized on heating Muntz

metal, and the scale detached from heated bars con-
sists entirely of pure zinc oxide.

What still requires investigation is : —

1. The minimum percentage of zinc, when alloyed with
copper, which will prevent the oxidation of the latter
during heating.

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal 135

2. Whether very prolonged heating of 60/40 brass at tem-
peratures below 470° C. will cause it to become pure
a constituent, free from ^, to check previous work.

In conclusion, we must express regret that we have left so
much work still to do, and therefore request that this short
communication be regarded as an introduction to more ex-
haustive trials.

We thank Mr. F. Tomlinson of Messrs. The Broughton
Copper Company, Limited, Manchester, for having supplied
the necessary material on which to work ; Mr. D. Terrace and
his assistant, Mr. Blincoe, for making special arrangements for
facilitating the heating of some of the bars at the Middles-
brough Gasworks, and Messrs. The Sheffield Testing Works,
Limited, for so carefully testing the experimental bars, and
the Cleveland and Durham Electric Power Company for
suppljdng the necessary current used in the annealing tests.

PART III.

A SIMPLE METHOD FOR DISTINGUISHING THE
a, /3, AND y, WHEN ASSOCIATED IN BRASS.

Br J. E. STEAD.

In 1900 I suggested that certain polished alloys could not
only have their structure developed by " heat- tinting," or
heating in air until they assumed tints of various colours, but
that by heating in gases other than air the structures might
be equally well developed.

The a and /3 constituents, when associated in relatively large
masses, are readily identified by etching with acidulated ferric
chloride, the ^ constituent being acted upon to a greater
extent than the a, and remains in slight depression.

There can, however, be little doubt that it is better to have
perfectly flat surfaces for microscopic examination. All etch-
ing reagents make the surfaces more or less uneven. Tinting

136 Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

by oxidation or by any other means is not open to tbat objec-
tion, the surfaces remaining perfectly fiat. The aim of
metallographers should therefore be to develop the tinting
methods wherever possible.

The useful brasses and those containing small portions of
the 7 constituent can be very rapidly tinted by blowing air
containing traces of ammonium sulphide, chlorine, bromine,
&c., upon the specimens when in a heated condition. Even in
the cold state the a constituent is tarnished by that means,
and the more rapidly, the higher the content of copper. Tint-
ing in the cold, however, is open to the objection that minute
specks of moisture are liable to condense on the polished
surface and produce a spotted and false colouring.

The simple method, I have now adopted consists in finishing
the polishing on a very wet block, drying the surface of the
specimen with a clean linen rag before the water has evapor-
ated from any part of the surface of the metal, heating to
80° C. or 100° C. and rubbing with a piece of soft chamois
leather, floating the metal on molten tin or lead, and then
directing upon the metal a gaseous mixture made by blowing
air through a Aveak solution of ammonium sulphide placed in
an ordinary wash-bottle with reversed tubes until the desired
tints appear.

The a constituent passes through the range of colour dark
yellow, brown, carmine, blue to slate grey. The 7 constituent
when associated with the a constituent remains unaltered, and
appears white on a brown, red, or blue ground, according to
the degree the fuming has been carried.

In order to demonstrate the value of this method a speci-
men of 70/30 brass was polished, and into its face was crushed
particles of pure <y sprinkled on a hard steel plate. By that
means some of the particles became embedded in the metal.
After polishing, the 7 constituent was seen to be of a dove
colour on a yellow ground.

Photo No. 17a, Plate VII., represents one of the areas con-
taining 7 surrounded by a as seen on the polished alloy. The
metal was then heated by floating it on melted tin, and a
stream of air carrying ammonium sulphide was blown upon
its surface. In two seconds the surface changed to a red

No. 3.
Disintegrating Rod of Muntz Metal, overstrained by cold-drawing.

With the exception of Nos. 14 and 15, the whole of the following photographs
represent magnifications of 50 diameters.

V > ~

.»A. <^-.. .,^j^

f ^.f-r

No. 4.— Alloy A,
Normal.

No. 4fl.— Alloy B.

Alloy A after heating for 984 hours

at 270° C.

Plate HI

Original Hard-drawn Bar.
Series 1-9.

Alloy A. Heated for 3 Months at 430° C.
Series A and B.

No. ofl. No. 5^.

Quenched. Cooled in Air.

Bar No. 1.— Heated to 475° C.

No. Ca. No. ^b.

Quenched. Cooled in Air.

Bar No. 2.— Heated to 565° C.

Plate IV

€1.5

^Ws^

Cftr* r^"^^

No. 7(7. No. 7^.

Quenched. Cooled in Afr.

Bar No. 3. — Heated to 675° C.

No. 8a. No. 8^.

Quenched. Cooled in Air.

Bar No. 4.— Heated to 720° C.

No. 9a. No. 'M.

Quenched. Cooled in Air.

Bar No. 0.— Heated to 749° C,

Plate Y

No. 10<7.
Quenched.

Bar No. 6.— Heated to 773° C.

No. 10(^.
Cooled in Air.

No. 11a.
Quenched.

No. 11^.
Cooled in Air.

Bar No. 7.— Heated to 812° C.

No. 12a.
Quenched.

No. 12^.
Cooled in Air.

Bar No. 8.— Heated to 833" C.

^^^^^^^^^K^ /'

^^^^^^^|l

i 'v

':-'i"'^:'

^r.'

H^H^lHI

^^r7^-

-,4'^flS

f3^-^

No. 13a.
Quenched.

Plate YI

^^£^i^fea:^^M

No. 13*.
Cooled in Air.

Bar No. 9.— Heated to 860" C.

^iMftS:^-

No. 14.

Same as No. 13a.

Magnified 330 diameters.

No. l.-).

No. 6 Bar after Straining, showing Slip

Bands in ^.

Magnified 330 diameters.

No. 16.

No. 5 Bar, showing External
Layer of a.

No. 17.

No. 6 Bar, Quenched, Strained, showing

weakness of a Envelope.

Plate VII

No. 17a.
Polished only.

No. 17<r.

No. 17.— 7 in a (White in Dark).

No. 18a.
Polished only.

No. 18<^.
Fumed by New Method
Ammonium Sulphide.

'^'^.1

No. 186.

Fumed by New Method

Bromine.

No. ISi/. — Etched with Ferric Chloride, 7 Black.

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal 137

colour. It was cooled, examined, and photographed with the
result shown in Photo No. 17&, Plate VII. The specimen was
thereupon floated on liquid lead and sulphurized a second
time, until the a constituent appeared nearly white but variable
in colour. The 7 constituent still appeared much the lighter,
as shown in Photo No. I7c, Plate VII., but in addition to
7 there appeared primary dendrites in nebulous form.
Photos No. 18a and 186, Plate VII., illustrate the 7 and /8 con-
stituents in juxtaposition before and after sulphurizing. The
contrasts are slight in the polished, and clear in the fumed,
specimen.

In developing the structure of /3 in the presence of 7 it is
preferable to use air containing traces of bromine instead of
ammonium sulphide, as it is more rapid in its action.

The evidence is conclusive that by this simple method —

1. The slightest variations in the distribution of copper in

brasses containing between 90 and 64 per cent, can
be detected by fuming the heated polished surfaces for
a few seconds with air impregnated with ammonium
sulphide, bromine, &c.

2. Even in worked and long annealed commercial brasses

traces of the dendritic primary crystallites can be
detected.

3. The 7 constituent can be detected when associated with

the a constituent.

4. It is applicable to the development of the structure of

bronzes and other alloys rich in copper.

PART IV.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRITTLENESS IN
HARD-DRAWN BRASS.

Occasionally brittleness in old brass wires has, in our ex-
perience, been noticed, and we have never been able to
account for it.

Mr. F, Johnson, when discussing the paper on " A New
Critical Point in Copper-Zinc Alloys," by Professor H. C. H.

138 Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal

Carpenter and Mr. C. A. Edwards,* remarked that it was well
known that brass which has been finished hard (that is to
say, hardened by mechanical treatment) was susceptible to
"age cracking" or "secular brittleness." A remarkable ex-
ample of this was afforded in a specimen of hard-drawn brass
rod, which had been used as a conductor for high-tension
electric current through the concrete floor of one of the
Cleveland and Durham Power Company's sub-stations. After
long use — about three years — these rods began to crack. A
number of them were removed and a careful examination
made. In Photograph No. 3 (Plate II.), full size, there is re-
produced a longitudinal section of a piece broken from one
of these rods, which was originally 23 inches by f inch in
diameter. When removed, the cracks were found to be
filled with a bluish-white powder, consisting of nitrates of
copper and zinc, which had been produced by the effect of
electrical discharge across the air space between the charged
rods and the surrounding insulator, which in passing through
the air produced the higher oxides of nitrogen, which then
attacked the brass. This powder had accumulated in the
cracks and had evidently exerted pressure, which would, of
course, tend to extend the fractures. The portions of the
brass enclosed by the threaded nuts on each end of the bar
were perfectly sound and free from incipient cracks — an in-
dication that the bar itself when put to use must have been
of the same character. The direction taken by the cracks
clearly indicates that it was along the planes of weakness
produced by cold drawing, for, as will be seen in the photo-
graph, they travelled in such a way as to produce the well-
known cup and cone fracture, often seen in so-called " cuppy
steel wire " — sometimes the result of overdrawing. Over-
drawing leaves the metal weak along conic surfaces, and when
the reduction of area is too great, fractures of the cup and
cone type occur when passing through the draw plate. If the
reduction of area is just insufficient to cause rupture, the
internal stresses must be excessive.

The conductor rods when in use were in a constant state
of tremor, and there can be no doubt that where they were

* Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1911, vol. v. p. 179.

Stead and Stedman : Muntz Metal 139

not securely held at the ends by the screwed nuts, this tremor
gave impetus to internal rupturing, and eventually caused the
rod to break into pieces.

The analysis of the brass rod was as follows : —

Per Cent.

Copper 58"61

Zinc 38-61

Lead 240

Tilf 0-25

Iron 0-08

99-95

The presence of lead is conducive to weakness, and it is pos-
sible that had lead been absent failure would not have occurred.

The hardness by Brinell's machine was 119, and on heating
to 440° C. for one hour it fell to 109 ; but after heating to
700° C. for one minute and cooling, this fell to 77, or a drop
of 42 hardness degrees, showing that all the hardness produced
by cold working was removed by this simple treatment, and
we have no doubt that had the rods been so heated before
being put into use the internal stresses would have been de-
stroyed, and in spite of the lead present the bars would not
have broken down.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Roberts- Austen, Fourth Report to the A Hoys Research Committee of the Institu-
tion of Mechanical Engineers, 1897, pp. 31-100.

Shepherd, "The Constitution of the Copper-Zinc Alloys." Journal of
Physical Chemistry, vol. viii. 1904, No. 6, p. 421.

Bengough and Hudsox, " The Heat-Treatment of Brass. Experiments on
the 70 : .30 Alloys." Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1910,
vol. iv.

Carpenter and Edwards, "A New Critical Point in Copper-Zinc Alloys:
Its Interpretation and Influence on their Properties." Journal of the
Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1911, vol. v. p. 127.

Carpenter, " Further Experiments on the Critical Point at 470'' C. in
Copper-Zinc Alloys." Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1912,
vol. vii. p. 70.

Carpenter, " The Structural Resolution of the Pure Copper-Zinc (3 Con-
stituent into a and y." Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1912,
vol. viii. p. 51.

Carpenter, " The Effect of other Metals on the Structure of the (3 Con-
stituent in Copper-Zinc Alloys." Journal of the Institute of Metals,
No. 2, 1912, vol. viii. p. 59.

140 Discussion on Stead and Stedmans Paper

DISCUSSION.

Dr. J. E. Stead, D.Sc, D.Met., F.R.S., on introduciug the paper,
stated that in a rec%iit issue of a technical journal* there was an
abstract from Materialienkunde giving an account of a research by
Professors Martens and Heyn on the properties of hard-drawn Muntz
metal rods.

These gentlemen had found that such material when placed in a
solution of mercurous nitrate cracked with a loud noise in a longitudi-
nal direction. The cracks opened out at the surface, showing that the
outer layer was in great tension. After drilling down the centre of
another rod of the same material, so as to remove the metal which the
outer layer compressed, the envelope contracted and the tensional
stresses were removed. That was proved by the cylinder no longer
breaking up on placing in mercurous nitrate.

Dr. Stead demonstrated the value of the mercurous method of treat-
ment for showing the presence of internal stresses in a hard-drawn
IMuntz metal rod, by placing it in the reagent, when in a short time
surface cracks developed.

Sir Henry J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S. (President), said that it was
quite obvious that a very large amount of work still remained to be
done with regard to the influence of heat and also of heat treatment on
metals. He wished to say how sorry the Institute was that Sir Gerard
Muntz was not present to take part in the discussion of the paper. As
the members knew, Sir Gerard had been very seriously ill, but the latest
reports were that he was going on very satisfactorily, and the members
hoped to see him very soon again amongst them.

Professor T. Turner, M.Sc. (Vice-President and Honorary Treasurer),
said that there were possibly other members present who had had more
experience of Muntz metal than he himself had. A number of experi-
ments in connection with the metal had been conducted in the University
at Birmingham, and he hoped Mr. Hudson and Dr. Bengough would be
able to say something on the matter at a later stage.

Dr. Stead had given to the members, as he always did when he read a
paper, a very interesting communication indeed. Dr. Stead's papers
somewhat reminded him of a lady's letter, in which the postcript was
usually the most interesting part. In the same way Dr. Stead's further
explanation that day was almost as, if not more, interesting than the
paper itself.

With reference to the ageing of Muntz metal and the cracks which
formed in it, especially when it had been overworked, those were matters
of common knowledge to all who were connected with the trade, but to
have them brought before the Institute in so very definite a manner was
very striking, and Dr. Stead would be placing the Institute under an

* The Metal hidustry, vol. vi., No. 3, p. 108.

Discussion on Stead and Stedmans Paper 141

obligation if he left the specimen which he had exhibited that day to
the Museum of the Institute as an example of a " diseased metal."

When the figures which Dr. Stead had given of the tensile strength,
and of the elongation of the alloys as heated and quenched at different
temperatures, were read, it would be found that they were in general
accordance with what might be anticipated from the known properties of
the a and /? alloys, and from the equilibrium diagram of Shepherd,
which had now been fairly well confirmed in most of its points.

He did not propose to go into further details, but he should like to
express to Dr. Stead his personal pleasure in listening to the paper and
his interest in the important results which had been brought forward.

Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc.R.S.M. (Past-President), ex-
pressed the appreciation which the members felt at seeing Dr. Stead
present. They had always looked upon him as a man, he would not
say of " blood and iron," but a man of brains and iron, without a bit of
brass about him, unless it be in the lining of his pockets ! The members
very much appreciated having Dr. Stead amongst them and contributing
a paper.

Dr. Stead, on page 134, expressed himself somewhat surprised that the
zinc was so powerful in preventing oxidation of the copper. He (the
speaker) thought that all those who came into daily contact with brass
realized that the zinc prevented oxidation of the copper by volatilizing,
and thus forming a very thin atmosphere over the alloy, so that the
copper did not come into contact with the air. The oxide which was
formed also helped in that direction.

On page 134 Dr. Stead referred to "a structural arrangement con-
ducive to brittleness." * He (the speaker) would like to see the term
" brittleness " modified, because he did not think an envelope of a round
^ caused brittleness. It caused weakness in a sense, because the a was
very much weaker than the ^, and naturally the break occurred round
the envelope eventually. Dr. Stead said that when a certain point in
the heating was reached, very considerable weakness developed. He
(the speaker) thought he might perhaps throw some light on that,
because he had made a very great many experiments extending over
several years. They had been, in fact, published in connection with a
patent, and curves were given.

As the ^ point was approached from the all-a limit the elongation
gradually went down. Then something happened which he certainly
did not know before and certainly did not suspect, namely, the elonga-
tion in the ^ range rapidly increased up to the y point and then it came
down suddenly. The very opposite occurred with the yield point. The
surprising thing was that up to the present time the ^ range had been
considered as a range where there was increasing reduction in the
elongation, but nothing of the sort occurred. The alloys were copper
and zinc with aluminium and manganese varying up to 2 per cent, each

* [In the finally revised paper Dr. Stead altered the word brittleness to weakness, as
explained by Dr. Stead in his reply on p. 147.— Ed.]

142 Discussion on Stead and Stedmans Paper

and say 1 per cent, of iron. Dr. Stead, on page 127, says, " The elongation
decreases from 45 per cent, in the bar heated and quenched from 475°
C. to 10 per cent, in that heated and quenched from 773° C. and rises
with higher heating to 30 per cent, in the bars heated to and quenched at
860° C." And on page 129 he says, " Wlien the temperature of heating
is a little above 773° or 812° C. (sic) the metal specimens consist
wholly of the ji constituent, which is retained as such after quenching."
There was one question he would like to ask Dr. Stead, namely,
whether the rod he had exhibited to the members that morning had
been heated up at all.

Dr. Stead replied in the negative. The rod had never been hot,
although the house was rather warm. The actual rod itself had not
become at all heated.

Professor Huntington, continuing, said the point he had in mind
was, Did heating electrically have any effect? Electric heating had
quite a different way of heating to ordinary heating, because the heat
was at first greatest at the centre of the bar, and it must put a very
considerable strain on the outer portion. The outer portion would be
cooler and the centre hotter. In the ordinary way of heating, at first
the outside was hotter and the centre cooler. He was only wondering
whether the possible heating had anything to do with it. Beyond that,
it was well known that when a rod was subjected to cold working, one
never obtained the work uniformly right through to the middle, and that
the outside was very much more worked than the inner portion, which
accounted for a good deal.

Mr. G. A. BoEDDiCKEE (Vice-President), said that when he saw the
rod which Dr. Stead had exhibited, it seemed to him very familiar and
very much like an old friend. He would have no difficulty in producing
one like it at any time from the metals with which he dealt, especially
high-class German silvers. When a bar of German silver was drawn
down cold and put into an annealing furnace it broke exactly like the
specimen shown. This could be prevented by a process known among
the workmen as "springing." What effect that had he had no idea,
but undoubtedly there was a great deal of internal tension in a rod like
the one exhibited, and this tension could be removed by hammering,
bending, or undulating the rod, which could then be annealed without
any fear of fire cracks. Again, if it was drawn on a block "springing"
was generally unnecessary. He thought brass sometimes acted in the
same way, and that the rod shown, which was hard drawn and
not " sprung," got heated or warmed through the electricity passing
through, thus causing it to crack. He was afraid that it would be
almost impossible to show the effect of springing under the microscope,
as the operation of polishing itself would be probably sufficient to remove
any internal tension.

Discussion on Stead and Stedman s Paper 143

Mr. O. F. Hudson, M.Sc. (Birmingham), said that he desired first of
all to join in welcoming Dr. Stead at the meetings of the Institute, and
he thought the Institute was to be congratulated on having a paper
from him.

He was glad to find that Dr. Bengough's and his own results showed in
a general way such good agreement with those of the authors. There was
one point on which there seemed to be an important diflference, and that
was the marked recovery of ductility found by the authors after anneal-
ing for forty-eight hours at temperatures above about 775° C. Possibly
this could be accounted for by the long annealing time (forty-eight hours),
or by some difiference in the rate of cooling as compared with the anneal-
ing conditions of Dr. Bengough and himself. It would be of interest to
have some further experiments on this point.

He was in entire agreement with the authors in regard to the weakness
of the a envelope which was found surrounding the ^ under certain condi-
tions of heat treatment. Dr. Bengough and himself, in their study of the
course of the fracture in Muntz metal, were able to show that not only in
this case, but also generally, the fracture had a tendency to pass through
the a, the more ductile constituent, rather than the /?.

Under the third heading of their Summary of Results the authors
refer to the properties of homogeneous ^. The photographs giveu, how-
ever, seem to show that really they were not dealing with pure /3, but
with an intimate mixture of a and /3. Then, again, he might point out
that the recrystallization, referred to under the fourth heading, was
generally known, but he was not quite sure that one could call it a struc-
ture of a finer grain. The separate crystals of a and /? themselves were
rather small, but it was usually noticed that these were more or less
distinctly arranged in groups or grains of a comparatively large size.

With regard to the zinc-oxide scale, he had been under the impression
that that scale was mainly zinc oxide, but he was rather surprised to
hear that it was pure zinc oxide without a trace of copper. He had
examined scale from Muntz metal qualitatively, and had found it con-
tained a small percentage, but still an appreciable amount, of copper.
In Dr. Bengough's and his own paper on the 70 : 30 brass they made
some experiments on the extent of the loss of zinc during the annealing
of that alloy, and discovered that the loss of zinc was not very great
even at high temperatures, and extended only a short way below the
surface. On looking through their notes on the subject he had found
that in one case they had analyzed the scale from 70 : 30 brass, and had
found in that 10'2 per cent, of copper — a fact which in the present
connection might be of interest to Dr. Stead.

Finally there was the question of the method of developing structures
which Dr. Stead described. He was very glad to have the details of Dr.
Stead's fuming method, which would doubtless be of great value in
certain cases. He (the speaker) thought, however, that if Dr. Stead's
photographs were examined, in the case of /? and y, it would be found
that the structure developed by ordinary etching was rather clearer and
better than that developed by the fuming method ; and his own experi-
ence, extending over a number of years, was that the best method of

144 Discussion on Stead and Stedman s Paper

developing the structure of zinc-copper alloys was a gentle polish attack,
ammonia being used. He had found that method not difficult or tedious,
and he thought that generally it gave a decidedly more reliable result
than any staining or tinting method.

As to the possibility of distinguishing y and a when together, he had
to confess that so far he had never been able to get a zinc-copper alloy in
which those two occurred side by side, and he rather gathered in reading
the paper that Dr. Stead had not been able to decompose the /3. He
would like to ask Dr. Stead whether he had any definite opinion on
that point.

Dr. Walter Kosenhain, F.K.S. (Member of Council), said that he
also desired to associate himself with the expressions of welcome to
Dr. Stead, and he hoped that Dr. Stead would bring the skill which
he had so largely devoted to the study of iron and steel to bear on
non-ferrous alloys to an increasing extent in the future.

With regard to the brass rod which Dr. Stead had exhibited, the
speaker had examined a sample in his own laboratory some years ago
which had come from an electric power station, and which was very
similar to the one shown that day. The analysis of the metal was
very much the same, and it was also hard drawn, but he had been
able to find incipent drawing cracks even in the screwed ends, He
took the trouble to have the actual current passed through the bar
and the temperatures measured, and there was no perceptible heating at
all, so that Mr. Boeddicker's theory was put quite out of court. It
was entirely a question of the silent discharge. There was a very
high voltage and a silent discharge between the rods and the insulator
tube outside. This led to the formation of oxides of nitrogen, which
entered the cracks and formed oxides and basic nitrates of zinc and
copper, which disrupted the whole bar by their expansion.

Referring to the paper itself, there were two points of wider
importance on which he desired to touch. First, with regard to the
alloy (a) in which the /i phase disappeared on prolonged heating.
There were two possible explanations, which perhaps had been con-
sidered by the authors, but on which he would like a little information.
In the first place, was Dr. Stead quite sure that it was not a question of
the decomposition of the fi into a -f y, and the coalescence of this secondary
a with the previously existing a, and that the residual y had not been
distinguished from ^ % If Professor Carpenter's views were correct on the
matter, that is what ought to have happened. The other explanation was
the possible removal of the zinc. It did not require the removal of much
zinc to diminish the amount of /3 very considerably, and Dr. Stead had
shown in his paper on page 133 that there was a distinct loss of zinc even
after a few hours of annealing. He would like to know whether bar A
had been analysed subsequently. If neither of those explanations held
— and he rather imagined that they had been foreseen by the authors —
then came the question of the correctness of the a/a -f ^ line in Shep-
herd's diagrams — in fact it raised the whole question of how far Shepherd's
diagram really needed revision.

Discussion on Stead and Siedmans Paper 145

If Dr. Stead was right in suggesting that the a/a + /? line underwent
a sxidden swing to the right at some such point as P in the sketch, as
shown by the dotted line FQ, then that would imply the existence of
some such further line as OP dividing the a field. In this connection it
was interesting to remember that the a brasses, although very ductile
when cold, were generally regarded as brittle when hot — although
recently 70 : 30 brass had been rolled hot. Still, a marked decrease of
ductility at high temperatures was an abnormal feature in an alloy
(shared only by a few other alloys), and required explanation by the
constitutional diagram. A line such as OP, indicating a transformation
in the a phase, would afford such an explanation.

He next wished to refer to the method of " fuming " alloys. It was

a very interesting and, no doubt, a useful method, and he had tried it
successfully, but there were certain difficulties about it. Even Dr.
Stead's photographs showed that it was not easy to get a uniform
stain, and the method had the disadvantage that it did not remove
the altered surface layer produced by polishing. He thought Dr. Stead
and his colleague had perhaps claimed a little too much for the method,
particularly in regard to the superiority of their method over etching,
from the point of view of the flatness of the resulting specimen. He
had made a few measurements and calculations, which he would put
before the meeting. The actual thickness of the film removed when
a piece of metal was etched in the ordinary way for microscopic
examination might be fairly considerable, but what mattered was not
the total thickness removed, but the difference of level produced between
adjacent crystals. In the case of his work on the transverse sections

146 Discussion on Stead and Stedmans Paper

of slip bands in 1906, he had occasion to examine transverse sections of
a large number of etched specimens of iron and other metals, and he
found that when they had slip bands on them it was perfectly easy to
see on the sections little steps whose actual length was g-o^xny of an inch.
On the same sections the difference of level at the crystal boundaries
in a lightly etched specimen were not resolvable, and from what was
known of the resolving power of the microscope under the best condi-
tions, that meant that those differences of level were of the order of
2i7Trb"T5ir 0^ ^^ inch. That led ,one to ask the question, What was
the thickness of the films of oxides and sulphides produced by fuming ?
They must be at least half a wave-length of light in thickness, other-
wise they would be black, so that they would be probably twice as
thick as the difference of level produced by a light etching, and the
resulting surface was not flatter than that which was obtained by
etching.

Mr. Arnold Philip, B.Sc, Assoc.E.S.M. (Member of Council), said that
it was a well-known fact to all those who had to do Avith electric current,
and to all electric engineers who were using regulating resistances, that
regulating resistances on all carrying conductors of metal wire were
liable to become brittle. It was not only characteristic of brass but
also of German silver. In fact, of all metals of which he was aware,
those best able to withstand this disintegrating action were nickel-
iron alloys. He thought there must be a very large amount of
information which the Institute did not possess, but of which electri-
cal engineers were aware, and he would suggest to Dr. Stead that
it might be of interest to make inquiries among the manufacturers
of regulating resistances as to the difficulties they found from this
action of electric current. This not ojily occurred in conductors which
were kept warm by the current where the temperature rose and fell
as the regulator was put in and out, but also in those cases in which
the temperature was not very much altered and not very much above
that of the atmosphere. The disintegration was much more marked in
alloys containing zinc ; in nickel, copper, and manganese alloys which
contained no zinc, the trouble was much less.

With regard to the pure oxide layer on the external portion of the
bar which Dr. Stead had noticed as being pure oxide, he (the speaker)
suggested that the examples to which Dr. Hudson had referred, in
which there was 10 or 12 per cent, of copper, referred to bars which
had been heated externally. That was quite a different circumstance
to that which occurred in those conductors in which Dr. Stead had
noticed the pure zinc oxide layer.

Possibly the break-up of the faulty rods under the action of mer-
curous nitrate was brought about in the same way as the splitting up of
alloys along the crystal faces by mercury, as described by Professor
Huntington.

Dr. Stead, in i-eplying to the discussion, stated that the object of their
work was to obtain equilibrium at various temperatures by long heating

Discussion on Stead and Stedmans Paper 147

and to compare the structure and mechanical properties of metals after
cooling in air and quenching.

The research was made, as previously stated, without knowledge of
the work done by Messrs. Bengough and Hudson. There was some
difference in the result, however; but in many respects the latter research
agreed with the previous Avork. The difference in elongation of the bars
heated to similar temperatures and slowly cooled might be accounted for
by the difference in the time of heating and the size of the test-pieces.
From a practical point of view the work of Messrs. Bengough and
Hudson was the more valuable, for the reason that the duration of heat-
ing in their trials approximated more nearly to that of works practice.

Professor Huntington's suggestion (p. 141), that the term brittleness
should be replaced by weakness was a good one, for as a matter of fact the
specimens heated to and quenched from a temperature just below 800° C.
were better described as weak than by the term brittle ; he, Dr. Stead,
had therefore changed the term in the revised paper.

He confirmed the finding of Messrs. Bengough and Hudson that 70 : 30
brass when heated was scaled with a substance that contained some
copper ; but he had always found a complete absence of copper in the
scale that formed on Muntz metal — what was formed consisted of pure
zinc oxide.

He had a considerable amount of interesting data about the physical
properties of pure /?, which he proposed at some future time to present
to the Institute of Metals ; but the research was not yet complete.

Mr. Boeddicker stated that by " springing " hard-drawn rods they
became less liable to fracture. By " springing " he understood the
jumping or bouncing of the coils after drawing.

Mr. Boeddicker said that was so, or it could be bent or twisted
through a straightening machine. It was the custom of the trade.

Dr. Stead, continuing, said that coils of hard steel wire rods some-
times broke up into pieces when they were placed in the pickling tanks
containing acid, a result due no doubt to the added internal stresses
induced by the entrance of hydrogen.

If, however, the coils were loosened and allowed to spring out to their
more natural curvature, and the tension was removed in this way from
their convex or outer circumference, they no longer broke in the tanks.

The slight difference produced by springing the coils on the floor and
the removal of the stresses in the coiled wire were, he thought, analogous.

In answer to Dr. Rosenhain he, Dr. Stead, had not found any traces
of y in the specimen heated for three months at the melting-point of
zinc. He had not found that any zinc had volatilized during this long
heating, and no zinc oxide scale had formed on the surface. In his own
experience he had found that the tinted specimens were better for photo-
graphing on account of being more perfect plane surfaces, and he
attributed the imperfect photographs one so often met with in published
researches to differences in level of the etched specimens.

148 CoTfimunications on Stead and Stedinan's Paper

The apparent dark y areas shown in their Photo No. 18, although
clearly marked as the result of etching with ferric chloride, were not y
but a decomposition product on the surface of the y below. The y was
indicated better by etching, but the natural colour of that substance was
better shown by the fuming method, and the surfaces left after fuming
were certainly more even. They had given this method as one likely to
be useful ; but his advice to all workers was, try all methods and use
the one they find the best.

COMMUNICATIONS.

Mr. T. Vaughan Hugbes, Assoc. R.S.M. (Birmingham), wrote that
the scheme of the authors' research appeared to be open to some objec-
tion. At present forty-eight hours' annealing was not generally practised
in brass works. It was true that charged " pots " were placed in a
furnace towards the end of a day's work — a furnace working at 600° to
750° C. — the fires afterwards being banked and the charge left in until
the following morning (sometimes, but rarely, during the week-end).
Obviously a furnace thus charged with cold pots filled with brass strip
or wire was reduced in temperature, and eventually attained a low red
heat at which it remained for some indefinite period of time, as against
the ordinai-y half to one and a half hour annealing at the daily working
temperature. Brass thus annealed was considered by many manufac-
turers to be superior in physical qualities to that annealed by the slower
process.

In former papers and discussions he (Mr. Hughes) had referred to
the fact that hastened annealing was subversive to the attainment of
the best mechanical properties of many non-ferrous alloys.

The cause was not far to seek. The heat treatment processes had
been considered of less importance than mechanical treatment. Huge
sums of money were cheerfully expended on mechanical contrivances in
works, but the outlay on furnaces was always meanly discussed. Thanks
to the work of one of the authors and others on the heat treatment of
steel, the eyes of non-ferrous metal workers had been opened to the
eflfect of heat treatment.

The writer held that the time-temperature aspect of heat treatment
of the non-ferrous alloys must be drastically revised. Such papers as
the authors' were very helpful, and would, it was to be hoped, enlighten
non-ferrous metal manufacturers. The tendency in the immediate past
had been to anneal in the shortest possible time without regard to the
best physical results in the product.

Returning to the paper (p. 122), he (Mr. Hughes) wrote that he was
glad that the authors had drawn attention to the considerable variation
in temperature during a forty-eight hours' run in an electric - tube
furnace. Unless lagged and screened very thoroughly, he considered
them most unsatisfactory as exact heating appliances. Notwithstanding
this, the conclusion of many researches were based on the results of

Communications on Stead and Stedman s Paper 149

treating in such furnaces without reference to the erratic variations in
their temperature. Personally, he thought that unless a continuously
recording pyrometer was used in heat treatment researches the results
lost much of their practical value.

Here he would like to inquire if the authors had a self-recording
pyrometer in their three months' and 984 hours' experiments ?

He had been surprised to find how variable the temperature of works
flues really were when checked continuously by thermal appliances.

With regard to the times of cooling described, it was to be regretted
that the authors did not cause these to approximate more closely to
those obtaining in works practice, because, after all, it was one's daily
experience that was under review. Ordinary cooling of a furnace charge
did not take place in ten minutes. Even the quenching experiments
recorded were open to objection in the matter of drop of temperature
between leaving the furnace and quenching. Could not these be re-
peated by enclosing one test-piece in a non-conductor so as to cool in,
say, half an hour at least to air temperature ?

The sudden quenching could easily be arranged so that little drop in
temperature of the test-piece should take place before it came into con-
tact with the quenching liquid.

From experiments carried out on a larger scale than those of the
authors, he believed that they would obtain other results tending to con-
firm the opinion that it was undesirable to quench the brasses at the
proper annealing temperature before they have been allowed to drop
through a certain range varying with the composition of the alloy. The
results of the authors' experiments confirmed those of others, viz. that
quenched 60/40 brass was harder than the air-cooled material

Mr. Sydney W. Smith, B.Sc, Assoc.E.S.M. (London), wrote that the
occurrence of splitting along the surfaces of drawn rods when treated
with chemical reagents, referred to by Dr. Stead in the course of his
introductory remarks, was observed by Roberts-Austen twenty-eight
years ago.

It was shown and described by him at a Royal Institution Lecture.*
A hard-drawn rod or thick wire consisting of an alloy of gold, silver,
and copper was touched with a solution of chloride of iron. In a few
seconds the rod was shown to split in precisely the same manner as in
the specimens exhibited by Dr. Stead.

Dr. Stead, in answer to written communications, wrote thanking
Mr. S. W. Smith for having drawn attention to an experiment made
thirty years ago by Roberts- Austen. This, however, was made upon an
alloy of gold, silver and copper, and not upon brass. Judging from the
evidence afforded, it appeared possible that all hard-drawn metals and
alloys might be susceptible to the action of chemical reagents. Experi-
ments were called for in this particular direction.

Replying to Mr. Vaughan Hughes, he .thought that the paper had

* Proceedings of the Royal Institution, 1886.

150 Authors Reply to Communications

made it clear that the work described was mainly an attempt to get
equilibrium by long heating at constant temperatures and to correlate
the structure and mechanical properties of the brass after such treatment,
and not to follow works practice. The temperature in the gas works'
flue certainly did vary, but did not exceed the melting-point of zinc in
the case referred to in the paper. Other specimens heated at a point in
the flue where zinc was constantly fluid must have been heated to 430° C.
and above, but, between the structure of these and the former there was
little difi"erence, except that the latter contained slightly more /3. It was
certain that diff'erent rates of cooling would have yielded different micro-
structures and mechanical properties. Slow cooling caused a great segre-
gation of a and the diminution of /3. He would refer Mr. Hughes to
the research of Bengough and Hudson on Muntz metal published many
years ago.

Dunn and Hudson: Vanadium in Brass 151

VANADIUM IN BRASS:

THE EFFECT OF VANADIUM ON THE CONSTITUTION OF
BRASS CONTAINING 50-60 PER CENT. OF COPPER.*

By R. J. DUNN, M.Sc, and O. F. HUDSON, M.Sc, A.R.C.Sc.

(Respectively Research Scholar and Lecturer in Metallurgy in the
University of Birmingham).

Many of the more important of the copper-zinc alloys are
those containing about 60 per cent, or less of copper in which
part of the zinc is replaced by small quantities of one or more
other metals, such as iron, manganese, and aluminium. The
number of such special brasses is now increased by those in-
cluded among the alloys called vanadium bronzes, in which
cupro-vanadium is used as one of the ingredients. The actual
effect of vanadium in alloys of this kind does not appear to be
well known, and it was thought that it would be useful, before
attempting to investigate the general effect of vanadium on
the properties of brass, to ascertain what, if any, were the
changes brought about by small quantities of vanadium in the
constitution and structure of those alloys of copper and zinc
which contain between 50 and 60 per cent, of copper. The
authors were also led to make such a preliminary study of the
influence of vanadium by the observation of Carpenter f that
not more than 1 per cent, of vanadium was able to effect the
resolution of the /3 constituent of the copper-zinc alloys into
a and y in the case of a cast alloy containing 51*25 per cent,
of copper.

The effect of vanadium on the mechanical properties of
brass alloys has been dealt with by G. L. Norris,J who gives
the results of tests on Muntz metal and manganese bronze
with and without the addition of vanadium. He obtained
comparatively higher tensile strengths with the alloys contain-
ing vanadium, although in the case of manganese bronze this

* Read at Annual General Meeting, London, March 18, 1914.

t Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1912, No. 2, p. 59.

X "Vanadium hWoys," Journal of the Franklin Institute, 1911, p. 561.

152 Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass

was at the expense of reduced ductility. The amount of
vanadium present was stated to be a trace in the case of the
Muntz metal, and 0'03 per cent, in the case of the manganese
bronze.

Method of making the Alloys used in the
Research.

Attempts were made at first to prepare brasses containing
vanadium by using commercial cupro-vanadium. Samples of
cupro-vanadium were obtained from two sources — from an
English and a German firm respectively — and on analysis the
composition was found to be as follows : —

English.

German.

Per Cent.

Copper ....

51-2

47-0

Vanadium ....

12-0

27-2

Aluminium ....

257

19-1

Iron

5-9

4-5

Silicon ....

1-0

2-5

It will be noticed that in both cases large percentages of
aluminium and iron are present, and it was found impossible
to prepare from these materials any alloys free from important
quantities of impurities. The greater part of the aluminium
could be removed by oxidation, but the last 1 per cent, or so
was only oxidized at the expense of much of the vanadium,
while the passage of the iron into the brass could not be
avoided. The presence of either of these metals was undesir-
able for the purposes of the research, and other means were
therefore adopted to prepare copper-zinc-vanadium alloys free
from iron and aluminium. Some of the alloys made from
commercial cupro-vanadium were examined, and they are
referred to when the results are described.

In making the pure vanadium brasses, vanadic acid was
used as the source of vanadium, the following method being
adopted as a result of preliminary experiments : Copper was
first melted, and then vanadic acid mixed with a weighed
excess of powdered aluminium was slowly stirred in together

Dujin and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass 153

with fluxes containing cryolite. Next the excess of aluminium
was oxidized by the addition of an amount of copper oxide
calculated from previous experience. After allowing the metal
to cool somewhat, the slag was removed from the surface and
the zinc stirred in. The brass so made was cast into a small
cylindrical mould.

Thermal Examination of the Alloys.

Cooling and heating curves were taken, using a platinum,
platinum-rhodium thermocouple and potentiometer, the cold
junction of the thermocouple being kept at 0° C. In the

'/I
\

Vie /

''c y,

"f V

15 i

'// /-

/»

2i^

'' 1

•

■

f?l

•

►

,sor

...w

^97^

• «f/

f/;r

wr^

}

fZ/p-

if7

/ f67\

/ f

— \
\

%rJ

^&'{

1
>

■

1
>

- i

Diagram I.

case of several of the earlier alloys, complete cooling curves
from the liquid state were taken, but with most of the alloys
the metal was cast. The ingot was then drilled down the
centre with a i^-inch drill, and the thermocouple inserted in

154 Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass

the hole and plugged with asbestos. Heating and cooling
curves were then taken within the range 200°-650° C.

On Diagrams I. and II. will be found reproductions of the
heating and cooling curves of the " pure " vanadium brasses
over the range of temperature 650°-250° C. The composi-
tion of these brasses is given in Table III., together with the
mean temperature (that is, the mean temperature obtained

Diagram II.

from the heating and cooling curves) in each case of the
critical point due to the /3 constituent. The temperatures of
the critical points shown in the heating and cooling curves
(Diagrams I, and II.) have been plotted on a curve (Diagram
III.) in which the temperatures are ordinates and the per-
centages of vanadium are abscissa3. The alloys containing
some aluminium (VI 2, Vl3, Vl4, B8) are represented by the
points marked 0. B8 is a similar kind of brass containing
0*9 per cent, of aluminium, but without vanadium.

Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass

15;

I
I
I

500'

1 cS>- 1

<
180°

960'

120"

fOO'

'~~

()

ft -

^'—

—

■ —

—r-

Pur e Va y/Jok/M Sff/is.

^ES

•>Q

BPft.

'SES t VNn ININ ; flLdMINk/M

LI 02 05 Of OS 0-6 07 08 09 /O II 12 13 19 IS

PER Cent IZ/inao/l/m.

Diagram III.

Diagram IV.

156 Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass

It will be seen that in all the alloys containing appreciable
quantities of aluminium the temperature of the critical point
is about 490° C, and is independent of the vanadium present.
In those brasses free from aluminium the temperature of the
inversion rises very slightly with increasing vanadium, but it
does not exceed 470° C. with 1"5 per cent, of vanadium.
Thus vanadium does not appear to affect the critical point to
any marked extent, but the presence of small quantities of
aluminium raises it distinctly. This effect of aluminium has
been observed by Carpenter and Edwards.*

Heating and cooling curves over the range 300°-550° C.
were also obtained with four brasses made from a commercial
cupro-vanadium, most of the aluminium being eliminated by
oxidation. Particular notice was taken of the temperature of
the 470° C. inversion, and the mean temperature was found
in all cases to have been raised, the higher the percentage of
vanadium and aluminium, the more marked being the rise.
In Diagram IV. are given the cooling curves from the liquid
down to about 300° C. for four brasses containing only a trace
of vanadium.

Microscopic Examination.

In their equilibrium diagram of the copper-zinc series
Carpenter and Edwards f place the composition of the a + y
eutectoid at about 52*5 per cent, of copper, that is, at the
mean composition of Shepherd's pure ^ alloys. Carpenter ;[
also shows that the structural resolution of the ^ into a and y
in pure brasses only takes place with great difficulty after
prolonged annealing, and he further states § that certain
metals, notably vanadium, bring about this structural change
with comparative ease when present in the alloy in relatively
small amounts. The quantity of vanadium which, it was
stated, was sufficient to give a cast alloy consisting of a and <y
was not more than 1 per cent. If this be correct, vanadium,
even in very small quantities, might be an undesirable ingre-

* International Journal of Metallography , 1912, vol. ii. p. 209.

t Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1911, No. 1, p. 127.

X Ibid., 1912, No. 1. p. 70. § Ibid., 1912. No. 2, p. 59.

Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass 157

dient of brasses containing a large proportion of the /3 con-
stituent. As will be seen from the following account of the
microstructure of the slowly cooled and also of the annealed
vanadium brasses, no evidence was obtained that vanadium
assists the structural resolution of ^ into a and y.

Sloiuly-coolecl Alloys. — The specimens used for microscopic
examination were cut from ingots used in the thermal exami-
nation of the alloys, and had consequently been slowly
cooled from about 650° C. The structures observed were as
follows : —

^-Alloys. — Alloys VI 7 (copper 54*6 per cent., vanadium
1*0 per cent.) and VI 8 (copper 5 3*9 per cent., vanadium 0*53
per cent.) consisted entirely of the /8 constituent, except for
some hard, blue, slag-like inclusions, to which reference will
be made later. A typical structure is illustrated by Photo
No. 11, Plate IX.

a + |8 Alloys. — Alloy VI 1 (copper 55-7 per cent.^, vanadium
0"46 per cent.) consisted of fi with some a (see Photo No. 7,
Plate IX.). Alloys V20 (copper 57*9 per cent., vanadium 0-31
per cent., Photo No. 2, Plate VIII.) and V21 (copper 60-2 per
cent., vanadium 0 5 3 per cent., Photo No. 1, Plate VIIL) also
showed an ordinary a-\-^ structure, although perhaps the
proportion of /3 appeared to be slightly higher than would
be expected in pure brasses with the same percentages of
copper.

^ + y Alloys. — Alloys V13 (copper 50'1 per cent., vanadium
094 per cent.) and V19 (copper 513 per cent., vanadium 146
per cent., Photo No. 3, Plate VIII.) consisted of y8 with a small
amount of y, the proportion of the latter being slightly in
excess of that found in a corresponding pure brass.

The general conclusion drawn from the study of the micro-
structure of these alloys was that vanadium to the extent of
about 1 per cent, has little influence on the relative propor-
tions of a and /3, or of j8 and y. The vanadium appears to
replace rather more than an equal weight of zinc, but has no
tendency to cause a resolution of the /3 into a and y in cast or
slowly cooled alloys.

Annealed Alloys. — Specimens of alloys VI 1, V12, V13, and
VI 7, together with a specimen of alloy F3 (a pure copper-zinc

158 Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass

alloy with 55*4 per cent, of copper), were annealed at 445° C.
in an atmosphere of sulphur vapour.* The specimens were
each sealed in a thin glass bulb, and these bulbs then sealed
in pairs in larger tubes, which were suspended in glass boiling-
flasks. The flasks contained sulphur, which was kept boiling at
such a rate that the sulphur vapour condensed just above the
level of the specimens in the suspended tubes. The speci-
mens were removed and examined at intervals, the effects of
annealing being in each case as follows : —

VI 7. — This consisted of /? only, and showed no change even
at the end of 9 weeks (see Photo No. 12, Plate IX.).

VI 3. — This originally consisted of ^ with a little y (see
Photo No. 4, Plate VIII.). After 14 days' annealing it appeared
to contain slightly less y (Photo No. 5, Plate VIII.). No further
change was observed after 9 weeks. The apparent small de-
crease in the amount of the y may be due to slight volatiliza-
tion of zinc, although no crack was observed in the glass bulb
in which the specimen was annealed. Photo No. 6, Plate VIII.,
shows the structure after 9 weeks.

VI 1. — The structure of the slowly cooled alloy was ^ with
some a (Photo No. 7, Plate IX.). After 7 days' annealing an
increase in the amount of a was noticed, this further growth
appearing in a finely divided condition (see Photo No. 8,
Plate IX.). After another 7 days (Photo No. 9, Plate IX.) the
" second growth " of a showed signs of coalescing, and a further
coalescence of the a was the only change in structure observed
after a total annealing of 9 weeks (Photo No. 10, Plate IX.).
The i8 did not appear to be in any way changed at any stage
of the annealing.

VI 2. — The original structure was j8 with a few small crystals
of y (Photo No. 13, Plate X.). Except that, as in the case of
alloy VI 3, the amount of y appeared to be somewhat less,
annealing has practically no effect on the structure, and no
change in the /3 could be seen after 9 weeks' annealing (Photo
No. 14, Plate X.).

F3 {Pure Brass). — This consisted in the original condition
— the specimen was cut from a forged bar — of ^ almost free

* This method of annealing at constant temperature was used by Carpenter, and
described by him in this Journal (1912, No. 1, p. 70).

Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass 159

from a (Photo No. 15, Plate X.). After 3 days' annealing
the polished section showed the growth of some small crystals
of a (Photo No. IG, Plate X.). On further annealing the
small a crystals coalesced into a small number of larger ones.
Photo No. 17, Plate X., shows the structure after 5| weeks'
annealing at 447° C, and Photo No. 18, Plate X., shows the
result of a total annealing of 1 1 weeks.

It will be seen from the photographs that in none of the
alloys — not even in VI 2 with 1*5 per cent, of vanadium and
0*66 per cent, of aluminium — has the /3 constituent been split
up into visible a and y by prolonged annealing at a tempera-
ture a little below the inversion temperature, though the con-
ditions were, as far as could be obtained, favourable for this
resolution. The alloys were also examined at high magnifica-
tions, and the ^ in every case appeared to be quite homo-
geneous.

In some of the photographs shown, e.g. Nos, 3 and 12,
there will be noticed irregular dark patches. Actually these
appeared of a dark, bluish colour. This substance was first
thought to be included slag or alumina, and many attempts
were made to prevent its presence in the brasses. As a result
of investigations, it was concluded that it was an oxidized
product of the vanadium which became entangled in the molten
alloy. Efforts to separate the substance by chemical means
were not successful. No such particles could be obtained
in any alloy unless vanadium was present, although attempts
were made to include particles of alumina formed by the re-
duction of copper oxide. The alloys with less than about 0-5
per cent, of vanadium were free from this slag-like substance,
or contained only a little ; but no brasses with a higher per-
centage were obtained without it. It is possible that the
excess of vanadium over 0*5 per cent, in any brass did not
exist in solid solution, but in this oxidized form.

General Conclusions.

1. The critical point occurring at about 460° C. in brasses
containing the ^ phase is only slightly affected by vanadium,
1 per cent, raising it not more than 1 0 ° C.

160 Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass

2. The usual structure of brasses containing between 50
and 60 per cent, of copper is not greatly modified by the
presence of small quantities of vanadium, although alloys
containing more than about 0*5 per cent, of vanadium were
observed to contain some hard, bluish, slag-like inclusions.

3. Vanadium to the extent of at least 1 per cent, appears to
have no influence on the structural stability of the ^ constituent
of the copper-zinc alloys, and if any structural resolution of
^ into a and 7 follows the addition of cupro-vanadium to
brass, the result probably is due rather to the relatively large
amounts of aluminium usually present in commercial samples
than to the small percentage of vanadium remaining in the
finished brass.

APPENDIX.

Analysis of the Brasses. — The analysis of the brasses made
in the course of this research was a matter of considerable
importance, and one on which some time was spent before
reliable methods were arrived at.

In replying to the discussion on his paper,* " The Effect
of other Metals on the Structure of the /3 Constituent in
Copper-zinc Alloys," Professor Carpenter said that he did
not directly determine the vanadium in his vanadium-brass,
and that he was not aware that there was any good method
in existence by which it could be directly determined in such
alloys. It was therefore thought that a brief description of
the methods used might be of interest.

Determination of the Vanadium. — The vanadium was ob-
tained in dilute sulphuric acid solution, together with the
zinc and any iron and aluminium, the copper having been
separated as sulphide. The vanadium was reduced to the
state of hypovanadate by sulphurous acid, the iron at the
same time being reduced to the ferrous condition. The
excess of sulphurous acid was removed by boiling whilst
passing a stream of carbon dioxide through the solution.

* Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1912. No. 2, p. 59.

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Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass 161

The hot solution was titrated to a permanent pink colour
with standard potassium permanganate solution. The per-
manganate used in this titration was taken up in oxidizing
the vanadium and any iron that was present.

The value of the vanadium alone was next obtained by
adding standard ferrous ammonium sulphate to the just pink
solution until the presence of ferrous ions was indicated on
mixing a drop of the solution with a drop of a fresh dilute
solution of potassium ferricyanide.

The titrations are best carried out with the solutions at
about 80° C. ; they should not be allowed to fall below 60° C.

The presence of traces of hydrochloric acid or a chloride
must be avoided, as the permanganate readily attacks these
in the hot solution.

THE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF REFERENCES RELATING TO
THE ANALYTICAL METHOD USED.

Treadwell and Hall, " Gravimetric Methods of Estimating Vanadium."
Analytical Chemistry, vol. ii.

Brearley and Ibbotson, " Volumetric Method, using Ferrous Sulphate
and Permanganate." Analysis of Steel Works Materials, p. 168.

W. F. Bleeker, " Volumetric' Method, using Permanganate after Reduc-
tion by Electrolysis." Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1911,
pp. 209-13.

Graham Edgar, "Volumetric Estimation of Iron and Vanadium, using
SOg and Amalgamated Zinc as Reducing Agents." American Journal
of Science (IV.), vol. xxvi. p. 79.

W. Clark, " Volumetric Estimation of Vanadium, using Ferrous Ammonium
Sulphate and Potassium Bichromate." Metallurgical and Chemical
Engineering, 1913, p. 195.

N. CzAKO, "Estimation of Vanadium in Aluminium Alloys by titration
with Permanganate." Comptes Rendus, 1913, vol. clvi. p. 140.

Deiss and Leysaht, " Ether Separation of Iron and Vanadium." Journal
of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1911, p. 1090.

MtJLLER and Diefenthaler, " Volumetric Estimation of Iron and Vana-
dium, using Permanganate and reducing (i.) with Alcohol and Hydro-
chloric Acid, (ii.) with SO2." Zeitung filr anorganische Chemie, 1911,
p. 243 (Abstract, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1911,
p. 1017).

162 Dunn and Hudson : Vanadium in Brass

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164 Discussion on Dunn and Hudson s Paper

DISCUSSION.

Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc.R.S.M. (Past-President), in open-
ing the discussion, said that the paper thoroughly confirmed the convic-
tion which he himself held on the subject, namely, that vanadium was
not serving any particular good purpose in brass. In the discussion on
Professor Carpenter's paper on the " Effect of other Metals on the Struc-
ture of the ji Constituent in Copper-Zinc Alloys," * he asked " whether
aluminium was looked for in the vanadium alloy." He had found in
examining some vanadium that there was a lot of aluminium present, and
he had come to the conclusion that it was that which was probably
operating in Professor Carpenter's experiment. It was very satisfactory
to have that very clearly proved by the carefully carried out research of
Messrs. Dunn and Hudson. They also made it apparent that the sup-
posed change into a + y was very doubtful. He was of the opinion that a
little more research was desirable on that subject also.

Dr. G. D. Bengotjgh, M.A. (Liverpool), said that he had made a few
experiments on the effects of vanadium in brass some years ago, but did
not continue with the work very far ; and now that he read about the
difficulties which had been encountered by the authors he was uncom-
monly glad that he had not pushed on with it, as the work was evidently
very difficult to carry out in a satisfactory manner. He thought
the authors deserved great credit for carrying it out as they had done.
When he had been at work on the subject, Professors Carpenter and
Edwards had not read their paper on the change from ^ to a -|- y, so that
the work did not at that time seem to be of any urgent importance ; but
since Professor Carpenter's work on the effect of vanadium on that change,
he thought the matter deserved to be threshed out in some considerable
detail. It was greatly to be regretted that Messrs. Carpenter and
Edwards were not present that day to sj^eak on the paper, because when
they had read their papers before the Institute on the question, he (the
speaker) was about the only member who supported their views. There-
fore, for want of a better defender, he would like to make a few remarks
about the change. He knew he could not fulfil the post of defender
like either Professor Carpenter or Dr. Edwards, and he would only do
so in their default.

Turning to page 157 of the paper, the authors said that there was no
evidence that vanadium assisted the structural resolution of /3 into a -f y .
He thought one possible criticism which could be made upon the
authors' experiments was as follows : Was the vanadium in those alloys
in solid solution at all, or was it entirely contained in those slag-like
masses ? If it were entirely contained in those slag-like masses, whatever
they were, of course it would not have any effect on the resolution of ^
into a-f-y. Eight of the microphotographs given by the authors
showed those inclusions, and he would like to ask the authors whether
all the specimens showed those slag-like masses, and whether they had

* Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1912, No. 1, vol. vii. p. 81.

Discussion on Dunn and Hudsoris Paper 165

really satisfied themselves that there was any vanadium in solid solution
in either the /? or a. As far as he remembered the photographs pub-
lished by Carpenter did not show those masses at all, and this con-
stituted a very important difference between the two sets of micro-
photographs. He would like Mr. Hudson to give a little more light on
that point.

Another matter which might be raised was the exact method of etch-
ing used to distinguish between a, /?, and y. That was really what the
whole controversy turned on. If Professor Carpenter were wrong it
simply meant that his method of etching had misled him into confusing
the three phases, and the point therefore really turned on the question
of etching /3 and y. He would therefore like to ask the authors for very
precise details as to the exact method of etching they used. It seemed
to him that it might almost be a case for colour photography, a subject
in which he was vezy much interested. It seemed to him that the
microphotographs in monotone did not enable anyone who had not seen
the specimens to distinguish between /3 and y, since the latter did not
always show its characteristic shape. He would like to ask if the blue
slag-like inclusions which the authors referred to contained y and whether
they were not some sort of compound or solid solution of y containing
vanadium.

With regard to the microphotographs shown on Plate X., he desired to
ask whether the small dots shown in photographs 14 and 15 were y.
He took it they were.

^\x. G. A. BoEDDiCKER (Vice-Presideut) said that, as far a's he was
able to judge, the paper was only of theoretical interest, and as such it
seemed to him to give a negative result. However, even a negative
result was very useful, because it might prevent other people going into
the same matter. He himself was more interested in the practical
point, and though the theoretical result might be negative, practically
there might be some efi"ect of vanadium on brass, and he thought it was
very much to be regi-etted that the authors did not give any physical
tests. That small enclosures of metals had very strong mechanical effects
on tensile strength, &c., was very well proved by the presence of lead in
brass. He thought the physical test especially important because metals
like vanadium and a few other rarer substances were always very largely
advertised, and the mechanical properties of " vanadium " and other
brasses should be investigated by competent men like the authors to
show once and for all whether the alloys were of any use.

Dr. C. H. Desch (Glasgow) suggested that the blue slag-like con-
stituent might be one of the lower oxides of vanadium. It was well
known that the lower oxides of vanadium were extremely metallic in
character, and might be easily mistaken for a metal. In fact, when
vanadium was first discovered, its properties would not fit in with a
place in the periodic table. Eventually Roscoe showed that the material
which had been examined and studied, and had been supposed to be
metallic vanadium, was not a metal at all but an oxide. Another thing

166 Discussion on Dunn and Hudson s Paper

which pointed to the same conclusion was that if vanadium-copper
were polished, a certain number of dendrites — not a very large propor-
tion— of a very hard, bright blue material would stand out in relief. He
had not seen the specimens of Mr. Hudson, so he could not say whether
the blue appearance was the same, but he would suggest that it might be
due to the presence of oxide. In the vanadium-copper he imagined the
vanadium and copper would form a solid solution together, and the
constituent in excess was probably an oxide. Another possibility was
that it might contain nitrogen, as vanadium owed its special qualities as
a scavenging metal to the fact that it removed not only oxygen but
nitrogen from alloys.

Professor T. Turner, M.Sc. (Vice-President and Honorary Treasurer),
said that he was glad that the authors had been able to present to the
Institute, as a result of their researches, so coherent a conclusion as that
which appeared in the paper. He had had the opportunity of seeing the
work done. After working very strenuously for some two or three
months, the authors had not arrived at any conclusion at all, and it
seemed almost as though the research would have to be abandoned on
account of the difficulty of obtaining pure materials. It must not be
supposed that it was suggested that commercial cupro-vanadium was
necessarily of no value ; it might be a very valuable material to the
brass-founder. All that was said by the authors was that the com-
mercial cupro-vanadium had other materials present which might
account for the good effects which were seen, apart altogether from the
vanadium. He had pointed out from the first the advantage there
would be in making physical tests, if possible ; and the original plan of
work included a series of physical tests, as would be natural under such
circumstances. So long as it was intended to use commercial materials
which could be bought in reasonable quantity, the carrying out of a
series of physical tests could be contemplated ; but when vanadium oxide
had to be bought at a somewhat high price, and when the vanadium
had to be reduced, and the excess of aluminium removed by reactions
somewhat diflScult to regulate, it would be seen that all the authors
could do in the circumstances was to prepare sufficient material for
what might be called the more scientific side of the investigation. If,
however, there was anybody who could supply the authors with either
pure vanadium, or with pure cupro-vanadium, with which to carry on
the experiments, he was quite sure that Mr. Hudson and the students in
his own department would be most willing to carry their researches
further.

Mr. Arnold Philip, B.Sc, Assoc.R.S.M. (Member of Council),
desired to say with regard to the method of the chemical determination
of vanadium which the authors had used, that he had carried out a series
of analyses by this process on solutions of brass to which vanadium had
been added. The method was, with slight modifications, the same as that
generally used for determining vanadium in steel. He obtained the
following results : —

Discussion on Dunn and Hudson s Paper 167

Vanadium Present as

Vanadium found by the

Scxlium Vanadate.

Author's Process.

Per Cent.

0-54

0-56

107

112

1-61

1-64

215

2 16

The method therefore gave results which showed a variation of from
about 0"5 to 4 per cent, calculated on the amount of vanadium present.
This was a very satisfactory accuracy, and about equal to that found in
determining similar percentages of iron.

Mr. Dunn, in reply, said that Dr. Bengough had suggested the
possibility of all the vanadium in the brass existing in the form of the
separated slag-like particles and of none being actually in solution in
the alloy, but Mr. Hudson and himself had examined alloys with up to
0*5 per cent, vanadium in which this slag-like constituent did not appear
at all. Photographs Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 showed one of those with 0'46
per cent, vanadium.

Dr. Desch had mentioned the hard blue dendrites which he had
observed in cupro-vanadium ; a similar structure had been obtained by
the authors on polishing a section of their cupro-vanadium. He agreed
with Dr. Desch that it was possibly an oxide or solution of oxide and
metal. He would leave Mr. Hudson to deal with other points raised in
the discussion.

Mr. Hudson, also replying to the discussion, said that he felt that he
ought perhaps to make some apology for the very academic character of
their paper, but he thought the point dealt with was of some im-
portance and required clearing up. He hoped that in the near future
they would be able to study the mechanical and other properties
of the vanadium brasses, but at present, as pointed out by Professor
Turner, the diflficulty and expense of making the pure alloys in sufficiently
large quantities with such material as pure vanadic oxide was almost
prohibitive. Dr. Bengough had asked for some detailed account of the
method of etching adopted. The method was as follows : a piece of
parchment 4 or 5 inches long and about 2 inches wide was thoroughly
soaked in water and spread on a smooth block of wood. A few drops of
ammonia and a small quantity of freshly prepared magnesia were then
placed on the parchment and the specimen rubbed on it gently for a few
seconds. The specimen was then washed in water, quickly dried on soft
linen, and examined. The polish attack was repeated if necessary until
the constituents were obtained sharply outlined and, as far as possible,
free from any stain. When a and ^ were present side by side there was
a very distinct difference in the colour, a being yellow with a somewhat
pinkish tinge, and ^ a bright yellow with a slight greenish tinge. There
was no difficulty in distinguishing them side by side. In the case of ^
and y, the light blue colour of the y was quite distinct, apart altogether
from its form. The colour of the blue slag-like inclusions was a brighter
blue than the y, and he did not think there could be any possibility of

168 Authors reply : Dunn and Hudson s Paper

missing the presence of y in those slag masses. He remembered in some
cases seeing crystallites of y just included inside the slag masses, and
they could be easily distinguished. So in the other cases he thought it
was very unlikely that they would be misled in that direction.

With reference to the very small dot in the photographs to which Dr.
Bengough had referred, many of those dots were very small particles of
y, but in a few cases they were due to minute holes. Perfectly sound
alloys throughout were not always obtainable, and there was a possi-
bility of getting some minute holes scattered throughout, probably due
to gas.

He was glad to hear from Mr. Philip that the general method of
analysis adopted had proved to be accurate.

He would like to express his regret that Professor Carpenter was not
present to criticize the paper.

Influence of Nickel on Copper-aluminium Alloys 169

THE INFLUENCE OF NICKEL ON SOME
COPPER-ALUMINIUM ALLOYS.*

By Professor A. A. READ, M.Met., F.I.C, and R. H. GREAVES, M.Sc.
(University College, Cardiff).

Although alloys containing copper, nickel, and aluminium
have been used commercially from time to time, no systematic
study of their properties appears to have been published.
The authors therefore undertook to investigate the influence
of nickel, chiefly on two typical commercial copper-aluminium
alloys, namely, those containing 5 and 10 per cent, of alumi-
nium respectively.

Guillet t mentions a number of complex aluminium bronzes
containing nickel, but as the metals all contained compara-
tively large and varying amounts of iron and silicon, it is
impossible to deduce from the tests given the exact influence
of the nickel on their mechanical properties.

Alloys with from 6 to 1 2 per cent, of aluminium and about
20 to 30 per cent, of nickel have been prepared by Andrews,|
who found them hard, fine grained, and of great strength.

Copper-nickel-aluminium alloys with upwards of 20 per
cent, of nickel, and varying amounts of aluminium, have been
introduced under such names as " Aluminium Silver," " Minar-
gent," &c., as substitutes for the finer grades of German silver,
as they have a beautiful white colour, and take a high polish.§
Some of these contain up to 7 per cent, of aluminium, but
more often they are really copper-nickel alloys deoxidized by
means of aluminium, only a very small quantity of which re-
mains in the finished metal.

The three binary systems which are involved in these alloys,
however, have received much more attention.

* Read at Annual General Meeting, London, March 18, 1914.
t Guillet, "Les AUiages M^talliques," 1906, p. 748.
X Andrews, Journal of tlie American Chemical Society, 1894, p. 486.
§ Richards, "Aluminium, its Metallurgy and Alloys," 1896, pp. 511-516. Guillet,
" Les Alliages M^talliques," 1906, p. 919; Vickers, Metal Industry, 1909, vol. i. p. 49.

170 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

The report of Carpenter and Edwards * furnishes a very
complete and detailed account of the alloys of copper and
aluminium.

With regard to copper-nickel alloys, Heycock and Neville f
showed that the addition of nickel to copper resulted in an
immediate rise in melting-point, but their study of the alloys
included only those containing a small quantity of nickel.
Gautier X investigated the whole series of alloys, and came to the
conclusion that a compound CuNi was formed, but this has
since been shown to be incorrect by Guertler and Tammann.|
They found that the freezing-point curve is continuous, rising
almost though not quite in a straight line from the melting-
point of copper (1083° C.) to that of nickel (1451° C), and
that at every point mixed crystals separate ; while Vigouroux ||
also concluded from the chemical behaviour of the alloys that
no compound of these metals is formed.

The constitution of the nickel-aluminium alloys has been
investigated by Gwyer,1[ who found that three compounds
were formed, namely, NiAl (m.p. 1640° C), NiAl^ and
NiAlj. Robin ** gives a micrograph of the alloy containing
5 per cent, of nickel and 95 per cent, of aluminium, showing
needles to which he assigns the formula NiAlg ; and he
further states that this constituent occurs in the alloy com-
posed of 25 per cent, of nickel, 18 per cent, of copper, and 57
per cent, of aluminium.

Materials Used.

For the purpose of carrying out this research the following
materials were procured : —

Electrolytic or cathode copper of very high purity from
Messrs. Vivian & Sons, Swansea.

* " Eighth Report, Alloys Research." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, 1907.
t Philosophical Transactions, 1897. vol. clxxxix. p. 69.
X Cotnptes Rendus, 1896, vol. cxxiii. pp. 172-174.
§ Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1907, vol lii. p. 2").
II Comptes Rendus, 1909, vol. cxlix. p. 1378.
IT Zeitschrift fUr anorganische Chemie, 1908, vol. Ivii. p. 113.
** Robin, " Traitd de M6tallographie," 1911, p. 344.

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys 171

Shot nicker containing at least 99*8 per cent, of nickel from
the Mond Nickel Co. ; this, on analysis, gave : —

Per Cent.

Silicon 0-01

Iron 004

Aluminium of guaranteed purity, 99'5 per cent., from
British Aluminium Company ; this was found on analysis to
contain : —

Per Cent.

Silicon 017

Iron 018

Sodium 0'05

The nickel was introduced into the alloys in the form of 5 0
per cent, cupro-nickel. The whole of the nickel required was
placed in a Salamander crucible with two or three layers of
copper towards the top, and covered with lump charcoal. The
crucible was heated in a coke wind furnace, and the remaining
copper added as the charge sank down in the pot. Much
quicker melting was attained by this method than by charging
alternate equal layers of nickel and copper, and so reserving
some nickel as well as copper to add as the charge melted
down. The molten metal was well stirred with a graphite
rod, and poured into cylindrical chill moulds.

Methods of Analysis.

Estimation of Nickel. — Drillings or turnings were dissolved
in nitric acid and evaporated to dryness. The mass was
taken up in hydrochloric acid, and the solution evaporated
until the chloride began to crystallize out. After adding acetic
acid and diluting with hot water, the copper was reduced to
the cuprous state by means of sulphurous acid. The copper
was then precipitated with a solution of potassium sulpho-
cyanide, and the cuprous sulphocyanide filtered off, fractional
filtration being employed to avoid washing the precipitate.
The nickel in the filtrate was estimated by titrating in the
usual way, with a standard solution of potassium cyanide,
tartaric acid being used to prevent the precipitation of alumi-
nium hydroxide.

172 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

Estimation of Copper. — The copper was determined by the
iodine- thiosulphate method.

Estimation of Aluminium. — This has been taken by difference,
which probably involves less error than a direct determina-
tion.

Preliminary Experiments.

Small trial ingots weighing about 300 grammes, containing
varying amounts of copper, nickel, and aluminium, were cast
in open chill moulds. The values of the relative hardness,
recorded with the compositions of these ingots in Table I.,
were obtained by means of the Shore scleroscope, using the
universal hammer.

- Table I. — Composition and Relative Hardness of the Small Ingots.

Composition.

Relative

No.

Copper

Nickel

Aluminium

Hardness.

per Cent.

89-55

0-97

9-48

23 0

8515

4-94

9-91

33-0

80-13

9-98

9-81

35-0

7513

14-95

9-92

32-0

9404

0 92

5-04

10-0

90 09

4-90

5-01

10-5

85-08

10-07

4-85

22-0

79-99

15-26

4*75

36-0

97-75

1-03

1-22

7-0

95-21

3-57

1-22

8-0

89-24

9-83

0-93

9-0

84-54

14-58

0-88

13-0

Colour.

The effect of nickel was in all cases to make the golden
colour of the alloys paler, but its influence was much more
marked in the 5 per cent, series than in the series with 10
per cent, of aluminium. Thus the alloy with 5 per cent, of
aluminium and 15 per cent, of nickel showed only a slight
yellow tinge, and was much whiter than the metal with the

Some Copper-alM7niniuni Alloys 173

same quantity of nickel and 1 0 per cent, of aluminium. The
colour of the alloys with 1 5 per cent, of nickel was almost a
silvery white, but in none of them was the characteristic
golden colour of the copper - aluminium alloys entirely
destroyed.

Cold Rolling Tests.

Pieces having the approximate dimensions 2*5 inches by
0"6 inch by 0-35 inch were cut for rolling. These were
rolled cold with the necessary annealings, if possible, to a
thickness of 0*1 inch, and then without further annealing to
a strip having a thickness of 0"02 inch. In each series the
conditions were made as nearly as possible the same in every
case. Judged by their behaviour in the rolling test, the
metals in each series stand in the following order : —

Aluminium, 1 per Cent. — i, j, k, all about equally good with
very slight surface cracks ; /, edges slightly serrated.

Aluminium, 5 per Cent. — e, f, both rolled down to 0*02
inch, but were slightly rough at the edges ; g broke down at
0-2 inch, and h at 0-28 inch.

Aluminium, 10 per Cent. — a remained perfect down to 0*1
inch, but broke down on further rolling; b, c, and d broke
down at 0*17, 0*21, and 0*24 inch respectively, in spite of
being repeatedly annealed.

ffot Forging Tests.

Small blocks of metal having the dimensions 1^ inch by
1 inch by ^ inch thick were forged down hot to a thickness
of from 0"2 to 0'3 inch under a steam hammer. On account
of the small mass of metal they sometimes required reheating,
and in the case of the harder alloys were reheated several
times. The results of the tests were as follows : —

Aluminium, 1 per Cent. — All forged without any sign of a
flaw except I, which showed signs of cracking at the edges.

Aluminium, 5 per Cent. — e forged out perfectly, / and g
showed very slight cracks, but h cracked badly.

Aluminium, 10 per Cent. — a and h remained perfect, c
showed slight cracks at the edges, and d broke down in
the test.

174 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

It was concluded from these observations that as regards
the series containing 5 and 1 0 per cent, of aluminium, all the
alloys with 10 per cent, or less of nickel could probably be
hot rolled, while alloys which would withstand cold rolling
were confined to those of the 5 per cent, series which con-
tained not much more than 5 and certainly less than 10 per
cent, of nickel. The authors were therefore in a position
to be able to decide upon the composition of the ingots for
the investigation, on a larger scale, of the effect of nickel on
the copper-aluminium alloys containing 5 and 10 per cent,
of aluminium respectively.

Melting and Casting of the Ingots.

The copper and cupro-nickel were melted together under
charcoal in a Salamander crucible, heated in a coke wind
furnace. When all the metal had melted and had attained a
good temperature, it was well poled, and the aluminium
which had been heated up almost to its melting-point was

Table II. — Composition of the Ingots.

No.

Copper
per Cent.

Nickel
per Cent.

Aluminium
per Cent.

2
3
4
5

89-94
8914
87-66
85-11
82-82

1-04
2-46
4-95
7-48

10-06
9-82
9-88
9-94
9-70

6
7
8
9
10

94-98
93-96
92-68
89-84
87-48

0-94
2-38
4-84
7-31

5 02
5-10
4-94
5-32
5-21

forced down into the molten metal. The aluminium at once
melted and dissolved in the copper. In each case, on the
addition of the alumiinium, a marked rise in temperature was
observed. The metal was well stirred with a graphite rod to
ensure thorough mixing, the crucible was withdrawn, and the
metal skimmed and teemed at as low a temperature as

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys 175

possible into a circular cast-iron chill mould, following up
with fluid metal from the pot to avoid the pipe which would
be caused by shrinkage. The ingots thus cast were 2|- inches
in diameter, 18 inches in length, and weighed about 20 lbs.
The time from charging the cold metal to teeming was about
one hour. The maximum loss of aluminium was 0*4 per
cent., the average loss being about 0*2 per cent. There was
no loss of nickel. Ten ingots were cast, and on analysis gave
the results shown in Table II.

Rolling of the Ingots.

The ingots were rolled in the presence of one of the authors
at the Fazeley Street Mills of Messrs. Charles CHfFord & Son,
Birmingham, and the authors are indebted to Mr. A. H.
Wolseley, not only for his interest and advice, but for his
kindness in personally supervising the rolling operations.
The eight ingots containing nickel were all heated up to the
same temperature together and rolled down with one reheat-
ing to 1 inch diameter. In each case the reheating was
done when the diameter had been reduced to li inch. The
temperature required for rolling was higher than for ordinary
aluminium-bronze, and the metal was noticeably harder.
The alloy which appeared to be hardest on rolling was No. 10
with about 7| per cent, of nickel and 5 per cent, of alu-
minium; next were Nos. 5 and 4 with 10 per cent, of
aluminium and 7| and 5 per cent, of nickel respectively.
One half piece of each of the hot rolled rods was then cold
rolled with four passes ; another small piece was rolled hot
down to I inch diameter and then cold rolled with three
passes. With the exception of the difference in hardness
already mentioned, all the alloys behaved similarly in rolling,
yielding perfectly sound rods.

Nos. 1 and 6, containing no nickel, were rolled hot down
to i^ ii^ch full diameter, and the cold working was carried
out on one half piece of each rod by drawing through a die
(cold drawing).

176 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

Wire-drawing Tests.

A portion of each rod was turned down to y^^ inch diameter
for wire- drawing, which was carried out first on a small draw-
bench, and afterwards by hand.

Table III . — Wire-drawing

Results.

No.

Composition.

Finished at

Copper

Nickel

Aluminium

Hole

Corresponding

per Cent.

(1 to 50).

in Inches.

89-94

10-06

0-047

89-14

1-04

9-82

0-040

87-66

2-46

9-88

0-058

8511

4-95

9-94

0-123

82-82

7-48

9-70

0153

94-98

502

0-033

93-96

0-94

5-10

0 033

92-68

2-38

4-94

0 033

89-84

4-84

5-32

0-033

87-48

7-31

5-21

0033

All the wires were quite sound and smooth, and judged by
their behaviour in the wire-drawing tests, the alloys of the
two series stand in the following order : —

Aluminium, 10 'per Cent. — Nos. 2, 1, 3. AH these, how-
ever, broke even after repeated annealing before hole 50 was
reached. Nos. 4 and 5 practically could not be drawn.

Aluminium, 5 jper Cent. — Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 6. It will be
noticed that all the members of this series could be drawn
through the last hole (50), diameter 0-033 inch. The
behaviour of the material containing nickel during these tests
was found to be very much better than that of the pure 5 per
cent, aluminium-bronze, thus showing that the presence of
nickel improves the ductility of this alloy.

Tensile Tests.

In the tests about to be described, " H " refers to the cold
rolled metal, " A " to the annealed and slowly cooled, " N "

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys 177

to the air-cooled, and " Q " to the quenched material, while
" C " indicates the chill castings. These latter were 1 inch
in diameter and 1 0 inches long, and were made in pairs under
the same conditions as the larger ingots already described.
The annealing was carried out by heating the rods with a
pyrometer attached, in a closed gas muffle, to 900° C, and
keeping them at this temperature for fifteen minutes. The
gas was then turned off, the damper closed, and the rods,
after being allowed to cool slowly, were withdrawn when
quite cold. The rate of cooling may be judged from the
fact that the temperature fell to one-half in ninety minutes.
Some preliminary experiments, in which the hardness of a
number of annealed samples was measured by the scleroscope,
showed that the annealing of the 10 per cent, aluminium
alloys containing nickel was incomplete at 800° C. for fifteen
minutes; but after annealing at 900° C. for an equal time, no
further change in the mechanical properties took place on
extending the period of annealing to one hour.

The quenched specimens were rods 1 inch in diameter and
8 inches long, having a volume of 6*3 cubic inches, and
weighing about 1'6 lb.; they were heated up to 900° C,
kept at that temperature for about fifteen minutes, and then
quenched in cold water.

In view of the marked difference in properties between
some of the quenched and the slowly-cooled specimens, it
was thought desirable to make tests on air-cooled samples of
the same dimensions as above, for which the rate of cooling
was quicker than for the annealed series, though, of course,
much slower than for the quenched metal.

The dimensions of the finished test-pieces were as follows : —

Inches.

Diameter 0*564

Gauge length 2

Parallel 2J

The tests were carried out on a Buckton universal hori-
zontal testing machine fitted with a Wicksteed recorder.
From the autographic stress-strain diagrams thus obtained
the yield points were measured.

178 Read and Greaves : The 'Influence of Nickel on

The results are given in Tables IV. to VIII., and some of
them are shown graphically in Figs. 1 to 4.

The following is a summary of the effect of nickel on the
mechanical properties of these alloys: any marked discon-
tinuity in the mechanical properties was in nearly every case
found to be associated with a change in the microstructure,
and this will be referred to later when dealing with the
micrographic analysis of the alloys.

Aluminium, 10 per Cent.

Chill Castings (Table IV. Fig. 1). — Increased maximum
stress and yield point are obtained up to 10 per cent, of
nickel at the expense of elongation and reduction of area.
Above that point all the properties diminish. The 10 per
cent, nickel alloy in the form of chill casting is improved
by annealing at 900° C.

Annealed Rods (Table V. Fig. 2). — The mechanical proper-
ties are all considerably improved by the addition of 5 per
cent, of nickel. Above this figure elongation and reduction
of area begin to fall off.

Cold-rolled Bods (Table VI.). — The only marked change
which takes place with increasing percentages of nickel is a
considerable rise in the maximum stress, without any reduc-
tion in ductility. The mechanical treatment undergone by
rod No. 1 was more drastic than in the case of the other
members of the series.

Quenched Bods (Table VII.). — The effect of nickel in the
quenched bars is to reduce slightly the maximum stress:
the elongation and reduction of area increase with the per-
centage of nickel, but are very small throughout.

As the yield points of these quenched alloys were not well
defined, Professor Bacon, at the request of the authors, very
kindly undertook to make a careful determination of their
elastic behaviour with the aid of an extensometer. The
authors are indebted to Professor Bacon for the following
report : —

" The elastic behaviour of alloys 1q, 4q, and 5q was studied
with the aid of a Swing's extensometer applied to a gauge

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys

179

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180 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

Percentage of Nickel

Fig. 1.— Tensile Tests.

Aluminium 10 per Cent. Chill Castings.

%
I

Yield Point

IHJC^0

Percentage of Nickel

Fig. 2.— Tensile Tests.
Aluminium 10 per Cent. Rolled and Annealed.

-iO

Some Copper-alumimum Alloys

181

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182 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

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Some Copper-aluminium Alloys

183

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184 Read and Greaves : The Infiuence of Nickel on

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Plate XI

Cast. Annealed. Quenched.

4-»4 9-42 100 nil 094 238 484 T'Sl 7-31

Nickel per Cent.
Fig. 5. — Aluminium 5 per Cent.

90 -

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Numb BR of test pi ace

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Fig. 6. — Stress-strain Diagrams.

Plate XII

N-. 1,
. 82-82 -j

Copper .

Nickel . . I w n

Aluminium . . 970 J

Cast. Magnified 100 diameters.

7 "48 I- per Cent.

No. 2.
Copper . . . 79-94 "I
Nickel . . . 10-14 Iper Cent.
Aluminium . . 9-92;

Cast. Magnified 100 diameters.

No. 3

Copper .
Nickel .
Aluminium . . 999 J

Cast. Magnified 100 diameters.

74-26)

15-75 J-per Cent.

Copper .
Nickel .
Aluminium
Cold Rolled.

No. 4.

. 82-821

. 7-48 }■ per Cent.
. 9-70 J
Magnified 100 diameters.

iSrfT^

No. 5.
Copper . . . 85-111
Nickel . . . 4-95 >per Cent.
Aluminium . 9 94 j

Rolled and Annealed.
Magnified 100 diameters.

Xo. 6.
Copper . . . 82-821
Nickel . . 7 48 ^ per Cent.

Aluminium 9-70 J

Rolled and Annealed.
Magnified 100 diameters.

Plate XIII

No. 7.
Copper . . 8511 "j

Nickel . . 4'95 J-per Cent.

Aluminiuhi . . 9'94j
Quenched. Magnified 25 diameters.

No. 8.
Copper . . 85*11 'j

Nickel . . . 4 "95 }-per Cent.
Aluminium . . 9'fl4j
Quenched. Magnified 500 diameters.

No. 9.
Copper . . . 82-82 "j
Nickel . . . 7-48 }- per Cent.
Aluminium . . 970 j
Quenched. Magnified 100 diameters.

No. 10.
Copper . . .93-94^
Nickel . . . 1-00 [per Cent.
Aluminium . . S'OGJ

Cast. Magnified 100 diameters.

l^m'-^:-:^^

Xo. n.

Copper . .87-48^

Nickel . . .7-31 [per Cent.

Aluminium . . 521 J

Cast. Magnified 100 diameters.

Xo. 12.
Copper . . . 79 "90 ")
Nickel . . . 14-90 [per Cent.
Aluminium 520 J

Cast. Magnified 100 diameters.

Plate XIV

Copper .
Nickel .
Aluminium

Cold Rolled
Magnified 100 diameters.

14.
Copper . . .89-841
Nickel . . . 4-84 [per Cent.
Aluminium . 5 "32 J

Rolled and Annealed.
Magnified 100 diameters.

No. 15.
Copper . . . 87-48 1
Nickel . . . 7-31 J- per Cent.
Aluminium . .5 21 J

Rolled and Annealed.
Magnified 100 diameters.

No. 16.

The same specimen as No. 15 ; rather

deeply etched and re-polished.

Magnified 100 diameters.

17.

Copper . .87-48")

Nickel . . . 7-31 |- per Cent.
Aluminium . . 5-21 J
Quenched. Magnified 100 diameters.

Some Copper- aluminium Alloys 185

length of 2 inches, which made it possible to estimate exten-
sion to g~^ inch. The limit of proportionality of stress to
strain was reached in each case at a stress of approximately
8 tons per square inch. The increments of strain correspond-
ing to successive equal increments of stress then increased
continually, accompanied by a perceptible amount of permanent
set. In the case of 5q a very decisive ' creeping point ' was
reached at a stress of 20 tons per square inch. In the case
of 4q a somewhat less marked creeping point was reached at
a stress of 18 tons per square inch. In the case of iQ,
although the limit of proportionality was no higher than in
4q or 5q, that is, about 8 tons per square inch, no definite
evidence of creeping was detected until the stress reached an
intensity of 35 tons per square inch. The total amount of
creep which occurred at this load did not exceed j^^ inch,
and a self-hardening action then set in which enabled the
stress to be raised to 47 tons per square inch before pro-
nounced creeping was resumed."

On comparing the mechanical properties of the quenched
alloys with those of the annealed, it will be noticed that the
increase in maximum stress, due to quenching, is diminished
as the percentage of nickel rises. This fact, together with
the accompanying variations in elongation and reduction of
area, is shown in Table IX,, in which the mechanical pro-
perties of the quenched and annealed bars are compared.

Air-cooled Bods (Table VIII.). — The mechanical properties
were intermediate between those of the quenched and annealed
series. The alloys thus treated resembled the latter series,
but possessed a higher maximum stress.

Aluminmm, 5 _per Cent.

Chill Castings (Table IV. Fig. 3). — Up to 5 per cent.,
nickel greatly improves the elongation and reduction of area
of these alloys without affecting the maximum stress and
yield point. With more than 5 per cent, of nickel, the latter
properties are rapidly improved, while the elongation and
reduction of area suffer a corresponding decrease. Neverthe-
less the yield point and maximum stress are both raised by

186 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

about four tons per square inch, before the ductility is reduced
to that of the pure copper-aluminium alloy. The increase in
elongation and reduction of area due to the first 1 per cent,
of nickel is very marked, the chill casting showing an
elongation of 92 per cent,, compared with 68 per cent, for
the corresponding copper-aluminium alloy without nickel.

Annealed Rods (Table V. Fig. 4). — Here again the effect
of the first 1 per cent, of nickel on the ductility of the alloy
is very marked. The maximum stress and yield point rise
slowly until 5 per cent, of nickel is reached, and then very
rapidly to 7 J per cent, of nickel. The elongation and reduc-
tion of area begin to fall when the nickel exceeds 1 per cent.,
but they still retain a very high figure even in the 5 per cent,
nickel alloy.

Cold-rolled Rods (Table VI.). — The maximum stress and
yield point are raised while the elongation and reduction of
area decrease slowly with between 1 and 5 per cent., and
then more quickly with over 5 per cent, of nickel.

Quenched Rods (Table VII.). — The effect of nickel up to
5 per cent, on the quenched material is to increase slightly
the yield point and maximum stress, and to improve the
ductility. Above 5 per cent, the increase in yield point and
maximum stress is more rapid, and there is a corresponding
fall in elongation and reduction of area.

On comparing the results for the quenched rods with those
for the annealed (see Table IX.), it will be noticed that with
less than 5 per cent, of nickel, the maximum stress is hardly
affected by quenching, though the yield point is slightly
raised, and the elongation and reduction of area diminished.
With 5 per cent, of nickel the ductility is greatly increased
by quenching, while the maximum stress and yield point are
both lowered. This effect is still more marked in the alloy with
7 1 per cent, of nickel, where the elongation and reduction of
area are both more than doubled by quenching.

Air-cooled Rods (Table VIII.). — Unlike the members of the
series with 10 per cent, of aluminium, the air-cooled 5 per
cent, aluminium alloys, containing upwards of 5 per cent, of
nickel, present mechanical characteristics which approximate
to those of the quenched rather than the annealed metal.

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys

187

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l^Q Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

The maximum stress is even slightly lower than that of the
quenched material, but this is probably to be accounted for
by the absence of any hardening effect due to strains set
up in quenching.

Fig. 5, Plate XI., shows the appearance and relative elonga-
tion of some of the alloys with 5 per cent, of aluminium
broken in the tensile tests.

Reproductions of some of the stress-strain diagrams are given
in Fig. 6, Plate XL The first (starting from the left) is typical
of the cast metal of the 10 per cent, aluminium series with a
high percentage of nickel : the next is typical of all the rolled
and annealed alloys with 10 per cent, of aluminium. The
four following diagrams illustrate the effect of quenching on
the alloys containing 5 per cent, of aluminium, with 1\ and
5 per cent, of nickel respectively ; while the last is typical
of the cast metal of the 5 per cent, series, with nickel up to
5 per cent.

Alternating Stress Tests.

The authors are indebted to Professor Arnold for carr3dng
out these tests on specimens of the annealed, cold rolled, and
quenched rods. The results obtained under standard con-
ditions on the Arnold machine are given in Table X. and
are shown graphically in Fig. 7.

The behaviour of the alloys under this test may be briefly
stated as follows : —

Aluminium, 10 ftr Cent. — The resistance of the cold -rolled
rods to alternating stress is reduced by the presence of nickel.
The detrimental effect which is produced by annealing the
10 per cent, aluminium alloys, and which is so well exempli-
fied by their behaviour in this test, is to some extent dimi-
nished by the presence of 5 per cent, of nickel, a conclusion
also in accordance with the results of the tensile tests. The
results for the quenched rods were very irregular and untrust-
worthy on account of their coarsely crystalline structure, and
the tendency of the test-pieces to become " hinged " by the
interlocking of the crystals.

Aluminium, 5 fer Gent. — In each series an increasing per-
centage of nickel results in diminished resistance to alternating

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys

189

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190 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

stress; in the annealed state, however, there is no decrease
until the nickel exceeds 1 per cent. The effect of quenching
is to increase the resistance of these alloys to alternating
stress.

900

0 ANNEALED
• COLD DOLLED
+ QUENCHED

■\

SZAl ^\^

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^^^—^^

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Percentage of Nickel
Fig. 7.— Alternating Tests.

Hardness Tests.

The hardness of the alloys under different conditions of
mechanical and heat treatment has been determined both by the
Shore scleroscope (using the universal hammer) and by the
Brinell method. The specimens tested were cylinders about
1 inch high and 1 inch in diameter, with polished surfaces.
They were cut from the same rods as the tensile test-pieces,
and had therefore received precisely the same thermal and
mechanical treatment. The Brinell tests were carried out
according to the standard conditions, using a 10-millimetre
ball under a load of 3000 kilogrammes, the pressure being
applied for one minute. The results given for the quenched
series containing 5 per cent, of aluminium were, however,
obtained with a load of 1000 kilogrammes.

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys 191

The hardness numbers were calculated as follows : —

Load in kilogrammes
Spherical area of the concavity (in square millimetres)

The hardness numbers obtained by both the scleroscope and
Brinell methods are given in Table XI. Some of these results
are shown in Figs. 8 and 9, where the Brinell numbers are
represented by dots and a continuous line, and the scleroscope
numbers by small circles and a dotted line. The relative
hardness numbers recorded by both methods are in fairly close
agreement, the lines through the two sets of readings running
nearly parallel to one another ; but the effect of cold rolling,
and especially of quenching, is greater in proportion on the
scleroscope scale than in the Brinell hardness numbers.

It will be seen that the hardness curves in general have the
same character as those representing yield point, the most
noteworthy fact being the rapid increase in the hardness of
the 5 per cent, aluminium alloys in the annealed state in the
presence of upwards of 5 per cent, of nickel, and in the cast
state when the nickel exceeds 7| per cent. This increase is
so rapid that when the nickel reaches 7^ per cent, the annealed
metal with 5 per cent, of aluminium is harder than the cor-
responding alloy with 10 per cent, of aluminium; and the
same applies to the cast metal with 1 5 per cent, of nickel.

A comparison of the figures for the quenched material with
those for the annealed may very conveniently be made by
considering the hardening capacity of the alloys, i.e. the ratio
of the hardness of the quenched material to that of the
annealed. The values of this ratio given in Table XII. are
calculated from the Brinell numbers ; the scleroscope numbers
give similar series, but the numerical value ' of the ratio is
somewhat larger.

It will be seen that as the percentage of nickel increases
there is a very marked and (No. 4 alone excepted) regular
diminution in the hardening capacity of the alloys with 10
per cent, of aluminium. In the 5 per cent, series the value
of the ratio falls below 1 when the nickel reaches 5 per
cent., and is still further reduced at *1\ per cent, of nickel,
indicating that these alloys are very considerably softened by

192 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

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Some Copper- aluminium Alloys

19;

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Fig. 8. — Hardness. Brinell and Scleroscope Tests on Chill Castings.

^ 6

Percentace of Nickel

Fig. 9. — Hardness, Brinell and Scleroscope Tests on Annealed Rods.

194 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

quenclimg, a result entirely in accordance with the tensile
tests and microstructure.

Table XII. — Effect of Qiiencliing on the Hardness.

No.

Aluminium 10 per Cent.
(Load 3000 Kilogrammes.)

No.

Aluminium 5 per Cent.
(Load 1000 Kilogrammes.)

r, .. Hardness of Quenched Alloy
Hardness of Annealed Alloy

J, . Hardness of Quenched Alloy
Hardness of Annealed Alloy

1
2
3

13*

2 02
1-51
1-30
1-66
1-29
1-21

1-00
1-00
1-03
0-78
0-60

For chemical composition see Table XI.

Specific Gravities.

{

The specific gravities of the alloys as chill castings, and also j
as annealed, cold rolled, and quenched rods, are given in Table j
XIII. In spite of the fact that the density of nickel (8-80) t

Table XIII. — Specific Gravity {expressed as Grammes per
Cubic Centimetre).

No.

Composition.

Specific Gravity.

Copper
per Cent.

Nickel
per Cent.

Aluminium
per Cent.

Chill
Castings.

Annealed, Quenched.

Cold
Rolled.

89-94

10-06

7-54

7-54 7-54

87-66

2-46

9-88

7-55

7-54 7-54

7-56

85-11

4-95

9-94

7-56

7-63 7-6.3

7-63

82-82

7-48

9-70

7-60

7-57 7-58

7-57

79-94

10-14

9-92

7-53

74-26

15-75

9-99

7-60

... J ...

94-98

5-02

8-18

8-17

92-68

2-38

4-94

8-14

8-17

816

8-16

89-84

4-84

5-32

8-15

8-18

8-17

87-48

7-31

5-21

8-15

8-19

8-18

818

85-03

9-42

5-55

8-13

79-90

14-90

5-20

8-14

...

•

* The figures for No. 13 refer to the quenched and annealed cast material,
t Roberts-Austen, " Introduction to Metallurgy," 1910, p. 67-

Some Copper'aluminium Alloys

195

is less than that of copper (8'93),* it will be seen that the pre-
sence of nickel brings about a distinct increase in the specific
gravity, this being most marked in the 10 per cent, aluminium
alloy with 5 per cent, of nickel. In this series, with larger
amounts of nickel, the specific gravity falls in spite of a slight
decrease in aluminium. This fact, as well as the differences
between the cast and annealed alloys of the same series, is
probably significant in connection with the constitution of
these alloys.

The results given in Table XIII. were obtained with speci-
mens cut from the same rods as the test-pieces which
had received the thermal and mechanical treatment already
described.

Melting-points.

The melting-points of a number of the alloys were deter-
mined with a thermo-electric couple and a direct reading
millivoltmeter. The results which are tabulated in Table
XIV. show that the addition of nickel to the 5 per cent,
aluminium-copper alloy results in an immediate and consider-
able rise in melting-point ; while with the 1 0 per cent, alloy
there appears to be a slight fall at first followed by a rise
before the nickel reaches 5 per cent.

Table XIV. — Melting-points

Composition.

No.

Melting-
point,

Copper

Nickel

Aluminium

Degrees C.

per Cent.

90-00

10-00

1042

87-66

2-46

9-88

1039

85-26

5-18

9-56

1042

82-82

7-48

9-70

1053

1.3

79-94

1014

9-92

1079

75-34

14-62

10-04

1063

94-98

5-02

1054

92-68

2-38

4-94

1081

90-04

5-05

4-91

1093

87-48

7-31

5-21

1097

85 03

9-42

5-55

1108

79-90

14-90

5-20

1119

* Roberts- Austen, "Introduction to Metalliu-gy," 1910, p. 67.

196 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

Conductivity for Electricity.

The resistance of definite lengths of the wires, made as
described under '^ wire drawing " and subsequently annealed

Table XV. — Electrical Conductivities at 13° C.±2°.

No.

Composition.

Specific

Resistance

(Ohmsxl0-«).

Conductivity
(Copper=100).

Copper
per Cent.

Nickel
per Cent.

Aluminium
per Cent.

1
2
3

89-94
89-14
87-66

1-04
2-46

10-06
9-82
9-88

10-27
11-74
14-40

16 0
14-0
11-4

6
7
8
9
10

94-98
93-96
92-68
89-84

87-48

0-94
2-38
4-84
7-31

5-02
510
4-94
5-32
5-21

9-85
10-88
12-56
15-47
18-45

16-7
15-1
13-1
10-6

8-9

by heating to redness and cooling in air, was measured by the
Wheatstone bridge method with the aid of a carefully stand-
ardized resistance box. The
results are given in Table
XV., which shows the specific
resistances of the alloys in
microhms (ohms x 10"*), and
also the percentage conduc-
tivity of each member of the
series relative to that of pure
copper * at the same tempera-
ture. These values are also
shown graphically in Fig. 10.
It will be noticed that the
conductivity of the 5 per cent,
alloy is only very slightly
greater than that of the alloy
containing 10 per cent, of
aluminium. The effect of
nickel in both cases is to diminish the conductivity.

* Swan and Rhodin, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1894, vol. Ivi. p. 81.

Percentage of Nichel
Fig. 10.— Relative Conductivity for
Electricity (Copper=100).

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys

197

In view of the changes produced in alloys Nos. 9 and 10
by quenching, determinations of the conductivity were also
made on slowly cooled samples and on samples quenched from
900° C. in cold water. These are given in Table XVI.

Table XVI. — Effect of Quenching on the Condiictivity.

No.

Composition. Specific Resistance
*^ (Ohms X 10^}.

Conductivity
(Copper^lOO).

Copper
per Cent.

-1

Aluminium
per Cent.

Annealed.
Slowly
Cooled.

t
o
o
o
u

•g

Annealed.
Slowly
Cooled.

•d

1
V

•d

g
&

9
10

89-84
87-48

4-84
7-31

5-32 1 15-49
5-21 18-01

15-47
18-45

15-54
18-43

10-6 10-6
9-15 8-93

10-6
8-94

For No. 9 all three methods of treatment give wire of the
same specific resistance within the limits of experimental
error, but the resistance of the alloy with *1\ per cent, of
nickel is lowered by annealing and slow cooling ; while the
quenched material has approximately the same resistance as
the air-cooled.

Corrosion Tests.

Plates of metal having the dimensions 2-0 x 0"75 x 0 1 inch
were tested both in the cold rolled and annealed conditions.
The annealed plates had been heated in a mufHe to a good
red heat, and cooled in air. The arrangement used for these
experiments was the same as that previously described by one
of the authors.* Each plate, after being polished and thoroughly
cleaned, was weighed and suspended from a glass hook at-
tached to a piece of wood which rested on the edges of a
porcelain tank. At the end of the tests the plates were care-
fully cleaned, dried, and weighed. For purposes of comparison
plates of Muntz metal (copper 61 per cent.), and of naval
brass (70 : 29 : 1) were included.

Fresh Water Tests. — A gentle stream of tap water was kept
flowing continuously through the tank for 144 days, during

* Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1913, vol. x. p. 300.

198 Read and Greaves: The Influence of Nickel on

which time the plates were taken out and gently rubbed once
a fortnight. The chemical composition, as given below, shows
the tap water to be " soft " and of high quality : —

Constituent. Grains Per Gallon.

Free ammonia 0"0007

Albuminoid ammonia 0'0035

Silica 0-035

Ferric oxide 0'07

Sodium chloride ...... 0'68

Magnesium chloride 0'25

Magnesium carbonate ..... 0'36

Calcium sulphate 0'58

Calcium carbonate ..... 2'15

The results are given in Table XVII. , where it will be seen
that if the nickel has any action it is to increase the rate of
corrosion. This increase is clearly shown in the series con-
taining 5 per cent, of aluminium, but in the other series the
loss in weight due to corrosion does not vary so regularly.
In all cases, however, the action of this very pure tap water
on the alloys was exceedingly small. The plates were only
slightly tarnished, and were all perfectly smooth. The alloys
containing 1 per cent, of aluminium showed dark spots in
places, the Muntz metal was more tarnished and darker in
colour than any of the 10 per cent, aluminium alloys, and
the naval brass was covered with brownish-red patches where
dezincification had begun to take place.

Sea Water Tests. — The sea water which was obtained from a
bay in the Bristol Channel was changed every fortnight, and
at the same time the plates were taken out and gently rubbed.
The duration of the trials was 123 days. The results are re-
corded in Table XVII,, and those for the annealed plates shown
graphically in Fig. 11.

The figures given for Muntz metal, naval brass, the copper-
aluminium alloys with 10 per cent, and 1 per cent, of alumi-
nium, all agree with those found by Messrs. Vivian & Sons,*
and by Carpenter and Edwards. The effect of nickel up to
10 per cent, is in all cases greatly to reduce the corrosion of
the alloys by the sea water, the effect of the first 1 per cent,
of nickel on the 10 per cent, alloy being very marked. There
was no appreciable difference in the behaviour of the annealed

* Proceedings of tlie Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part 1, 1907, p. 365.

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys

199

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200 Read and Greaves: The Influence of Nickel on

and cold rolled metal. The plates after their immersion in
sea water were generally smooth, but varied in appearance.
The pure 10 per cent, copper-aluminium alloy was much
darker in colour, and the surface was roughened, while those
containing nickel were quite smooth and only slightly dimmed,
but had assumed a greenish tinge. The 5 per cent, aluminium
alloy showed a dull reddish-yellow colour, with 1 per cent, of

l^'^

1^ 10

—NAvrn Brass \

\ 10% M

0 3 6 9

Percentage of Nichel
Fig. 11.— Corrosion Tests. Loss in Weight in rcVTr^hs of a Pound.
Annealed Plates in Sea Water.

nickel this was lighter; while the alloys with 5 and 10 per
cent, of nickel respectively remained perfectly bright. The
1 per cent, aluminium alloys with low nickel were coated with
a fine dark red deposit, but when the nickel reached 10 per
cent, the surface assumed a dull greenish colour. Meanwhile
the surface of the Muntz metal had become dimmed and
covered with small reddish excrescences : and the Naval brass
showed a greenish deposit easily removed, leaving a reddish
surface underneath.

Microscopic Features of the Alloys.
All the alloys have been examined microscopically, the
specimens being etched as a rule with an acid solution of ferric

Some Copper- aluminium Alloys 201

chloride containing four parts of a solution of ferric chloride in
water (1 : 12), and one part of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
It was necessary, however, in dealing with some of the alloys
containing 5 per cent, of aluminium to dilute this to one-
quarter strength by the addition of three parts of water, while
ammonium persulphate was also found useful in some cases.
All the accompanying photomicrographs were taken by direct
illumination.

Aluminium, 10 per Cent.

Cast Structures. — The structure of the alloys containing less
than 5 per cent, of nickel consists solely of the a and /3
constituents, exactly resembling those of the 10 per cent,
aluminium-copper alloy. At 5 per cent, of nickel a few blue
veins are visible in the a constituent at a magnification of 350
diameters. At 7| per cent, of nickel these are more noticeable
(Plate XII., Micrograph No. 1), and penetrate into the ^ con-
stituent. At the same time the size of the crystals is reduced,
and the alloy with 10 per cent, of nickel shows a finer a + /3
structure with a much smaller proportion of the ^ constituent,
while there are also present crystallites of the blue constituent
(Micrograph No. 2). When 15 per cent, of nickel is reached
the |8 constituent is entirely replaced by the greyish blue sub-
stance embedded in a ground mass of the a solution (Micro-
graph No. 3).

Cold-rolled Structures. — The longitudinal sections of all the
cold -rolled rods showed the characteristic rolling structure, the
blue constituent being first visible at 7 1 per cent, of nickel
(Micrograph No. 4).

Annealed Structures. — Up to 2^ per cent, of nickel the alloys
show the ordinary a + /3 structure. At 5 per cent, of nickel
(Micrograph No. 5) the crystals are smaller, and a little of the
blue constituent may be seen in half tone. At 7| per cent, of
nickel an entire change has taken place in the structure. The
specimen appeared to be softer in polishing : the structure
(shown in Micrograph No. 6), though similar in appearance
to the a + /3 structure, showed no trace whatever of the fi
constituent at high magnification, but consists solely of fine
blue lines in the a constituent. Similarly the cast metal con-

202 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

taining 10 per cent, of nickel, after annealing and slow cooling,
no longer showed any /3, but simply a + blue constituent. In
consequence of the high actinic effect of this blue substance, it
is difficult to obtain photographically a good contrast with the
golden a solution, but under the microscope its colour renders
it easily distinguishable to the eye, even in fine lines.

Quenched Structures. — The alloys low in nickel showed the
characteristic acicular structure of the quenched copper-alumi-
nium alloys, but as the nickel increases up to 5 per cent, the
needles become finer. The appearance of the alloy with 5 per
cent, of nickel is shown in Plate XIII., Micrographs Nos. 7 and 8.
The former shows the structure at a magnification of 25 dia-
meters, but the interior of the large crystals there shown
presents a tine acicular structure at a magnification of 500
diameters. On passing to 71 per cent, of nickel (Micrograph
No. 9), the structure is no longer acicular, but presents an
appearance similar to that of the ordinary annealed copper-
aluminium alloy, the dark constituent being ^ with only a mere
trace of the blue substance. On quenching the cast alloy
containing 10 per cent, of nickel in a similar manner, the ^
constituent which was absent after slow cooling was restored,
though a considerable amount of the blue constituent remained
unaffected by the change.

Aluminium, 5 per Cent.

Cast Structures. — The alloys with 5 per cent, of nickel and
under consist of large a crystals which exhibit coring. Micro-
graph No. 10, showing the 1 per cent, alloy, is typical of
these ; the coring becomes more marked as the percentage
of nickel increases, but disappears on annealing. The alloy
with 7 1 per cent, of nickel (Micrograph No. 11) shows very
heavy coring (or probably two constituents) which did not
disappear, but was modified by annealing. The second
constituent is certainly present in the 10 per cent, nickel
alloy, and this at first etches brown, but at 15 per cent.
(Micrograph No. 12) the alloy consists of long, blue dendritic
crystals set in a ground mass of golden a constituent.

Cold-rolled Structures. — As the nickel increases the longi-
tudinal sections show a gradual change from fairly coarse

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys 203

broken crystals of a with only slight rolling structure to the
tine crystals and marked rolling structure of Micrograph No.
13, Plate XIV., with 7| per cent, of nickel.

Annealed Struchcres. — Up to 5 per cent, of nickel the micro-
sections show the a constituent only with plentiful twinning
(Micrograph No. 14). In places at 5 per cent., and more
noticeably at 7| per cent, of nickel (Micrograph No. 15), dark
areas not unlike dendritic crystals varying in colour from
brown to blue according to the depth of etching, are found in
the slowly cooled metal, cutting right across the clearly defined
crystals of a. The presence of the crystal boundaries of the a
constituent is best revealed by rather deep etching and sub-
sequent repolishing. Micrograph No. 1 6 represents the same
specimen as No. 15, treated in this manner.

Quenched Structures. — Up to 1 0 per cent, of nickel the alloys
are all softer to polish after quenching, and consist of the a
constituent only, with plentiful twinning, but with no other
constituent. Micrograph No. 17 again shows the 7| per cent,
nickel alloy, but the bluish-brown constituent produced on slow
cooling has been suppressed, and it does not appear with 10
per cent, of nickel. At 15 per cent, of nickel the structure
is similar to the annealed, showing that no change is brought
about by quenching.

Of the typical a and /S constituents of the copper-aluminium
alloys the a certainly, and possibly the /3, will dissolve nickel
without change in appearance; but in addition to these, two
other constituents have been met with in the alloys examined,
viz. : —

A. In the 10 per cent, aluminium series: a greyish-blue
constituent which appears in the slowly cooled metal at 5
per cent, of nickel, but is suppressed by quenching up to
7 1 per cent, of nickel. With 10 per cent, and more it forms
primary crystals which are not removed by quenching.

B. In the 5 per cent, aluminium series : a constituent
which in the slowly cooled metal first appears at 5 per cent,
of nickel, but which is suppressed by quenching from 900° C,
until the nickel exceeds 10 per cent. As a secondary con-
stituent this etches brown or bluish, but with 15 per cent,
nickel, what is probably the same constituent forms primary

204 Read and Greaves : The Infiuence of Nickel on

dendritic crystals of a clear blue colour which persists after
quenching.

Until the constitution of the copper-nickel-aluminium
alloys has been more systematically studied, it is not possible
to identify these constituents with certainty ; but since they
in no way resemble any phasQ of the copper-aluminium
alloys, it may be remarked that there remain the following
possibilities : —

(1) A nickel-aluminium compound.

(2) A copper-nickel solid solution (probably containing

aluminium),

(3) A ternary compound.

The authors have reason to believe that the two constituents
are not the same, and incline to the opinion that the sub-
stances A and B correspond respectively to the first and
second alternatives mentioned above.

However, while the exact nature of these constituents is
uncertain, their effect on the mechanical properties of these
alloys is well defined. In the cast series the appearance of
the constituent A, or possibly the simultaneous disappearance
of /3, diminishes the hardness and lowers all the mechanical
properties. In the annealed rods the alloy with 5 per cent,
of nickel, that is, about the limit of the a -f /3 structure when
nearly all the nickel is in solution, shows maximum elonga-
tion, reduction of area, resistance to alternating stress, and
specific gravity, and the replacement of /3 by the blue sub-
stance lowers all these properties.

In the series with 5 per cent, of aluminium, the con-
stituent B confers great hardness on the 15 per cent, nickel
alloy : the increase in hardness in the cast and annealed metals
begins at 7^ and 5 per cent, of nickel respectively, where this
substance begins to separate. The most notable example of its
effect was found in the alloy with 7| per cent, of nickel, where
its separation on slow cooling results in greater hardness, higher
yield point, and maximum stress, with reduced elongation,
and reduction of area.

It will be seen from Table XVIII. that a wide range of
properties may be obtained by suitable mechanical and heat
treatment of this alloy.

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys
Table XVIII.

205

No. 10.

Nickel 1\ %.

Aluminium 5 %.

Yield

Point.

Tons per

Sq. Inch.

Maximum

Stress.
Tons per
Sq, Inch.

Elonga-
tion per
Cent, on
2 Inches.

Reduction

of Area

per Cent.

Brinell
Hardness.

Alterna-
tions
Endured.

Air-cooled . . .
Quenched . . .
Annealed . . .
Cold rolled . .

11-6
11-4
24 0
31-1

27-06
29-77
39-00
36-30

63-9
52-1
25-6

28-8

69-9
65 1
26-8
41-0

92
167
156

258
193
150

Slow cooling also increases the conductivity and the specific
gravity. Determinations of the latter property on the same
sample before and after quenching led to the following
results : —

Aluminium, 5 per Cent.

1 Annealed. Quenched.

Decrease in Volume on
Slow Cooling.

5 per cent. Nickel 8 178
7h .. .. \ 8-192

8-176
8-180

0-2 parts per 1000
1-5 .. ,. „

The latter figures, which are the mean of two determinations,
may be taken to indicate that the change on slow cooling is
accompanied by a considerable decrease in volume ; and since
the properties of the air-cooled rods of this alloy were approxi-
mately those of the quenched, it would appear that the
separation of the constituent B from the homogeneous solid
solution takes place very slowly.

206 Read and Greaves : The Influence of Nickel on

APPENDIX*

Effect of Acids and Alkalis on the Nickel-
Aluminium-Copper Alloys.

In view of tlae very low rate of corrosion of the nickel-aluminium-
copper alloys in sea water, a number of experiments were made
to determine the effect of acid and alkaline liquors on these
alloys. Small cylinders of the metals, f inch diameter by 2
inches long, were immersed in vinegar, deci-normal solutions
of sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and sodium hydroxide
respectively, for about five weeks, the rods being rubbed at in-
tervals of about a week and the liquid renewed. The figures
given in the accompanying table indicate the behaviour of the
alloys under these conditions.

In yq NaOH. — The rate of corrosion is very small and is

diminished by the presence of nickel, though not so greatly as
in sea water. The surfaces of all the specimens were dull after
immersion.

In Vinsgar. — The presence of nickel greatly increases cor-
rosion, especially in the 10 per cent, aluminium series. The
pure 1 0 per cent, aluminium alloy remained bright : all the
rest were dull.

In tq HgSO^. — In this case also the rate of corrosion is

greatly increased by nickel in the 10 per cent, aluminium
series, but is almost unaffected in the alloys with 5 per cent,
aluminium. The surfaces of numbers 1 and 5 were bright :
the others were dull.

In yq HCl. — The corrosion in every case is very great, the

pure 10 per cent, aluminium-copper alloy withstanding the
action of the acid best. The rate of corrosion of the 5 per
cent, aluminium alloy is unaffected by the presence of nickel ;
but that of the alloy with 10 per cent, aluminium is very
greatly increased as the nickel rises. The pure 10 per cent.
aluminium alloy alone remaiaed bright: all the others were

* Contributed since the paper was read. — Ed.

Some Copper-aluminium Alloys

207

thickly coated with a dark deposit, and showed a green colour
after cleaning and drying.

These results seem to indicate that the alloys containing
nickel resist corrosion by sea water and by alkaline solutions
better than the pure aluminium-copper alloys, while the latter
withstand the action of acids better than those containing
nickel.

Corrosion Texts. Effect of Acids and Alkalis.

No.

Copper
per Cent.

Nickel
per Cent.

1
4
5

89-94
85-11
82-82

4-95 ;
7-48

|10

94-98
89-84
87-48

4'-84 i
7-31

Aluminium
per Cent.

Loss of Weight in lbs. per Square Foot
per Month.

NaOH.

10-06
9-94
9-70

0 00022
0 00018
0-00019

5 02
5-32
5-21

0-00042
0 00026
0 00023

Vinegar.

0-0004
0 0090
00089

0-0075
0 0060
0-0104

H2SO4.

0 0015
0 0036
0-0142

0-0060
0 0062
0-0058

HCl.

00016
0 0406
0-0374

0 039
0 035
0 036

208 Discussion on Read and Greaves Paper

DISCUSSION.

Dr. Walter Eosbnhain, F.R.S. (Member of Council), said that the
paper itself was extremely interesting to him personally, because he had
worked on another ternary system of aluminium-copper. In passing, he
suggested to the authors it would be desirable, in conformity with the
findings of the Nomenclature Committee's Report, to speak of the alloys
mentioned as " nickel -aluminium-copper."

One statement in the paper was remarkable, namely, that the cor-
rosion of aluminium-copper alloys by sea water was greatly reduced by
the presence of nickel. Corrosion by sea water of the aluminium-coppers
was extremely small indeed to begin with in the case of the 10 per cent,
alloy, and if it was " greatly reduced " the alloy ought to gain in weight !
He would like to know whether the authors could give information as
to the effect of the nickel on the casting and machining properties of the
alloys. One could see that there were great possibilities in those alloys
from a great many practical points of view, where special properties were
required, but one of the great difficulties in inducing people to avail
themselves of those special properties, even in the case of the aluminium-
coppers, was their very large shrinkage in the mould ; they required a
great deal of feeding, and it was extremely difficult to prevent the cast-
ings from drawing. It could be prevented ; he frequently made castings
in the laboratory of all sorts of shapes and forms, and perfectly sound
castings could be obtained if only the method was known and the
necessary trouble and waste of material were expended. It would be
very interesting to know how nickel affected that matter — whether it
made it better or worse, and also with regard to machining. The 10 per
cent, aluminium-copper was not easy to machine, and he would be glad
to know whether the addition of nickel made it easier or harder.

With regard to the paper itself, there were only two points on which
he desired to offer a little comment. In the first place, apparently tensile
tests had been taken by means of the autographic stress-strain recorder,
and the yield points had been read from it, which was a vague thing in
any case. He considered it ought to have been done by some more
precise means than that. In his opinion the autographic stress-strain
recorder was admittedly an imperfect and unsatisfactory appliance. A
very beautiful contrivance had recently been designed by Professor Dalby,
and when it was available it would be found that it would be the best
way of carrying out tests. One would like to have seen the yield points
taken by a rather more accurate method.

In the second place, he was sorry to see that the authors, who had
carried out such an important research, had confined their dynamic tests
to Arnold's so-called alternating stress test. That test might have a
value or it might not ; his own opinion was that it had very little value.
It was one test of a very peculiar kind, and a test which bore little or no
relation to other standard or well-recognized dynamic tests. He would
like to have seen a single blow impact test or a repeated bending impact
test or something of that kind, or an alternating stress test, which would

Discussion on Read and Greaves Paper 209

have given far greater insight into the dynamic properties of the alloys
than could possibly be obtained by the test which the authors had
chosen. He had nothing to say against the inclusion of that test ; he
had included it in his own papers repeatedly ; but the fact of taking
it by itself meant to his mind that the results would have to be accepted
with very considerable caution.

Beyond that he would only say the Institute was to be congratulated
on having such a paper presented to it.

Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc.R.S.M. (Past-President), said
that as he had happened to have carried out some work at different times
on the alloy mentioned, he might call attention to one or two points in
connection with it. It seemed to him that one of the difficulties in work-
ing with the aluminium-copper alloys was to get them made up thoroughly
satisfactorily. He had compared some of the aluminium-copper results
given in the paper with those obtained by Professor Carpenter, and he
had found that Professor Carpenter obtained better mechanical tests for
the aluminium-copper than those given in the paper. That pointed to a
difference in the making up of the alloy in some way or another. About
ten years ago he had made up a 10 per cent, copper-aluminium alloy with
5 per cent, of nickel, and obtained better results than the authors.
He had had occasion to repeat those tests within the last year, and he
still obtained similar results, which were rather better than those given
in the paper. That meant, that one had to study the best means of
making up alloys. One point in the paper itself had very much struck
him ; perhaps Mr. Greaves might throw a little more light on it. On
page 1 75 it was said : " The alloy which appeared to be hardest on rolling
was No. 10 with about 1\ per cent, of nickel and 5 per cent, of alu-
minium." He could not see why that, particular composition should have
given a harder alloy than the others. It occurred to him whether it
might not have been due to the particular melt containing more alu-
minium oxide, or something of that sort. The point seemed to require a
little more light thrown on it, as it was not at all obvious why that alloy
should have been hardest on rolling.

He desired to add his testimony to the value of the paper. It was
particularly clear in the way the experiments had been carried out, and
in the way they had been tabulated and expressed.

Mr. C. BiLLiNGTON (Longport) said that he had had considerable ex-
perience in casting certain of the alloys mentioned, and he thought from
a practical point of view that he could answer Dr. Rosenhain's question
with regard to the casting of nickel-aluminium-copper alloys. He found
that they cast as easily as alloys of aluminium-copper. His firm had
made large castings containing about 10 per cent, of aluminium, 9 per
cent, of nickel, and the balance copper, which gave better results than
were obtained from the 10 per cent, aluminium-copper. The drawback
to the use of these alloys was their excessive shrinking and rapid solidifica-
tion, as great care had to be exercised in having large heads for feeding,
and the difficulty even then was in getting castings of unequal thick-

210 Discussion on Read and Greaves Paper

nesses sound, and as regards the turning he found that the alloy referred
to turned quite as easily as the 10 per cent, aluminium-copper. In
making the alloy great care was required to prevent oxidation, so as to
get a homogeneous^ alloy.

Mr. A. E. Seaton (Member of Council) said that some years ago,
when aluminium was first appearing in the engineering world as a pro-
duct that engineers could afford to use, he had made a considerable
number of experiments with aluminium-copper alloys, or as it was called
then, aluminium-bronze, of various proportions ; but the very strong ones,
which seemed most suitable for use, had proved to be very porous. He
would like to ask if the addition of nickel closed the grain and made
them more useful for such things as fittings for hydraulic work and for
very high pressures of steam. He had found that his mixtures would
not stand the tests for tightness at all satisfactorily.

Mr. A. Philip, B.Sc, Assoc. R.S.M. (Member of Council), said that
with regard to corrosion, he noticed the authors had expressed the loss of
weight due to corrosion in lb. per square foot per month. These
units necessitated the use of three or four cyphers in all the numerical
results obtained. It was very desirable that the units in which corrosion
results were expressed should be fixed in some way by general agreement.
He himself used rather mixed units ; namely grains per square foot per
100 days. He had adopted these in order to obtain a convenient
corrosion figure expressed in English units. Taking the authors' results,
the largest corrosion which they gave was 0-00091 lb. per square
foot per month; this was equal to 227 grains per square foot per 100
days. His owt experience was that the loss which resulted from the
corrosive action of sea water on metals or alloys, under the most favour-
able circumstances, never rose as high as 1000 grains, and that the least
corrosion which took place was never less than about 0*5, both expressed
as grains per square foot per 100 days.

He considered that some unit should be taken which would get rid of
the large number of cyphers mentioned in the paper, and which could be
generally adopted.

Dr. Walter Eosenhain, F.R.S. (Member of Council), asked to be
allowed to add a suggestion to Professor Huntington's remarks with
regard to the precautions used in making the alloy. He noticed the
authors added aluminium as metallic aluminium to their alloys instead
of making a 50 per cent, copper alloy first. That of course was a pro-
cedure which was apt to give results not quite as high in tensile strength
and in elongation as if the alloy were made first.

Mr. Greaves, in reply, said Dr. Rosenhain had referred to the corrosion
by sea water and to his (the speaker's) term, "greatly reduced." He
quite realized that the corrosion of the pure material was already very
small, but it was reduced in some cases to one-tenth that of the pure
metal, so that after immersion for four months in sea water the alloys

Discussion on Read and Greaves Paper 211

with 5 per cent, of nickel for example came out perfectly bright with a
mirror-like surface, whereas the copper-aluminium alloys were always
dull. The yield point obtained by the stress-strain diagram was tested
in several cases against the results obtained by dividers, and a fairly
close agreement was observed. The autographic diagram was also tested
against the Ewing extensometer, and it was found to give slightly
higher results.

With regard to the machining properties of the alloys mentioned by
Dr. Rosenhain and Mr. Billington, there was a noticeable improvement
in the 10 per cent, series when 5 per cent, of nickel was present. The
alloys of the 5 per cent, aluminium series were very tough, and spirals as
long as one wished for could be obtained, especially with 5 per cent, alu-
minium and 5 per cent, of nickel. The shrinkage in the nickel alloys was
always noticed to be very great, although no measurements of shrinkage
were made ; but the castings had to be fed to just about the same extent
as was necessary with the pure copper-aluminium alloys.

In reply to Professor Huntington, the only reason he could suggest
why the 7 J per cent, nickel alloy, with 5 per cent, of aluminium, was
harder than all the rest, was that in the annealed state it was found to
be harder than all the others that were worked with, on account of the
separation of that second constituent which took place on slow cooling.
It had been rather a surprise to him to find that the alloy containing 1\
per cent, of nickel with 5 per cent, of aluminium was harder to roll than
any with 10 per cent, of aluminium, but it undoubtedly was noticeably
harder, and that was borne out by the fact that the Brinell hardness of
the slowly cooled material was greater than that of the alloy with the
same nickel and 10 per cent, of aluminium.

No porosity tests on the alloys had been carried out, as suggested by
Mr. Seaton, but from the fact that the crystalline form was smaller, it
was possible that they would withstand hydraulic pressure as well as, or
better than, the copper-aluminium. In the 10 per cent, alloys the
crystalline form was smallest when 5 per cent, of nickel was present.
Afterwards the structure changed.

He had been very much interested in Mr. Philip's suggestion that
corrosion should be expressed in grains per square foot per 100 days. An
expression in lb. per square foot per month was a very cumbersome one,
and a lot of superfluous figures would be avoided if the other method
were adopted.

COMMUNICATION.

Professor Read and ^Ir. Greaves wrote in further reply that they
desired to thank those gentlemen who had taken part in the discussion
for their interesting contributions and kind appreciation of the work.
The authors were in entire agreement with Dr. Rosenhain that other
dynamic tests would have been exceedingly valuable, but unfortunately
they had not at their command the necessary appliances for carrying
out these tests. The authors regretted that a note on the turning

212 Authors 7^eply : Read and Greaves' Paper

characteristics of the alloys was not included in the paper ; and they had
endeavoured to supply this omission by the following table compiled
from their workshop note-book. The word " tough " was used to indicate
the capacity of the material to curl off in spirals during turning.

Table of Turning Characteristics.

No.

Nickel
per Cent.

Aluminium
per Cent.

Cast.

Annealed Rods. ;

Quenched Rods.

10 06

Hard

Exceedingly hard
and brittle.

1-04

9-82

, , Tougher

Not so hard and

2-46

9-88

All hard.
■ No. 5 toughest

Turns very well

rather tough.
Harder and less
tough.

4-95

9-94

Harder. Not so
tough

Harder and less
tough.

7-48

9-70

Less hard.
Tougher ; best
to machine

Not so hard, and
tougher.

5-02

Soft. Tough

0-94

510

Very

Very tough

2-38

4-94

tough
Slightly harder.
Very tough

Slightly harder.
Very tough

Similar to an-
nealed.

4-84

5-32

.Slightly harder.

Slightly harder.

Very tough

Toughest

7-31

5-21

Slightly harder.

Harder. Not so

Tougher and

Toughest

tough

softer than
annealed.

Professor Huntington thought that Professor Carpenter had obtained
better mechanical tests for aluniiuium-copper than those given in the
paper, and suggested that the alleged difference might be due to the
preseoce of alumina. The results of Carpenter and Edwards' tests were
given with those of the authors' in the accompanying table, and it would
be seen that the agreement was very close except in the case of 10 per
cent, aluminium chill castings. Even with these results the differences
were what might be expected with cast metal owing to the impossibility
of having the conditions exactly the same as regards casting temperature,
rate of cooling, &c.

The results for the quenched rods, and the cold rolled material agreed
just as well as the annealed. The authors, therefore, had no reason to
suppose that the rods were contaminated with oxide. Possibly slightly
better results would have been obtained by the use of the 50 per cent,
alloy in melting as suggested by Dr. Rosenhain, but on the other hand
Carpenter and Edwards had pointed out that "copper rich alloys can be
perfectly .satisfactorily prepared from the pure metals, and no advantage
is gained by using the 50 per cent, alloy instead of aluminium." *

* Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1907, p. 92.

Authors reply: Read and Greaves Paper 213

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214 Dewrance : Bronze

BRONZE.*

By JOHN DEWRANCE.

The dictionary meaning of the word " bronze " is a compound
or alloy of from 2 to 20 parts of copper to 1 of tin, to which
other metallic substances are sometimes added, especially
zinc. In times past, the gradually increasing additions of
zinc and lead discredited the name of bronze.

In the manufacture of guns, it was found that the best
results were obtained by an alloy of 9 parts of copper and 1
part of tin. This became the standard material for the
manufacture of guns for many years.

To distinguish this alloy from the inferior mixtures that
had previously been supplied under the name of bronze, the
description gun-metal was introduced. As time went on the
new name gun-metal was no more respected than the old one
of bronze, and at the present time any alloy that does not
come under the description of pot metal or brass is called gun-
metal. As guns are now universally made of steel, it seems
desirable to return to the dictionary description and to call all
alloys, mainly composed of copper and tin, " bronze.'

To the previously mentioned alloy of 9 0 per cent, copper and
10 per' cent, tin, it is very largely the practice to add 2 per cent,
of zinc, making 88 per cent, copper, 10 per cent, tin, and 2 per
cent. zinc. When tested at atmospheric temperature this alloy
gives very excellent results. As a great deal of bronze is used
at the temperature of high pressure steam it becomes important
to investigate its behaviour at temperatures that correspond.

The researches that have been carried out on non-ferrous
metals at high temperature are set out in a paper read before
this Institute on January 17, 1912, by Dr. G. D. Bengough.f

The tests, the results of which are given in Figs. 1 to 4,
Av^ere conducted for the author by Mr. R. H. Harry Stanger.

The heating apparatus was an air-tight tube boiler heated
by gas from a ring- burner. The specimen was held in screwed

* Read at Annual General Meeting, London, March 18, 1914.

t Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1912, vol. vii. pp. 123-174.

Dewrance : Bronze 215

jaws in the centre, both end jaws being insulated, and the
boiler was also coated with asbestos.

The testing-machine being a 50-ton vertical Buckton, the
weight of the apparatus is carried on the bottom headstock ;
the top end of the specimen was held in a plunger which enters
the top of the heating apparatus through a broad guide with
a sliding fit. Both ends of the apparatus are held in the
headstocks by means of spherical holders, thus allowing the
whole to find its true vertical axis.

As the specimen is entirely enclosed during the test, some
outside means have to be adopted for ascertaining the yield
point, if any ; the two ends of the heating apparatus were con-
nected to a Wickstead hydrographic recorder, taking the base
line with the beam floating immediately before applying the load
after the specimen has attained the necessary temperature.

An experimental specimen was drilled with holes in dif-
ferent positions along the parallel length, and the bulb of a
thermometer was inserted in the various positions.

This thermometer was found to agree very closely with
another thermometer that recorded the temperature in the air-
chamber, and it was therefore inferred that the readings of the
thermometer in the air-chamber gave correct readings of the
temperature of the specimen.

The percentages of elongation were given by the Wickstead
recorder, and are stated throughout as the percentage on 2
inches.

The copper employed in these tests was that which is
known on the market as " Best Selected," which has an
average analysis as follows : —

Per Cent.

Copper 99"55

Nickel 0-01

Arsenic 0026

Lead 0-08

Bismuth 0*004

The tin and zinc were the best commercial quality.

In the first tests made 88 parts of copper were melted in a
new crucible, 2 of zinc were added as soon as the copper was
melted and allowed a short time to flux the metal, 10 of tin
were then added, the whole mass stirred, and the test-pieces

216

Dewrance : Bronze

poured at as near the same heat as could be judged by a
careful moulder.

The black line on Fig. 1 shows that at atmospheric tempera-
ture the 88 copper, 10 tin, and 2 zinc alloy has a maximum
stress of 16*35 tons per square inch, and the black line on
Fig. 2 shows an elongation of 11 per cent, on 2 inches.

At 400° F. it has a maximum stress of 9*5 tons, and an
elongation of only 1 per cent.

At 700° it has a maximum stress of 7 tons, and an elonga-
tion of 0-25 per cent.

The first series of tests undertaken was that between 400°

."i

15
\ 'J

;::*-=='

;

OMi

<fm

Te.

-—

s
\

9
8

'"v

JOO'JZS' JS0 37S' toe- IIS' tSO" ITS'SOO'Ses- 550 57S'60(rses-6S0-67S-T00'F

Decrees Fahrenheit.

87i

m 2 i II .

88 lO 2

COPPCR

Tin. Zinc. Lead. W

(jofpen UN iiNc

Fig. 1.

and 700° F., and the results were so unexpected that it was
thought advisable to re-test some of the broken samples in the
cold state, to ascertain if the fault was in the casting of the
test-pieces.

For this purpose samples which had failed at 400° F. and
500° F. were turned down and suitably mounted, and when
re-tested at atmospheric temperature gave a breaking stress
near 18 tons per square inch. Further samples in this same
mixture were then prepared and tested at temperatures be-
tween atmospheric and 400° F., and the results, embodied on
the diagram A, show very clearly that the metal begins to
lose its strength above 350° F.

Dewrance : Bronze

217

Professor Huntington, in a paper * read before the Institute
in 1912, gives, among others, particulars of an alloy of copper
97 "6 73, and tin 2-408 tested cold, and at temperatures up to
870° F.

Having regard to the small proportion of tin, these results
are consistent with the results given above.

In the next tests made 87| parts of copper were melted

20
19

te
n

. 14

'~~~'

/
/

\
\

^3 S

^ Hi

■'

0, S'

Ida

'//?>

1L7

Te.

5
4

3
g

1 ■

— ^

'~~

—^

:-!

3(n525 350-m-f00-'/eSJ150-475-50rseS-S50-57S-Si>0-SZS-S50-675-70(rF

0£GR£ES Fahrenheit. .

a7i 10 2 '6 \
' Copper. Tin. Zinc. Lead I

Fig. 2.

68 10 2
Copper, Tin. Zinc.

in a new crucible, 2 of zinc were added as soon as the copper
was melted and allowed a short time to flux the metal ; 10 of
tin and \ of lead were then added together, and the whole
mass stirred. It will be observed that the only difference
between this and the previous experiments is the addition of
\ per cent, of lead at the expense of the copper.

The dotted line in Fig. 1 shows that at the atmospheric

* Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1912, No. 2, vol. viii. p. 131.

218 Dewrance : Bronze

temperature the maximum stress is 16-5 tons per square inch,
and the dotted line on Fig. 2 the elongation 8 per cent.

At 550° F. it has a maximum stress of 15*8 tons, and an
elongation of 18 per cent.

At 700° it has a maximum stress of 8*25 tons, and an
elongation of 2 per cent.

The breaking stress of 11-25 tons per square inch at 600° F.
is an average. No actual sample broke at this stress. It
was found that some samples tested at this temperature gave
results in the region of 16 tons per square inch, and others 7
tons per square inch. From this it may be concluded that
600° is the critical temperature of this alloy.

In a paper read before the International Association for
Testing Materials at the seventh Congress in New York, 1912,
by I. M. Bregowsky and L. W. Spring, of the Laboratory of the
Crane Company, Chicago, the results are given of tests among
others of a material called U.S. Navy Gun Bronze " G," which
has a composition of 87-6 per cent, copper, 10*4 per cent,
tin, 1*31 per cent, zinc, 0-39 per cent, lead — it is also
stated to contain O'll per cent, iron ; but it is probable that the
iron content given is due to using a file for preparing the
sample for analysis, as such an alloy ought not to contain
such a proportion of iron.

The chart of the test of this metal at first sight appears in-
consistent Avith the results given in this paper ; but this is due
to the fact that the tests made were not sufiiciently numerous.
The first test appears to be at about 80° F., and gives a
maximum stress of 15 tons, and elongation of 9 per cent.; the
second test is at 300° F., and gives a slightly increased maxi-
mum stress of 16| tons, and elongation of 9*5 per cent. The
next test is at 450° F., and gives a maximum stress of 14*75
tons, and elongation of 8 per cent. There is not another test
until 600° F., at which temperature the maximum stress is
given as 10 tons, and the elongation as 4 per cent.

As previously mentioned, 600° F. is the critical point, and
it is unfortunate that there is such a wide gap of temperature
between this test and the previous ones, as otherwise the
results obtained would have been more consistent with the
results given in this paper, and might have given information

Dewrance : Bronze

219

as to the slight difference due to that particular composition
of alloy tested.

If it is accepted that \ per cent, of lead raises the maximum

^16
Co •-> /^

■n

. 4

1
q

■> 1

r 4

' J

r 7

? i

10 II 12 13 If IS 16

Percentage of added Lead

Fig. 3.— Tested at 500° F.

stress at 500° F. from 9-75 tons to 16*5 tons, that proportion
of lead becomes an essential ingredient in bronze, that is.

3 /

Percentage of added Lead

Fig. 4.— Tested at 500° F.

subjected to temperatures above 350° F. It also becomes
necessary to inquire whether any further advantage can be
gained by adding a larger proportion of lead.

Figs. 3 and 4 show that this is not the case; but it is

220

Dewrance : Bronze

surprising that with so large a proportion as 16 per cent, of
lead the maximum stress at 500° F. is 12| tons as against
9-5 tons without any lead. In making these experiments the
lead was added at the expense of the copper. So the last
result would be 72 per cent, copper, 10 per cent, tin, 2 per
cent, zinc, 16 per cent. lead.

In making the foregoing experiments the question arose as
to whether any of the results were due to the absorption of
oxygen from the atmosphere by the alloy when in a molten
condition. It is difficult to determine the content of oxygen
in bronze, so the following experiments were conducted with
best selected copper : —

Experiment No. I.

A new 100-lb. plumbago crucible was taken. As soon as the
copper was sufficiently hot an ingot was cast, and the rest of
the metal was returned to the fire for an hour, when a second
ingot was cast, and the same thing repeated for the third ingot.

There were thus three ingots cast from the same crucible at
intervals of one hour.

On analysis the oxygen contents of the three were as
follows : —

Oxygen
per Cent.

Cuprous Oxide
per Cent.

No. 1 .
,. 2 .
.. 3 .

0 032
0-272
0-404

0-285
2-499
3-605

Experiment No. II.

Two new plumbago crucibles containing 100 lb. of B.S.
copper were taken, and \ lb. of 10 per cent, phosphor copper
was added to one, and 0*6 oz. aluminium to the other, as
deoxidizers. The copper was covered with glass, so that when
molten no air could come in contact with it ; and three ingots
were cast at intervals of one hour, as in the former experi-
ment, the glass being left on during the casting.

Dewrance : Bronze

221

Oa^

^gen Contents on Analysis.

Oxygen
per Cent.

Aluminium
as deoxidizer

No. 1
.. 2
•■ 3

0-084
0-080
0 092

Phosphorus
as deoxidizer'

No. 1
,, 2
.. 3

0-036
0036
0-036

Both sets of results show that if the metal is kept from
contact with the air when molten no oxygen is picked up ;
and if this precaution is not taken each melting will result in
an increase in the content of oxygen, and this conclusion was
accepted and acted upon when making the following experi-
ments. The products were not analysed for oxygen on account
of the previously mentioned difficulty of such analysis.

Experiment No. III.

One new plumbago crucible containing 100 lb. of 87| per
cent, copper, 10 per cent, tin, 2 per cent, zinc, and | per cent,
lead was covered with glass to exclude the air and melted ;
another exactly similar charge was allowed ample opportunity
to pick up oxygen by being repeatedly skimmed and left stand-
ing in the air after being taken from the fire.

Test-pieces, and a heavy flange casting with a light and thin
nipple on each side, were cast from each crucible.

The flange castings were broken, and examined very care-
fully, and both appeared as sound as it is possible to get a
casting. The test-pieces gave the following results when tested
cold and under heat : —

Temperature.

Maximum Load
in Tons per
Square Inch.

Extension on
2 Inches,
per Cent.

9-0
10-5

12-5
14-0

First charge covered with glass j
to exclude oxygen . . (

Second charge uncovered toj
absorb oxygen . . .1

Cold
At 500° F.

1517
13-73

16-55
15-15

222

Dewrance : Bronze

Experiment No. IV.

To complete the above results Experiment No. IV. was made,
which consisted in casting a similar flange and test-pieces in
" twice-run " metal. The flange casting again proved sound,
and the test-pieces gave the following results : —

Temperature.

Maximum Load
in Tons per
Square Inch.

Extension on
2 Inches,
per Cent.

Metal twice run without any i
precaution to prevent ab-<
sorption of oxygen . . \

Cold
At 500° F.

1519
1615

8
14

The foregoing experiments point to the conclusion that in
an alloy of 87| per cent, copper, 10 per cent, tin, 2 per cent,
zinc, and \ per cent, lead, no benefit results from the deoxida-
tion of the metal, or in taking special precautions to prevent
the metal absorbing oxygen.

There is another feature of considerable interest in these
alloys.

When the alloy that is free from lead is turned in the lathe
the turnings have a considerable curl upon them (see sample
No. 1).

The addition of \ per cent, of lead materially reduces the
length of the turnings (see sample No. 2).

It would naturally be supposed that this feature is due to
the fact that without the lead the alloy has an elongation of
11 per cent, on 2 inches, and with the addition of the lead the
elongation is reduced to 8 per cent., and that the turnings
break off more readily for this reason.

The same test-pieces from which the turnings (samples 1
and 2) were made when cold were then heated and turned at
550° F., and as will be seen by samples 3 and 4 the alloy
without the lead still presents the same curly appearance, and
the turnings from the alloy containing the \ per cent, of lead
are very little longer than the turnings produced in the cold.

The elongation of the alloy containing \ per cent, of lead,
as will be seen by the chart, is at 550° F., 18 per cent, on

Plate XV

Tested Tested at Tested at Tested at

Cold. 400° F. 500° F. 600" F.

Per Cent.
Copper 38

Tin 10

Zinc . . . . . . . _ ,2

Tested at
700° F.

Tested Tested at Tested at Tested at

Cold. 500' F. 550° F. 600° F.

Per Cent,

Copper 87i

Tin lo'

Zinc 2

Lead jl

Tested at
700° F,

Dewrance : Bronze 223

2 inches ; whereas the elongation of the alloy without the lead
falls at this temperature below 2 per cent.

As lead has such a marked effect on bronze, enabling it to
be used without loss of strength up to 550° F., it seems reason-
able to expect that some other metal might be added that
would enable the bronze to withstand even higher temperatures.

With this object in view 87'25 per cent, copper was melted
in a new crucible, and 0*25 of silver was added when the copper
was melted, and the whole mass stirred. Ten per cent, of tin
and 2 per cent, of zinc, and \ per cent, of lead were then added
and again stirred. Two test-pieces were prepared and tested
at 700° F. One test-piece gave a maximum load of 811
tons, the other 8*75 tons.

The extension in neither case exceeded 0*5 per cent, on 2
inches. The maximum load is practically the same as with-
out the silver, and the extension not so good.

Nickel is not very promising, as in small proportions it
seems invariably to liberate some occluded gas on cooling, and
produces very porous castings.

Aluminium is objectionable, because in even small propor-
tions it seems to add materially to the amount of the contrac-
tion of the casting on cooling.

Iron is strongly objected to in fine bronzes, as it combines
with the tin and separates out into hard masses in the casting.

The subject seems to call for further research, as it is pos-
sible that small proportions of some of the rarer metals may
have a beneficial effect.

With the present use of superheated steam it is very desir-
able that a bronze should, if possible, be produced that can be
used with safety at 700° F.

224 Discussion on Dewrances Paper

DISCUSSION.

Sir Henry J. Oram, K.C.B., F.E.S. (President), said that the
members were very much indebted to Mr. Dewrance for bringing this
important subject forward.

In the absence of further information, there was some difficulty in
assessing to what extent deductions could be safely drawn from the
figures. For instance, the author did not state whether the spots on
the curves were generally the results from single test-pieces or whether
they were an average of several tests. In all the tests carried out at
the dockyard, the average of results from three specimens was generally
taken. Very different results, of course, were obtained if the maximum
of each set of three were taken.

Then again, although the alloys were mixed in given proportions, it
was not stated whether the test-pieces were subsequently analysed to
show what their actual compositions were when tested. For instance,
he (the speaker) understood that lead had a tendency to settle or
separate out, and there might conceivably have been considerable
differences. The Admiralty in 1910 at Portsmouth had made a large
number of tests on the metals mentioned, and also on similar ones, and
he would proceed to give the particulars of them. The lead was added
in rather a different proportion to Mr. Dewrance's lead ; Mr. Dewrance
took off an equal amount of copper for any lead that he added. In the
experiments to which he (the speaker) referred, lead was added in a
different way. The 88-10-2 composition was taken, and so much
per cent, of lead was put in in addition. In the 88-10—2 composition,
although 1 per cent, of lead was added, on analysis the amount was
found to be 0'91 per cent. When r25 per cent, of lead was
added, Mr. Arnold Philip found that the actual amount when tested
was 0-92. Again, 2 per cent, of lead was reduced on analysis to 1'75
per cent.

He (the speaker) presumed also that the temperatures of the melted
alloys and the times for cooling the cast specimens were in as close
an agreement as possible, in view of the comparative results aimed
at, and the possible effects of variation due to heat treatment and
perhaps oxidation. The mixture containing \ per cent, of lead
was of particular importance, in view of the consistently high results
given by it at all temperatures up to 550° F., both in maximum stress
and ductility. Most of the experiments made by the Admiralty
had been carried out at a temperature of 450° F., and not 500° F. or
higher, because at the time the experiments were made it was not
desired to know the effect of very high temperatures such as would
be given by superheated steam. It was desired to ascertain the effect
of ordinary temperatures of steam corresponding to the pressures then
being used, so that 450° Avas quite high enough. He might say that
the tendency of the results given by the experiments were in general
agreement with figures given by Mr. Dewrance in his curves, but when
details were come to there were very extraordinary differences between

Discussion on Dewrance s Paper 225

the Admiralty results and Mr. Dewrance's. He (the President) quite
agreed that the presence of \ per cent, of lead did improve the qualities
of the material. In the Admiralty experiments carried out in 1911 —
taking one particular set of experiments — the lead varied from 0 to 2 per
cent. The lead increased by \ per cent, stages, starting at \ per cent,
and then \ per cent., and so on.

Although the results were in general agreement vpith what Mr.
Dewrance had obtained on the diagrams, he might give some examples
of variation which showed that what he had previously mentioned
was correct, namely, that very systematic and lengthy series of ex-
periments were required if any satisfactory light was to be thrown
on this important question. Taking the ordinary Admiralty gun-metal
alloy — which, it would be thought, there was no doubt whatever about ;
it was a well-known composition, 88-10-2 — Mr. Dewrance obtained
16'3 tons per square inch tensile strength in the cold condition, as
shown on the top diagram on the wall. The experiment made by the
Admiralty in 1911 gave 14-5 tons. He might add that the 1911
experiments were made after certain other experiments had been con-
cluded in 1909 and 1910, but the Admiralty had not been satisfied
with the results obtained, and ordered the dockyard to make further
careful tests, so as to endeavour to ascertain the truth.

The 1911 experiments were conducted with great care, and were quite
different from the 1910 experiments. He believed they might be accepted
as being the most accurate experiments made by the Admiralty. At 450°,
which was the actual temperature at which the Admiralty experiments
were made, one could not tell exactly what Mr. Dewrance's figure
would have been, but taking it from the curve which he had given, the
tensile strength was reduced to 9-7 tons, whereas the Admiralty experi-
ments gave 13*6 tons, so that, in the latter case, the reduction was
not very great. He must say, however, that the 1910 experiments
did show a very considerable reduction, more in the nature of Mr.
Dewrance's figures. Still keeping to the gun-metal without lead, the
elongation obtained by Mr. Dewrance was 1 1 per cent. The Admiralty
figure was 14 per cent. Then, a very striking difference occurred.
At 450° on Mr. Dewrance's curve the elongation was under 2 per
cent, as would be seen from the diagram, but the extraordinary thing
was the Admiralty's experiment gave 13"9 per cent. Turning to the
metal containing \ per cent, of lead, there was more agreement between
Mr. Dewrance's experiments and the Admiralty experiments. In the
cold condition, Mr. Dewrance's figure was 16 '6 tons, and the Admiralty
figure was 15'1. When the temperature was raised to 450° — he must
take that from Mr. Dewrance's curve again — it was 16"2 tons and the
Admiralty experiments gave 14-8. Therefore there was a reduction,
in the case of Mr. Dewrance's experiment, of 0*4 tons, and, in the case
of the Admiralty experiments of 0*3 tons, so that was a very sub-
stantial agreement. Coming to the elongation, considerable differences
are again found. In the cold condition Mr. Dewrance obtained 8 per
cent., whereas the Admiralty obtained 18-5 per cent., and at 450°
Mr. Dewrance got 12-2 and the Admiralty got 20*3. Those differences

226 Discussion on Dewrance s Paper

were very remarkable, and wanted some further elucidation. He did
not think for one moment that Mr, Dewrance's results were incorrect,
nor is it probable the Admiralty were wrong; at any rate he would
assume that both sets of results were accurately taken, the differences
arising possibly from different methods of preparation and treatment of
the specimens tested.

Professor Huntington inquired how they were treated.

The President said he had not that information with him, but he
would add it later. *

The President said he might add that the Admiralty officers took special
precautions as to melting. The temperatures were kept as low as possible
consistent with the pouring of the metal, and the specimens were all
analysed, after they were cast, by the Admiralty chemist to ascertain
the actual percentage of lead.

The differences were very remarkable, and he simply mentioned them
in order that Mr. Dewrance at some future time might repeat his tests
and tell the Institute with certainty what was the truth of the matter.

He would like to mention one feature which had been brought out in
the dockyard experiments of 1911, and that was the unevenness of the
results as the lead varied. For example, the maximum stress with \ per
cent, of lead was less, both cold and at 450° F., than with either no
lead or with \ per cent, of lead, and a similar result was noticed with \\
per cent, of lead in comparison with 1 per cent, and 1| per cent, of lead.
How far such observations might have been due to some of the causes
touched on at the commencement of his remarks could not at the present
time be stated, but those results were certainly observed. He would
like to point out that Mr. Dewrance obtained similar differences at 500°
with his higher percentages of lead ; that would be found in Figs. 3
and 4 at 1, 8, and 12 per cent. That seemed to suggest the desirability
in future experiments of investigating the results with smaller variations
than 1 per cent, of lead. Another cause which might affect the re.sult
was the period during which the specimen might be exposed to the high
temperature. It would be useful if results at a certain temperature
from specimens of the same composition were obtained from tests in
which the test-pieces were subjected to the temperature in question for
periods of varying and considerable duration before the application of the
breaking stress. In the experiments at Portsmouth, after preliminary
warming outside the furnace, the specimens were exposed to the tempera-
ture for one hour.

Finally, with regard to experiments 3 and 4 carried out by Mr.

* They were heated in air in a small compartment screened cff from the top of a
larger vessel or furnace made of copper, the latter being heated by a Bunsen gas ring at
its lower part. The specimen being tested was held in the grips of the testing machine,
passing through the sides of the small compartment, and was (after preliminary heating
outside above the apparatus), when placed in the grips, subjected to the required test
temperature for 60 minutes before the test was applied. The temperature of the air
adjacent to the specimen was measured by a thermometer fixed in a suitable position,
and was taken as the temperature of the specimen.

Discussion on Dewrance s Paper 227

Dewrance on the question of oxidation, these seemed to contradict the
more or less generally accepted impression that tin oxide might be
formed, and that it had a weakening effect ; and some confirmation of
those experiments seemed to be desirable.

He quite agreed with Mr. Dewrance's concluding remarks as to the
desirability of further investigation in order to find some alloy that could
be successfully used in connection with superheated steam ; and it was to
be hoped that Mr. Dewrance himself would be able to carry that out at
some early date.

He was afraid he had sketched out rather a long programme for Mr.
Dewrance in order that the subject might be thoroughly elucidated, but
he believed that such a long programme was necessary before the truth
was discovered ; he was certain it was not known at the present time.

Mr. G. A. BoEDDiCKER (Vice-President) said that Mr. Dewrance
made rather a sweeping assertion as to the addition of nickel to bronze :
he had said there was no use in small quantities on account of the great
quantity of gases which it set free. He (Mr. Boeddicker) would like to
know how Mr. Dewrance had been using the nickel, because he (the
speaker) certainly did not find that result when the addition of nickel
was properly made.

Dr. Stead, F.R.S. (Middlesbrough), said that we were still in ignorance
as to why small quantities of lead had such a wonderful effect as Mr.
Dewrance had shown it had.

He suggested that it would greatly encourage research if the manu-
facturers throughout the country were to send queries to the Institute of
Metals whenever they came across phenomena connected with their
industries which required explanation. If this were done, and a list of
such questions were published by the Institute from time to time, much
research would most surely follow.

Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc. R.S.M. (Past-President), said that
there was one point with regard to the method of investigation pointed out
in the paper about which he might add a word of caution. On p. 215 it
was said : " An experimental specimen was drilled with holes in different
positions along the parallel length, and the bulb of a thermometer was
inserted in the various positions." For many years he used a ther-
mometer in testing the temperatures above the atmospheric, and he had
found that the results were absolutely unreliable unless one had a good
conducting medium in the hole in which the thermometer was inserted.
At one time mercury had been used, but he had found in dealing with
brass alloys and copper-tin alloys that that often led to a good deal of
trouble. He substituted for it a low melting white metal containing
cadmium, and he never had any more trouble. Until he inserted, how-
ever, a little quantity of a low melting white metal into the place in
which the thermometer rested, in that way making perfect contact with
the bar, trouble had always arisen. He would suggest to Mr. Dewrance
whether it was not possible that that might rather invalidate the state-

228 Discussion on Dewrances Paper

ment : " This thermometer was found to agree very closely with another
thermometer that recorded the temperature in the air-chamber." It was
quite possible that the thermometer in the hole was recording only the
temperature in the air-chamber, and not the real temperature of the bar.
There was one other point. On pp. 220 and 221 the author stated in
his table of " Oxygen Contents of Analysis " that with aluminium as a
deoxidizer he obtained up to 0*092 per cent., and that when phosphorus
was used as a deoxidizer he got 0-036. That seemed to him (the speaker)
to point to the fact that when the aluminium had been used some of the
aluminium oxide had remained behind and had been counted as so much
oxygen in the analysis. It might do a good deal of mischief in making
the casting unsound, but it was not quite the same thing as having
oxygen present in the copper. When phosphorus was used a fluid
product was formed which floated up, and very much less oxygen was
found in the metal. He did not think there was much doubt that one
had deoxidized just as much as the other. There was another point in
connection with that. At the bottom of p. 221 the author had given the
result of covering the charge in one case and not covering it in the other,
but he had overlooked the fact that he had a deoxidizer there in the form
of zinc \ he had 2 per cent, of zinc. That would deoxidize in both cases,
and it was quite possible that the difierence in the result which he
obtained when the crucible was uncovered was really due to a certain
amount of oxidation of zinc, reducing the total quantity remaining in the
alloy.

Mr. C. BiLLiNGTON (Longport) inquired whether the temperature had
been taken of the metals at the time of pouring, as that might account
for the difi'erence between the experiments made at Portsmouth and
those made by Mr. Dewrance, also the shape of the bars and how they
were cast, as this would have a decided efi"ect upon the results obtained.

Mr. J. S. G. Primrose (Ipswich) said the paper was similar to one on
"The Practical Heat Treatment of Admiralty Gun-metal," which had
been submitted to the Institute a year ago by his brother and himself.
One point which he would like to raise, and which had not been men-
tioned so far in the discussion, was that the paper was a little lacking in
photomicrographs. If Mr. Dewrance had included some micrographs of
the metals after they had been raised to the temperatures mentioned
and then tested, that would possibly have afforded some clue to the
reason for the results obtained.

The question of heating the furnace and of maintaining the tempera-
ture of the space in which the metal had to be treated and there tested,
was undoubtedly a very important one. Instead of the gas-burner,
which would heat the metal in an atmosphere of harmful gases, he
considered it might have been better to adopt the practice of using an
electric furnace to enclose the whole specimen and grips, so that the tem-
perature might be maintained with absolute uniformity. That was a
point of which Mr. Dewrance might take note — to state if the temperature
was quite uniform throughout the whole length of the furnace.

Discussion on Dewrance s Paper 229

His brother's and his own researches differed from Mr. Dewrance's in
so far as the tests which they had carried out dealt with gun-metal or
zinc-bronze containing less than 0*2 per cent, of lead. The annealing of
this alloy very clearly indicated that even this small quantity of lead
was not ultramicroscopic, since after heating to 700° C for half an hour,
the structure showed the absorption of • the eutectoid (formed on cooling
from fusion), but the lead in it had been left as little isolated patches,
discernible under suitable magnification.

Another point which Mr. Dewrance had not mentioned, and which
might account for the difference between the tests carried out by the
Admiralty and his own tests, was the way in which the alloys had
been cast. The temperature of pouring was a very important matter
also, as had been shown in his brother's paper of 1909, but he especially
wished to ask Mr. Dewrance to state in what kind of mould the test
bars were cast. The figures given in their joint paper last year showed
that the tensile strength of Admiralty gun- metal might vary from 15
to 18'6 tons per square inch, depending upon how it had been cast, that
was to say, whether in dry sand or green sand, in a chill mould by itself
or in a chill attached to a great mass of metal. These various methods
of casting had a great effect on the structure of the normal metal and
also upon the, behaviour of the alloy under heat treatment.

The question of melting under various coverings was an important
one, because he had every confidence in saying that silicon to a small
extent could be taken up by gun-metal which had been melted under
glass as a flux. Silicon, even in a very small proportion, was almost
sure to have some hardening effect not only on the alloy in the normal
cast state, but also on the condition of the metal at the higher
temperatures.

Dr. C. H. Desch (Glasgow) said that there were two points in Mr.
Dewrance's very interesting paper on which he would like to comment.
The improvement which was supposed to be effected by the presence of
lead seemed to him to be contrary to what hitherto had been the general
experience in regard to the alloys mentioned. Tests had been made
by Guillet, for example, at high temperatures, in which he found the
influence of lead always deleterious. It was quite true that Guillet
did not make any tests, as far as he (the speaker) knew, with so low
a percentage as \ ; but with 1 per cent, the influence was distinctly
harmful, and so fully had he (the speaker) believed that, from many
tests which he had previously seen, that in lecturing to foundrymen he
had warned them of the danger of lead in any bronze or gun-metal
which was intended to be used at a high temperature, as, for instance,
for superheated steam. If he had been wrong he was afraid he had
been unintentionally misleading workmen. It struck him that perhaps
part of the improvement mentioned with \ per cent, of lead, was simply
due to some cleaning influence exerted by the lead on what was not
a particularly good metal to begin with. He did not know, from what
the President had said, whether the average results obtained at the
Admiralty were as low as those that he had mentioned, but he (the

230 Discussion on Dewrance s Paper

speaker) had seen 88-10-2 metal with very much better qualities than
that, giving 18 to 20 tons, and not 10 per cent, elongation, but 30 per
cent. — and that with very fairly large castings. That metal, he thought
there could be hardly any doubt, would be injured by the addition
of lead.

With regard to the behaviour of the alloys mentioned with super-
heated steam, he had lately had an opportunity of seeing some very
important experiments which had been going on for some years on the
influence of high temperatures on alloys. It had been found that many
alloys tested at the temperature of superheated steam would behave
quite well, but if kept in actual superheated steam for a month and then
tested either hot or cold, they would be as rotten as carrots and would
break off quite short. The influence of superheated steam in that case
was not one merely of temperature, but of chemical action. It did not
seem safe to infer the behaviour of an alloy in superheated steam from
its conduct when merely tested hot after heating in air.

Mr. Arnold Philip, B.Sc, Assoc.R.S.M. (Member of Council), said
that he had had some exceptionally high tensile gun-metal of Admiralty
composition sent to him for chemical test, as it was thought desirable to
ascertain if there was any chemical reason which would explain the
unusually high results. When analysed all the castings showed a
certain percentage of phosphorus. He thought that perhaps in the same
way the presence of phosphorus might explain some of the high results
to which Dr. Desch had referred.

Dr. Desch said that the specimens he had referred to contained no
phosphorus.

Mr. Arnold Philip, continuing, said that the amount of phosphorus
in the samples to which he referred was only of the order of "02 per
cent. There was one other matter to which he wished to refer. He had
been much interested to see that Mr. Dewrance had called attention to a
point which he (the speaker) did not remember having previously seen
referred to in print, but concerning which Dr. Desch, very likely, being
an encyclopaedia of reference, might know, Mr. Dewrance said that iron
was strongly objected to in fine bronzes, as it combined with the tin and
separated out into hard masses in the casting. As he had said, he did
not remember having seen that previously in print, but it agreed with
the Admiralty's experience — that if alloys containing tin and iron were
cast too hot and allowed to cool slowly during the liquid state, there was
a separation out or segregation of metallic crystals containing high per-
centages of iron. He would be extremely grateful to Mr. Dewrance if
he could say something further about that point.

The fact that this segregation had occurred was shown by the chemical
analysis of a casting of a bronze containing tin 1 per cent., iron 1 per
cent., copper 58 per cent., and zinc 40 per cent., which had been cast at
too high a temperature, and in which the percentage of iron was found to

Discussion on Dewrance s Paper 231

vary from 0"6 per cent, to 4'0 per cent, from point to point. In another
case an ingot of bronze containing tin 0'75 per cent., iron 1*0 per cent.,
copper 50 per cent., manganese 2*0 per cent., nickel 2-0 per cent., and
zinc 44*25 per cent, was taken and a plate ^j^ inch thick was cut from
it. This was submitted to corrosion in sea water for three months, and
was found to have lost weight at the rate of 61 grains per square foot
per 100 days. The corrosion appeared to have taken place uniformly
over the surface of the plate, which did not show any markings of iron
rust. A casting was then made from the ingot at too high a temperature
and from this casting a plate of metal was cut similar to the plate from
the original ingot, and this was also submitted to the corrosive action of
sea water for three months under precisely similar conditions, and it was
found to have lost weight at the rate of 78 grains per square foot of
surface per 100 days, and, moreover, showed very marked rust spots of
an irregular shape but of a size up to as much as half an inch across, on
its surface. These rust marks appeared on both sides of the plate of
metal exactly opposite to one another, and as the plate was -^^ of an
inch thick, this demonstrated that the segregations of the iron containing
material were of considerable size. He had been most interested in Mr.
Dewrance's reference to this question, and trusted that he would be able
to throw some further light on it.

Mr. A. E, Seaton (Member of Council) said that he desired to refer
to, he would not say a common experience, but an experience which was
commoner formerly than it was at the present time. It used to be
pretty well known amongst those who had to employ mild steel in
earlier days, that unless there was a fair amount of lead added to the
bronze, trouble ensued with hot bearings. There was no doubt at that
time, as now, that 2 or even 3 per cent, of lead added to bearing metal
made it decidedly the better. At one time lead was looked upon
as a public enemy, but now everybody was proving what a good friend
it really was. He did not know whether it was due to the result of
Sir William Ramsay's investigations, and that lead was not really always
lead, but something else ; that in this course of transition the lead of
to-day was not the same as the lead of yesterday.

He supported heartily Dr. Stead's recommendation that, when practical
men did find curious difficulties, they should report them to the
Institute.

Mr. E. J. Bolton (Stoke-on-Trent) said that there was one matter
which had occurred to him from a practical point of view. He noticed
that best selected copper had been used to make the test-pieces. In
comparing the Admiralty tests with those of Mr. Dewrance, it seemed
to him that, unless it was known for certain that in both cases the same
brand of best selected copper had been used, just the impurities in the
copper alone would be quite enough to make a considerable difference
in the physical tests. He did not know what effect it had actually on
the crystalline structure — that was beyond him — but he did know that
different brands of best selected copper could make a very considerable

232 Discussion on Dew7^ance s Paper

difference in the physical tests of either bronze or brass. It seemed to
him that, unless the bronze or gun-metal had been made of electrolytic
copper and also electrolytic spelter, there would be quite enough im-
purity in either one of those metals to have made the present results
unreliable for comparison with those which had been made some years
previously by the Admiralty.

The President, before calling on Mr. Dewrance to reply, expressed
the pleasure which the members all felt at seeing an actual manufacturer
reading a paper at the Institute. It was quite out of the common order
of things, and the members welcomed Mr, Dewrance in that capacity
very much indeed.

Mr. Dewrance, in reply, thanked the members very much indeed for
the very kind way in which they had received the paper, and for the
very interesting discussion which it had brought out. The fact that his
own results differed from those which were obtained in the dockyards
was somewhat unfortunate, and he quite agreed with the President when
he said that it would be very desirable if, after what had occurred in
the discussion, he (the speaker) had a new set of tests made to confirm
the results.

With regard to analyses, he did have analyses made of three of the
samples after the test, and he had obtained from one of the \ per cent, of
lead samples an analysis showing copper, 87'47; tin, 10'55; zinc, 1'52 ;
and lead, 0'46. In another sample there was 87-24 of copper, 10*42 of
tin, 1*93 of zinc, and 0'41 of lead. Another sample, without the lead,
gave 87-54 of copper, 10-5 of tin, 1-87 of zinc, and 0-09 of lead. He
need not apologize for the fact that in each case the tin was higher than
was actually put in, because he thought it was well recognized that that
Avas the usual result of chemical analysis, even when carefully made. It
would be seen that 0-46 in one case, and 0-41 in another, was a very
close result for \ per cent, of lead added to the metal. With regard to
the test-pieces, there was no doubt whatever about it that two test-
pieces could hardly be compared unless the exact composition of the
metals was known, also the exact size of the casting from which the
test-piece had been made, the temperature at which it was poured, the
rate of cooling, and all such different points. As a matter of fact, the
test-pieces which were produced were cast in green sand from a pattern
which had approximately the shape of the test-piece, and had very little
to be turned off. It was quite probable that the dockyard experiments
were made from a stick of metal, probably of a considerable size, and a
great deal might have been turned off. That would account for the
difference between 14 and 16 tons to the square inch. The number of
test-pieces which had been used on some of the critical stages amounted
to five or six tests one after the other, and sometimes two or three
were obtained in very close agreement. The others showed some causes
for their differences, and then the average of those which were most
closely in agreement was taken. In no case had a single result been
taken. The tin oxide which was formed in a pot of metal unques-

Discussion on Dewrances Paper 233

tionably was injurious. All he wanted to bring out in the paper was
that in the 88-10-2 metal, with the presence of the zinc, it was not
necessary to take any very special precautions to prevent the metal
oxidizing, ordinary care seemed to be quite sufficient ; but on that point
he was quite open to conviction if anybody had any different results,
because actually what was the cause of a bad casting was very difficult
sometimes to explain.

Dr. Stead's suggestion, that all problems should be sent to the Insti-
tute, was a very good one. Dr. Stead had also inquired why the lead
had accomplished the result mentioned. He (the speaker) was afraid
he could not really suggest an explanation. He had put the results
before the Institute in the hope that he would have received that infor-
mation. He hoped it would do as Dr. Stead suggested, stimulate
youthful investigators to come forward and explain the matter.

Professor Huntington had suggested that there was an inaccuracy in
the heating of the test-piece. There was no doubt about that, but he
(the speaker) did not see that the professors and members of the Institute
fully agreed as to exactly the right way of heating test-pieces. On that
point also he wanted a certain amount of information before he carried
out further tests.

Mr. Billington had asked a very important question as to the tempera-
ture at which the metal was poured. A pyrometer had not been used.
He had used one or two sorts of pyrometers, but he had really found
considerable difficulty in getting any reliable results from them. The
best method of judging the temperature of bronze which he had found,
and the most practical, was to shake the crucible and to observe the
way the bronze fell off the side of the crucible. That was a more rapid
method than any pyrometer which could be possibly used.

Mr. Primrose had suggested that photomicrographs would have added
to the interest of the paper. In that he fully agreed, and was sorry
they had not been included. As the matter was rather crude and sub-
ject to further research, he hoped that that deficiency would be supplied
on some future occasion.

The point with regard to the absorption of silicon in the metal was
exceedingly interesting and a subject which he would certainly look into.

Dr. Desch mentioned the shock tests. That also was an extremely
interesting suggestion, and one which he would certainly have carried
out. The fatigue test might also be applied to see whether the physical
properties in that respect suffered by the addition of the lead.

With regard to the effect of superheated steam on the bronze itself, he
might say that he had put a test-piece into superheated steam at 700° F.
for, he thought it was, three months, and then tested it against another
test-piece poured out of the same crucible, and he had found no prac-
tical difference in the result.

Professor Huntington inquired what metal it was.

Mr. Dewrance replied that it was the ordinary Admiralty bronze
which was being employed at the particular time.

234 Communication on Dewrance s Paper

Mr. Philip had mentioned iron-tin alloys and the fact that his (the
speaker's) results agreed with Mr. Philip's. He had made a large number
of experiments on that point some years ago, and by using alloys con-
taining a large percentage of iron, he had been able to drill out or cut
out little pieces of what was evidently that alloy ; but he had not the
analysis in his mind. It was an alloy containing quite a large percentage
of iron — so much iron that it rusted very freely — and it was evidently
something which had segregated out from the rest of the metal.

The suggestion made by Mr. Bolton, that the impurities of the mate-
rial might account for a good deal of the differences in the results, was
also a very interesting one. If Mr. Bolton could communicate any
experience he had had in such of the impurities as were specially evil
and which should be avoided, it would be very gratefully received by
himself and many members of the Institute.

COMMUNICATION.

Mr. G. A. BoBDDiCKER (Vice-President) wrote to suggest the addition
of nickel in the form of 50 per cent, cupro-nickel, as this could be pre-
pared well carbonized and would dissolve in the alloy much more readily
and would make it unnecessary to overheat the bronze, which, together
with the presence of oxygen, would probably account for the porosity of
the casting.

The Micro-Chemistry of Corrosion 235

THE MICRO-CHEMISTRY OF CORROSION.*

Part II.— THE a- ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC.

By SAMUEL WHYTE, B.Sc, and CECIL H. DESCH, D.Sc, Ph.D.

(Respectively Assistant and Graham Young Lecturer in Metallurgical
Chemistry in the University of Glasgow).

The experiments described by the authors in Part I. of this
investigation *j" were confined to the /3-solid solutions of' the
copper-zinc series, the original intention having been to
examine the alloys of the Muntz metal class, containing both
the a and ^ constituents. As the corrosion of such alloys
begins always in the i8- areas, it was thought advisable to
investigate the micro-chemical nature of the process in this
constituent first, before proceeding to the more complex case.
This selection had the disadvantage that the alloys examined
were of little technical importance, and any results obtained
from the experiments could not be directly employed to
establish any practical conclusions. In this second part, the
alloys dealt with are those which find the most important
technical applications.

The use of an external electromotive force for the purpose
of hastening corrosion undoubtedly introduces a factor which
is not present in the ordinary conditions of unassisted chemical
corrosion, but is unavoidable for the particular purpose which
the authors have in view. Chemical corrosion is too slow
and too irregular, too easily affected by accidental and uncon-
trollable changes in the conditions, to lend itself to investiga-
tion on the small scale in the laboratory for the purpose of
obtaining quantitative data. Chemical corrosion is thus
more satisfactorily studied by means of experiments on the
large scale, continued over long periods, as in the elaborate
series now in progress under the auspices of the Corrosion
Committee of this Institute.

* Read at Annual General Meeting, London, March 18, 1914.
t Journal of the Institute of Metals , No. 2, 1913, vol. x. p. 303.

236 Whyte and Desch :

Nevertheless, it appears that experiments on a small scale
may throw some light on the mechanisTn of corrosion, even
when it takes place under conditions excluding the presence
of an external electromotive force. The comparison of
laboratory experiments with observations of corroded speci-
mens of copper-zinc alloys from works and shipyards has
convinced the authors that all corrosion of these alloys is
preceded by dezincification, but that, where the action pro-
ceeds slowly and there is free access of gaseous or dissolved
oxygen, the spongy residue of copper may be converted into
oxide as fast as it is formed. This, it is believed, is the
origin of the adherent layer of copper oxide which is often
found on the corroded surface of brass. The evidence for
this view is given in the present paper.

The method of experiment employed was modified slightly
in order to ensure greater accuracy, but was in all essentials
the same as that described on p. 307 of the first paper.
The cathode, instead of being a loop of platinum wire, was
made of fine platinum gauze, 1 centimetre square, having a
vertical platinum wire welded to it for the purpose of attach-
ment to a support. The Classen stand for electrolytic analysis
was found to be most convenient for holding the cathode in
place, the distance between the surface of the specimen and
the cathode being adjusted by interposing a sheet of plate
glass 5 millimetres thick, and bringing the cathode gauze into
contact with it and then withdrawing the glass.

The analytical methods were the same as those described
previously. Lead, which was not included in the earlier
experiments, was removed from solution by electrolysis with
a small platinum gauze anode, on which the lead was de-
posited as peroxide. This was then dissolved in a little nitric
acid, evaporated to dryness, and dissolved in water. On the
addition of 0*5 cubic centimetres of a solution of hydrogen
sulphide, a yellow coloration was produced, which was com-
pared in an Eggertz tube with that given under the same
conditions by a standard solution of lead nitrate. No special
difficulties were encountered m the course of the analytical
work.

The Micro-Chemistry of Coi'i'osion

237

Record of Experiments.

In this series of experiments, four alloys were used, one
of which was examined in the annealed and also in the
unannealed condition. The analyses are given in Table IX.
The figures in the last two columns give the composition of
the equivalent copper-zinc alloys, determined by Guillet's
method,! the coefficients of equivalence of tin and lead being
taken as 2 and 1 respectively.

Table IX.

Alloys.

Copper,
per Cent.

Zinc,
per Cent.

Tin,
per Cent.

Lead,
per Cent.

Fictitious Values by
Guillet's Formula.

Copper,
per Cent.

Zinc,
per Cent.

I. and II. .

III. .

IV. .
V. .

69-88
69-89
70-15
69-90

30-12
29-03
28-85
28-11

1-08

...
1-00
1-99

69-88
69-15
70-15
69-90

30-12
30-85
29-85
3010

The " fictitious values " for zinc and copper represent the
composition of the pur6 copper-zinc alloy which would corre-
spond most closely with the actual ternary alloy.

In the first series of experiments, the application of the
current was continued for five minutes, the products being
analysed immediately afterwards. Alloys I. and II. contain
copper and zinc only, I. being unannealed and II. annealed at
800° C. for two hours, whilst III. contains tin and IV. and
V. contain lead. The results of these tests are shown in
Tables X., XI., and XII. By " precipitate " is meant the floc-
culent precipitate of basic salts which appears in the electro-
lyte, and is readily separated from the specimen, whilst
" adherent layer " denotes the metallic deposit which was
mixed with zinc oxychloride in the cases of Alloys I., II., IV.,
and v., and with tin oxychloride in the case of Alloy III.
This deposit could not be flaked off as with the " ^ " alloys,
this being probably due to the increased amount of basic salts

238

Whyte and Desch :

Table X. — Composition of Precipitate.
Time, 5 minutes.

Alloy.

Copper,

Zinc,

Tin.

Lead,

Total.

Copper,

Zinc,

Tin,

Lead,

Mgms.

per
Cent.

0-90

0-95

1-85

48-6

51-4

0 95

1-00

...

1-95

48-7

51-3

n.\

105

0-95

2-00

52-5

47-5

1-00

0-91

1-91

52-3

47-7

in.)

0-30

1-22

none

1-52

19-7

80-3

0-32

1-08

none

1-40

22-8

77-2

■v.]

1-25

1-26

none

2-51

49-7

50-3

1-20

107

none

2-27

52-8

47-2

0-60

none

1-20

50-0

50 0

0-60

0-57

none

1-17

51-3

48-7

...

Table XI. — Composition of Adherent Layer.
Time, 5 minutes.

Copper,

Zinc,

Tin,

Lead,

Total,

Copper,

Zinc.

Tin,

Lead,

Alloy.

Mgms.

per
Cent.

L 1

0-425

0-331

0-756

56-2

43-8

0-45

0-315

0-765

58-8

41-2

* "• {

0-40

0-25

0-65

61-6

38-4

...

0-375

0-20

0-575

65-2

34-8

in. ■

2-35

0-13

0-03

2-51

93-6

5-2

1-2

2-40

0-31

0-03

2-74

87-6

11-3

IV. 1

0-80

0-13

...

none

0-93

86-0

14 0

0-83

0-20

none

1-03

80-6

19-4

...

V. {

0-86

0-24

none

1-10

78-1

21-9

0-86

0-25

none

1-11

77-4

22-6

Table XII, — Total Weight of Corrosion Prodtict.
(Time, 5 minutes.)

Alloy I.

. 2-62 and 2-71 milligrammes

., 11. .

. 2-65 ,, 2-49

,, III. .

. 4-03 „ 4-14

,, IV.

. 3-44 ,, 3-30

. 2-30 „ 2-28

The Micro-Chemistry of Corrosion 239

which seemed to be intimately mixed with the coppery deposit
from the surface to its junction with the brass beneath. If
these basic salts were removed by a very dilute solution of
hydrochloric acid (one drop in 30 cubic centimetres of water),
there remained an adherent layer of coppery crystals. This
layer was much more difficult to detach from the brass than
that which was produced in the corrosion of the |8-alloys, but,
as in the former experiments, a perfectly sharp boundary
between the brass and the dezincified layer was always present.
In the second series of experiments, 100 cubic centimetres of
the electrolyte were allowed to flow over the surface during a
period of sixty minutes. (Tables XIIL, XIV., and XV.)

The total weight of the corrosion product, including both
the precipitate and the adherent layer, is given in Tables XII.
(five-minute tests) and XV. (sixty-minute tests).

Microscopical Observations.

The Alloy I., containing copper and zinc only, had a very
distinctly cored structure when examined in the cast condition,
the appearance under the microscope being characteristic of
an a-solid solution in a state of imperfect equilibrium. An-
nealing for two hours at 800° rendered the alloy perfectly
homogeneous. A specimen was also examined in this state,
and appears in the tables as Alloy II. Alloy III., containing
tin (1-08 per cent.), was also heterogeneous in the cast condi-
tion, showing distinct segregation of the copper-tin constituent
at the boundaries of the crystals. This constituent disappeared
on annealing, and this and the remaining alloys were only
employed for the corrosion tests in the annealed condition.
Alloy IV. did not become completely homogeneous on anneal-
ing, but small isolated areas of lead remained undissolved
here and there, whilst Alloy V., with twice the quantity of
lead, showed well-defined bands of segregated lead at the
boundaries of many of the crystals.

The behaviour of the alloys on corrosion was characteristic,
and strikingly different from that of the /6-alloys. This was
specially noticeable in regard to the film of copper left after
dezincification. This was always intimately mixed with basic

240

Whyte and Desch

Table XIII. — Composition of Precipitate.
Time, 60 minutes.

Alloy.

Copper,

Mgms.

Zinc,
Mgms.

Tin,
Mgms.

Lead,
Mgms.

Total.
Mgms.

Copper, Zinc,

per per

Cent. Cent.

Tin.

per

Cent.

Lead,

per

Cent.

I. 1
II. 1

III. i

IV. 1
V, 1

8-00
8-00
8-50
8-40
1-20
1-20
6-00
6-20
5-00
5 04

5 67
5-60
5-35
5-30
718
7-68
4-54
4-60
4-09
4-09

trace
trace

none
none
none
none

13-67

13-60

13-85

13-70

8-38

8-88

10-54

10-80

9-09

9-13

58-5
58-8
61-3
61-3
14-3
13-5
56-9
57-4
55-0
55-2

41-5
41-2
38-7
38-7
85-7
86-5
43-1
42-6
45 0
44-8

...

Table XIV. — Composition of Adherent Layer.
Time, 60 minutes.

Copper,
Mgms.

Zinc,

Tin,

Lead,

Total,

Copper,

Zinc,

Tin

Lead.

Alloy.

Mgms.

per
Cent.

79-1

per
Cent.

20-9

per
Cent.

■■{

6-55

1-73

8-28

6-45

1-60

8-05

80-1

19-9

I,. {

5-45

1-57

7-02

77-6

22-4

5-35

1-58

6-93

77-2

22-8

TII <

13-00

1-41

0165

14-57

89-2

9-7

III. ^

13-00

1-58

0-165

14-74

88-1

10-8

1-1

IV. {

7-50

1-73

0-09

9-32

80-5

18-54

0-96

7-25

1-35

0-09

8-69

83-5

15-5

1-0

4-25

1-25

0-11

5-61

75-7

22-3

2-0

4-00

0-95

Oil

5-06

79-1

18-8

2-1

Table XV. — Total Weight of Coirosion Product.

(Time, 60 minutes.)

Alloy I. .

. 2195 and 21*65 milligrammes

„ II. .

. 20-87 ., 20-63

,, III. .

. 22-95 ,, 23-62

,. IV. .

. 19-86 ,, 19-49

.. V, .

. 14-75 „ 14-19

Fig. 1. — Alloy I. 1-hour Test.
Etch Figures. Magnified 200 diameters

Magnified 45 diameters.

Coppei

Brass

Fig. 3.— Alloy V.
Etch Figures. Magnified 200 diameters

Fig. 4. — Section of Corroded Condenser
Tube. Magnified 200 diameters.

Fig. 5. — Corrosion along Boundaries and

Twinning Planes.

Magnified 160 diameters.

Brass.

( opper

Fig. 6. — Artificial Corrosion of Condenser
Tube. Magnified 30 diameters.

The Micro -Chemistry of Corrosion 241

salts, which adhered very firmly, and, having a dull surface
with low reflecting power, made it difficult to obtain satis-
factory photographs. Momentary immersion in very dilute
hydrochloric acid removed the greater part of the oxychloride,
exposing the coppery layer, which was invariably made up of
small crystals, mainly exhibiting octahedral angles. In the
long-period tests etch-figures were conspicuously developed,
cubic forms being frequently observed. Plate XVI. Fig. 1,
taken from Alloy I., shows this effect, the cubic angles being
well seen surrounding a rather deep etching-pit on the left.

Fig. 2, taken from Alloy III., shows the general appearance
of the surface after detaching the film of copper. The crystal
boundaries have been revealed by the corrosion, and the dif-
ference of orientation in neighbouring grains is perceptible,
but is somewhat less conspicuous than in the /S-alloys under
similar conditions. The black area in this photograph repre-
sents a firmly adherent layer of oxychlorides, covering one or
more crystal grains. The cored structure of the unannealed
specimen, Alloy I., was strongly developed during corrosion,
finally leaving ridges in high relief, whilst the annealed alloys
corroded very uniformly.

The efiBct of lead was remarkable. On clearing off the ad-
herent layer from Alloys IV. and V., each isolated mass of lead
was seen to be surrounded by a ring of copper. Octahedral
etch figures were strongly developed, as is shown in Fig. 3.

The Relation between Natural and Electrically
Stimulated Corrosion.

An opportunity of comparing the effects produced by the
application of an external electromotive force to an a-brass in
contact with salt solution with those observed in the corrosion
of a similar brass under conditions of service was afforded by
the examination of some condenser tubes. These tubes had
been taken from a vessel on the Manchester Ship Canal, and
exhibited in parts, especially near to the inlet end, very con-
siderable dezincification, extending over the whole internal
surface of the tube, but penetrating completely through the
tube along a horizontal strip, occupying about one quarter of

242 Wkyte and Desch :

the circumference, and forming the bottom of the tube. Along
this strip the zinc had been completely removed, a transverse
section showing nothing but somewhat spongy copper. The
upper part of the tube, in the same section of its length, was
dezincified to a small depth, becoming deeper in the lower part,
and merging into the completely dezincified area.

A transverse section of one of the typically corroded portions
was prepared, the tube being previously filled with fusible
metal, in order to prevent any cracking or separation of the
coppery layer during sawing. Fig. 4 is a section of a part of
the tube where dezincitication has extended half way through
the thickness of the metal. The section has been slightly
heat-tinted, so as to darken the copper, leaving the uncorroded
brass quite bright. The boundary between the two is irregular,
but perfectly sharp. This characteristic feature of .dezincitica-
tion was also observed in the /8-alloys described in the former
paper.

Further insight into the mechanism of the process is afiforded
by an examination under a higher magnification, after etching
with ammonia. Fig. 5 shows an area at the boundary of the
corroded and the unchanged portions after being treated in
this way. The light constituent visible at the circumference
of the circle is porous copper, whilst the greater part of the
area is a-brass. Dezincification has proceeded, as usual, along
the boundary of the crystal grain. As usual in annealed
brasses, the a-constituent shows repeated twinning, and it is
interesting to observe that dezincification has invaded the
mass of the crystal grain along a twinning plane. This be-
haviour is characteristic of the a-brasses, and is observed
throughout in this and similar specimens, whether corroded
naturally or under the influence of an applied electromotive
force. It indicates an electro-chemical difference at a twinning
plane, an effect which, although not often observed, is to be
expected on theoretical grounds.

The attempt was next made to reproduce this corroded
structure by using an applied electromotive force. A clean,
uncorroded piece of the same tube was taken, cut to a length
of 2 centimetres, and formed into a cell, containing the same
electrolyte (5 per cent, sodium chloride solution) as that used

The Micro-Chemistry of Corrosion 243

throughout the experiments. The tube was the anode and a
platinum wire was the cathode. After remaining connected with
the cells for twenty-four hours the section of tube was washed,
filled with fusible metal, sawn through, and polished. De-
zincification was found to have taken place to a considerable
depth. The effect is shown in Fig. 6, the structure having
been developed by heat-tinting. As before, the boundary
between spongy copper and brass is a very sharp one, and is
found, on examination under a higher magnification, to follow
the outline of the crystal grains, penetrating into them along
the twinning planes. There is thus complete identity between
the corroded structure which was produced under working
conditions in contact with the water of the Manchester Ship
Canal and that obtained artificially, using salt solution and an
external electromotive force.

The composition of the condenser tube was somewhat
unusual, the proportion of zinc being considerably below that
of a normal 70:30 brass. Several concordant analyses gave as
the composition: —

Per Cent.

Copper 72-72

Zinc 27-04

Iron . 0-15

Lead : 009

100 00

There is no reason to suppose that this difference in the percent-
age of zinc makes any appreciable difference in the process of
corrosion.

Discussion of Results.

The total corrosion of the a- alloys is, as might be expected,
much less than that of the /3-alloys under the same conditions.
A relatively much larger proportion of copper is also removed
in solution, that is, there is less preferential removal of zinc
than in the case of the /8-alloys. This also is in accordance
with expectations, the a-solid solution having less tendency to
lose zinc than the more concentrated /3-solution.

There is very little difference between the resisting powers
of the unannealed and annealed alloys of copper and zinc (I.

244 Whyte and Desch :

and II.), but such small differences as occur are uniformly in
the direction of lessened corrosion after annealing. Of the
remaining alloys, the greatest amount of corrosion is given by
that containing tin, and the least by that containing 2 per
cent, of lead.

It must be repeated that this method determines only
the initial stages of the process of corrosion, and the
results must be interpreted from this point of view. The
physical character of the process is as important as its chemical
nature, since the physical properties of the deposit formed on
the surface of the metal determine whether subsequent
corrosion will proceed with constant or accelerated velocity, or
will be gradually brought to a standstill.

Taking Alloy II. as a standard of comparison, it is seen
that Alloy I., the structure of which is less homogeneous
owing to the presence of cores, corrodes to a slightly greater
extent, the removal of zinc taking place principally at the
periphery of the crystallites. Dezincification proceeds here to
a greater extent, but there is no important difference in the
physical properties of the adherent layer in the two cases.

Alloy III., containing tin, is corroded much more rapidly
at first than Alloy II. In the five-minute tests, this difference
is very marked, but it becomes less in the sixty-minute tests,
and there is little doubt that it would disappear and even be
reversed in tests continued over longer periods. This is due
to the formation of a remarkably tough layer of basic salts.
Dezincification proceeds far, but the coppery layer, instead of
being easily detachable, is firmly cemented to a compact mass
by basic salts, the tin being retained in this deposit. Such a
layer must offer a considerable obstacle to further corrosion.
This effect was also observed in the experiments with ^-alloys.

Alloy IV., containing 1 per cent, of lead, also shows
dezincification, but the adherent layer, unlike that of the tin
alloy, is loose and open in texture. It is therefore not sur-
prising that the total corrosion is not lessened appreciably;
in fact, the five-minute tests show an increase.

Alloy v., containing 2 per cent, of lead, is dezincified
locally, the areas of free lead becoming surrounded by a zone
of copper, which gradually extends over the entire surface as

The Micro-Chemistry of Corrosion 545

the process is continued. The coppery layer is very firmly
adherent. In its upper portions it is cemented by basic salts,
but a layer of copper, containing comparatively little zinc,
intervenes between this varnish-like layer and the unchanged
metal. The total corrosion is less than that of any of the
other alloys, and the advantage becomes more pronounced as
the time of testing is extended, being greater in the sixty-
minute than in the five-minute tests.

The experiments have confirmed the authors in their
opinion that there is no essential difference between the pro-
cesses of electrically stimulated and natural corrosion, and
that consequently the method that they have described may
be employed for the purpose of determining the probable
order of resistance of alloys to corrosion. The results now
presented are in good agreement with the conclusions of Dr.
Bengough's report as to the suitability of different alloys of the
a-series. It is next proposed to examine the influence of
other added metals on the a-alloys, and also the behaviour of
the a-jS- or Mimtz metal alloys.

246 Discussion on Whyte and DescJis Paper

DISCUSSION.

Dr. G. D. Bengough, M. A. (Liverpool), said that he need hardly say he
had taken the greatest possible interest in the paper which had been pre-
sented to the Institute by Mr. Whyte and Dr. Desch. He was very glad
indeed to thiak that in a great many particulars the conclusions to which
they had arrived were the same as those which he himself had come
to, working in rather a different way. One of the most interesting
points that the authors had brought forward was that of the effect of tin.
He (the speaker) had never been able really to picture in his mind
exactly how the tin exerted its particular action. The authors' sugges-
tion of a varnish occurring all over the metal was very interesting indeed,
because it really did look like that, even when ordinary chemical corro-
sion was being dealt with, and not the electro-chemical corrosion which
they mentioned. But he would inquire of what the varnish consisted %
There was a sort of glazed appearance on the tubes, but no definite layer
of basic salts extending all over the tubes could be seen. They had a
sort of glazed appearance, and he supposed that the authors had imagined
that that was a very thin transparent layer.

Dr. Desch said the corrosion they had mentioned was much more rapid,
and the layer in the case of their experiments was distinctly opaque.

Dr. Bengough, continuing, said in his case he obtained only a curious
wlazed look over the tube when it contained tin.

The effect of lead was also most interesting. He believed Mr. Brlihl,
in his paper on " The Corrosion of Brass," * was the first to suggest that
1 per cent, of lead did no harm, and that was confirmed by Sir Gerard
Muntz.

With regard to the question of dezincification, he quite saw the authors'
point of view, and he was not bigoted in the view which his colleague
and himself had put forward in their Report ; and of course he realized
that they (the authors) had been in a much better position to study that
particular point than he himself had been with his very slow corrosion.
Therefore, he was inclined to give very great weight to what the authors
said about dezincification, and was ready to agree that he might have
given the more correct explanation. As he had said, his own corrosion
had been ^ery slow, and there were no means of differentiating between
dezincification and subsequent oxidation ; they were both very slow — very
much slower than the authors'. Therefore, it was quite possible that
dezincification did really proceed first, and that oxidation was obtained
subsequently. The authors were in a so much better position to judge of
that than either his (the speaker's) colleague or himself that he was quite
willing to accept their opinion on that point.

The authors had brought out a most interesting fact, namely, that
dezincification was obtained round the lead crystals. He (the speaker)
had not observed that in any of his expsriments. It evidently indicated
* Journal of the Institute of Metals , No. 2, 1911, vol. vi. p. 302.

Discussion on Why te and DescJis Paper 247

electrolytic action going on, and it seemed very remarkable in view of
that, that the lead should protect ; and he would like Dr. Desch to give
a little more information upon that point, because it was very difficult
to see how those two observations could be harmonized.

He had not yet studied the microstructure of lead-bearing tubes, because
so far he had not succeeded in dezincifying them in the way he had the
other tubes. On Plate XVI. were given some most remarkable photo-
graphs. No. 5 was one of the most interesting he had seen — the pene-
tration of the dezincification along the planes of twinning. Since the
photograph had been published he (the speaker) had examined some
chemically corroded specimens, and had seen the same thing ; but he had
not noticed it before seeing the authors' photograph — it was not so evident
in his specimens. He thought it was a most important fact in connection
with all corrosion phenomena. The credit of discovering it belonged
entirely to the authors, because he (the speaker) had not seen it until he
had received the microphotographs. The authors suggested that mecha-
nical protection was the secret of the success of both lead and tin. His
(the speaker's) colleague and himself came to the conclusion that
physical causes were also the real crux of the question in connection
with the dezincification of condenser tubes in spots ; and up to the
present time they had not paid sufficient attention to the minute physical
differences which occurred along condenser tubes. They now thought
it was minute differences in physical conditions which determined the
particular spots at which dezincification of ordinary condenser tubes
would begin. He did not want to enlarge on that point, because the
work was still progressing ; but it did seem to agree with the authors'
contention that the mechanical and physical effects were equally as im-
portant as chemical effects in the very difficult phenomenon of corrosion.
The authors had indicated that they were now examining alloys of the
Muntz metal type which contained the two phases a and ^. In his (the
speaker's) experiments he had had Muntz metal tubes in the Corrosion
Committee's plant for some time, and they had become dezincified in a
most extraordinary way. Dezincification had penetrated nine-tenths of
the way through the tubes in nine months ; and as that alloy had been
rejected as being unsuitable for condenser tubes, and as a large number
of dezincified spots had been obtained, he had been studying the micro-
structure of it ; and he would like to say one or two words in connection
with the point. He had in his hand colour photographs prepared in the
following way. He ha<d taken the Muntz metal, had etched it with
ammonia, and then left it for three days to oxidize in the air. It
was simply a modification of Dr. Stead's heat-tinting process, and it
tinted the copper a much finer red for photographic purposes. If that
was done some very interesting results were obtained. The ammonia
etched the ^ dark. Where the Muntz metal had been in contact with
sea water the /3 crystals were entirely dezincified, and they then
existed in the alloy as pseudomorphs in copper after /?. If the colour
photographs were held in the right position, some of the /3 crystals could
be seen partially dezincified — that is, half of each crystal was dezincified
and half retained its zinc. He imagined that this indicated twin ^-crystals,

248 Discussion on Whyte and Desch' s Paper

although they were so strained that the microstructure could not very well
be made out.

There was also another very interesting thing shown by the photo-
graphs, namely, that round the copper all the a was stained dark,
because it was electro-positive to the copper ; whereas away from the
copper the ^ was dark and the a remained light. He thought those
points were interesting in connection with the work which the authors
were at present doing on Muntz metal ; they showed very well the
electro-chemical relations of the copper with the a and the /?. He would
pass the slides round to the members.

Mr, J, Dewrance (London) inquired whether the authors had tried
any other alloys instead of those containing a large percentage of zinc
in order to avoid corrosion. Many years ago his firm used to employ
brass for pressure gauge tubes, and had had experience of the troubles
in corrosion that came out in discussions on the corrosion of condenser
tubes. The remedy his firm found to be to use copper containing 5 per
cent, of tin. That material was very much stronger ; it was quite
suflficiently elastic for the purpose, and was extremely free from the
troubles of corrosion, which occurred with the alloys containing large
percentages of zinc. Zinc was a chemically active metal, likely to corrode
with all sorts of electrolytes and impurities in water ; whereas copper
and tin were metals which were very much less chemically active.

Professor W. E. Oakden (London) said that he had not read the
paper, but he gathered from one remark which had fallen from Dr. Desch,
that the authors had arrived at the conclusion that the cause of corrosion
was more mechanical than chemical. Considering that the authors' ex-
periments were, really speaking, electrolytic and partly chemical, he
would like Dr. Desch to explain on what grounds they (the authors) had
arrived at the conclusion that the corrosion was almost purely mechanical
rather than electrolytic or chemical.

Dr. Walter Rosenhain, F.R.S. (Member of Council), said that he had
discussed the point raised by the paper when the Report of the Corrosion
Committee had been presented at Ghent, but he felt obliged to raise
it again that afternoon. He did not think it had ever yet been proved
— certainly he did not consider that the authors had proved it in their
paper — that corrosion was necessarily dezincification in condenser tubes or
in brass ; in fact. Dr. Desch's own statement, that in certain circumstances
the film of copper was oxidized as fast as it was formed, was a contradiction
of the very statement he made. If the film of copper was oxidized as
fast as it was formed, then there was no preferential oxidation of the
zinc or solution of the zinc. He (the speaker) considered that uniform
solution was really what did happen in a great many cases. It seemed
quite impossible to suppose that there was dezincification going locally
right through the tube, leaving no sign or symptom of dezincification
anywhere else. If such a process had been at work, he thought the
mere theory of probability would make one realize that if there were

Discussion on Whyte and Desch' s Paper 249

half a dozen pits in a tube which had gone right through, and yet no
dezincification was found either surrounding these pits or anywhere else,
that it was fair to conclude that there had been no dezincification in the
ordinary sense of the word at work in that particular case. Of course,
a good deal of dezincification did occur, and very likely it was the most
important cause of corrosion ; but there were certain cases — and it
happened to have been his fortune to have come across rather a majority
of those — in which there had been no sign Avhatever of dezincification,
even although a most careful search was made for it. He wanted a
good deal stronger evidence than that which had been brought forward
to make him believe that it was always dezincification which occurred.
He considered the authors' suggested test — the accelerated test — was
valuable, as all acceleration tests were, but it had its limitations, and
one had to be very careful in accepting the results. He thought it would
have to be used with caution — possibly with a little more caution than
the authors had indicated in their paper. The authors had shown that
where dezincification occurred in a natural case of corrosion the result
looked very like that of the electrolytically stimulated dezincification
which they had obtained in their test. It did not follow that in other
cases there was the same similarity or correspondence. It was very
likely a valuable and useful test in many cases, but he did not think it
would give a clue or to all forms of corrosion which were likely to occur.
He had been very much interested in Mr. Whyte's and Dr. Desch's
observation with regard to dezincification following along the boundaries
of twin laminae. He thought the difference of the electric-potential be-
tween the twin laminte and the crystal was shown experimentally by the
mere fact that the twins could be seen in the microstructure. If it were
not for that electro- chemical difference between the twins, they would not
etch out. Therefore the mere fact that a twin boundary could be seen
as a line under the microscope showed there was that electro-chemical
difference, and consequently it followed that such a process as dezincifica-
tion should be propagated, not strictly speaking along that line, but near
it. It was not confined to the actual boundary, but occurred in the
material near the boundary ; it was merely something which was stimu-
lated, and progressed more rapidly where there were local electro-chemical
differences.

Dr. Desch, in reply, said in the first place he did not desire to have
the paper referred to at all as his paper, because to Mr. Whyte was due
a full share of the conclusions, as well as most of the experimental work.

He was glad to find that Dr. Bengough, with his wide experience of
corrosion, was inclined to look upon their explanation as a reasonable
one. Dealing with one or two of the points Dr. Bengough had mentioned,
the effect of lead certainly did at first seem to be to stimulate corrosion.
Dezincification started just round the lead particles, and that had been
one of the things which had led them to say that electro-chemical condi-
tions were comparatively unimportant as compared with physical con-
ditions. Somehow or other, when that layer of spongy copper had
been formed round the lead it became plugged up with a basic salt.

250 Discussion on Whyte and Desck's Paper

With lead present the salt was not the same as with tin present. It
was a white layer, not a green layer containing copper salts, but it
was quite tough ; and it had been found that after a little time that
tough layer was very difficult to detach. With only 1 per cent of lead,
the layer was easily detached. In the absence of lead and tin it was
quite easily detached ; and they had attributed the protective effect to the
formation of the varnish.

With regard to the method of developing the structure, most of the
specimens were heat tinted, but etching was sometimes necessary. Photo-
graph No. 3 showed a remarkably loose structure in the metal after
removal of zinc.

Mr, Dewrance had asked if they had examined other alloys than the
copper-zinc. They had not done so ; so far they had only examined
copper-zinc alloys, with the addition of various third metals. It was
hoped to extend the investigation to other alloys as well, but as Mr.
Whyte was just leaving him, he was not quite sure how far it would be
possible to carry on the research.

Professor Oakden had misunderstood what he had said. Professor
Oakden seemed to think he had spoken of the cause of corrosion being
mechanical rather than chemical, whereas what he really had said was
that he thought the influence of certain metals in checking corrosion
was mechanical rather than chemical.

Dr. Rosenhain was somewhat sceptical, and he (Dr. Desch) admitted
that the evidence they had to bring forward on those points was not con-
clusive. His colleague and himself had been led to certain conclusions,
but they did not wish at all to suggest that they had proved their case
entirely. When he said that the layer of copper was oxidized as fast as
it was formed in natural corrosion, that was not strictly accurate ; he
meant nearly as fast — that as soon as a layer of copper had been formed
it was soon converted into oxide. He was still inclined to believe that
the first process was always the formation of a layer of metallic copper.
He had not had the opportunity of examining tubes showing the type
of corrosion to which Dr. Rosenhain had referred, where the material had
been thinned away, and there was no layer of copper left behind, but
even in that case it was quite possible that so spongy a layer might be re-
moved, and he (the speaker) would not be prepared even at the present
time to admit that the process was essentially different even in that case.

With regard to the twin lamellae, when they (the authors) said that the
corrosion proceeded along the boundaries between twin lamellae, they did
not mean that it proceeded along one fine line, but that where there were
several alternating lamellae, certain of those were corroded more rapidly
than the others. It would be seen in photograph 5 that the formation of
copper proceeded along one of those parallel bands. The fact that one
could reveal the twin structure by etching hardly seemed to him to prove
electro-chemical differences. In neighbouring lamellae the orientation of
the particles was different ; one appeared dark and the other light, but
that did not mean that the dark one was more etched than the other,
because on rotating the specimen the dark one became light. There
was a difference of orientation.

Discussion on Why te and DescJi s Paper 251

Dr. RosENHAiN said there was also a difference of level— one was above
the other.

Dr. Desch said he would have said they were inclined like the roof
of a house.

Dr. RosENHAiN said there were light boundaries between them.

Dr. Desch said he must confess he had not examined the specimens
with sufficient care, and had probably overlooked the point.

252 Gulliver : Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

THE QUANTITATIVE EFFECT OF RAPID
COOLING UPON THE CONSTITUTION
OF BINARY ALLOYS.*

PART II.

By G. H. GULLIVER, B.Sc, F.R.S.E., A.M.LMech.E.

I. Calculation of the Constitution of Quickly Cooled
Alloys when the Curvature of Solidus and
LiQuiDus IS Considerable.

In a former paper on this subject t it was shown that
calculations of the proportion of liquid or of eutectic in
quickly cooled alloys, based on the assumption of a straight
liquidus and solidus, are not seriously erroneous if these lines
have a moderate degree of curvature ; this is particularly
the case when, as with the lead-tin liquidus, the curve
oscillates about the straight line. But sometimes the degree
of curvature is considerable, and the liquidus or solidus lies
wholly on one side of the straight line drawn from the
freezing-point of the pure metal to the eutectic point, or to
the saturation point, as the case may be. Now the pro-
portion of solid formed during a small fall of temperature
depends upon the angles of slope of the solidus and liquidus,
and upon the horizontal distance between these lines in the
region considered. Hence if the liquidus is wholly convex
and the solidus is wholly concave upwards the proportion of
liquid in quickly cooled alloys is greater than for a liquidus
and solidus assumed straight; if the liquidus is concave and
the solidus is convex upwards the proportion of liquid is less ;
if both are curved in the same direction the effect depends
upon the mean inclination of the lines and their degree of
curvature in a given region.

* Read at Annual General Meeting, London, March 18, 1914.

t Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1913, vol. ix. p. ViXi et seq.

Upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 253

A suitable method of calculation, when the curvature is
such that it must be allowed for, has been already indicated.
A still better way is to divide the portion of the equilibrium
diagram under consideration into a number of parts by
horizontal lines, between each adjacent pair of which the
solidus and liquidus differ but slightly from straight lines, and

Fig. 1.— Part of equilibrium diagram, illustrating the method employed for calculating
the proportion of liquid in rapidly cooled alloys when the curvature of liquidus and
solidus is considerable.

then to make use of the result for an indefinitely rapid rate
of cooling for each part ; there is no necessity that the parts
should be equal ; in fact their size is better regulated by the
degree of curvature of liquidus and solidus. In Fig. 1 the
compositions of the alloys U, V, W, and X are supposed to
be chosen so that the sections u'v, v'w', w'x' of the liquidus
and the sections il'v", v'\

254 Gulliver: Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

deviate from straight lines by more than some arbitrarily
chosen small quantity. The lines v'lif and v"vf' are produced
to intersect in Gjj, w'v' , and w"v" to meet in Cy, and so on ;
through Gjj, Cy, &c., vertical lines are drawn to meet u'u"
in u, v'v" in v, &c., respectively.

The expressions (7) and (7a) * were previously kept in the
form most convenient for numerical calculations. They can
be more briefly written,

tan 0

Proportion of liquid (rapid cooling) = ^ % Van e - tan *

the latter form being the more convenient in use. The
proportion of liquid in the rapidly cooled alloy U at the
temperature of vv' is therefore

u,b'

Similarly, the proportion of liquid in the rapidly cooled
alloy V at the temperature of vnv' is

\v-jiv' /

Hence the proportion of liquid in U at the temperature vnv' is
The proportion of liquid in U at the temperature xx'

1t,j)' ViW' w,x'

/uu'\v"v' / vv' \w"it>' /ww'\x^'af
xu^v' ) ' yv-^w' / ' \w^x' J

and so on. The simplest method of procedure is to determine
numerically the proportion of liquid in each quickly cooled
alloy at the freezing temperature of the chosen alloy next
below it, and to perform the necessary multiplication after-
wards. It is therefore most convenient to begin with the
chosen alloy which has the lowest freezing-point. This

* Journal of the IfLstitute of Metals, No. 1, 1913, vol. ix. pp. 134, 139.

XX IS

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 255

method, when applied to the lead-rich alloys of the lead-tin
series, shows that the effect of curvature of the liquidus in
this case is negligible, a conclusion already reached by a
rougher method. In Fig. 10 the open circles indicate points
plotted for an assumed straight liquidus, corresponding with
the figures given in the fourth column of Table I.,* and the
black dots show the results obtained by dividing the true
liquidus into ten portions and using the method just ex-
plained ; this portion of Fig. 1 0 is similar to Fig. 9 t of the
previous paper, but illustrates an indefinitely rapid rate of
cooling instead of a moderately slow one.

The method is applied below to the more useful alloys of
the copper-tin and the copper-zinc series, for which the results
are of some practical importance. The fact that in these
alloys the various branches of the liquidus end at transition
points, instead of at eutectic points, alters nothing in the
method of calculation.

Apart from errors in the experimental determination of the
equilibrium diagram, there are others introduced into the
calculations by insufiiciently close approximation of the short
straight sections to the true curves, and by defective draughts-
manship ; these, while preventing the attainment of mathe-
matical accuracy, may be reduced by ordinary care and trouble
to quantities altogether negligible in practice. The intersections
of the chosen portions of the solidus and liquidus are not
infrequently bad ones, that is, the lines are inclined at only
a small angle to each other, or the intersection may even
lie off the drawing paper; the horizontal positions of these
points are then best checked by calculation. Thus, if Cy is
the intersection of w'v' with iv"v", and CyV is drawn vertically,
then by simple geometry

1/1 cv uv

VV W +VV

v,w—v, w

And vv^ = vv'' — v^v" is the distance of the vertical line CyV

* Loc. cit.,p.l28. f Loc. ctt.,p.lr,0.

256 Gulliver: QMantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

from CA.

The distances v/'w", v"v'

v'w' , and vjo" are all

obtained from the diagram.

When the liquidus and soHdus are curved it does not
always happen that corresponding sections of these lines are
convergent upwards; they sometimes converge downwards,
and occasionally become sensibly parallel for a short distance.
It is necessary therefore to inquire what corresponding change
there is in the expression which gives the quantity of liquid
present in a rapidly cooled alloy.

Fig. 2. — Part of equilibrium diagram, with solidus and liquidus convergent
downwards, and notation suitable for infinitesimal steps.

When the liquidus and solidus converge downwards the
conditions are as represented in Fig. 2, which should be
compared with Fig. 4 * in the previous paper. Here m and riy
6 and (p, are measured as before, but y and y^ are measured
upwards instead of downwards, and X, Xg, and X^ are
measured from the right instead of from the left. Obviously,

w>m, yo>y, tan ^>tan 6, Xg>X^, X>Xp

* Loc. cit., p. 132.

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 257

The quantity of liquid present in a rapidly cooled alloy is
therefore more conveniently written in this case as

tan 6 Xb
/2A-\tan*-tanfl ^^ (Xe\Xs-Xk ^Y^j

When the liquidus and solidus are parallel, as in Fig. 3,

Fig. 3. — Part of equilibrium diagram, with solidus and liquidus parallel.

m = n, and a is the same for all alloys. Hence the expression
(2) * becomes,

. ... to r factors

Liquid = -

=0-")'

The limiting value of this expression, when r is large and
is small, is

rm M

g a =g a

(Id)

where M is written for rm, and is equal to the difference
between the composition of the original alloy and that of

* Loc. cit., p. 128.

258 Gulliver: Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

the liquid portion of it at the given temperature ; in Fig. 3 ,
for the alloy X, at the temperature ^5', M=oq, and a=x"x'.
The same result may be obtained from the expression (76).
For, when liquidus and solidus are parallel, X^ = X-\-M, and
X^ — Xg=a\ JT is indefinitely large and M is finite. Therefore,

{^)

Xk-

M X
= e x' a

X+M

in the limit,

Fig. 4

II. The Copper-Tin Alloys.
shows the portion of the equilibrium diagram to be

COMPOSITION

mzszn

Fig. 4. — Part of equilibrium diagram for copper-tin alloys, and diagrams indicating the
increase in the proportion of liquid caused by rapidly cooling alloys which reject
a-, j3-, and 7-crystals respectively.

dealt with, drawn from the experimental results of Roberts-
Austen and Stansfield, of Heycock and Neville, and of

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 259

Shepherd and Blough.* The percentages of tin which
correspond with the various critical points of the diagram are,

a = 9-0 ;

6=22-5;

Z.' = 25-5;

61 = 27-2;

c =28-0;

C=31-9;

rfi = 38-4;

fi = 41-0;

Z) = 58-0;

respectively. These are believed to be as nearly correct as
they can be fixed at present ; future experiments may show
small errors in some or all of these points. The liquidus
curves AB, EC, CD have been determined with very con-
siderable accuracy, but the solidus curves Aa, hh^, and cci
require further investigation in order to determine their
exact forms. Any correction of the equilibrium diagram will
necessitate, of course, a corresponding correction of the results
of this paragraph.

In alloys containing less than 25*5 per cent, of tin, the
copper-rich crystals, designated a, crystallize from the liquid.
The branch AB of the liquidus is of fairly uniform curvature,
and for the purpose of calculating the constitution of rapidly
cooled alloys the curve has been divided into eight equal
parts, giving seven alloys which contain 3'5, 6"95, 10"4,
13'65, 16-8, 19-85, and 22-75 per cent, of tin respectively.
The proportion of liquid remaining in each of these alloys
at the temperature aB has been calculated by the method
outlined in the preceding paragraph, and the results are
plotted in the upper left-hand comer of Fig. 4. The ordinates
of the straight line drawn from 9 to 25-5 per cent, of tin
represent the constitution of alloys when in equilibrium ; the
ordinates of the black area represent the excess of liquid
occasioned by very rapid cooling, exactly as in Fig. 5 f of
the previous paper. By taking a larger number of alloys
than the seven chosen, a slight correction would be made
in the calculated proportion of liquid for rapid cooling, but
excessive subdivision of the liquidus merely entails laborious
calculations for the sake of an unnecessary and often spurious
accuracy.

* Roberts- Austen and Stansfield, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers y
1895, p. 269 ; 1897, p. 67. Heycock and Neville, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1901 ^
vol. Ixix. p. 320; Philosophical Transactions, 1897, vol. clxxxix. v4, p. 25; 1904, vol. cciL
A, p. 1. Shepherd and Blough, Journal of Physical Chemistry, 1906, vol« x. p. 630..

t Lac. cit., p. 135.

260 Gulliver : Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

For alloys containing 25*5 to 31"9 per cent, of tin, in
which the primary crystallization consists of the /3-solution,
the liquidus BC is so nearly straight that it has been assumed
accurately so, and the proportion of liquid has been calculated
in the same manner as was first employed for the lead-tin
alloys, the proportionate error being probably of the same
order as in that case. The straight lines CB and I-}) meet
at 14*2 per cent, of tin, and the curve which represents the

LIQUID - B

ilo is-i 30*5n

Si eo'^^Z

COMPOSITION or ALLOY

Fig. 5. — Diagrams showing the calculated proportion of liquid in rapidly cooled copper-
tin alloys from which a-crystals and 7-crystals separate ; O. when liquidus and
solidus are assumed straight ; %, when their actual.curved forms are employed.

proportion of liquid in the rapidly cooled alloys is shown
carried back to this percentage in the upper middle part
of Fig. 4. The proportion of C-liquid in the rapidly cooled
alloy -B is 0-178 of the whole.

Between 31 '9 and 58 per cent, of tin, where the primary
crystals are designated 7, the curvature of the liquidus is
fairly uniform, but that of the solidus is not so. It is
necessary to choose mixtures at such intervals as correspond

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 261

with quite short sections of the strongly curved part of the
solid us; nine have been taken, containing 31*9, 38" 5 5, 41-8,
45'1, 47*2, 49'4, 51*55, 53'7, and 55-85 per cent, of tin
respectively. The calculated results are exhibited by a curve
as before, shown in the upper right-hand part of Fig, 4, and,
similarly to the case of the /3-crystallization, this curve is
dotted back to 2 5 '7 per cent, of tin, the position of the
intersection of the first portions of the solidus and liquidus.
The proportion of i>-liquid in the rapidly cooled alloy G
is 0-048.

For the branch of the liquidus immediately to the right
of D the crystallizing substance is the compound CugSn, which
separates in a sensibly pure state from the liquid. Under
the limitations imposed by the initial assumptions, no change
of constitution is caused here by varying the rate of cooling.
This series of alloys is therefore left at the point I).

It is a matter of some interest to emphasize the necessity
of allowing for curvature in the calculations by showing the
differences in the results obtained when liquidus and solidus
are assumed straight. In Fig. 5 the proportions of liquid
and solid for the a and y periods of crystallization, as drawn
already in Fig. 4, are compared, on an enlarged scale, with
those calculated when the lines AB in the one case, and
CD, cci in the other are assumed straight ; the former results
are shown by full dots and lines, and the latter by open
circles and broken lines. For the a-crystallization the
curvature of the liquidus AB has the effect of diminishing
the amount of solid formed during a small fall of temperature,
as compared with what would be formed if AB were straight;
in the upper diagram of Fig. 5, therefore, the continuous
curve lies below the dotted one. For the 7-crystallization
the curvature of the liquidus CD would have an efltect similar
to that of AB, but this is more than nullified by the strong
reverse curvature of the solidus cc-y, and in the lower diagram
of Fig. 5 the continuous curve lies above the dotted one.
In both cases the proportional error caused by assuming the
curved lines of the equilibrium diagram to be straight is seen
to be very large, more especially for y ; it follows, of course,
that a small correction in the shape of the lines may make

262 Gulliver : Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

an important change in tlie calculated constitution of the
rapidly cooled alloys.

So far the transformations which take place in the partly
liquid alloys have been neglected. Under conditions of
equilibrium there is a transition of a + ^ to /3 at the tempera-
ture aB, of /3 + 6' to 7 at the temperature h^C, and of 7 to
CugSn + i) at the temperature dj). It is in accordance with
the original assumptions to consider the first two of these
changes to be suppressed when the rate of cooling is in-
definitely rapid. Now an alloy containing less than 25*5
per cent, of tin, at the temperature aB, consists of a-crystals
and ^-liquid. If the rate of cooling is very rapid the j?-liquid
has no time to react with the a-crystals to form /3-crystals,
but it behaves as if it were an independent liquid alloy of
composition B, and deposits jS-crystals as if the a-crystals
did not form part of the mixture. At the temperature h^G
a quantity of C'-liquid, which as stated already is 0*1 7 8 of
the ^-liquid, is left. Similarly, any liquid left at 0 deposits
-y-crystals independently of the previous formation of a and j8,
and leaves a residue of 0*048 of its own weight of i?-liquid
at the temperature d^B.

The very slowly cooled alloys experience changes after they
have become completely solid, but for the present purpose
these are not considered. The upper diagram of Fig. 6
shows the constitution of just solid alloys when in a condition
of equilibrium ; the temperature of each alloy containing less
than 41 per cent, of tin is supposed to be just below that
of its proper point on the broken solidus line Aabh^cc^, Fig. 4,
and for those containing 41 to 58 per cent, of tin the
temperature is supposed to be just above dc^B, so that no
account is taken of the formation of CugSn. This arrangement
is made merely for convenience in comparing results. The
lower diagram of Fig. 6 represents the constitution of the
very rapidly cooled alloys ; the temperature is supposed to
be just above d^B, and the extreme rapidity of cooling is
supposed to preclude any change in the solid phases. The
two diagrams, taken together, show what profound changes
of constitution may be caused by rapid cooling. Take, for
instance, an alloy containing 7 per cent, of tin; when solid

Upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 2 63

and in a condition of equilibrium this consists entirely of
homogeneous a-crystals, but when very rapidly cooled to just
above the temperature of i\J) it would consist of roughly
83 per cent, of a, 14 per cent, of ^8, 2'9 per cent, of 7, and
01 per cent, would still remain liquid. Or choose an alloy
containing 2 0 per cent, of tin ; under equilibrium conditions,

A 60%Sn'

COMPOSITION or ALLOY

Fig. 6. — Diagrams showing, above, the constitution of copper-tin alloys in a condition
of equilibrium, and, below, their constitution when very rapidly cooled.

at a temperature just below that of aB, this consists of 18*5
per cent, of a and 81"5 per cent, of /3; but when rapidly
cooled to the same temperature it would contain about
31 per cent, of a, 57 per cent, of ^, and 12 per cent, of
liquid; if quickly cooled to just above. rfjZ) this liquid would
deposit \\\ per cent, of 7, the remaining \ per cent, of the
alloy being still liquid. Further instances may be taken
from the diagrams.

264 Gulliver: Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

III. The Copper-Zinc Alloys.

The portion of the equilibrium diagram to be considered
is drawn in Fig. 7 from the experimental results of Roberts-
Austen, of Shepherd, and of Tafel.* The compositions cor-
responding with the various critical points are,

a =29-0;
6i = 55-0;

& = 36-0;
c = 60-7;

£ = 37-0;
(7=61-0:

per cent, of zinc. As in the case of the copper-tin alloys,
there may be small errors in the positions of these points.

^SZn

COMPOSITION
Fig. 7. — Part of equilibrium diagram for copper-zinc alloys, and diagrams indicating
the increase in the proportion of liquid caused by rapidly cooling alloys which
reject a- and /3-crystals respectively.

The solidus curves for a- and /8-crystals probably differ little
from straight lines ; the forms of the liquidus curves are
probably not quite so accurately determined as those of
copper- tin. Few of the alloys containing more than 60 per
cent, of zinc are of practical importance, and the corresponding
part of the equilibrium diagram is somewhat defective, so
that the crystallization of only a and /3 is considered here.

* Roberts-Austen, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1897, p. 43.
Shepherd, Journal of Physical Chemistry, 1904, vol. viii. p. 421. Tafel, Metallurgie,
1908, vol. V. pp. 343. 375, 413.

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 265

The a-crystals separate from liquid alloys containing less
than 37 per cent, of zinc. The curvature of the branch AB
of the liquidus is approximately uniform, and the line does
not depart greatly from straightness ; it was divided into four
equal parts, giving three alloys containing 9 "3, 18-65, and
27*85 per cent, of zinc respectively. These are probably
sufficient for the present purpose. The results are plotted,

LIQUID -C

~j1o"

-WHTm

COMPOSITION OF ALLOY

Fig. 8. — Diagrams showing, above, the constitution of copper-zinc alloys in a condition
of equilibrium, and, below, their constitution when very rapidly cooled.

in the same manner as before, in the upper part of Fig. 7.
A similar procedure was followed for the branch BC. The
proportion of C-liquid left in the rapidly cooled alloy B is
very small, only 0"0043. Comparison of the curves shown
in Fig. 7 with those obtained when AB and BC are assumed
straight, gives results like that of Fig. 5, for the copper-tin
a-crystals ; the correct figures correspond with a greater pro-
portion of liquid than when the liquidus is assumed straight,

266 Gulliver: Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

the difference in the case of the a-crystals being small, but
for /3 considerable.

In Fig. 8 the constitutions of slowly and of rapidly cooled
alloys are compared, just as in Fig. 6. Each slowly cooled
alloy containing less than 55 per cent, of zinc is supposed
to be at a temperature just below the corresponding point
on Aabh^, and those containing from 55 to 61 per cent, of
zinc at a temperature just above h^C ; the quickly cooled
alloys are also supposed to be at the latter temperature. The
results are not so striking as in the case of the copper-tin
alloys, chiefly on account of the closeness of the points h and
B, Fig. 7, to each other.

IV. The Copper-Nickel Alloys.

The method of the preceding paragraphs may be extended
to alloys of two metals which show complete mutual solubility
when solid. A suitable example is afforded by the copper-
nickel alloys.

The equilibrium diagram. Fig. 9, is due to Guertler and
Tammann, to Kurnakow and Zemczuzny,* and to Tafel.t The
curvature of liquidus and solid us is greatest in the middle region
of the diagram. The nine alloys for which the calculations
have been made have their freezing-points situated at equal
intervals between the freezing-point of nickel and that of
copper, and contain 6-6, 13-6, 207, 28-2, 37-1, 46*9, 57*8,
69*0, and 825 per cent, of nickel respectively; a somewhat
better choice, more in accordance with the variations of
curvature, might have been made.

There is now, of course, no eutectic or transition tempera-
ture for the partly liquid alloys, and mixtures cooled with
extreme rapidity would only become completely solid at the
freezing-point of copper, according to the original assumptions.
The process of solidification, however, may be supposed
interrupted at any desired temperature, and the differences
of constitution between slowly and rapidly cooled alloys at

* Guertler and Tammann, Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1907, vol. lii. p. 25.
Kurnakow and Zemczuzny, Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1907, vol. liv. p. 151.
f Tafel, loc, cit.

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 267

this temperature may be represented by a diagram of the
same form as in previous examples. In the upper part of
Fig. 9, such diagrams have been drawn for the four tempera-
tures, 1118°, 1187°, 1256°, and 1324°, corresponding with
the freezing-points of the alloys numbered I., III., V., and VII.
respectively. These diagrams should require no explanation.

SOSjNi

COMPOSITION

Fig. 9. — Equilibrium diagram for copper-nickel alloys; diagrams showing the increase
in the proportion of liquid in rapidly cooled alloys at four selected temperatures ;
and the apparent solidus curves of nine chosen alloys when rapidly cooled.

Below the real solidus has been plotted for each alloy the
apparent solidus, that is, the curve which represents the
average composition of the solid portion of the rapidly cooled
alloy at all temperatures during the period of partial solidi-
fication, just as was done for the lead-tin alloys in Fig. 8 *
of the previous paper. All alloys of the series, when just
solid and in a condition of equilibrium, are formed of homo-

* Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1913, vol. i.x. p. 148.

268 Gulliver: Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

geneous crystals. In each quickly cooled alloy the average
composition of the crystals gradually approaches that of the
whole mixture as more and more of the mass becomes solid.
The shape of the apparent solidus for alloy IX. is similar to
those drawn for the lead-tin alloys, but mixtures containing
more copper than IX. show a reversed curvature of the
lower part of the apparent solidus, corresponding with the
reversed inclination of the real solidus to the liquidus at the
copper end of the diagram.

V. Calculation of the Constitution of Alloys cooled
AT Ordinary Rates.

For an actual alloy the rate of cooling lies between the
extreme slowness necessary for equilibrium and the extreme
rapidity for which the preceding calculations have been made.
The proportion of liquid In the mixture at any temperature
during the period of partial solidification also lies between
those calculated for the two extreme conditions. The diffi-
culty of specifying the rate of cooling at a point in a mass
of metal has been mentioned already, but it may be possible
to determine the proportion of liquid or of eutectic in each
of a series of alloys, all cooled under approximately similar
conditions and at a rate within the range of those realized
in manufacturing or experimental work, without determining
what this rate is.

The examination of many of the experimental results
emanating from Professor Tammann's laboratory shows that
the shape of the curve which represents the proportion of
eutectic in the just solid alloys of a series cooled at a
moderately slow rate is of a form similar to that obtained
by calculation for very rapid cooling. Moreover, the curves
plotted from the figures in the various columns of Table I.*
are all of similar shape. It is therefore probable that the
curves which represent the proportion of liquid or of eutectic
for different rates of cooling can be referred to one general
equation. Now for equilibrium conditions the curve is a

* Loc. cit., p. 138.

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 269

straight line. If, as before, E is the proportion of eutectic
in the just solid alloy, X is the composition of the alloy, X^
the composition of the eutectic, and X^ that of the saturated
solid solution, the expression (4) * may be rewritten as,

X—X
E (slow cooling) = -v? ^^ (4a)

And for extremely rapid cooling the expression {11),

E (rapid cooling) = (|')^^"^^'*

has been given already. These are two particular cases of
the general equation

Xe-x

E ' ^ ^^

<^y""' ('^>

where a? is a quantity which varies with the rate of cooling,
and has a value between zero and X^. For very slow cooling,
x = Xs, and (12) reduces to (4a). For very rapid cooling,
x = Q, and (12) reduces to (lb). At any intermediate rate
the curve cuts the axis of composition at a point between
zero and Xg, and the composition for this point is x, since
by putting a; = Xin (12) the value of H becomes zero.

For cases in which the curvature of liquidus and solidus is
negligible, the expression (12) is regarded as representing very
closely the proportion of liquid in an alloy during the process
of solidification for all rates of cooling, but this result requires
experimental verification, since it has been deduced only
indirectly from physical facts. There is certainly a close
agreement between the quantities calculated from (12) and
those given in the various columns of Table I., but even with
the rate specified there as "10 steps" the conditions ap-
proximate far more closely to great rapidity than to great
slowness. In Fig. 10 three curves have been drawn for the
lead-tin alloys from equation (12), between the curve repre-
senting the proportion of liquid in very rapidly cooled alloys
and the straight line representing the conditions for very
slowly cooled ones ; the values of x chosen for the new curves,

* Loc. cit. , p. 130.

270 Gulliver: Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling

which, are drawn with fine lines, are 4, 8, and 12 per cent,
of tin. For cases of transition similar curves can be drawn.
Curves of this kind have been compared with some of the
experimental curves published from Professor Tammann's
laboratory, but the various defects of the latter are too great
to allow them to be employed to decide whether equation
(12) accurately represents the conditions prevailing at inter-

PERCENTAGE or TIN

Fig. 10. — Diagram showing the calculated proportion of eutectic in lead-tin alloys
cooled with extreme rapidity; O. when liquidus is assumed straight; #, when
true curved form of liquidus is taken. The fine lines through 4, 8, and 12 per
cent, of tin indicate the calculated proportion of eutectic for three intermediate
rates of cooling, and the straight line through 16 per cent, of tin shows the
equilibrium proportion of eutectic.

mediate rates of cooling. It has to be remembered also
that the rate of cooling of an actual mass of metal, except
when special precautions are taken, is very far from uniform,
and that the value of x is therefore different for different parts
of the mass.

The proportion of liquid present in an alloy cooled at a
moderate rate, at a temperature between its freezing-point
and its eutectic or transition point, cannot be found by the

upon the Constitution of Binary Alloys 271

present method unless some assumption be made as to the
manner in which the quantity x varies with the temperature.
Thus the sectional method of calculation, employed in the
case of rapid cooling when the curvature of liquidus and
solidus is to be allowed for, cannot be used in conjunction
with (12) to get corresponding results for moderate rates of
cooling without some such arbitrary assumption.

A more promising method of dealing with cases in which'
the curvature is considerable consists in expressing the numeri-
cal results, obtained by substituting variable values of JTg. and
Xg in (7J), in terms of the actual fixed values of these quantities.
The index of the fraction

(£)

is then found to vary with X, instead of being constant as it
is when liquidus and solidus are straight. To take an example,
the variation in the index for the copper-tin a-crystallization
is represented very closely by a straight line, and the proportion
of liquid in the rapidly cooled alloys is, very nearly,

^= (^ X^)«-«<x^^>o-2<£) (13)

where X^=1^'^ and Xs = 9'0 per cent, of tin. But another
difficulty now presents itself, namely, to insert the quantity x
into (13), so as to give an expression corresponding to (12),
representing the conditions for intermediate rates of cooling.
An essential condition is that this expression shall reduce to
(4a) when x = Xg. It follows that the multipliers 0*83 and
0"29 in (13) must vary with the rate of cooling. Suggestions
as to the manner in which they vary might be made, but
this part of the subject really requires some experimental
work to put it on a sound basis.

VI. Summary.

The method of the previous investigation has been extended
so as to allow of obtaining a closely accurate determination
of the proportion of liquid present in a quickly cooled alloy

2^1 Gulliver : Quantitative Effect of Rapid Cooling '

in cases where the solidus and liquidus are considerably
curved.

Calculations have been made for the more important alloys
of the copper-tin and copper-zinc series, and for the copper-
nickel series. The important effect of the curvature of solidus
and liquidus upon the constitution of rapidly cooled copper-tin
alloys has been shown.

A formula has been devised, from which it is probable that
the constitution of alloys cooled at ordinary moderate rates
can be determined with fair accuracy, when the liquidus and
solidus are not much curved.

Fifth Annual Dinner 273

THE FIFTH ANNUAL DINNER

The Fifth Annual Dinner was held at the Criterion Restaurant,
Piccadilly, W., on Tuesday evening, March 17, 1914, Engineer Vice-
Admiral Sir Henry J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S., President, occupying the
chair.

There was an attendance of guests and members numbering about
1 60, amongst whom were : —

Sir H. Frederick Donaldson, K.C.B. {Chief Superintendent, Royal Ordnance

Factory, Woolwich, and President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers).
Mr. Bedford McNeill {President, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy).
Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, C.B., F.R.S. {Director, National Physical Laboratory).
Sir Thomas Henry Elliott, K.C.B. {Deputy-Master, The Royal Mint).
Colonel Sir Hilaro W. W. Barlow, Bart., R.A., C.B. {Superintendent, Royal

Laboratory , Royal Arsenal, Woolwich).
Sir Frederick W. Black, Kt., C.B. {Director of Naval Contracts, The Admiralty).
Mr. Mervyn O'Gorman, C.B. {Superintendent, Royal Aircraft Factory, South

Farnborough).
Mr. Leslie S. Robertson {Secretary, Engineering Standards Committee).
Professor E. G. CoKER, M.A. , D.Sc. {Professor of Mechanical Engineering, City

and Guilds of London Institute).
Professor Raphael Meldola , F. R. S. {President, The Institute of Chemistry of Great

Britain and Ireland).
Dr. Rudolph Messel {President, The Society of Chemical Industry).
Mr. W. D. CarOe {Master, The Worshipful Cojnpany of Plumbers).
Mr. W. Dixon {President, The West of Scotland Iron and Steel Institute).
Mr. C. H. Wordingham {Superintending Electrical Engineer, The Admiralty).
Mr. Sydney A. Gimson {President, The British Foundrymen's Association).
Professor A. K. Huntington, Assoc. R.S.M. {Past-President).
Professor W. Gowland, F.R.S., Assoc. R.S.M. {Past-President).
Dr. W. ROSENHAIN, F.R.S. {Member of Council).
Sir William E. Smith, C.B. {Member of Council).
Professor T. Turner, M.Sc. {Vice-President and Honorary Treasurer).
Mr. Boeddicker ( Vice-President).
Dr. G. T. Beilby, F.R.S. {Member of Council).

The Chairman gave the toast of " His Majesty the King," which was
drunk with musical honours.

"The Institute of Metals."

Mr. Bedford McNeill (President, the Institution of Mining and Metal-
lurgy), in proposing the toast, said : I rise with very great pleasure to
propose the toast of " The Institute of Metals," one of the youngest, if
not the youngest, of our British technical societies. Although you are
only five years old, I think I can say that you manifest every sign of a
robust constitution, and I can certainly congratulate those who were

274 Fifth Annual Dinner

responsible for bringing you into existence. You had the very great
privilege of having as your first President Sir William White, the cele-
brated naval architect. We know his memory will be cherished not only
in this Institute, but also in that magnificent service which he served so
faithfully and so well.

Your Institute is another example of that specialization of work and
endeavour which is absolutely necessary to meet the needs of modern
times. Your progress is eloquent, not only of the necessity there was
for your existence, but it has made us all realize what a vast field there
is for investigation and research, and what enormous possibilities and
benefits are opened up to the technical community by the full and frank
discussion of " Cause and eflfect," which is possible at the meetings of
your Society. I have very carefully looked through the list of contents
of the ten volumes of Transactions you have already published, and I am
more than ever inclined to agree with the learned William Pryce.
William Pryce wrote in his famous Mineralogia Cornubiensis, which
was published in 1778, as follows : " It is very probable that the nature
and use of metals was not revealed to Adam in his state of innocence.
The toil and labour necessary to procure and use those implements of the
Iron Age could not be known till they were made part of the curse in-
curred by his fall." It seems almost impossible to believe in these days
of scientific precision that we are only a few short years removed from
the time when all inanimate matter was divided into four simple classes
— earth, stone, metals, and juices — and when it was gravely recorded that
in Scotland " when pieces of old ships or fruit fall into the sea they turn
into living ducks."

I should like to express my personal appreciation of the compliment
that has been conferred upon my Institution by asking me to propose
this important toast. In my capacity as President of the elder sister
society I should like to congratulate you on having commenced life by
clearly defining your objects. In my Institution it has been necessary
recently that Ave should clearly define our sphere of influence. You are
saved any discussion, because you have laid down a clear-cut definition
to begin with. I need not point out to you that our two Institutions
are closely connected. You exercise your skill and industry on the pro-
ducts which the skill and industry of the members of my Institution
produce. I should like particularly to urge the advantages to the com-
munity that must result, and are, in fact, resulting from the division of
labour amongst the younger scientific and technical societies, especially
when it is united with complete freedom and entire independence of
action. I suppose there was no more bitter controversy than that which
ensued at the beginning of the last century when the Geological Society
determined to be absolutely independent of the Royal Society, and yet
we find that in 1903 Sir William Huggins is able to say, "The scientific
world as well as the Geological Society itself have good reason to rejoice
over the wise and far-seeing policy of its founders and original members
when they decided to leave the young society free to grow and to
develop its powers untrammelled by any obligation to any other body."
And now what do we see to-day? That most eminent geologist, Sir

Fifth Anmial Dinner 275

Archibald Geikie, a Past-President, of the Geological Society, occupying
the proudest position that any scientific man can attain to, namely, the
Presidency of the Royal Society.

Mr. Chairman, I should like just to say two things. I should like
firstr to congratulate you upon your Institute having accomplished during
the first five years of its existence such a splendid amount of work as is
recorded in your Transactions, a record which enables one to surely pre-
dict for your Institute that in the years to come you will still further
increase in usefulness and render still more valuable services to the
community. Secondly, I should like to congratulate your members on
having as their President a man who, as part of a strenuous career in
the service of his country, now occupies the very distinguished and most
responsible position as Eugineer-in-Chief to the Fleet.

Gentlemen, I have much pleasure in submitting to you the toast of
" The Institute of Metals," and I couple with it the name of your Chair-
man and President, Sir Henry John Oram.

Sir Henry J. Oram, K.C.B., F.R.S. (President), in responding to the
toast, said : I must thank Mr. Bedford McNeill most heartily on behalf
of the Institute of Metals for the kind and eulogistic manner in which
he has proposed the toast, and also you, gentlemen, for the very hearty
response which you have made to it. The history of our Institute is
well known to most members and guests present. I believe we cover a
wider field of research and utility than any other similar technical insti-
tution, and we have, I think, made an excellent start on the road which
leads to our goal. Although the country is so full of technical societies,
the reception this one met with at its birth showed that there was room
for still another, and we have much to be thankful for in the absence of
jealousy and the cordial co-operation we experience from other similar
institutions. I must not, however, trench on the ground allotted to my
friend Dr. Beilby in saying too much about kindred associations.

In our papers and Journal we are, I think, as it were, breaking com-
paratively new ground, and are different from older societies in that
respect. The number of technical societies in existence in this country
is very lar^e, and many of them also have their separate district branches
in various localities where, as in the parent Society, papers must be read
if only to stir up local enthusiasm in the Society's proceedings. The
output of technical literature is consequently really appalling, and beyond
the possibilities of any particular person to deal with or read. There is,
I think, a great want of some sort of clearing-house for papers, where the
wheat and the chaff could be separated, where the scissors and paste and
"pot-boiling" varieties could be eliminated from further notice and the
remaining 10 per cent, or so presented to us in some convenient form.
What I am coming to is this : that in this residue I think the work of
the Institute of Metals would be largely represented.

Now as regards our membership, respecting which we have heard a
good deal this afternoon, this is steadily increasing, and as we know that
healthy children should not grow too fast, our rate of progress in that
respect may be regarded as indicating healthy and robust youth. We

276 Fifth Annual Dinner

do not adopt any undignified methods of advertising ; we do not require
such aids. A few days ago, however, I met an engineering friend and
introduced the subject of the Institute of Metals to his notice. I was
very much surprised at his remarking that he had never heard of the
Institute of Metals. He thought I was the President of the Iron and
Steel Institute — " that being more in your line," as he said. The gentle-
man will shortly be a member of the Institute of Metals, when no doubt
he will know a lot more about our proceedings. I certainly hope that
our members will take great care in the future that similar cases of gross
ignorance do not exist.

I think everyone admits that the Institute of Metals is doing good
work, and I wish to dwell to-night on the fact that they could do a
great deal more if they had more funds. As I remarked this afternoon,
our wealthy friends who are interested in metallurgy would find a
worthy channel for contributions or an endowment in the research work
being undertaken or to be undertaken by the Institute of Metals.

" Kindred Societies and Institutions,"

Dr. G. T. Beilby, F.R.S. (Member of Council), in proposing the
toast, said : I think there was a strong undercurrent this afternoon in
our President's address, which suggested that he was one of those who
believed greatly in the virtues of association. He told us some most
interesting things about the procedure by which the members of his
staff, and the members of the department with which he is connected,
had gradually improved certain materials which are required in the
construction of iiiarine engines, and he showed us that that improve-
ment was made by association and co-operation between the experts —
between the engineers who were going to use the machinery, and the
manufacturers who were making the raw material. To many people,
I believe, it was quite a new idea that the Department of the Admiralty
was so veiy enlightened. To many, I believe, this came as a surprise ;
but there are also many members who already knew that enlightened
methods now prevail in the department over which our President pre-
sides. Mr. Bedford McNeill, in proposing the toast of the Institute,
told us that the modern tendency is rather in the other direction — that
the modern tendency among technical and scientific societies is all
towards specialization. Now, gentlemen, I think it is absolutely neces-
sary that we must have both cooperation and specialization, and I
think it is fortunate for us that our President is a man who so fully
appreciates what can be done by bringing the yight men together from
all sides to do a particular piece of work.

In giving you this evening the toast of ' ' Kindred Institutions," I
think we must look upon it that in including kindred societies in our
pleasant gathering, it is our wish to work on the great principle of
association among specialists of all kinds. It is our desire that the
members of those societies should come to our gatherings, should be
interested in what we are doing, and that we, as members, as many of

Fifth A nnual Dinner 277

us are, of kindred societies, should hope to gain a great deal by our
association with those who are working on lines other than our own.

We have to-night with us distinguished representatives of many of
these kindred societies. In the list which has been prepared for our
use, and to which I must naturally adhere, I have been asked to asso-
ciate two names with the toast — those of Dr. K. T. Glazebrook and of
Professor R. Meldola. Dr. Glazebrook stands for us as a remarkable
illustration of what the interest of a purely scientific society like the
Royal Society can do when it is wisely directed towards the utilization
of natural knowledge. The Royal Society was founded " for the pro-
motion of natural knowledge." Fortunately, the President and Council
of that body have from time to time recognized that the mere search
for natural knowledge is not all that is required, but that the application
of that natural knowledge to the uses of man is quite wdthin its province,
and more than fourteen years ago, when the Royal Society was invited
to take part in initiating the movement for the founding of a National
Physical Laboratory, it rose most remarkably to that great occasion.
The result of that movement is before us to-day in this splendid institu-
tion, the National Physical Laboratory, which is presided over by Dr.
Glazebrook. To those who had the honour and privilege of being con-
cerned in the initiation of this Institution all these years ago, it is a
matter of great satisfaction that this magnificent Institution has grown
out of these first small beginnings ; and in bringing about this result,
there is no doubt whatever in our minds that it has been largely due
to the stimulating influence and guidance of Dr. Glazebrook, who has
got round him a brilliant and an energetic staff of younger men, who
are all pushing forward the departments under their charge with every
energy, and, we are proud to say, with every success.

The other representative Avith whom this toast is associated is Pro-
fessor Meldola. Professor Meldola, as everyone here knows, is a great
chemist. He is an absolutely unique representative of kindred chemical
societies, for he has been in turn President of the Chemical Society,
President of the Society of Chemical Industry, and noAv he is President
of the Institute of Chemistry. In his person w'e have the opportunity
of including at once three kindred societies. Professor Meldola has
always shown a very great interest not only in pure chemistry, but in
its application to the arts. He has done very good work in that
direction himself, and as President of the Society of Chemical Industry
and of the Institute of Chemistry, he has done a very great deal in
promoting the better education of chemists who are preparing to enter
industrial and professional life.

Now, gentlemen, I am afraid I have not followed the good example
of previous speakers in speaking very briefly, but I would ask you now
to drink to the health of the Kindred Societies, associating the toast
with the names of Dr. R. T. Glazebrook and Professor Meldola.

Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, C.B., F.R.S. (Director, the National Physical
Laboratory), in responding to the toast, said : I have to thank you, Dr.
Beilby, very cordially indeed for the kind references you have made, in

278 Fifth A nnual Dinner

proposing this toast, to the National Physical Laboratory, and to the
work it is my privilege to do there. I am glad to feel that the Institute
of Metals looks upon the National Physical Laboratory as a kindred
Institution, and I am particularly grateful to you, Dr. Beilby, for the
recognition that you gave to the very great and important work which
the Royal Society undertook when, fifteen years ago, it assumed the
responsibility of controlling and managing, with the help of the other
kindred societies of the country, the work of the Laboratory. The pro-
gress of that work has been due in no small measure to the unstinting
support that has come from that Society, and from its Fellows, and in
addition to the loyal work and co-operation of the staff of the Laboratory.

I may claim in a particular way to be closely connected with the
Institute of Metals, for among those — and there are many of them —
Avho have done much for the work of the Laboratory with which I am
associated, there is none to Avhose services we owe more than to those
of the late Sir William White, your first President. And among those
who worked hard some five or six years ago for the inaugura>tion of this
Institute of Metals, and who were to a great extent instrumental in
bringing it about, I think I may mention the name of the first holder
of a metallurgical post at the Laboratory, Dr. Carpenter ; and also that
of a distinguished member of your Council, whose services not merely
to non-ferrous metals, which are the special subject, I gather, of your
Institute, but to the iron and steel industry, will ever be noted, and
who is my right-hand man in many of the investigations that go on
in the Laboratory — Dr. Rosenhain. So the connection between your
Institute and the Laboratory is a very close one, and perhaps it is right
and proper that I should be permitted to reply here for kindred Institu-
tions, although I confess, when this morning I took down from my
mantleshelf the card which gave me admission to this pleasant gathering,
I was appalled at seeing with how many similar Institutions I was very
closely connected, and on how many occasions in the near future I was
to take part in gatherings of this kind.

Your Institute, gentlemen, has many friends, and, as your President
has already said, the subject with which you deal is very large indeed.
I do not know that representatives of all the societies here would quite
allow that it covers a larger field than those which are included in their
activities, but still no doubt it is a very large one, and is connected closely
not merely with many branches of science, with metallurgy, and as it
used to be called at Cambridge in the old days, with chemistry and
other branches of physics, but also with industries of various kinds. Its
rapid growth only shows how well those who are responsible for its
progress and its work have realized the necessity of a close connection
between scientific investigation and scientific inquiry, and the delicate
and intricate processes which are now required in the production of
metals and materials for use in engineering work and engineering struc-
tures. Some years ago we were told, rather too often, I think, that we
had to look to our friends across the sea, to our friends in Germany or
to our friends in America, to illustrate the manner in which the advances
of modern science were being utilized for the progress of industry and of

Fifth Annual Dinner 279

manufacture. It seems to me that the series of volumes which have
issued from this Institute, that the work which is being done in con-
nection with it, and the investigations which are going on under its
guidance, show that at any rate now those who are most prominent
in the engineering trade and industry of the country have realized and
do realize very fully and very wisely that help may come to them, and
does come to them, from scientific inquiry and scientific investigation.
It is a most important sign, I think, and an indication of future pros-
perity for the country, that this should be so. I will not attempt to give
illustrations. You, Mr. Chairman, know full well the need for inquiry
and investigation in the great work with which you are connected, and
I should like if I may to thank you very cordially for the kind reference
you made to the Laboratory in your address this afternoon, and for the
fact that you have entrusted to us from time to time difficult and serious
matters of inquiry, and have made use of the assistance that we have
been able to give you. I should like at the same time to suggest that
it would be well for the Institute — and I am sure that it is the view
of those who control its destinies — that so far as its funds and oppor-
tunities allow, it should encourage pure science and pure inquiry. Only
those who have tried can tell the pleasure and the privilege of discovering
new facts, new laws, and new principles, and it is not wise to suppose
that the only subjects of inquiry that can be properly stimulated and
helped by Institutions such as this, are those which appear to have an
immediate return in practical work. There is no need to attempt to
give illustrations. Many are well known, and if the Institute of Metals
will go on in the way in which it has begun, devoting its energies and its
opportunities to the discovery of new facts in science, and to their
application to practical life, it will prosper and will merit and deserve
the thanks of all lovers of true science, and of all those who are most
deeply interested in the welfare and the progress of the country.

I should like to join with Mr. Bedford McNeill, who spoke first in con-
gratulating the Society on what it has done already, and in assuring you,
speaking as I am allowed to do for kindred Societies, that the kindred
Societies of this country look upon you, their younger sister, in many
cases with somewhat envious eyes, because of the progress of the great
work you have already been able to do.

Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S. (President, the Institute of Chemistry
of Great Britain and Ireland), who also responded to the toast, said : I
esteem it a great privilege to be allowed to respond on this occasion to
the toast of "Kindred Societies." As you have heard from Dr. Beilby,
I have had, during the course of my life, to preside over the destiny
of several Societies, which, on the present occasion, I think may claim
kinship with this Institute of Metals. You have heard from the
President of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy that they con-
cern themselves with the material which is placed at the service of
humanity, and when that material is worked up, then the wrought-up
material comes within the province of the Institute of Metals. May I
venture to interpose between these two stages the subjects represented

280 Fifth A nnual Dinner

by our science of chemistry, and to claim that we think, and we hope,
that our science has rendered some service to you ? Speaking on behalf
of chemical subjects, let me further state that we hope in the future we
shall become still more useful and still more intimately associated with
your work. Dr, Beilby has in fact struck a note which seems to me of
the greatest importance. This question of specialization is one which we
have to face with the development of science, both pure and applied.
Specialization, I think, may be looked upon as a sign of progress. The
capacity of the individual is unfortunately limited. The field which is
covered by modern science is so great that specialization is becoming
more and more necessary. I remember the time of the birth of this
Institute when the usual question was asked, What is the use of it?
What scope is there for another Society % Well, I have followed your
career in a very humble kind of way, and I am bound to say from what
I have seen of that career that you have more than justified your
existence. I am sure that such a meeting as you have just had, and
which you are now carrying on, is in itself ample testimony to the
necessity for the calling into existence of such a body as the Institute of
Metals. I have not read those ten volumes to which the President
referred, but I have seen many of the detached communications to the
Institute, and I am quite prepared to bear out that you have contributed
a very fair share of that 10 per cent, of survivable matter which the
President mentioned as being the outcome of the activities of the
technical societies. The National Physical Laboratory, whose dis-
tinguished director has just addressed you, is an institution which fulfils
a great national want, and the operations of which are destined for the
standardization of the machinery and the apparatus used in all branches
of industry. It has, of course, its pure scientific side, with which I am
sure we must all sympathize, and which we wish God-speed, but in its
applied side it caters for the regularity of the nation. It standardizes
contrivances which are used in many dififerent branches of applied science
and in various industries. The Institute which I have the honour of
representing on the present occasion also discharges its functions towards
the community by standardizing the workers. We represent the human
side of the subject, and I am not sure whether the time will not come
when the technical societies will be called upon to discharge a similar
function towards the community, and to ensure that the practitioners in
their respective professions are duly qualified people. That is the
function of the Institute of Chemistry, which I now represent. The
science of chemistry is coming more and more into contact with the needs
of the community ; positions of great trust and responsibility are depen-
dent upon chemical expert practitioners, and it is necessary that the
community should be protected by some organization which guarantees
the competency of the practitioners in the same sense that the medical
profession guarantees the competency of its practitioners by the Medical
Register. The question arises. Will not the time come when all the prac-
titioners who cater for the public good should be men whose qualifica-
tions are guaranteed by some organization competent to confer such

Fifth Annual Dinner 281

qualifications? That is the only way by which we can stamp out
charlatanism and incompetency.

Well, gentlemen, at this late hour I have only once again to express
my gratitude for being associated with this toast which you have so
kindly received. I claim somewhat on the score of antiquity to go back
for a number of years, and I may jjerhaps stand alone in this room at the
present time in being able to state that I was a pupil of Percy's at the
Royal School of Mines in the eaily sixties. My interest in metallurgy
was first aroused through attending his lectures, and as bearing upon the
subject of the difference between the functions of the National Physical
Laboratory and the Institute of Chemistry, that the one ensures the
standardization of materials and apparatus, and the other the standardiza-
tion of the men who carry out the work, I may state that there is a
story current which perhaps at this hour may be permissible to be related
as a personal reminiscence. In Dr. Percy we had a remarkable combina-
tion, at least on one occasion, of these two sides — what might be called
the material and the spiritual. Dr. Percy had an assistant by the name
of Smith — the name is not unfamiliar. Dr. Percy, as we all know, was a
tall man of commanding stature. Smith was an extremely small man.
He was a devoted worshipper of Percy, and Percy, knowing it, used to
treat him with good-natured chaff and bonhomie. It is related on one
occasion that Percy came into the laboratory and looked round in his
masterly way and said, "Smith — where is Smith?" and a small voice
from below was heard to say, " Here, Dr. Percy." Dr. Percy looked
round and said, "Good gracious, I thought it was a crucible!" That,
sir, is the most intimate relationship between the spiritual and material
that I can call to mind, and with that story I will ask you to allow me
to conclude these somewhat desultory remarks by once again expressing
my extreme gratitude to Dr. Beilby and to you for having allowed me
to rise on the present occasion.

"The Guests."

Dr. W. RosENHAiN, F.R.S. (Member of Council), in proposing the
toast, said : I have been charged this evening with the pleasant but
rather formidable duty of proposing the toast of " Our Guests."
The guests are to a large extent the chief objects of interest at
a gathering like this ; they are almost as important as the menu.
Now one might inquire — I do not say that any of you here present
would inquire, as it is quite obvious to all of you — but if you were
guests yourselves you would inquire why you had been asked. There
are many reasons why guests are asked by other societies. Some
societies occasionally ask their guests out of a lively sense of favours to
come ; it is a sort of anticipatory sense of gratitude. Sometimes they
ask them because they want to punish them ; they want to make them
give speeches or listen to speeches. Well, if you leave those reasons out,
all the rest are applicable to our guests to-night. Really, the list of our
guests is a formidable one, and if I may again strike that self-congratu-
latory note which has been struck so persistently to-night, I would say

282 Fifth Annual Dinner

that I think the list of guests is such as not only to add lustre to this
gathering, but is an indication of the growing importance and standing
of this Institute. It is something to our record to have succeeded in
assembling round our board such a gathering as we see to-night. We
have here representatives of the two great constructive departments of
the Government — constructive, I mean, from the engineering point of view
— the War Department and the Admiralty. I suppose ultimately their
aim is not altogether constructive, but from our point of view they are
constructive. We have here gentlemen representing the various interests
of the War Department. We have Colonel Sir Hilaro Barlow, the repre-
sentative of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich — a Laboratory which is
surely named in a very curious fashion, for it is a place where, I think,
people really make things. Then we have Sir Frederick Donaldson ; I
shall reserve him for a little later. We have Mr. O'Gorman, of the Royal
Aircraft Factory. Then from the Admiralty we have Sir Frederick Black
and Mr. Wordingham, representing. two very important sections of the con-
structive activities of that great department. Then we have from another
constructive department of the Government service Sir T. H. Ellidtt, the
Deputy-Master of the Mint. Well, gentlemen, I am sure we are all very
glad to see him here, because he presides over a branch of metallurgical
industry with whose products most of us have only a passing acquaintance !
Personally, I have had the privilege of a passing acquaintance with the
particular product of that industry in the form of a bar of extremely pure
gold which was kindly prepared for us by Dr. Rose, and which, in a
fractured condition, I was able to display to the gathering of this
Institute in Ghent. That is only one example of the kindly co-operation
which the activities of this Institute and of the National Physical
Laboratory receive from many important quarters. From other bodies
not immediately connected with the Government we have the representa-
tive of Lloyd's Register in Professor W. Abell ; we have from the City
and Guilds of London Institute Professor Coker. Professor Coker's work
is known to all those who are interested in the construction of objects of
metal. He has developed a method of his own by making models of a
transparent substance, xylonite, straining them in the same way as the
real objects are strained, and then looking through them with the
polariscope in order to find the distribution of the strains. That is not
only an extremely elegant method, but it leads to very beautiful demon-
strations of very brilliant colours. As regards other societies, a good deal
has been said about them as such by Dr. Beilby, and I will not in the least
attempt to traverse that ground again. We were to have been favoured
to-night with the presence of Dr. Cooper, the President of the Iron and
Steel Institute, but I understand he is unfortunately unwell, and has been
prevented from coming for that reason. We have, however, with us the
President of the West of Scotland Iron and Steel Institute, Mr. Dixon, and
Mr. Gimson, the President of the British Foundrymen's Association. The
British Foundrymen's Association, of course, includes a great many of
those interested in the casting of non-ferrous metals, but very largely it
is concerned with iron-founding. Now that leads me to remark that
specialization between ferrous and non-ferrous metals, of which this

Fifth Annual Dinner 283

Institute, in its complementary position towards the Iron and Steel
Institute, is typical, is a very wise and a very good and a very necessary
thing, because there are many problems which are special and peculiar to
the non-ferrous metals, and others again which are entirely peculiar to
the alloys of iron. But, on the other hand, there is this danger, that we
should lose sight of the very great analogies, of the really very close
relationship, which exist between the physical metallurgy of all metals,
and that, after all, iron and steel are alloys just as brass and bronze are
alloys, and that the same laws of physical chemistry, the same funda-
mental principles of physics and chemistry, apply to both, and have to be
studied equally in their application to metallic bodies of all kinds. There-
fore, much as we should rejoice in the independent growth of our Institu-
tion, and in the current prosperity of the Iron and Steel Institute, we
should look for very close co-operation and close co-ordination of facts
and results between the two.

As regards chemistry, I think little more need be said. We have
here distinguished representatives of the chemical societies. We have
had the pleasure of hearing Professor Meldola, and Dr. Eudolf Messel is
with us as representative of the Society of Chemical Industry. I should
like to say that on the Nomenclature Committee of this Institute we
have had representatives of many of these societies and institutions
whose Presidents we are happy to welcome here to-night. They have
afforded us most cordial and valuable assistance, and none more so than
the representative of the Society of Chemical Industry.

Now I come to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which is
represented here by Sir Frederick Donaldson, with whose name I couple
the toast. That is particularly appropriate, because the Institute of
Metals owes a very considerable debt of gratitude to the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers. I am referring here not only to the material
indebtedness for the loan of their building, not on one occasion, but on
every occasion — yet there is something more than that. The Mechanical
Engineers a good many years ago initiated the Alloys Research Com-
mittee, and began, in the earlier days of that Committee, under the work
of the late Sir William Roberts- Austen, a series of researches which I
think it is not too much to say, so far as the first five or six reports are
concerned, went far towards laying "the foundation in this country of
that science of physical metallurgy of which this Institute is to a very
large extent the visible and outward expression at the present day. For
that our Institute owes a lasting debt of gratitude to the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers. Sir Henry Oram in his remarks suggested the
necessity for a clearing-house for the products of research work and for
papers generally. No doubt there is a great need for something of that
sort, but it is only one step in a process which has been foreshadowed
by one of our guests this evening. Sir Frederick Donaldson, in his
Presidential Address to the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, set forth
the desirability of co-ordination, a sort of clearing-house, for research
itself — not only of the works and the papers in which the results are
expressed, but some co-ordination of the work before it is undertaken or
while it is being done. That proposal has now taken material shape in a

284 Fifth Annual Dinner

Committee to which this Institute has been privileged to send representa-
tives ; and it is not one of the least things which this Institution, with its
interest in scientific and technological research, owes to Sir Frederick
Donaldson.

Gentlemen, I have yet another name to couple with this toast — that of
Mr. Leslie Robertson. Mr. Leslie Robertson is put down on our list here as
Secretary of the Engineering Standards Committee, and as such Mr. Leslie
Robertson is no doubt most widely known. He happens also at the present
moment to be the Master of one of the City Companies — the Patten Makers.
It would have been very nice if I had been innocent enough to make the
mistake, which I believe was made by no less a person than a member of
the present Government, of thinking that the name was " pattern "
maker. It would have been so very, very appropriate for this gathering.
Unfortunately I happen to have read in the newspapers that it was
a mistake, so I cannot fall into it conveniently. However, while I
mention the City Companies, I must also mention our pleasure at seeing
here the Master of another of the City Companies, Mr. Caroe, the Master
of the Plumbers' Company. His connection with the work of the Institute
of Metals is perfectly obvious in that case. As regards Mr. Leslie
Robertson, I could say a good many things, and as he is a safe distance
away I might be fairly safe in saying them. Mr. Robertson is essentially
a fighting man. I had the pleasure of being associated with him in a
certain visit to America in 1912, where I saw Mr. Robertson almost
single-handed stem the tide of America's efforts to interfere with inter-
national specifications. I remember a very distinguished American
metallurgist — I will call him Professor "Y" — who, after a long dis-
cussion of that kind came to me mopping his brow, saying, " Is not
there any way of inducing Mr. Robertson to change his mind? " I said,
" Well, Professor, if it is a matter of suggesting that anything can be
better than British Engineering Standard Specifications, I am quite sure
you will never get him to change his mind." Now, Mr. Robertson,
being that sort of man, I do not think I will say anything more about
him ; it will be safer not to. I will ask you simply to join with me in
drinking the health of " Our Guests," coupled with the names of Sir
Frederick Donaldson and Mr. Leslie Robertson.

Sir H. Frederick Donaldson (Chief Superintendent, Royal Ordnance
Factory ; President, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers), in reply,
said : The joy of a host is, I understand, always in the appreciation of
his guests. I can assure you to-night that that appreciation goes out to
you in no stint. On behalf of my share of the guests and myself, I con-
gratulate your Institute most cordially on what you have done in the past,
and I express the hope that you may go on and prosper in the future.

Mr. Leslie S. Robertson (Secretary, the Engineering Standards
Committee), in responding, said : I do not knoAv why there has been
placed upon me the honour of replying for the guests, except perhaps
it be on the principle of the youngest member of the House of Commons
moving the address. The Engineering Standards Committee is a com-

Fifth Annual Dinner 285

paratively young body, and is only a very little older than the Institute
over which you have the honour to preside. We started with one small
Committee. It is interesting at this date to look back. The Standards
Committee is essentially a British institution. We started with six
members ; I will not mention the names here, but they would be honoured
names in any gathering of British engineers. We have grown steadily
from six members serving on one Committee to over sixty Committees
doing nothing but standardization work, with, I think, about six hundred
of the leading engineers, chemists, specialists, and Government repre-
sentatives serving thereon. We have spent over .£40,000 or more
on this particular work. It is, I think, an illustration of where our
British methods, though perhaps not quite so scientific or not quite so
elaborate as those of our colleagues on the Continent, do fill the function
for which they were brought into being. I will venture, even at this
late hour, to illustrate where our British methods are perhaps of use.
It has nothing to do with the matter referred to by Dr. Rosenhain. It
happened at a capital not far from here, where the entente cordiale is
not unknown.

The British delegates had been fighting an uphill battle with our
American and continental friends. After we had finished the first
Conference an American representative came to me and said, " Mr.
Robertson, I don't know whether you will shake hands with me?"
I replied that as far as I was concerned I should be delighted. After
we had finished the fourth Conference he came up to me and he said,
" Well, Mr. Robertson, I would like to shake hands with you." I asked
why? " Well," he said, " I have met a good many men in my life, but
I do not know that I have met a harder fighter than you ; but I want
to say this, you always fight dead square." Now, gentlemen, if we as
Britishers can carry that reputation with us in our international relations,
whether we are metallurgists or whatever we are, we need not fear for
the old country either in science or in commerce.

( 286 )

OBITUARY.

Egbert Kaye Gray died at Brighton, after a long illness, on April
28, 1914. He was born in 1851, and received his early education at
Greenock, afterwards studying at University College School, and later
at University College, which he left in 1869 in order to study in Paris.
During the Franco- Prussian war he was engaged, together with his
father, the late Mr. Matthew Gray, in laying a submarine cable from
Gravelines to Bordeaux, and from that time on was engaged in laying
undertakings in various parts of the world on behalf of his company, the
India-Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Telegraph Works Company, Limited.
Of this company Mr. R. Kaye Gray was appointed Managing Director
upon the death of his father, retiring in 1913 from this position after
being associated with the company for forty-four years. As a result of his
arduous cable-laying experiences, which brought him in close touch with
the Spanish and Portuguese Governments, Mr. Gray was decorated with
several orders by these Governments. Mr. Gray was a notable President
of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, over which body he presided
in 1903-4. He was a Member of the Council of the Royal Society of
Arts, and of many other societies. His connection with the Institute
of Metals, of which he was elected a Vice-President a few weeks before
his lamented death, dated from the foundation of the Institute in 1908,
when he became one of the original Members of Council. In addition,
Mr. R. Kaye Gray did very useful work upon several of the Institute's
Committees, including the Publication Committee.

William Henry Johnson died at his residence, Woodleigh, Altrin-
cham, on February 19, 1914, in his 65th year.

Than Mr. Johnson there was no one more closely connected with the
Institute of Metals, of which he was a founder member and a Vice-
President. It was in the Manchester oflBces of his firm, Messrs. Richard
Johnson, Clapham & Morris, Limited, of which he was managing director,
that, in February 1908, there was held a meeting of copper manufacturers,
brassfounders, shipbuilders, engineers, and others interested in non-ferrous
metallurgy, at which it was resolved to take the necessary steps to
form a "Copper and Brass Institute." After several further meetings,
convened jointly by Mr. Johnson and Professor Carpenter, acting as
Honorary Secretaries of the embryo Institute, it was realized that the
scope of the institute should not be limited to copper and brass. Hence,
it was formally resolved at a meeting held in June 1908, at the Institu-
tion of jNfechanical Engineers, London, under the chairmanship of the
late Sir William White, that an institute, to be called the Institute of
Metals, be formed.

Since that time up to a few weeks before his death Mr. Johnson was
actively concerned with the welfare and progress of the Institute, and
his loss is sadly felt by his colleagues. Apart from his close connection

Obituary 287

with the Institute of Metals, Mr. Johnson had many other interests.
Thus he was a governor of the Manchester Grammar School, and president
of the Mill Girls' Institute, Ancoats. It was chiefly due to his influence
and to his desire for better surroundings for his workpeople, that his firm
in 1902 established a large new works at Newton Heath. At the same
time he privately purchased eight acres of land as a recreation ground
for the workers.

He was a generous supporter of Captain Scott's expedition to the
South Pole, and entertained the explorer at Woodleigh. Among the
few hobbies he permitted himself were yachting and gardening. He was
for over forty years a member of the Manchester Literary and Philo-
sophical Society, to which, in earlier years, he contributed papers.

Mr. Johnson was educated in Germany and at University College,
London, where he took a first-class honours degree in science. After-
wards he joined his uncle, Mr. Eichard Johnson, with whom his father,
Mr. William Johnson, of Bowdon, had been in partnership, and later
entered the firm of which he became the head and which he served so
well for nearly half a century.

William George Kirkaldy died April 10, 1914. Mr. Kirkaldy
was born in Glasgow on July 6, 1862, being the son of the late David
Kirkaldy. He was educated at University College School, and entered
into partnership with his father on coming of age, forming the firm,
David Kirkaldy & Son. In addition to his membership of the Institute
of Metals, to which he was elected in 1913, Mr. Kirkaldy was an
Associate Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, a Member of
the Iron and Steel Institute, the Royal Institution, the International
Association for the Testing of Materials, the Royal Society of Arts,
the Concrete Institute, and the Court of the Worshipful Company of
Turners. He was awarded the Telford Premium by the Institution
of Civil Engineers for his paper on "Steel Rails," read before the
Institution in conjunction with the late Sir William Roberts-Austen.

Eravin Starr Sperry died on January 31, 1914, at his residence
in Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S.A. Born in Ansonia, Conn., on
February 28, 1866, he received his education at the Ansonia and Derby
High Schools, graduating from the latter in 1884. Subsequently he
attended the Sheffield Scientific School of the Yale University, from
which he graduated in 1887. He became Assistant Instructor in
Chemistry at the Yale University under Professor H. L. Wells, and
in 1891 accepted the position of chemist to the Aluminium, Brass, and
Bronze Company, Bridgeport. He afterwards became superintendent
of the Waldo Foundry.

It was in 1 905 that he founded the Bra^s World and Plater's Guide,
which he so ably edited till the time of his death.

Mr. Sperry was a member of many scientific societies, both of Europe
and the United States, and contributed many valuable papers to their
transactions. He was elected a member of the Institute of Metals in
1910.

SECTION II.

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS

RELATING TO THE NON-FERROUS METALS AND
THE INDUSTRIES CONNECTED THEREWITH.

CONTENTS.

Properties of Metals and Alloys 290

Electro-Metallurgy 320

Analysis and Testing 322

Furnaces and Foundry Methods 329

Statistics ,340

Bibliography 350

( 290 )

THE PROPERTIES OF METALS AND
ALLOYS.

CONTENTS.

PAOE

I. Common Metals 290

II. Rare Metals ^293

III. Alloys * 295

IV. Physical Properties .309

J.— COMMON METALS.

Condensation of Zinc Vapour. — The condensation of zinc vapour
to liquid metal is dealt -with by F. L. Clere.* The problem is a difficult
one, more or less of the zinc being always obtained in the form of a
powder, partially oxidized, and known technically as " blue powder."
The term is very indefinite, and it is important that there should be a
more exact classification of the different products.

The various causes, both chemical and physical, which may con-
tribute to the formation of zinc dust are discussed. The chief chemical
cause assigned for the formation of blue powder is oxidation, but the
fact that the amount of oxide varies considerably in different samples
and that the dust has been successfully melted under conditions in
which any reduction of zinc oxide present is unlikely, goes to prove
that causes other than oxidation must contribute to the formation of the
powder.

It is suggested that in the presence of a certain amount of zinc oxide
there may be an upper limit to the size of the globules of zinc which can
coalesce with one another, for the reason that while the oxide present
may be just sufficient to form a protective coating over each of a number
of comparatively large globules, it will be unable to do so in the case of
an equivalent weight of smaller globules, owing to the increased surface
area.

Gravity and mass action are considered as the extraneous forces
which act on the zinc globules and accompanying gas, bringing the
molecules sufficiently close together for ultramolecular forces to come
into play. In designing a condenser we can extend indefinitely the time

* Metallurgical and Chemical Efigineeri?ig, 1913, vol. xi. (No. 11), pp. 637-640.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 291

during which condensation is possible, and thus allow time enough for
gravity to perform the same work in a large condenser which it performs
in the Belgian condenser. The importance of a uniform current of gas
in a direction favourable to bringing the globules within the range of
action of molecular forces is evident, and whatever the rate of evolution
of zinc vapour the condenser may have a cross section sufficient to give a
proper velocity and direction to the vapour. A suggested design for
such a condenser is given. — S. L. A.

Nickel Plating Aluminium. — A process is described by F. Canac
and E. Tassilly * consisting in cleaning the aluminium in a boiling solution
of potash, etching with hydrochloric acid containing iron, and plating
electrolytically in a bath of nickel chloride. The coating may be
polished, and is remarkably adherent, standing hammering or bending
without cracking. It does not separate below the melting-point of
aluminium. The presence of iron in the acid bath is necessary, but
its mode of action is uncertain. Iron is completely absent from the
deposit.— C. H. D.

Production of Flat Perforated Copper Tubing. — Flat per-
forated copper tubing for radiators is now manufactured by an elec-
trolytic process by the Electrolytic Products Company, of New Jersey. t

A flat lead strip of approximately i-inch thickness and perforated at
intervals with ^-inch holes staggered with reference to each other, is
electroplated with copper and cut into suitable lengths.

These are heated above the melting-point of lead, the lead core being
thereby removed, leaving the copper plating in the form of a light copper
tubing of an internal contour corresponding to the original perforated
lead strip. The distance between the two parallel flat surfaces of copper
is equal to the thickness of the lead strip used, and where there were
holes in the latter there are now little copper cylinders holding the two
flat sides of the copper tubing together. The process is continuous and
automatic, the lead passing in form of a long strip through the plating
bath. The speed with which it passes through the bath is adjusted to
give the requisite thickness of copper required. — S. L. A.

Recrystallization of Hard Zinc. — The changes in structure of

hard worked zinc on annealing are discussed by G. Timofeeff.J

The etching of the samples was effected with a mixture of 94 per cent.

nitric acid and 6 per cent, chromic acid ; this mixture was diluted to the

extent of a few drops in 100 cubic centimetres of water before use.
The microstructure of the cast metal consists of comparatively large

grains, often showing a cross-hatching upon their surfaces, presenting a

structure analogous to that of martensitic steel.

Cast .specimens of zinc were prepared and strained in compression.

* Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 119.

t Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering , 1914, vol. xii. (No. 1), pp. 67-68.

X Revue de Mitallurgie, 1914, No. I., p. 127.

292 A bs tracts of Papers

As it was found that a very slight rise in temperature eflfected a
noticeable change in the microstructure of the strained metal, the
specimens were cooled with ice during the compression and subsequent
polishing operations. The strained specimens were then annealed at
different temperatures over boiling alcohol (65° C), water (100° C),
naphthalene (208° C), diphenylamine (302° C), and mercury (360° C).
The microphotographs show that the average size of the crystal grain
in the annealed specimens increases uniformly with the annealing tem-
perature, the hardness suffering a corresponding decrease in value, until
it finally reaches the same figure as that found for the cast metal. It
was found in all cases that the size of the grains was greater at the
edges than in the middle of the specimen ; this is ascribed to the
greater amount of plastic strain at the edges of the specimens during
deformation by compression.

The author obtained acicular structures similar to those noted above
in the cast specimens, on subjecting soft annealed zinc to a slight shock.
He considers that this phenomenon is due to a development of the
crystalline planes of slip, caused, in the case of the cast metal, by
knocking or jarring in stripping the ingot. It is concluded that the
velocity of recrystallization depends both upon the temperature of
anjiealing and upon the severity of plastic strain ; the final size of the
crystalline grains when annealing at a given temperature is limited by
the duration of heating. The paper is illustrated by a number of in-
teresting micrographs, but the magnification of these is not stated. — D. E.

Refining Copper with Magnesium.— It is stated* that mag-
nesium may be employed for removing the last traces of oxygen from
copper which has previously been partly refined in the usual manner.
Excess of magnesium over the quantity necessary to combine with the
residual oxygen must be avoided, as it would deteriorate the copper.
The copper should be covered with acid slag or a boric acid flux, with
which the magnesium oxide will combine. — D. E.

Resistivity of Copper from 20° to 1450° C.— The resistivity-tem-
perature relationship for copper has been investigated by E. F. Nor-
thrup t between 20° and 1450° C. The measurements were made by a
potential method using a Kelvin double bridge.

The apparatus, which is fully described, consists essentially of a
U-tube made by drilling i-inch holes in a compressed but undried block,
made of a mixture of equal parts of magnesite cement and alundum
cement, supplied by the Norton Company of Worcester, Massachusetts.
After drilling, the block was dried and baked thoroughly at 1400° to
1500° C. The block containing the U-tube also carries a hole for the
thermocouple, and a central riser through which additional metal can be
added if necessary. Two side limbs were also drilled out of the block
to accommodate the potential leads. The current and potential electrodes

* Brass World, 1913. vol. ix. p. 386.

t Journal of the Franklin Institute, 1914, vol. clxxvii. p. 1.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 293

were of molybdenum wire ; it is claimed that this metal will not alloy
with copper, and so contamination of the melt is avoided. Oxidation of
the copper at the high temperatures of these experiments was avoided by
working in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide which was maintained
automatically by the furnace heater itself.

The furnace was of tubular form 30 cm. in length, and it is stated
that it was cajiable of melting platinum without suffering thereby,
but details of its construction are not given in the present paper.
No figures relating to variations of temperature in the furnace are
given ; it is to be noted that, as the distance between the potential
points was only 7 cm., the temperature should be fairly constant over
this length in a furnace 30 cm. in length.

The U-tube vessel was calibrated with mercury, so that results
obtained with the copper could be converted into absolute reading of
resistivity. The copper used in the experiments was of two kinds,
having respectively a conductivity of 99'71 per cent, and 99-39 per cent,
of the Matthiessen standard.

Experiments were made both with rising and falling temperature,
and the rate of heating or cooling was such that a series of observa-
tions from 1450° to 20° C. was obtained in from six to ten hours.

The resistivities found were : —

Temperature. Resistivity.

(Degrees C.) (Michroms per cm. cube.)
20 1-7347

1082 1020 (metal solid)

1082 21-30 (metal liquid)

1450 24-22

The results are given in tables and curves ; the latter are of the typical
form, showing two inflexions occurring respectively at the beginning and
end of the freezing. — D. E.

U.—RARE METALS.
Hydrocyanic Acid as a Solvent for Gold.— H. T. Lambert * gives

the results of experiments made in order to determine the volatility of
hydrocyanic acid in solution and the action of such a solution on gold.
A curve is given, showing the rate of volatilization from a solution, the
original strength of which was in terms of KCN 0-28 per cent. ;
volatilization was complete in lf)i hours, the average atmospheric
temperature being 22° C. All tests for HCN were made by adding
to the solution an excess of potassium hydrate and titrating with
silver nitrate, using potassium iodide as an indicator.

In Table I. are given the results of experiments to determine the
solubility of gold leaf floated on solutions of HCN and KCN.

In Table II. are given the results of other experiments in which a
comparison was made of the solubilities of gold leaf in (1) a solution of

* The Mining Magazine, 1914, vol. x. p. 138.

294

Abstracts of Papers

KCN "neutralized" with sulphuric acid, using phenolphthalein as an
indicator ; (2) a similar solution with twice Ihe quantity of sulphuric
acid required for (1).

The inference that gold was soluble in (1) because of the absence
of alkaline cyanide was incorrect, since it was found that KCN existed
to the extent of 0-016 per cent., although showing no alkaline reaction
in the presence of a much greater quantity of HON. In the course of
time the solution becomes alkaline on account of loss of HON by vo-
latilization. There was no free alkaline cyanide present in (2).

Further experiments on a gold ore gave the following results : —

(1) In solution of KCN 66'4 per cent, of the gold dissolved.

(2) In similar solution "neutralized" with sulphuric acid 30"2 per
cent, of the gold dissolved.

(3) In solution of HCN no gold dissolved.

The ore, ground to pass 1 50 mesh, was agitated for 1 0 hours in an
experimental Pachuca vat ; the original strength of the solution in each
case (in terms of KCN) was 0-25 per cent. ; the gold content of the ore
was 13 "6 dwts.

Table I.

HCN in terms
of KCN.

Time.

KCN.

Time required to
dissolve Gold Leaf.

0-316 per cent.
0-030

[No perceptible difference in
j leaf after twenty hours.

rO-316 per cent,
to 030

3-5 minutes
13-5

Table II.

No. Time required to dissolve Gold Leaf.

Remarks.

1 Thirty-five minutes.

„ ) No perceptible dissolution after twenty
) hours.

Strength of KCN before add-
ing acid, 0-66 per cent.

- F. J.

Method of making Tungsten Filaments.— Particulars of the

process of squirting tungsten filaments for lamps are given from the
recent patent of C. A. Hansen.*
A mixture consisting of

Tungsten trioxide 39*8 parts

Glucose . . . . . . . 1-2 ,,

Starch 1-0 ,,

Glycerine 30 ,,

* Brass World, 1913, vol. i.x. p. 401.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 295

is made up and squirted through a die of the required size. The plastic
thread obtained is wound upon a form to support it, and is dried in an
ordinary muffle furnace at 150° C. for ten minutes. The filament is
next carbonized in a muffle at 300° C, and is finally placed in a graphite
crucible and fired in an electrical resistance furnace working in an atmos-
phere of hydrogen at a pressure of about 20 mm. of mercury.

The above particulars may be of interest as providing a possible
method of winding tungsten resistors for electric furnace heating to
high temperatures. — D. E.

Particulars of a patent for making ductile tungsten are given.* The
patent was granted on Dec. 30, 1913, to Dr. W. D. Coolidge of
Schenectady, N.Y., and assigned to the General Electric Company,
U.S.A. It relates to " Tungsten and methods of making the same for
Use as Filaments of Incandescent Lamps and Other purposes." A few
of the thirty-four claims in the patent are quoted. — S. L. A.

Preparation of Rare Metals. — An improvement in the preparation
of some of the rare metals is described by M. Billy. f This consists in
heating the chloride of the metal with sodium hydride. The vapour of
the chloride is passed, mixed with hydrogen, over porcelain boats con-
taining globules of sodium, supported on a layer of sodium chloride,
these boats being heated to 400° to 420° C. Hydrogen is passed first
alone, to convert the surface of the sodium into hydride. Pure titanium
is readily obtained in this way :

TiCl4 + 4NaH = Ti + 4NaCH-2H

and is of a high degree of purity. — C. H. D.

l\\.— ALLOYS.

Alloy for Edge Tools. — Some of the properties of nickel-chromium,
cobalt-chromium, and stellite alloys are given by E. IIaynes,J who has
aimed at producing an alloy which would take a good cutting edge, and
at the same time resist atmospheric influences so as to retain its lustre.

A nickel-chromium alloy, produced by the reduction of the combined
oxides by means of aluminium, could be readily filed, but was practically
immune from atmospheric influences and insoluble in nitric acid.

Similarly produced alloys of cobalt and chromium were very hard and
tough, and possessed a fine lustre when polished. They were unaffected
by atmospheric influences, and were insoluble in nitric acid.

Produced on a large scale, and kept from contamination with carbon,
cast bars could be forged, with care. Table knives, pocket knives, and
other cutlery made from the forged bars retained their lustre under all
sorts of exposure.

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 11), p. 108.

t Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 578.

X The Iron Trade Review, 1914, vol. liv. p. 468.

296

Abstracts of Papers

Small quantities of carbon, tungsten, molybdenum, &c., were added to
these alloys with a view to increase their hardness and elasticity to such
an extent as to render them serviceable for cutting other metals.

It required 10 per cent, tungsten to obtain a decided increase in
hardness and density. An alloy containing 20 per cent, tungsten could
be forged to a slight extent, and showed fairly good cutting qualities as
a lathe tool. With 40 per cent, tungsten the alloy was hard and brittle
(percentages of cobalt and chromium are not given).

Molybdenum acted similarly to tungsten, but was more intense in its
action. An alloy consisting of 25 per cent, chromium, 65 per cent,
cobalt, and 10 per cent, molybdenum makes an excellent lathe tool.
The alloys are being improved from time to time.

The properties of " stellite " are considered.

Upon being heated no change takes place in the colour and brightness
of stellite until a temperature of 800° F. has been reached. Colour films
then appear similar to those occurring on polished steel, but at higher
temperatures. After cooling the alloy assumes its former hardness, the
cutting edge of a stellite tool being retained both at a red heat and after
cooling down from a red heat.

The following cutting tests have been reported by a manufacturer : —

Superior high-speed steel on phosphor bronze

Stellite on phosphor bronze

High-speed steel on tool steel

Stellite on tool steel .

Steel on seamless tubing

Stellite on seamless tubing .

Steel on cast iron

Stellite on cast iron .

Feet per Minute.
125
900
80
133
100
400
100
200

It is stated that it is not advantageous to work a tool regularly at
such high speeds as those given above, but that a stellite tool will remove
metal under a given depth of cut fully twice as fast as a steel tool under
the same conditions.

It is to be regretted that fuller information regarding the compositions
of the stellite and steel tools above mentioned is not forthcoming. — F. J.

Aluminium Alloy. — An aluminium alloy capable of being rolled
into thin sheets or otherwise manipulated as a malleable metal has been
patented by W. A. M' Adams.* It contains aluminium, zinc, and copper
in such proportions that the aluminium will be substantially five times
by weight the amount of zinc, and the zinc substantially five times by
weight the amount of copper. — S. L. A.

Aluminium and Tin Alloys. — This series has been once more
examined by R. Lorenz and D. Plumbridge. f These authors find a com-
plete absence of solid solutions, and fix the eutectic point at 98 atomic
per cent, of tin, confirming Gwyer's results, and disproving the assump-
tion of some previous authors that compounds are formed. — C. H. D.

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1913, vol. xii. (No. 11), p. 658.
t ZeitschriftfUr anorganische Chemie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 243.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 297

Bismuth, Cadmium, and Zinc Alloys. — This ternary system has
been investigated by C. H. Mathewson and W. M. Scott,* who find
that there is less difficulty in determining the composition of the conjugate
liquid phases than has been often supposed. Solid solutions are formed
to such a small extent that they may be neglected. The equilibrium is
discussed from the standpoint of the thermo-dynamical potential, but the
experimental results are presented in the usual form, by constructing a
number of vertical sections through the space-model, about a hundred
alloys being examined thermally.

Addition of cadmium to alloys of zinc and bismuth lowers the
temperature at which two liquid layers are in equilibrium with solid
zinc. The critical point at which the two liquids coalesce in presence of
solid zinc is at 326° C, and lies at 6-9 atomic per cent, of bismuth,
47*1 per cent, cadmium, and 46-0 per cent. zinc. The critical curve is
highly unsymmetrical. The ternary eutectic point is at 143° C, only
2° below the bismuth-cadmium eutectic temperature. The ternary
eutectic contains 44*3 atomic per cent, of bismuth, 54'1 per cent.
cadmium, and 1-6 per cent. zinc. — C. H. D.

Bismuth and Thallium Alloys. — Somewhat remarkable conclu-
sions are reached by N. S. KurnakofF, S. F. Schemtschuschny and
V. Tararin.f The freezing-point curve of the system has three maxima.
One occurs at 0*9 atomic per cent, of bismuth and 301 "5° C, the second
at 12-03 per cent, and 303-7° C, and the third at 62-8 per cent, and
214-4° C. All three correspond with the formation of solid solutions,
but the range of the third series is very restricted. The electrical
conductivity curve has a sharp, upward-directed cusp at 64 atomic per
cent., and the limits of the solid solutions are fairly distinctly marked.
The temperature-coefficient curve has an abrupt change of direction at
the same point. The position of these points does not correspond with
a simple formula, such as that of Bi.Tl3, assumed by other investigators.

The hardness was determined in three ways : by Brinell's ball test,
by Ludwik's sclerometric method, and by measuring the pressure
required to produce flow through an orifice. All three methods give curves
of identical form. The limits of solid solution are very clearly indicated,
and the authors consider that the curves do not afford any evidence for
the existence of a compound Bij^Tlg. The microstructure is that which
would be expected from the thermal diagram.

The authors draw the conclusion that the phase formerly regarded as
Bi-Tlg is a " compound of variable composition," of the kind formerly
assumed to exist by Berthollet, and that the singular points in the
curves of physical })roperties cannot therefore be expected to correspond
with rational formula;. This conclusion, which is unlikely to secure
general acceptance, is extended by them to the /?, y, 8 alloys, &c., of
copper with zinc and other metals. — C. H. D.

* International Journal of Metallography , ]913, vol. v. p. 1.
t Zeitschrift fur anorganische Chemie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 200.

298 A b sir acts of Papers

Brass. — In a general article on brass, O. Weber * gives the com-
position of alloys used in the jewellery trade for imitation gold as
96 : 4 (red gold) and 85 : 18 (yellow), for rolled sheet 89 : 10 : 1 (red
gold) 82 : 17'5 : 0*5 (yellow). In each case the first metal is copper,
the second zinc, and the third tin. " English gold " is either 94 : 6 or
89 : 11.

Brass taps have the composition copper 83 to 85, zinc 10, tin 3, and
lead 4 per cent, on the average. — C. H. D.

Cerium Alloys with Silicon and Bismuth. — Cerium is found by

R. Vogelf to combine violently with silicon and bismuth at high
temperatures. It appears to form a single silicide, melting at about
1530° C, with a eutectic point near to 1250° C. Solid solutions are
not formed. Alloys containing the compound are brittle, rather softer
than silicon, stable in air, and not pyrophoric. The alloys with
bismuth are complex. The compound BigCe^ melts at 1640° C. far
above either of its components, and other compounds BiCe^, BiCe,
and Bi^Ce, are considered to be indicated by breaks in the freezing-
point curve, but the number of points is small. The alloys oxidize
very readily, being reduced to a black powder in air in a few seconds.
Between 25 and 75 per cent, of bismuth the alloys may even be set on
fire by contact with water. — C. H. D.

Copper, Nickel, and Aluminium Alloys. — These alloys have
been examined mechanically and microscopically by L. Guillet.J Three
series of alloys were used, containing 60, 83, and 90 per cent, of copper
respectively, the aluminium varying from 0 to 9'7 per cent., with 02 to
0*8 per cent, of iron. A small addition of aluminium greatly improves
the properties of the alloys, probably by acting as a deoxidizer. The
breaking load and hardness increase rapidly with increasing percentage
of aluminium, then pass through a maximum and decrease, the maxi-
mum is higher the lower the copper content, and corresponds with a
higher aluminium percentage the higher the copper content. With the
more brittle alloys, the breaking load and hardness test do not always
give concordant results. Some of the cast alloys have a tenacity of
70 to 75 kilogrammes, but the ductility is then very small.

The microscopic structure is exactly the same as that of the binary
alloys of copper and aluminium containing the same percentage of
aluminium — that is, the nickel simply replaces copper. Quenching is
without effect on the solid solutions, but alters those alloys which con-
tain the ^ constituent.

The alloy containing 82*2 per cent, copper, 14'98 per cent, nickel,
2'50 per cent, aluminium, 0-23 per cent, zinc, and 0'06 per cent, lead, is
greatly improved by forging, both the elongation and the hardness being
increased. — C. H. D.

* Elekirochemische Zeitschrift, 1913, vol. .\x. p. 53.

t Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Ckemie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiv. p. 323.

X Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 704.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 299

Gold and Arsenic- — These alloys, as far as 25 atomic per cent, of
arsenic, have been examined by A. P. Schleicher. * Arsenic enters only
to an inappreciable extent into solid solution, and the eutectic arrest
is well marked. It is characteristic of these alloys that on cooling,
evolution of arsenic vapour takes place suddenly at the eutectic tem-
perature.— C. H. D.

Gold, Copper, and Nickel. — These ternary alloys have been
examined by P. de Cesaris.f Nickel and gold form an eutectic, whilst
the other two pairs of metals form solid solutions. The greater part of
the system is occupied by ternary solid solutions, with a gap in alloys
containing less than 15 per cent, of copper. It is difficult to attain a
state of equilibrium during cooling. — C. H. D.

Improvement of Aluminium. — The use of cobalt is recommended I
for improving the quality of aluminium. With 9 to 12 per
cent, of cobalt the castings are free from porosity and are harder,
more easily worked, and more resistant to corrosion than pure
aluminium. The tensile strength is low, on account of the very
coarsely crystalline structure. This may be made finer by the addition
of tungsten or molybdenum. With 9 to 10 per cent, of cobalt and 0"8 to
r2 per cent, of tungsten, or 0"6 to TO per cent, of molybdenum, alloys are
obtained with three times the tensile strength of aluminium and good
forging and rolling properties. The molybdenum alloys are softer than
those containing tungsten. Of the above alloys, those richest in cobalt
are only suitable for casting purposes, the lower cobalt content being
suitable for rolling.

Another paper § describes the alloys of aluminium used in the motor
industry, &c. The alloy containing 87 per cent, of aluminium, 8 of
copper, and 5 of tin is preferable to those which contain zinc, on
account of both casting and working properties. Duralumin contains
5 per cent, of copper, 0*25 to 0*5 of magnesium, and 0*5 to 0'8 of
manganese. — C. H. D.

Light Aluminium Alloys. — It is stated || that the study of these
alloys has made considerable progress during the last few years, valuable
contributions to our knowledge on the subject having been made by MM.
Guillet and Portevin in France, and by Messrs. Rosenhain and Archbutt
in England, whose researches have brought out several important facts.

The purity of the constituent metals has considerable influence upon
the mechanical properties and corrodibility of the alloys. Rosenhain
attributes the corrodibility of certain commercial aluminium-zinc alloys
to the presence of impurities derived from the zinc used.

* International Journal of Metallography, 1914, vol. vi. p. 18.

t Gazzetta Chimica Italiana, 1914, vol. xliv. i. p. 27.

X Elektrochemische Zeitschrift, 1914, vol. xx. p. 295.

§ Ihid. , p. 264.

II Mitaux et Alliages, 1914, No. IV., vol. vii. p. 5.

300 ■ Abstracts of Papers

As already noted in this Journal,* the aluminium and zinc used were
the purest available (99 '63 per cent, aluminium and 99-98 per cent,
zinc).

With the addition of zinc to aluminium an improvement in mechanical
properties follows, rising gradually up to a maximum at 30 per cent,
zinc. No " ageing " influence was noticeable on these alloys.

It is suggested that the results of research on the binary alloys will
lead to the elucidation of numerous anomalies in connection with ter-
nary and quaternary alloys. A study of the equilibrium diagrams, the
formation of solid solutions and their limits of solubility, as also a
consideration of electrical conductivities, should do much towards
defining the spheres of usefulness of such alloys.

The most complete studies hitherto have been made of simple alloys,
e.g. aluminium-copper, aluminium-zinc-copper, and aluminium-copper-
manganese ; whilst less complete studies have been made of alloys of
aluminium containing magnesium, nickel, and iron.

In the aluminium-zinc alloys a useful series of solid solutions exists
from 0 to 30 per cent. zinc. Homogeneity is only obtained (and con-
sequently high mechanical resistance) by slow cooling, reheating, or hot-
working accompanied by reheating.

For some alloys rich in zinc four thermal transformations occur, as
shown by the cooling curves, two of which are important, viz. that at
443° C. (formation of a definite compound containing 78'3 per cent,
zinc), and that at 256° C. (solidification of eutectic containing 95 per
cent. zinc). (The writer of the article has given the wrong temperature
for the freezing of the eutectic, which takes place at a higher tempera-
ture, viz. 380° C. ; the temperature of 256° C. represents the decomposi-
tion of the component AloZng formed at 443° C.)

With alloys of less than 30 per cent, zinc no such transformations are
to be feared, and the hope is expressed that with light alloys the
endeavour to obtain homogeneity by heat treatment will not be
attended by a deterioration of their useful properties. By attaining
chemical and physical equilibrium corrodibility is decreased, conse-
quently castings should be annealed.

Kapid cooling, and drawing or working cold, should be avoided.

The tenacities of sand and chill castings are compared, and it is
shown that two maxima exist : in the case of sand castings, viz. at
50 per cent, zinc and 75 per cent, zinc, which maxima exist in the
case of chill castings, in addition to one at 30 per cent. zinc.

The variations up to a composition of 25 per cent, zinc are very
similar in sand and chill castings, the values in the latter being slightly
higher.

The utilization of these alloys in the automobile industry, aviation,
and in all general uses where a combination of lightness and high
tenacity is considered in connection with the specific tenacity.! The
specific tenacity of aluminium-zinc alloys increases regularly up to a

* Mitaux et Alliages, 1913, No. I., vol. ix. p. 214.

t This term is defined by Rosenhain in his Report to the Alloys Research Committee.
See abstract, this Journal, 1913, No. 1, vol. ix. p. 214.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys

101

maximum at 25 per cent, zinc, decreases slightly, to rise again to a
new maximum at 40 per cent, with sand castings and 50 per cent, with
chill castings, and decreases with higher percentages of zinc.

Alloys containing 25 per cent, zinc present the best combination of
tenacity and specific lightness. Similar considerations have led to the
adoption of manganese-copper-aluminium alloys containing .3 per cent.
copper and 1 per cent, manganese. A comparison of three light alloys,
both in the sand-cast and chill-cast condition, is given.

CMll Castings.

Percentage of
Zinc.

15
19
20

15
19

Tenacity Kilos,
per Square
Millimetre.

18-42
21-58
27-91

17-95
20-91
23-85

Elongation.

8-5
7-0
4-0

Sand Castings.

2 0
2-5
2-2

Specific
Gravity.

2-950

3-06

3-21

2-950

3-0

3-17

Specific
Tenacity.

G-24
7 06

8-75

6 07

7-00
7-5

The alloys containing from 10 to 30 per cent, zinc can be machined
without lubrication.

They can be varnished, but only with carbonaceous or bituminous
varnishes. Varnishes with salts of lead as a base are very bad, as also
are metallic varnishes, as the oxides of their metals intensify electro-
chemical corrosion.

The mechanical properties of the alloy containing 25 per cent, zinc
and 3 per cent, copper in the sand-cast, chill-cast, and roller condition
are also quoted. — F. J.

Malleable Zinc Alloy. — An alloy consisting of zinc 99-1 to 99-9,
aluminium 0-001 to 01, lead up to 001 per cent., is claimed to be ex-
tremely tough and strong, and is malleable and suitable for stampings.
The alloy has been patented by T. A. Bayliss, England.* — S.L. A.

Manganese and Cobalt. — These two metals are found by H. Hiege t
to form a continuous series of solid solutions, the freezing-point curve
passing through a fiat minimum at about 1160° C. The magnetic trans-
formation temperature of cobalt is rapidly depressed by alloying with
manganese. The structure shows cores initially, but becomes homo-
geneous on annealing. — C. H, D,

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1913, vol. xi. (No. 12), p. 717.
t Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1913, vol. lxx.xiii. p. 253.

302

Abstracts of Papers

Manganese and Silver Alloys. — Contrary to previous investiga-
tions, G. Arrivaut * finds that manganese and silver form a compound,
AggMn, which forms solid solutions with silver, and melts at 980° C. With
from 20 to 94 per cent, of manganese the alloys separate into two liquid
layers, the horizontals of the diagram being at 980° C. and 1148° C. re-
spectively. This is confirmed by microscopical examination. The alloy,
rich in manganese, is readily attacked by acids ; Avhilst the compound
is very little attacked, and may be isolated in an undecomposed state.

The electromotive- force curve has a sudden break at the composition
Ag2Mn.— C. H. D.

Melting-points of Commercial Brasses and Bronzes.— In con-
nection with an investigation of melting furnaces, Gillett and Nortonf have
determined the melting-points of a number of commercial copper alloys.

After referring to the previous work of Primrose, Longmuir (who
measured temperatures by a method of mixture), and of Karr (using a
radiation pyrometer) on the subject, it is concluded that values for the
melting-points of commercial copper alloys to an accuracy of within 5°
to 10° C. are still lacking.

In their own experiments the authors measured the melting-point, i.e.
the liquidus point, where the alloys were just completely liquid, by
means of a platinum-platinum-rhodium couple adequately protected
against contamination in the gas furnace in which the alloys were melted
in cylindrical carborundum crucibles. The melt in each case weighed
about 600 grammes. The couple was connected through a cold junction,
kept at 20° C. (±3°), direct to a single-pivot galvanometer.

A number of consecutive heating and cooling curves of each alloy were
taken, temperature measurements being made every 15 seconds, stirring
the melt between each reading. The results were plotted as time-tem-
perature curves, from which the following melting-points were obtained : —

Composition.

Melting-point.

Copper.

Zinc.

Tin.

Lead.

Degrees C.

Gun metal *
Leaded gun metal
Red brass * .
Low grade red brass
Bronze with lead *
Bronze with zinc .
Half yellow, half red
Cast yellow brass
Naval brass .
Magazine bronze .

88 0

85-4
85 0
81-5
80 0
84 G
75 0
•36-9
CI -7

2 0

1-9

5-0

10-4

5-'0
20 0
.30-8
30-5

10-0
9-7
5-0
3-1
100
10-4
2 0

1-4

3-'0

5-0

5 0

10-0

s'o

2-3

995

980
970
980
945
980
920
895
855
870

Alloys marked * were not analj'sed, but as they contain little or no zinc it is assumed
that their compositions approximate closely to the proportions of the various metals
added.— C. H. D.

* y.eitschrift fiir anorganische Chetnie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 193.
t Metal Industry, 1914, vol. vi. p. 12.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 303

Molybdenum and Cobalt Alloys. — These alloys have been exa-
mined by W. Raydt and G. Tammann.* Only a single compound,
MoCo, is formed, melting with decomposition at 1484° C. Cobalt can
retain up to 28 per cent, of molybdenum in solid solution, and this solid
solution is magnetic, the temperature of transformation falling from
1143° C. for pure cobalt to 760° C. at the limit of saturation. The
compound is non-magnetic, and does not form solid solutions.

The compound MoCo crystallizes in long needles, and in alloys rich in
molybdenum rounded crystals of free molybdenum occur.

Owing to the insolubility of molybdenum in cobalt at 1800° C. only
alloys containing up to 65 per cent, have been prepared by direct fusion.
Richer alloys, prepared by the aluminothermic process, always contain
aluminium. — C. H. D.

Monel Metal.t — Further particulars of the properties and applica-
tions of this alloy are given by W. E. Oakley. J

Difficulties encountered in machining Monel metal are discussed.
Tools used for brass turning are unsuitable for work on this alloy, and
high-speed steel tools with ample clearance should be used. A diagram
is given indicating the manner in which these tools should be ground.

It is claimed that, under the best conditions, a cutting speed of 1 20 to
140 feet with a quarter-inch cut and a thirty-second-inch feed may be
obtained on 5-inch Monel-metal rounds.

The following figures are given for some of the physical properties of
the alloy: —

Weight per cubic inch (cast) 0'319 lbs.

(rolled) 0-32.3 ..

Co-efficient of expansion (20°-l 00" C. ) 0-00001375

Electrical resistivity ..... 20 ohms per mil-foot

(Temperature co-efficient, 00011 per 1° F.)

Mechanical tests on hot-rolled bars gave the following values : —

Yield point ...... 55,587 lbs. per square inch.

Tensile strength 88,232

Elongation on 2 inches ... 44 per cent.

Modulus of elasticity . . . . 22 - 23 x lO^ .

Torsional Tests.

At elastic limit shearing stress=31,796 lbs. per square inch.
At ultimate load ,, ,, =73,053

The properties of strength and resistance to corrosion at high tempe-
ratures, which Monel metal is stated to possess, are quoted as auguries of
an extended application of the alloy, and its use for forged turbine-
blades is noted in this connection.

It also resists salt water and atmospheric corrosion. Monel metal
holders are being employed for the high-tension insulators of the Panama
Canal electricity supply. — D. E.

* 7.eitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 24f).

t See also Journal of the Institute of Metals, vol. v. p. 315, vol. vii. p. 279, vol. x. p. 218.

X Metal Industry, 1914, vol. vi. p. 62.

304 Abstracts of Papers

The recently consolidated Supplee-Biddle Hardware Company, U.S.A.,
will pay special attention to the many uses of Monel metal.* This
" natural alloy," produced by reduction of the Sudbury copper-nickel
ores, has an approximate composition of nickel 68, copper 30, iron and
manganese together 2, per cent. It has a tensile strength of 70,000 to
100,000 lbs. per square inch, and can be readily machined. Wherever
corrosion is a menace Monel metal is proving its superiority. In pump
and piston rods, shaftings, valve stems, machine bolts, &c., this alloy
outwears bronze by 50 to 100 per cent. During the past year successful
forging of Monel metal up to 1000 to 2000 lbs. has been accomplished.
Forged valve rings and spindles, seat discs, and rings are now made.
Screen wire cloth and ropes of this alloy give maximum service and
satisfaction. — S. L. A.

Nickel-Silicon Alloy for Thermocouples.— To avoid brittleness
in nickel wire used for thermocouple leads, A. L. Marsh f adds from 3
to 5 per cent, of silicon and a trace of aluminium or manganese to the
metal. This alloy has been patented. — D. E.

Nomenclature of Alloys. — Some proposals for a systematic nomen-
clature are made by W. Guertler, J involving the use of contracted names.
The name of the metal present in largest proportion comes last. Thus
aluminium, with an addition of manganese, becomes mang-al ; with
magnesium, magnal ; with copper, cupral, &c. Certain general names
may be employed with restrictions. Thus bronze might be understood
to mean a copper alloy containing not more than 30 per cent, of tin.
Newly-coined names of this class are to be avoided.

Names are also proposed for micrographic constituents. Thus pure
copper would be cujjrite ; copper with aluminium in solid solution,
al-cuprite, &c. Austenite would be y-carboferrite; and kamacite, a-nickelo-
ferrite. It is pi'oposed to use Roman letters in place of Greek for such
solid solutions as those in the alloys of copper and zinc. — C. H. D.

Some light is thrown on the confusion of the terms manganese-
brass and manganese-bronze by a summary of the history, manufacture,
and properties of these two materials given by W. M. Corse and
V. Skillman.§

The addition of small amounts of iron to copper alloys was known to
have a decided hardening and strengthening effect. It produced, how-
ever, a decreased ductility. The substitution of manganese for iron
was tried, and some benefit resulted, due to the deoxidizing action of
the manganese. It remained for F. M. Parsons of London to take out
a patent in February 1876 for the addition of both iron and manganese.
The patents were controlled by the Manganese Brass and Bronze Company
of London. The alloys manufactured ranged from those containing zinc

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 1), pp. 68-69.

t Brass World, 1913, vol. ix. p. 388.

X International Journal of Metallography , 1914, vol. vi. p. 23.

§ Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 11), pp. 113-115.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 305

much in excess of tin, to others composed practically of copper and tin
only. It was soon discovered, however, that the manganese brasses, or
high-zinc alloys, were quite unsuited for sand castings, and they were
almost completely discarded for the manganese bronzes, or manganese-
tin-copper alloys, and the earlier castings of propellers and the like,
described as made of manganese-bronze, were cast from true bronzes. In
1888 Parsons was granted a second British patent covering the addition
of aluminium to manganese brasses, thus making it possible to produce
sand castings from a cheap brass containing as much as 40 to 45 per cent,
zinc, which had physical properties equal or even superior to those made
from the more costly bronze. A confu.sion of terms resulted. The alloy
now recognized as manganese-bronze is in reality nothing more than a
special high-zinc brass. The presence, however, of the metals other than
copper and zinc is what places this highly valuable alloy in a class by itself.
At the present time it is the principal non-ferrous alloy used in the form
of castings to any extent as a substitute for steel. There are two grades
of manganese-brass manufactured, one containing no aluminium, used for
rolling and drawing, and the other used for castings in which aluminium
is an essential constituent. The U.S. Navy Department Specification
calls for manganese-brass containing copper 56 to 58, zinc 40 to 42,
tin, aluminium, lead, and manganese not exceeding 1, 0*5, 01 0,
and 0-3 per cent, respectively. As regards physical properties, a
test specimen properly cast in sand should give well over 70,000 lbs.
per square inch tensile strength, and at least 20 per cent, elongation
on 2 inches. In making this metal the tin, iron, and manganese are
added together in the form of a " hardener " or alloy prepared by
melting together 80 per cent. : ferro-manganese 56 -S, wrought iron
12"5, and tin 32' 1 per cent. The following proportions are then used
in making the brass : —

Per Cent.

Copper 55*0

Zinc 420

Hardener 2"5

Aluminium ....... 0'5

A portion of the copper is melted, and after being brought to a good
heat the hardening alloy is added. This must be thoroughly stirred in,
and heating continued until it is entirely melted and alloyed. The
aluminium is then added, which causes a further rise in temperature,
thus ensuring the melting of the last traces of the hardener. The
remainder of the copper is then added, and finally the zinc, which
must be of good quality, as lead is very detrimental to the finished
brass.

It is generally conceded by founders that this alloy is one of the most
difficult of the non-ferrous mixtures for the uninitiated properly to handle.
As a result of the high zinc content, the melting-point is comparatively
low, lying between 1400° to 1500° F., and therefore overheating or " burn-
ing " easily happens. The approximate production in the United States
is 1500 tons annually. — S. L. A.

306 Abstracts of Papers

G . K. Burgess * suggests the advisability of a more systematic classifi-
cation of alloys.

It is not proposed to abolish such time-honoured names as "brass"
or " bronze," but misleading terms such as " manganese-bronze," and
personal and proprietary names, should be disallowed.

The nomenclature of ferrous alloys — ferro-silicon, ferro-manganese, &c.
— is suggested as a basis for a method of nomenclature for the non-ferrous
alloys. The present method of naming the microscopical constituents of
non-ferrous alloys, according to the usages of physical chemistry, is
upheld.

It is urged that, in any revision of nomenclature, regard must be had
to the equilibrium diagram, since this is an index of the exact composi-
tions at which well-marked alterations of the properties of alloys may
be expected to occur. Co-operation between the various British and
American metallurgical societies is suggested with regard to such a
revision of nomenclature.

In a paper read before the American Institute of Metals, C. P. Karr f
outlines a tentative scheme of nomenclature for non-ferrous alloys, of
which the more important items are as follow : —

Bronze. — A copper-tin binary alloy with copper as chief constituent.
Brass. — A copper-zinc binary alloy with copper as chief constituent.

Composition. — An alloy of two or more metals with copper as chief
constituent,
(a) Bronze composition such as copper 89, tin 10, lead 1.
(&) Brass composition such as copper 70, zinc 29, lead 1.
Lead composition, aluminium composition, &c.

White Metal Alloy. — A binary alloy of any two white metals.

White Metal Composition. — A binary alloy of two white metals con-
taining variable minor components, e.g. fusible metal or
pewter.
Anti-friction and Bearing Metals. — Are either
(a) White metal alloys or compositions.
(&) Brasses or brass compositions.
(c) Bronzes or bronze compositions.

Amalgams. — Alloys of mercury vpith various metals.

Nohle Metal Alloys. — Binary combinations of noble metals.

Binary Alloys. — Exclusive of brass or bronze (and white metals ?) are
placed in a class by themselves, the chief constituents forming
the qualifying title, e.g. cupro-nickel.

The retention is suggested of such trade names as Delta metal, Muntz
metal, &c., which are held not to interfere with the scheme outlined above.
The paper concludes with some examples, the present names, composi-
tion, and proposed designation of a number of alloys being given. — D. E.

* Metal Industry, 1913, vol. v. p. 487. t Ibid., vol. vi. p. 15.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 307

Palladium and Nickel Alloys. — According to F. Heinrich*
palladium and nickel form a continuous series of solid solutions, the
freezing-point curve passing through a minimum at about 1250° (/.
There is considerable undercooling. All the alloys are more readily
attacked by nitric acid than either nickel or palladium. The temperature
of the magnetic transformation of nickel is lowered by palladium. The
alloys are somewhat malleable, and are not much harder than the com-
ponent metals, — C. H. D.

Silver and Cuprous Oxide.— It is found by C. H. Mathewson and
C H. Stokesbury f that cuprous oxide dissolves readily in molten silver.
The alloys are best prepared from cuprous oxide previously purified by
melting the commercial preparation under fused sodium sulphate in a
magnesia crucible, breaking up the mass, and separating the copper
shot. The alloys with silver are also melted under sodium sulphate.
Silver and cuprous oxide form a simple binary system, with a eutectic
point at 944° and 1"3 per cent, of the oxide. With 12 per cent, of the
oxide the freezing-point has risen to 1085° C. Solid solutions are not
formed.

The lowering of the freezing-point of silver is greater than that
calculated from the latent heat, and points to a reaction :

CujO + 2Ag g 2Cu + AgjO.

Small quantities of the oxide are not removed by melting the alloy in
hydrogen. The microstructure is almost exactly like that of the alloys
of copper and cuprous oxide. — C. H. D.

Soldering Fluxes for Soft Solder. — In a paper read before the
American Institute of Metals, in October 1913, W. Arthur { describes
experiments on various fluxing materials for use in soft soldering.

General considerations point to the desirability of rapid action of the
flux, so that it should consist of a liquid or a paste which does not
require melting or evaporating before its cleaning action commences.

For soldering tinplate, galvanized iron, copper, or brass, fluxes such
as zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, or resin may be employed. Zinc
chloride, however, is poisonous and highly corrosive, and so is unsuited
for soldering vessels for tinned food, or for use in cases where delicate
work is in question, as in the soldering of the thin zinc wires used as
electric fuses.

An aqueous solution of ammonium phosphate is recommended for use
with tin, copper, brass, and zinc articles. This is non-poisonous and
non-corrosive, but requires a high temperature for successful fluxing.
Lactic acid and ammonium lactate are said to be useful fluxes, but they
produce a tarnish on copper and brass. — D. E.

* Zeitichrift fur anorganische Chemie, 191.3, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 322.
t International Journal of Metallography, 1914, vol. v. p. 193.
X Metal Industry , 1914, vol. vi. p. 2.

308 Abstracts of Papers

Standard Sheet Brass. — The Bureau of Standards, Washington,
is prepared to issue, as an analytical standard, a sheet brass of the follow-
ing composition approximately : * —

Per Cent.

Iron 0-3

Nickel 0-5

Tin 10

Lead I'O

Zinc 270

Copper 70'3

The fee, payable in advance, is 3 dollars per sample of about 1 50 grammes
weight. — S. L. A.

Tin, Zinc, and Cadmium Alloys.— The binary and ternary alloys
of these metals have been examined by li. Lorenz and D. Plumbridge.f
Tin and zinc form alloys which contain the metals in an almost pure
condition, solid solutions being absent. In the alloys of cadmium and
zinc the limits of the solid solutions are well below 1 per cent., whilst
in the cadmium-tin series they may extend slightly further.

The ternary system is of the simplest possible type, the zinc field
being by far the largest on the liquidus surface. The following eutectic
points are found : —

Per Cent.

Degrees C

Tin-zinc

. 13-5

Atomic

zinc

. 199

Cadmium-zinc .

. 20

. 203

Tin-cadmium

. 29

cadmium

. 177

Tin-zinc-cadmium

. 70-83

tin .

\ Uf.4

3-70

zinc

25-41

cadmium

A thermal effect, due to the tin-cadmium series only, was observed at
120° C— C. H. D.

Turbine Blade Alloys. — In a note % concerning some of the various-
materials which have been employed for the manufacture of turbine
blades it is pointed out that the desideratum is an alloy which c£ln
endure the combination of stress and temperature encountered in turbines
running at high speeds under superheated steam.

Ordinary bronzes are unsatisfactory as a blade material, but some
special bronzes such as Durana metal and Resistin (a 5 per cent,
manganese-bronze) have proved efficient. Aluminium-bronze, however,
is unreliable for this purpose. Wrought-iron blades are fitted to the
Thysseu and to Melmis and Pfenninger turbines. Mild steel and nickel
steel low in carbon have also been recommended. Tests on Monel
metal blades are at present in progress : this alloy appears to be malleable
and non-corrodible at high temperatures. — D. E.

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 11), p. 80.
t Zeitschrift fiir anorgaiiische Chemie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 228.
:J: Metal Industry, 1913, vol. v. p. 451.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 309

IW.— PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.

Allotropy of Gadmiuin. — An allotropic change in cadmium has
been discovered by E. Cohen and W. D. Helderman.* By heating cad-
mium in contact with a solution of its sulphate at 70° to 100° C. a small
but distinct diminution of density occurs. The actual temperature of
transformation is 649° C. — C. H. D.

Cold-working". — A comparison has been made by Hanriot and
Lahure f between metals (brass and silver) hardened to different degrees
by cold- working, and hardened to the maximum extent and then softened
to different degrees by annealing. Comparing together metals from the
two series showing equal hardness by the ball test, it is found that the
tenacity of those hardened in an ascending series is always less than
that of those in the descending series, whilst the ductility is lower and
more irregular in the ascending than in the descending series. It is also
found that the partly annealed metals are more readily hardened by
traction than those of equal initial hardness obtained directly by cold-
working. The metals of the descending series anneal much more rapidly
than the others.

There is thus a superiority in every respect of the metals which have
been partly annealed after cold-working. — C H. D.

Corrosion of Copper. — Experiments on the effect of annealing on
the corrodibility of hard-worked copper are described by T. A. Eastick.J

Pieces of ordinary sheet copper were prepared in the hard-worked and
annealed condition. The " scleroscope "' hardness numbers were found
to be 44 and 12 respectively. The electrolyte employed was a 10 per
cent, solution of sodium chloride at a temperature of 50° C, and the
time of immei^ion in both cases was fifty-six hours.

By electrically connecting a hard sheet to a soft one and immersing
them both together iu the same bath the loss in weight under the above
conditions was found to be 0 60 per cent, from the hard specimen and
0"41 per cent, from the soft one.

By treating two similar hard and soft specimens separately in separate
solutions the loss in weight was found to be 0'59 per cent, iu the case of
the hard specimen, and 0'60 per cent, in the case of the soft specimen.

It is concluded that the hard metal is electro-positive to the softer
metal, and the uneven corrosion of copper pipes and plates is thus attri-
buted to lack of thorough and homogeneous annealing of the material.
Further experiments on the corrosion of hard copper strip and sheet,
which had been annealed locally, are described in support of the above
conclusion.

The result of some tests with aerated and boiled solutions indicate
that the presence of dissolved oxygen produces rapid corrosion of the

* Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam, 1913, vol. xvi. p. 485.
t Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 404. X Metal Indtistry, 1914, vol. vi. p 22.

310 A bstracts of Papers

copper, whilst the effect of carbon dioxide on the rate of corrosion is
scarcely appreciable in salt water. — D. E.

Crystal Growth in Metals. — Resulting from experimental work
with a specially designed long-focus microscope,* the growth of the poly-
hedral structure of metals and alloys on heating is described by F. Robin, f

The grain-structures of metals are classified as primary (grains of soli-
dification), characterized by highly curved boundaries ; and secondary
grains (obtained on annealing after plastic deformation), which usually
have more or less rectilinear boundaries.

Examinations of primary grain-structures were made by noting the
networks formed on the free surfaces of pure lead, tin, and aluminium
when solidifying under the microscope. By subsequent etching these
network patterns were found truly to express the arrangement of the
underlying grains of the metal.

An analogy is drawn between the networks produced on the free sur-
faces of a metal on solidification and the contraction patterns obtained by
the drying up of a layer of muddy water, or by the dessication of a viscous
fluid such as glue ; and a very tentative suggestion is made that when a
pure metal solidifies it is at first amorphous, changing almost immediately
to the crystalline condition. In support of this unusual view, the author
iStates that impurities in the metal or mechanical disturbances during
freezing (both of which tend to produce a progressive solidification, as
distinct from the sudden solidification of a pure metal) were found
effectually to prevent the formation of the surface network. It is
suggested that the surfusion commonly associated with the solidification of
pure metals may be due to the crystallization of the already solid metal.

Immediately following the complete solidification of metals in the
above experiments, a feathery pattern was found to appear on the free
surfaces of the cast metals. This pattern increases in clearness as the
temperature of the now solid metal falls. This is attributed by the
author to unequal contraction strains in the cooling mass.

Secondary grain-structures obtained on annealing cold-worked metal
are also described. Such structures are usually more regular than those
found in cast metals. On heating a polished sample of cold-worked
metal the boundaries of the underlying grains appear upon the polished
surface at a certain definite temperature, which is stated to vary from
60° C. for tin to 500° C. for nickel. The author attributes this pheno-
menon to unequal expansion of the crystal grains in different directions ;
but such an explanation is questionable, since most metals crystallize
in the cubic system of symmetry, wherein expansion is equal in all
directions.

With continued rise of temperature the surface pattern is modified in
accordance with the growth of the crystal grains until the melting-point
of the metal is almost attained, when the grains disintegrate from each
other. An interesting comparison is made between the polygonal cell-

* ?>t?: Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1913, No. 1, vol. ix. p. 228.
t Journal de Physique, 1914, vol. iv. p. 37.

The Properties of Metals and A Hoys 311

structure of a mass of metal, and the cell-structure observed by compress-
ing a froth of soap bubbles in a glass vessel.

The growth of crystal grains on annealing may be predatory, a given
grain growing at the expense of its neighbours ; but it was also found in
some cases that growth occurred by the union of neighbouring grains in
a wholesale manner. Where new grains are formed their first appear-
ance is to be looked for at the intersection of several of the previously-
existing grain boundaries.

It is concluded that the grain-structure of strained and annealed metal
shows a greater tendency towards the production of large crystal grains
than does the grain -structure of cast metal. The presence of impurities
generally exercises a restraining influence on the size of the annealed
grain-structure and on the rate of growth.

No details are given in the paper of the experimental methods by
which the results described therein have been attained. Such details
are presumably to be found in the author's earlier work, since appropriate
references are appended. — D. E.

Crystalline and Amorphous Metals. — A summary of work on

this subject is given by W. Rosenhain.* The work of Beilby is reviewed
and defended against the criticisms of Heyn and Tammann. Polishing,
however, is regarded as partly chemical, and not as purely physical.
Good polish on metals can only be obtained by the use of metallic oxides,
which may be assumed to penetrate into the amorphous layer. Thus,
the chemical properties of a glass surface depend on the nature of the
oxide used in polishing, and silver, polished with " soft " rouge, after a
time shows dark specks of ferric oxide, which have been taken into the
surface layer and then rejected, probably on account of partial recrystal-
lization.

Benedicks has suggested that twin-lamellae are formed along the glid-
ing planes in strained metals, but the evidence goes to show that twin-
lamellae do not arise until after annealing. Beilby's view, that an
amorphous layer is formed, is more probable. Tammann's objection, that
pressure would not encourage the formation of the amorphous phase
because this is less dense, is not conclusive, because it is not certain that
the effect of mechanical strain is to increase the " hydrostatic " pressure.
Johnson and Adams have gone so far as to indicate how the liquid
phase could be produced at low temperatures by unequal pressure.

The existence of spongy platinum and palladium is a proof that amor-
phous metals may exist at temperatures far below their melting-point.

Intercrystalline boundaries are surfaces of strength, not of weakness,
as is strangely assumed by Tammann. The behaviour of metals under
alternating stress is best explained by the assumption of an amorphous
intercrystalline cement, which behaves as an elastic skin. This also
explains the temporary plasticity and recovery of strained metal. It
still remains to be shown why only certain pure metals and solid solu-
tions are plastic at the ordinary temperature, and why intermetallic

* International Journal of Metallography, 11)13, vol. v. pp. 65-106.

312

Abstracts of Papers

compounds are almost invariably very brittle. The hypothesis of an
intercrystalline amorphous cement in unstrained metals is then explained
and illustrated from the author's papers. Surface tension is considered
insuflicient to explain such phenomena as those of the growth of grains
in crystal aggregates, where free surfaces do not exist. The formation
of long dendrites, projecting into the liquid during crystallization, and
offering almost a maximum of surface, is also opposed to the view that
surface tension has any very important influence. It appears that small
quantities of impurity may increase the mobility of the amorphous layer.

Rosenhain's views are critically discussed by W. Guertler,* who con-
siders that the great stability of the crystalline state in metals, and the
readiness with which it is formed, are opposed to the existence of masses
of amorphous material. Spongy platinum, cfec, is metastable, but pro-
bably not amorphous. Further, the properties attributed to the hard
amorphous phase are in some respects contradictory.

The presence of an intercrystalline cement is accepted, and is illus-
trated by diagrams. This cement is not truly amorphous, but crystalline
with a distorted space-lattice. The term " meta-crystalline " or ''para-
crystalline" is preferable to "amorphous." The layer must, however,
be of molecular dimensions. Any thicker layer must be considered as
made up of irregular detritus.

Rosenhain's views are also criticized by R. von Moellendorff,f who
objects to the term "amorphous," and regards the strained metal as
containing crystals, the space-lattices of which are distorted. — C. H. D.

Density of Liquid Metals. — Further determinations of this property
have been made by P. Pascal and J. Jouniaux,{ by weighing a quartz
sphere immersed in the molten metal. The following values, considered
to be accurate to 0-01, have been obtained :

At Melting-
point.

400° C.

600° C.

800° C.

1000° C.

1200° C.

Tin . . .

6-98

6-80

6-77

6-69

G-56

Lead .

10-875

10-85

10-71

10-49

10-15

Zinc

6-92

6-81

6-57

Antimony

6-55

(5-48

6-36

Aluminium .

2-41

2-3fi

2-29

Copper

8-40

8-32

An atmosphere of inert gas was used,
inflexion at 620° C— C H. D.

The tin curve has a point of

Emission of Electrons. — The emission of electrons from a heated
tungsten filament has been further investigated by O. W. Richardson. §

* International Journal of Metallography, 1914, vol. v. p. 213.

t Ibid., vol. vi. p. 44.

:J: Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 414.

§ Philosophical Mai^azine, 1913, ser. vi., vol. xxvi. p. 345.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 313

When the filament is heated in a high vacuum, the number of electrons
emitted is compared -with the number of gas molecules evolved, as deter-
mined from the rise in pressure, and is found to be many million times
greater. Liquid air and charcoal do not affect the emission. The mass
of the electrons thus emitted amounts to as much as 4 per cent, of the
Aveight of the tungsten, and is greater than the loss of weight of the
filament (determined, however, by the change of resistance, and not by
weighing). The experiments are regarded as proving that the current
in metals is conveyed by electrons, the excess of electrons emitted thus
having flowed in from the outer circuit. — C. H. D.

Erosion of Bronze Propellers. — An article by Mr. William

Ramsay* on the deterioration of high-speed propellers has been the
subject of discussion in Engineering.

Sir W. Ramsay f expresses his opinion that the injurious effects often
noted in bronze propellers are due to erosion rather than corrosion of
the metal. In support of this contention, it is pointed out that there
appears to be a certain critical speed, below which no deterioration takes
place, whilst above this speed loss of metal is rapid.

The best high-speed propellers are noAv usually made of an alloy
which, judging by its composition, should be harder than the old bronze
alloy and yet more liable to corrosive influences ; this, again, would
suggest that the loss of metal is to be attributed to an erosive or scouring
action rather than to simple corrosion.

The possibility of scouring and corrosive effects conjointly causing
deterioration is not discussed.

Replying to Sir W. Ramsay's communication, Mr. Ramsay J expresses
his opinion that, as the result of practical experience, there is no critical
speed, as asserted, below which deterioration of bronze propellers does
not take place. The dissolution of the metal he ascribes mainly to corro-
sive influences, against which protective plates of zinc are of little avail.

A further communication from E. W. Sergeant § relating to the
failure of bronze impellers of high-speed centrifugal pumps, describes the
reduction of the metal to a spongy condition, and on this account he
attributes deterioration to corrosive rather than to erosive agencies.
The dissolution of impellers pumping acid or alkaline water is stated to
be quite different in nature from the sponginess described above, which
has been noted in both steam and electrically-driven pumps. — D. E.

Feebly Magnetic Alloys. — The susceptibility of some feebly mag-
netic alloys has been determined by Faraday's method by E. L. Dupuy.]]
The alloys of silver and antimony give a curve with a sharp cusp corre-
sponding with the limits of the solid solutions formed by the compound
AggSb. Alloys of lead and tin give a straight line, with a branch at
the lead end corresponding with the solid solution, and a very short
branch of the same kind at the tin end. Alloys of aluminium and zinc

* Engineering, 1912, vol. xciii. p. 687. f Ibid., 1913, vol. xcvi. p. 690.

X Ibid., 1913, vol. xcvi. p. 761. % Ibid., 1913, vol. xcvi. p. 720.

II Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 793.

314 Abstracts of Papers

show a break at the composition AlgZn, which, it is suggested, exists in a
largely dissociated condition. — C. H. D.

Grey Tin. — According to A. Wigand,* grey tin has always a smaller
specific heat than white tin, the values between 0° and +15° being : grey
0-0510, white 00525. As the densities are 5*85 and 7-30 respectively,
tin forms an exception to Richarz's rule, according to which the denser
modification has the lower specific heat. On the other hand, it accords
with the general rule that the modification stable at the higher tempera-
ture has the higher specific heat. The molecular change at the trans-
formation point, like that of ice or bismuth at the melting-point, must
be of an exceptional character. — C. H. D.

Hardness. ^ — ^Brinell hardness tests made by J. H. Andrew f with
the alloys of copper with aluminium and tin show that, contrary to the
assumption generally made, an alloy which is a solid solution at high
temperatures, breaking up into its components on cooling, is not always
hardened by quenching. Thus, whilst copper alloys containing 10 to
11 per cent, of aluminium are hardened by quenching, those with 12 to
13 per cent, are much softer in the quenched than in the slowly-cooled
state. Copper alloyed with 20 to 28 per cent, of tin is also softened by
quenching.

A very full summary of the facts relating to hardness and plasticity
is given by N. S. Kurnakoff and S. F. Schemtschuschny,J with special
reference to the method of determining the pressure required to produce
plastic flow. It is shown that the Brinell hardness is, like the pressure
required to produce flow, a measure of the internal friction. In some
cases, such as that of lead, the hardness is found to be a more sensitive
means of detecting minute quantities of impurities than the electrical
conductivity. Highly purified metals are much softer than the com-
mercial varieties.

The modulus of elasticity of a solid solution is equal to or smaller
than the arithmetical mean of the values for its components, whilst for
definite compounds it is always greater. — C. H. D.

Hardness and Conductivity of Alloys of Cadmium and Zinc—

These alloys have been examined in the cast state by A. GlasunoJBF and
M. MatweeS".§ The conductivity is directly proportional to the atomic
concentration. The hardness, determined by Brinell's method, shows a
maximum at the eutectic composition, even when the alloys have been
annealed at 225° C. for seventy-two hours. After hammering and
annealing at 2^5° C. for 900 hours the maximum disappears, and the
hardness becomes a straight line. The change must be a purely physical
one, and is probably accounted for by the fine grain of the original metal,
cast in glass tubes. — C. H. D.

* Zeitschrift fiir Elektrochetnie, 1914, vol. xx. p. 38.

t International Journal of Metallography, 1914, vol. vi. p. 30.

X Jahrbtich der Radioaktivitdt und Elektronik, 1914, vol. xi. p. 1.

§ International Journal of Metallography, 1913, vol. v. p. 113.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 315

Melting-point of Arsenic. — This has been determined by
R. Gobau* to be 817°, using a thick- walled quartz vessel. On the
other hand, P. Jolibois f has obtained, by a similar method, the values
852° and 849°. The metal may be undercooled as much as 50°. The
vapour is yellow. — C. H. D.

Minimum Annealing Temperature- — Measurements by Hanriot
and Lahure J show that the softening of cold-rolled silver, as determined
by the ball test, is quite perceptible after four hours at 100°. The hardest
metal begins to soften at the lowest temperature, and when the softening
has once begun, it proceeds so rapidly that, for the same temperature,
it becomes softer than the metal which was originally less hardened.
Zinc and aluminium behave similarly. Time, as well as temperature of
annealing, must always be taken into account. — C H. D.

Molecular Changes in Metals and the Quantum Hypothesis.

— Under this title C. Benedicks § discusses the importance of Planck's
hypothesis of quanta for metallography. The hypothesis has been gener-
ally adopted, because it is impossible to explain the law of the partition
of energy on the ordinary assumptions. It appears, however, simpler to
abandon the usual view of the monatomic character of solids, and to
assume instead an agglomeration of atoms, increasing with falling tem-
perature, according to Langevin's law for magnetic substances. On tliis
assumption it is possible to arrive at Planck's law of partition of energy
without the assumption of energy quanta, the process of agglomeration
providing the discontinuity which is now known to be inevitable. — C. H. D.

Optical Orientation of Metallic Crystals. — Using Koenigs-

berger's method of examining the polarization of the reflected light,
K. Endell and H. Hanemann || have determined the optical orientation
of the crystals in several cast metals. This method is applicable to any
isotropic metal. Zinc and antimony, cooling freely in a crucible, form
uniformly orientated crystals, the optical axes of which are perpendicular
to the cooling surface. Agitation destroys the uniformity, and it has
not been found possible to obtain quite uniform orientation in either
bismuth or tin.

Antimony crystallites, separating from an alloy with lead, also
crystallize perpendicularly to the cooling surface, probably also from its
alloys with silver. Crystallites of bismuth in its alloy with cadmium,
and of tin in its alloy with silver, are apparently irregular in their
orientation. These experiments are being continued with a specially
designed apparatus. — C H. D.

Palladium and Hydrogen. — The occlusion of hydrogen by
palladium has been further studied by F. Halla,^ whose results are
brought into comparison with those of Holt and his fellow-workers.
Palladium black prepared by Graham's method is always somewhat active.

♦ Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 121. f Ibid., p. 184. % I^id., p. 203.

§ International Journal of Metallography, 1913, vol. v. p. 107.
li ZeitschriftfUr anorganische Chemie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 267-
ir ZeitschriftfUr physikalische Chemie, 1914, vol. Ixxxvi. p. 496.

316

Abstracts of Papers

No influence can be observed when active and inactive palladium are
brought into contact. — C. H. D.

Passage of X-rays through Metals. — Some experiments by
H. B. Keene,* on the passage of X-rays through metals, are mentioned.
A pencil of X-rays was made to impinge normally upon sheet metal, a
photographic plate being placed behind the metal sheet, and about
1 inch distant from it. The nature of the patterns obtained differs con-
siderably for rolled and annealed metal. — D. E.

Passivity of Metals. — Further investigations into the meaning of
passivity have been conducted by W. Rathert,t the conclusions being
in favour of the hydrogen theory. The potential at which a metal
becomes passive is not a true transition point, and is not the same as
that at which it becomes active in the opposite direction, as the oxide
theory would require. The passage from the one state to the other is
sharp in the case of iron and chromium, but gradual in that of nickel.
Chromium, rubbed with emery in an atmosphere of hydrogen, is not
active, but passive. Passive chromium becomes active when charged
electrolytically with hydrogen. Molecular hydrogen is practically without
influence on the potential of passive chromium. — C. H. D.

Photo-electric Effect. — The selective photo electric action of
metals has been further examined by G. Reboul.J The action is deter-
mined, first using light from a mercury lamp passing only through a
quartz plate, and then, with the same light passing through a similar
plate thinly silvered, to filter out all but the ultra-violet light. The
emission in the latter case is always smaller {R^. The values n repre-
sent the values for the frequency of the resonator, calculated by Linde-
mann's formula :

where D is the density and A the atomic weight :

Metal.

(arbitrary
'^ units).

Silver

176

0-3119

Gold .

174

0-3125

Platinum

150

0-3312 1

Copper .

153

0-3730 '

Iron

129

0-3748 1

Nickel .

121

0-3845

Tin

119

0-2491

Lead

0-2388

Aluminium

0-3085

Zinc

0-3301

* Engineering, 1913, vol. xcvi. p. 447. — ^- H. D.

+ Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, 1914, vol. Ixxxvi. p. 567.
X Comptes Rendus,\^\\,vo\, clviii. p. 477-

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 317

Polymorphic Changes of Thallium, Tin, Zinc, and Nickel.—

Detailed investigations by M. Werner * show that thallium has a trans-
formation temjxjrature of 226° C, which is lowered by pressure, be-
coming 220° C. under 3000 kg./cm.-. The change of volume at the
transformation point is 0 "000044 cc./g., from which the heat of trans-
formation is calculated to be 0 26 ± 0*07 calories per gramme, whilst
the value obtained by Tammann's method from the cooling curve is
0*24. The electrical resistance changes discontinuously at the trans-
formation point, and hard wire gives a different value from soft. There
is a similar discontinuity in the thermo-electric force measured against
copper.

Tin shows a discontinuity of electrical properties at 160° C. The
heat of transformation ; tetragonal -^ rhombic tin is 0"02 calories per
gramme, and the increase of volume 0*000 17 cc./g.

The transformation of zinc occurs at 304° C, and a change at 170° C.
has not been confirmed.

The transformation of nickel occurs at 352° C, the heat change being
0*013 calories per gramme. This corresponds with the magnetic .change.
Hard and soft nickel behave alike, and the change is not accompanied
by any alteration of volume. — C. H. D.

Resilience of Copper Alloys.— The resistance of copper alloys to
shock at varying temperatures has been determined by L. Guillet and
V. Bernard,! using seven bronzes containing from 3*5 to 20 per cent,
of tin, and varying quantities of lead and zinc, four brasses, and one
aluminium-copper alloy. In all cases the resilience diminishes with
increasing temperature, falling sharply in the region 200° to 300° C.
In some few cases there is a decided recovery at about 700° C. Lead
greatly increases the fragility both of brasses and bronzes. — C. H. D.

Resistivity of Gold from 20° to 1500°. — The electrical resistance
of gold has been determined by E. F. Northrup,J using an apparatus
similar to that employed for copper, but of smaller size. The best
proportions for the material of the container • are : magnesite, 45 ;
alundum, 55 parts. The increase of resistivity with temperature of
liquid gold is linear, and with solid gold nearly so, and the ratio of the
resistivities at the melting-point is 1 : 2*28. — C. H. D.

Specific Heat of Alloys. — Certain anomalies have been observed by
O. E,ichter.§ The rule that an element which can exist in several
polymorphic modifications has the greatest specific heat in that state in
which it has the smaller density, has been confirmed without exception.
As the density of alloys frequently does not follow the mixture rule,
their specific heats have been investigated from this point of view. The
alloys of bismuth and tin have densities and specific heats which deviate

* Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 275.
t Comptes Rendus, 1913, vol. clvii. p. 548.
+ Journal of the Franklin histttute, 1914, vol. clxxvii. p. 287.
§ Annalen der Physik, 1913 [iv.], vol. xlii. p. 779.

318 Abstracts of Papers

only slightly from the mixture rule (density being plotted against com-
position by volume), and the deviations are such that the higher specific
heat corresponds with the lower density. With alloys of lead and bis-
muth the density only deviates slightly, but the specific heat deviates
very widely, and in the same direction as the density, contrary to the
above rule. It is found that the temperature of casting influences the
specific heat of these alloys, this being smaller when the cooling is slower.
This is provisionally attributed to the formation, during slow cooling,
of larger molecular aggregates. The presence of a maximum in the
specific heat curve of the alloys of bismuth and lead is attributed to a
possible compound. (There is some confusion in the paper between
compounds and eutectics.)

A further study of such anomalies has been made by E. Dippel,* who
finds that the variation of specific heat with the rate of cooling is con-
nected with a variation of the melting-point. The melting-point of
alloys of lead and bismuth is found to depend on whether the alloy
is overheated before cooling, or is merely raised to a temperature of a
few degrees above the melting-point. [The form of the cooling curves is
such as to indicate a very considerable lag of the thermocouple, the
freezing-point being very indistinctly marked. Also, no analyses have
been made, so that the presence of oxide in the overheated alloys is quite
possible.]

These phenomena are compared with the phenomenon of ageing in the
Heusler magnetic alloys, and are considered to afi'ord a proof of the
formation of molecular complexes. — C. H. D.

Specific Heat of Sodium. — The specific heat of liquid and solid
sodium has been determined very accurately by Ezer Griffiths,")" using
366 grammes of pure metal enclosed in a thin copper sheath. The specific
heat increases in the solid state with the temperature, and in the liquid
state falls more slowly with increasing temperature. The specific heat
in the solid state varies with the previous heat treatment. Slowly cooled
metal is in an " annealed " state, whilst rapidly cooled, or " quenched "
metal gives difi'erent values. Up to 75° the quenched metal has the
higher specific heat, above that the annealed metal gives the higher
values. Both series of determinations are exactly reproducible.

The latent heat of fusion is 27" 1 calories per gramme. — C. H. D.

Surface Films produced in Polishing. — Further evidence for the

amorphous character of the film produced in polishing metals is afforded
by the experiments of G. T. Beilby.J When copper is polished the
minute cavities due to inclusion of gas are sometimes covered over by the
surface film, and are then found to be transparent or translucent, so that
the floor of the cavity may be seen through them. The thin film has a
blue tinge. The paper is illustrated by high-power photographs in
colour.— C. H. D.

♦ Annalen der Physik, 1913 [iv.J, vol. xlii. p. 889.

t Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1914, vol. Ixxxix, A, p. 561. J Ibid., p. 593.

The Properties of Metals and Alloys 319

Viscosity and Density of Fused Metals. — Interesting experi-
ments have been made by 11. Aipi,* using a silica viscosimeter. The
metals are fused in a reducing atmosphere in a graphite crucible, and
then drawn into the viscosimeter by means of a vacuum pumj>. The
whole apparatus is so arranged that a very constant temperature is
maintained throughout its length by electrical heating, a thick copper
tube with windows immediately surrounding the silica tube. The
atmosphere used is hydrogen, except when cadmium and bismuth are
used, when it is necessary to use a mixture of hydrogen and methyl
alchohol vapour.

Comparing together the metals tin, cadmium, mercury, lead, and
bismuth, it is found that the viscosities are all of the same order; so
that at 350° C, for instance, the highest value for lead is only twice the
lowest value, that of mercury. The greater the viscosity (for all these
metals except bismuth) the more rapidly does it decrease with falling
temperature. The viscosity of bismutli falls leas rapidly with the
temperature than that of the remaining metals. At a given temperature
the viscosities are in the same order as the melting-points. Cadmium
and lead have nearly the same melting-point, and lead, with the higher
atomic weight, has the greater viscosity, this being in accordance with the
general rule for organic substances.

The viscosity of the alloys of lead and tin is almo.st exactly an additive
property, the small deviations being in the direction of a smaller viscosity
than that calculated from the mixture rule. With alloys of lead and
bismuth the viscosity is decidedly less than that calculated, and the
temperature-coefficient is also less than that of the pure metals.

By using a silica vessel as a pyknometer, the densities have also been
determined at different temperatures. The density of the liquid alloy is
always somewhat less than that calculated by the mixture rule.

The composition of the alloys is expressed in percentages by volume.
— C. H. D.

Volume changes in Amalgams. — Measurements by J. Wiirsch-
midt,t show that tin amalgams expand considerably on melting. Zinc
amalgams behave somewhat differently. The maximum expansion
occurs, not at the melting-point, but considerably below it, and depends on
the previous thermal history of the amalgam. This is due to a transfor-
mation which occurs slowly in the solid state, accompanied by change of
volume.

Bismuth amalgam, like pure bismuth, contracts on melting, but the
contraction begins considerably below the melting-point. There are two
maxima, one below and one at the melting-point. Bismuth itself does
not exhibit this behaviour. — C. H. D.

* International Journal of Metallography, 1914, vol. v. p. 142.

t Berichte der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft, 1913, vol. xv. p. 1027.

( 320 )

ELECTRO-METALLURGY.

Adhesion of Electrolytically-deposited Metals. — Experiments

on this subject have been made by M. Schlotter.* A small copper block
is soldered with soft solder to the plated surface, and the force is deter-
mined, which suffices to tear the deposited metal from the basis.

The hardness of the basis metal is of importance. Thus nickel adheres
much more firmly to lead than to steel. The influence of other factors
is also discussed generally. — C. H. J).

Duplicating" Phonograph Discs. — A process described by P. M.

Grempe f consists in polishing copper during the process of deposition
by means of an agate burnisher, as in the Elmore process of making
tubes. High current densities may thus be used, and matrices up to 2
millimetres thick are readily prepared. From these copies are made in
the usual way. — C. H. D.

Electrolytic Copper Refining.— Some experiments have been made
by C. W. Bennett and C. O. Brown, J to determine the best method of
working with high current densities. For the laboratory an aluminium
tube lyV inch outside diameter is rotated about a vertical axis, being
geared to a half horse-power motor, so that speeds up to 5500 revolutions
per minute may be obtained. With 70 amperes per square decimetre,
125 grammes of copper may be deposited in an hour and a half. This
is enough to test the refining process. With cast anodes containing 1
per cent, of silver, silver is found in the deposit unless cloth diaphragms
are used. With an anode containing 91 per cent, of copper and about
1 per cent, each of silver, lead, iron, nickel, bismuth, arsenic, zinc, and
carbon, the deposit is up to the standard of average electrolytic copper.
The cathode deposit is readily stripped oft' the aluminium. — C. H. D.

Electro-metallurgy of Zinc- — In a general discussion of present-
day metallurgical problems, D. A. Lyon § refers to the electric smelting
of zinc ores. The subject is discussed under two heads : —

(1) The zinc is extracted by the reduction of the ore (calcined, if
necessary) with carbon and carbon monoxide.

The reactions taking place in the electric furnace are in this case
identical with those which take place when the old retort smelting

* Chemiker-Zeitung, 1914, vol. xxxviii. p. 289.

t Elektrochemische Zeitschrift, 1914, vol. xx. p. 353.

:J: Journal of Physical Chemistry, 1913, vol. xvii. p. 685.

§ Joiirnal of the Franklin Institute, 1914, vol. clxxvii. p. 216.

Electro- Metallurgy 321

furnace is employed, but the electric furnace possesses the advantages of
being continuous working and having a greater thermal eflBciency.

It is stated that in the electric furnace process the reduction seems to
take place more rapidly than in retort smelting, but the reaction

C02 + C=2CO

does not seem to occur to such an extent in the electric furnace as in the
retort. Hence the electric furnace contains an atmosphere comparatively
richer in carbon dioxide, so that a larger amount of " blue powder "
(slightly oxidized zinc deposit) is formed than when the retort furnace is
employed.

(2) Extraction is eflfected by employing iron to sulphurize the blende
of the ore.

Here again the deposited zinc powder is often found to be oxidized.

The metallurgical problem requiring solution in connection with this
particular subject is stated as the discovery of some means of avoiding
oxidation of the zinc deposits as formed under the conditions prevailing
in electric smelting practice. — D. E.

Growth of Electro-chemical Industries. — A general review of
this subject is given by H. Gall,* in a presidential address to the Society
of Civil Engineers of France. — C. H. D.

* Journal du Four Electrique.l^lA, vol. xxiii. pp. 601, 631.

( 322 )

ANALYSIS AND TESTING.

CONTENTS.

PAOE

I. Analysis 322

II. Testing . . . 326

I.— ANALYSIS.

Aluminium Analysis. — A course of operations for the analysis of
the commercial metal is described by H. P. Bhattacharyya.* Iron and
copper are estimated gravimetrically. For the aluminium, the solution,
after removal of silica and copper, is mixed with sodium phosphate.
Ammonia is then added until a precipitate appears, and this is just re-
dissolved with hydrochloric acid. It is then boiled, and an excess of
sodium thiosulphate is added. After boiling off all sulphur dioxide, the
precipitate is collected and weighed as AlPO^. The filtrate is made
ammoniacal and boiled until neutral. This precipitates zinc phosphate.
Sodium is estimated as chloride, and carbon by wet combustion after
treatment with sodium copper chloride. — C. H. D.

Atomic and Weight Percentages. — It is pointed out by E.
Janecke f that he has previously described the graphical method of
converting atomic percentages into percentages by weight and vice versa,
lately published by von Pirani. The construction may be applied also
to ternary systems.

In a short note, M. von Pirani ;j: admits Janecke's priority. — C. H. D.

Calibration Tables for Thermocouples. — Calibration tables are
given by L. H. Adams § for copper-constantan and platinum-platinum-
rhodium couples. The temperature and temperature-difference are given
for every 100 microvolts. An actual couple may be used with these
tables after calibration at three or more temperatures and construction
of a deviation curve. — C. H. D.

* Chemical News, 1914, vol. cix. p. 38.

t International Journal of Metallography , 1913, vol. v. p. 61. ■% Ibid., p. 64.

§ Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1914, vol. xxxvi. p. 65.

Analysis and Testing 323

Colorimetric Estimation of Nickel. — Potassium thiocarbonate is
recommended by V. Lindt * as a reagent for nickel. In alloys, copper
and lead should be first removed by hydrogen sulphide, and iron by
ammonia. The solution may still contain zinc. The solution is made
ammoniacal, and made up to 20 cubic centimetres. Then 0"5 cubic
centimetre of a 4 per cent, solution of potassium thiocarbonate is added,
and the colour is compared with a standard. The best concentration of
the nickel is from 0"102 to 0*017 milligramme per cubic centimetre.
The method is rapid and cheap. — C. H. D.

Commercial Nickel. — L. Bertiaux t recommends dissolving in a
mixture of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, adding an excess of ammonia,
and depositing nickel, cobalt, and copper together electrolytically. The
deposit is then dissolved in nitric acid, the copper estimated electrolytic-
ally, the cobalt as cobaltinitrite, and the nickel electrolytically. Iron,
manganese, aluminium, calcium, and magnesium may be estimated in
the liquid from the first deposit. Silica and sulphur are estimated in
a separate sample, arsenic and antimony by distillation, and carbon by
combustion. — C. H. D.

Deposition of Lead on the Cathode.— It is shown by R. Garten-
meister.J that the deposition of lead on the anode may be avoided and
quantitative cathodic deposition obtained by adding gallic acid. With
lead up to 1 gramme, 2 to 2 '5 cubic centimetres of concentrated nitric acid
are used, with 5 grammes of gallic acid, 5 to 6 cubic centimetres of alcohol,
diluted to 125 cubic centimetres. A platinum foil anode and platinum
gauze cathode are used, without rotation. With a current of 1*2 amperes,
four hours at 65° to 70° C. are required. Copper is depo.sited with lead,
and arsenic, tin, and antimony make the deposits rough, but most other
metals do not interfere.

Alloys of lead, tin, and antimony may be analysed by separating the
lead with sodium sulphide, washing first with sodium sulphide, and then
with ammoniacal ammonium chloride, and sulphide, dissolving in nitric
acid, evaporating to dryness, again dissolving in nitric acid, and electro-
lyzing as above. — C. H. D.

Electrolytic Analysis of White Metals, with Tin Basis.— A

rapid and accurate method is described by I. Compagno.§ One gramme
of the alloy is covered with 20 cubic centimetres of nitric acid (D. 1-4),
and after standing several hours is heated for thirty minutes on the
water-bath. The tin and antimony oxides thus obtained contain only
a little copper. Copper and the small quantities of lead are estimated
electrolytically in the filtrate. The precipitate is dissolved in sodium
hydroxide and sodium sulphide and electrolyzed. Any copper deposited

* Zeitschrift fur analytische Chemie, 1914, vol. liii. p. 165.

t AnnaUs de Chimie a?ialyiique, 1913, vol. xviii. p. 377.

X Chemiker-Zeitung , 1913, vol. xxxvii. p. 1281.

§ Atti Reale Accademia dti Lined, 1913 (v.), vol. xxii. (ii.), p. 221.

324 Abstracts of Papers

with the antimony is estimated by a special method, depending on the
precipitation of cuprous oxide.

The liquid from the antimony deposit is heated, and treated cautiously
with 120 cubic centimetres of hydrochloric acid. Boiling is continued
until the precipitate of tin sulphide is redissolved, and after concentration
a little hydrogen peroxide is added, followed by 20 grammes of oxalic
acid. The tin is then deposited from the warm solution on a rotating
cathode.— C. H. D.

Fine-meshed Brass Gauze as a Substitute for Platinum in
Electro-analysis. — Some results in the electrolytic determination of
copper, nickel, and zinc, in which fine-meshed brass gauze, copper coated,
is used as cathode in place of platinum, are given by D. F. Calhane and
T. C. Wheaton.*

Brass gauze 100 mesh to the inch was chosen because it is obtain-
able in finer mesh than copper and it is also tougher. In making the
cathode the gauze is cut into pieces 5J inches long and 3| inches wide.
The longer edges are lapped over and hammered down. The shorter
edges are bent over a 12-inch loop of No. 22 copper wire and tlie ends
of the wire twisted together, thus forming a cylinder weighing about
12 grammes. For use with ammoniacal solutions, that portion of the
copper wire stem in the neighbourhood of the surface of the electrolyte
which would be attacked by ammoniacal fumes, must be replaced by
platinum. Two pieces of platinum wire 3 inches long are attached to
the gauze and twisted together, their other ends being joined to the copper
wire stem. A thin coating of copper is plated on the gauze before use.
Using the cathode described above, it was found that with strong
currents and no rotation the heat and gas evolution stirred the solution
very adequately, and that the time factor for the brass gauze with still
electrolyte was very nearly as good as for platinum gauze with magnetic
stirring. In the determination of copper in German silver in the
presence of sulphuric and nitric acids, using a platinum wire spiral as
anode, it was found possible to deposit completely between 0*3 and 0'4
gramme copper in 45 to 50 minutes, using a current of 5 amperes for
seven minutes and 1 ampere for forty minutes.

Bright, firmly adherent deposits of nickel were obtained from am-
moniacal solutions using current up to 4 amperes. Thirty determina-
tions of zinc were carried out from sodium zincate solutions prepared as
follows : The sample was dissolved in dilute nitric acid and the solution
evaporated to dryness. The dish was then heated over an iron plate
with 4 cubic centimetres sulphuric acid (s.g. 184), leaving the zinc finally
as sulphate. The residue was moistened with a little sulphuric acid and
taken up in 25 cubic centimetres of water. A 3 per cent, excess of
caustic soda, over and above that required for the conversion of all the
zinc present into sodium zincate, was then added in the form of a solution
two to three times normal strength. The gauze cathode and spiral anode
were placed in a dry beaker, and all connections made for the flow of

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering , 1914, vol. xii. (No. 2), pp. 87-89.

Analysis and Testing

325

current. The hot solution of sodium zincate was then poured into the
beaker, the current starting to flow immediately.

A temperature of 60° C, with a current of 4 amperes for the first five
minutes and 1 ampere for the rest of the time, was employed. Under
the above conditions 0"3 gramme zinc was deposited in about forty
minutes. The deposits were light-coloured, non-crystalline, and firmly
adherent. The following results are given, using zinc sulphate : —

Weight of

Weight of Zinc

Percentage of

Remarks.

ZnSo^JHaO.

Deposited.

Zinc Found.

Grammes.

11626

0-2768

23-817

No stirring.

10449

0-2488

23-81

Magnetic stirring.

10394

0-2476

23-82

>• ..

11429

0-2720

23-80

*» 11

11429

0-2720

23-80

No stirring.

— S. L. A.

German Silver Analysis. — The process recommended by C. Lind *
consists in estimating the copper electrolytically in nitric acid solution,
neutralizing the liquid with ammonia, acidifying with two drops of
dilute nitric acid, and saturating -with hydrogen sulphide. The zinc
sulphide is washed with ammonium chloride, dissolved in dilute sulphuric
acid and made strongly alkaline with potassium hydroxide. The zinc is
then deposited electrolytically on a gauze electrode freshly coated with
copper. With 4 volts and 0*8 to 1 ampere, O'l gramme of zinc is deposited
in an hour. Nickel is estimated in the solution by precipitation with
dimethylglyoxime. — C. H. D.

Micro-chemical Recognition of Aluminium. — Material suspected
to contain aluminium, according to F. Rathgen,t is heated in a platinum
crucible with solid ammonium fluoride and a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid. After evaporating to dryness, the crucible is momentarily
heated to redness. After detaching the solid and examining under the
microscope, aluminium is recognized by the small hexagons, colourless or
faintly coloured, of alumina. — C. H. D.

Palladium Estimation. — Palladium may be estimated in presence
of small quantities of copper and iron, according to M. Wunder and
V. ThUringen,J by adding a hot solution of a-nitroso-^-naphthol to the
boiling solution containing much hydrochloric and acetic acid. The
precipitate is collected, washed with hot 5 per cent, hydrochloric acid
and then with hot water, ignited, first in air and then in hydrogen, and
cooled in carbon dioxide. — C. H. D.

* Chemiker-Zeitung, 1913, vol. xxxvii. p. 1.372.

t Zeitschrift fiir analytische Chemie, 1913, vol. liii. p. 33.

+ Ibid., vol. lii. p. 737.

326 Abstracts of Papers

II.— TESTING.

Hardness Testing. — The construction and method of use of the
Martens Hardness Tester, accompanied by diagrams and results obtained
with various metals, are described by an anonymous correspondent.*

Hardness may be defined as the resistance to any permanent deforma-
tion. Its relative magnitude is of great importance. Among recent
suggestions for determining hardness that of Martens has the great
advantage of simplicity.

Like Brinell, Martens uses a hard steel ball, but measures depth of
impression instead of diameter, as a basis for the necessary calculations.
The specimen is forced by a measured hydraulic pressure, vertically up
against the steel ball, which is held magnetically in a socket fixed in a
cross-member immediately over the test-piece. Three pins or feelers,
capable of free up-and-down movement, are symmetrically arranged
round the ball in this socket. During the test the lower ends of these
feelers are in contact with the surface of the specimen and the upper
ends with a freely moving piston. Over this piston is a well of mercury
communicating with a capillary attached to a graduated and calibrated
scale. The depth to which the ball is forced into the specimen is
measured by means of the upward movement of the three feelers, which
is communicated through the piston to tlie mercury, causing it to rise in
the capillary. The height above zero of the mercury in the capillary is
a measure of the depth of the impression.

The scale is divided into g^g^oth of a millimetre, each division being
sufficiently large to allow of estimating to the nearest y^cnr^^ ^^ ^
millimetre depth of impression. The necessary pressure is produced by
the ordinary town supply, and is recorded on a gauge divided into .300
degrees, each degree corresponding to 8*33 kilos, or a total pressure of
2500 kilos.

In making a test the pressure is gradually increased by definite
amounts to the required maximum, and corresponding readings of pres-
sure and mercury-level noted. The same procedure is gone through
whilst the pressure is gradually released. A curve is then drawn con-
necting depth of indentation and load. The curves show the same
characteristic feature, viz. a maximum and a permanent indentation for
a certain maximum pressure. The partial recovery of the material
indicated by the difference between the permanent and the maximum
indentation is to be ascribed to the elasticity of the specimen, steel ball,
and apparatus. In the necessary calculation the permanent indentation
is the value which is of importance. In testing soft metals the mercury
column will continue to rise, although the pressure remains constant.
This fatigue effect can be made negligible by keeping the pressure
indentations correspondingly low. Martens, in advocating a definite
indentation base for comparing the hardness of materials, chose 0*05
millimetre as a convenient indentation, so as to eliminate this fatigue
eflfect in "the case of soft materials. In the course of experiment it was

* Engineer, 1914, vol. cxvii. pp. 281-283.

Analysis and Testing 327

found that the relation of total pressure to depth of impression was not
a direct one until a pressure P was reached, at which point

T= 032? + 3-5,
where T = compressive stress in tons per square inch

and P = the pressure in pounds as found in the curve.

This point is being further investigated. — S. L. A.

Testing of Metals- — In the first of two articles the present situa-
tion and modern tendencies in the testing of metals is reviewed by W.
Rosenhain.*

In his opening address to the Sixth Congress of the International
Testing Association at New York in 1913, H. M. Howe said that the art
of testing would only reach its final development when it became
possible to test the whole of the material to be used, not only before
taking it into use, but in the finished structure, so that its condition
could be watched over and the onset of any danger recognized in ample
time.

The primary object of all testing is to secure that the materials used
in construction shall be of " satisfactory " quality, but it is upon the
manner of specifying what shall be regarded as satisfactory that the
controversy always centres. The development of newer and more
searching methods of examining materials, which is apparently so much
dreaded by the less progressive manufacturer, is in reality the best
friend of their industry, since it tends to open up for it newer and wider
fields of application. General considerations lead to the very definite
conclusion that in the testing of materials we should follow the method
adopted with success in every form of experimental science, viz. the
isolation of a series of separate factors, the others being temporarily
eliminated, which means that we must determine as many of the simple
physical constants of materials as possible, and then endeavour to
correlate these and their various combinations with the behaviour of the
materials in practice. The tensile test approaches fairly closely to the
ideal advocated, "one test, one property," and it is for this reason that it
yields concordant results almost entirely independent of type of testing
machine and, when allowances are made for certain dimensional effects,
of size or shape of specimen. Within wide limits even rate of test-
ing scarcely affects results. In examining the numerous other forms of
mechanical test which have been applied in recent years, the question to
be asked in each case is : How nearly does this test approach to the
ideal of determining a single well-defined property of the material?
Properties ordinarily described as "strength," "toughness," "hardness,"
&c., are aU more or less complex, and much further research is required
to determine what really are true " fundamental " properties of our
materials. The ordinary commercial tensile test neglects some of the
most valuable data obtainable from this form of experiment. By the
determination of the elastic limit and elastic modulus definite physical
constants are measured, and correlation of these with service results

* Engineer, 1914, vol. cxvii. pp. 309-310.

328 A bs tracts of Papers

would, certainly lead to the application of these tests for practical pur-
poses. Thus a number of materials which had failed in service were
found to give very satisfactory results so far as the ordinary commercial
tensile properties were concerned, but in each case an exceptionally low
elastic limit showed that the material was abnormal, which abnormality
was finally traced to its source in the microstructure of the material and
the treatment it had received.

Next to the tension test the property most utilized for testing pur-
jjoses is that of hardness. Two types of hardness tests are in general
use, viz. static impression either by means of a loaded ball (Brinell) or
a loaded cone (Ludwik), and the striking of the surface of the specimen
by a falling body whose height of rebound is measured. The rebound
type of test must be classed as " complex," such factors as surface
condition, elasticity, kc, besides "strength" or "hardness" enter into
the results, which are not directly proportional to any one fundamental
property of the metal. This form of test must therefore be considered
as undesirable from the point of view of simplicity. The static im-
pression test appears to depend upon fewer and simpler factors. The
elastic properties of the material are almost entirely eliminated, the pro-
perties chiefly concerned being " strength " and " ductility." — S. L. A.

( 329 )

FURNACES AND FOUNDRY METHODS.

Durability of Lime-sand Brick.— Tests on the suitability of
silica-lime building brick as a material for furnace construction are
described by E. Damour.*

The material employed in the tests was a brick containing 78 per cent,
of silica and 14 per cent, of lime, the balance being carbon dioxide and
moisture. Small test bricks of this material were moulded and baked,
and their loss of weight and resistance to crushing stress were measured
after heating for two hours at constant temperatures, the range of
temperature covered by the tests being from 50° C. to 1000° C.

Measurements of loss of weight indicate that dehydration of the lime
in the brick is complete at about 550° C. Resistance to crushing forces
was found to be only slightly affected by temperature up to 500° C.
From 500° to 800° C. the strength decreases uniformly with rise in
temperature, and at still higher temperatures cohesion is completely
destroyed.

Experiments on deterioration, due to furnace gases, are also described,
samples being exposed to the fumes in the furnace for periods of from
two to sixty hours at temperatures of 300° or 400° C, the eflFect of such
treatment on the test-pieces being again investigated by measurements
of loss of weight and resistance to crushing.

It was found that, in all cases where the initial densities of the
samples varied slightly, the best results were obtained with bricks of the
higher densities. The deleterious effect of the furnace gases on the speci-
mens is very clearly indicated, and is ascribed to the reaction of carbon
dioxide with the lime in the brick: The experimental results of the tests
are given in tabular form.

The author concludes that such material is quite unsuited for furnace
and chimney construction, although statements to the contrary are not
lacking. — D. E.

Electric Brass-melting Furnaces.— Particulars are given by
G. H. Clamer t of recent progress in the application of the Hering
electric furnace to the melting of metals and alloys. The furnace is of
the resistance type, the heating current passing directly through the
metal to be melted.

* Revue de Mitallurgie, 1914, No. 2, p. 203.
+ Metal Industry, 1914, vol. vi. p. 105.

330

Abstracts of Papers

It is stated that the construction of the hearth, which carries the
electrodes at the end of cylindrical holes, is such that the " pinch " effect
which occurs when the current is passing serves to set up a very thorough
circulation of the liquid metal, ensuring the even heating of the charge.
A bath of the melted alloy is left on the hearth after pouring the furnace,
and fresh cold metal is melted by immersion in this bath. Except when
thus adding fresh metal, the furnace is kept closed, so that loss by oxida-
tion is largely avoided, whilst a neutral or reducing atmosphere can be
maintained in the furnace if desired.

Experiments with small furnaces of 25 to 30 kilowatt capacity have
shown that yellow brass can be melted and superheated at the rate of
about 87 lb. per kilowatt-hour. It is estimated that, with careful
control, the cost of brass melting in this furnace should be about five-
pence per 100 lb. of alloy, and it is stated that zinc losses are practically
nil, there being an almost entire absence of white fume when melting
down.

The furnace has also been successfully used for melting lead, iron,
ferro-silicon, and even copper, in spite of the high conductivity of the
last-named metal, the dimensions of the cylindrical heating holes in the
hearth being modified according to the temperature required and the
resistivity of the melt. — D. E.

Electric Furnaces. — Design, Characteristics, and Com-
mercial Applications. — The design, characteristics, and application
of electric furnaces are dealt with in a series of articles by W. M'A.
Johnson and G. N. Sieger.* Considering first the electrodes, a much
better principle of electrode design than that of current density is to
keep the radiation surface constant per unit of current. The condition
for minimum electrode loss is that when the temperature of the elec-
trode is equal to that of the interior of the furnace, the electrode will
abstract no heat from the furnace. Acheson graphite, moulded carbon
and metals, such as copper or steel, are used as electrode material.

Safe Carrying

Electrical

Thermal

Capacity in

Resistivity.

Amperes per

Square Inch.

c.g.s.

Acheson graphite .

0-000813

618

125

Moulded carbon .

0-0038

61-8

Steel or iron ....

0-00000965

6-25

170

Copper

0-00000165

1-22

1000

Steel or copper electrodes are rarely used, save for the bottom electrode
of a furnace having a bath of metal. They must be water-cooled.

Moulded carbon electrodes are made by mixing crushed petroleum coke

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1913, vol. xi. (No. 10), pp. 563-7; 1913*
vol. xi. (No. 11), pp. 643-8; 1913, vol. xi. (No. 12), pp. 683-6.

Furnaces and Foundry Methods 331

or anthracite slack, with tar as a binder, pouring, moulding, or extruding
the hot mixture into the desired form and slowly heating to a white heat,
whilst covered with sand to prevent oxidation.

Graphite electrodes are made by the Acheson process of subjecting
moulded amorphous-carbon electrodes to a temperature of 2300° to
2500° C, sufl&cient to graphitize the carbon, in an electric furnace. The
moulded electrodes are about one-third the price of the Acheson graphite.
There is no great difference in resistance to oxidation between the two.
The heat conductivity of the latter being higher, they are more resistant
to sudden changes in temperature ; they also machine better and are
more likely to be free from hidden flaws. The best method of jointing
round electrodes is by means of a cylindrical threaded plug screwed equal
distances into each electrode. A number of small electrodes is better in
a smelting furnace than one or two large ones. Electrode loss by oxida-
tion in the case of moulded carbon and Acheson graphite is rarely more
than 30 lb. per ton of primary raw material, and is often less than 10 lb.
In the Siemens type of steel furnace the loss is often less than 25 lb. per
ton of finished steel. Stub-end loss can be eliminated by using round
electrodes jointed as above, which can be continuously fed in as required.
For regular operation the stuffing boxes had best be built of special
shape fire-brick or water-cooled metal (copper 95, zinc 4, tin 1 per cent.,
is recommended). A gas-tight joint is made by winding ^-inch to ^-inch
asbestos rope about the electrode. Water-cooled bronze terminal connec-
tions (copper 85, zinc 5, tin 5 per cent.), with copper gauze between the
terminal and the electrode, the whole clamped on and tightened by means
of wedges, is recommended. Over-designing, from 5 to 10 amperes per
square inch of contact surface, is advised.

Practice as regards tap-holes and stopping flow of slag is dealt with.
Methods of construction of furnaces consisting of a refractory lining sur-
rounded by brickwork, the whole bound together with iron stays, are
considered in some detail and illustrated with sectional drawings. Prob-
ably the simplest way to allow for the expansion of the fire-brick struc-
ture on heating is by means of compression springs acting at the ends or
in the middle of the iron tension members. Refractory materials are
dealt with. The one in most general use, viz. ordinary fire-brick, consists
essentially of silicate of alumina. Shapes and sizes are given. Magnesia,
chrome, and silica brick, respectively basic, neutral and acid in character
are more expensive, but give better results where high temperatures and
special conditions are to be met. All have high coefficients of expansion.
The linear expansion of fire-brick and of magnesia brick on heating to
just over 1900° F. is O'l inch and 0-2 inch per foot respectively. The
method of laying the brickwork is discussed. The manner of breaking
joints in an arch, of covering over a flue on a small furnace without the
use of an arch, and of laying a " Dutch arch," simple and cheap for
spans up to 30 to 40 inches or even larger, is illustrated with sectional
drawings. Water-cooling of the furnace walls is considered.

The character of building required for electric furnace work is dis-
cussed. Protection against fire is very necessary. Requisite foundations
for furnaces of varying size and weight are given, accompanied by draw-

332 Abstracts of Papers

ings. With regard to power facilities, these should have 20 per cent,
capacity in excess of the normal rating of the furnace. Voltage regula-
tion is important. A 100,000-volt modern porcelain insulator would
break down at 25 volts at 1400° C, and with such notable changes from
perfect insulators to comparatively good conductors with change of
temperature of the furnace, it is evident that voltage must be under
good control. Voltage may be kept constant by automatic movement
of the electrode up or down by a relay-controlled motor as in modern
electric steel furnaces. When no such internal regulation is used external
regulation must be arranged. Means of doing this are described.

Details of construction of some water-rheostats are given.

The cheapest way to convey current is by bus-bars bolted or clamped
together. These bus-bars will carry at least 25 per cent, more than the
same amount of copper in a bare cable. Connection to the electrodes is,
of course, made by flexible cable suitably clamped on, A special cable
for this, with core of abestos rope and having almost perfect properties
and characteristics, is made by the General Electric Company. — S. L. A.

Electrical Resistivity of Refractory Materials.— A method for
determining the electrical resistivity of refractory materials, particularly at
high temperatures, has been devised and is described by E. F. Northrup.*
Results are given for alundum. That these measurements have not been
made before is probably due to the fact that without special devices the
difiiculties in the way of making the measurements are insuperable. The
method devised is easily applied and gives concordant results.

The refractory material is moulded into three thin rectangular plates,
in the case of alundum 3'4 centimetres wide by 4-8 centimetres long by 0*25
centimetre thick. These are placed side by side and separated from one
another by two graphite slabs of length and width equal to those of the
plates of refractory material, but of greater thickness — in this instance
0'8 centimetre. The whole is clamped centrally between two other
graphite slabs of width and thickness equal to the two above mentioned,
but of considerably greater length — in the present instance at least 25
centimetres. The clamping is effected by means of graphite screws
passing between the long plates at their ends.

Electrical connection is made to each of the two short graphite slabs
by means of leads of molybdenum wire 2 millimetres diameter, and
screwed graphite plugs. The whole arrangement thus described is then
inserted into a vertical tube-furnace and heated in an atmosphere of
carbon monoxide. The furnace used in this instance was one specially
designed by E. F. Northrup for the purpose.! The two molybdenum
terminal wires passed up through a cylindrical cover-piece of baked lavite
which tightly closed the top of the furnace.

Temperatures were measured by a Pt-PtRd couple enclosed in a Berlin
porcelain jacket. Athough quite viscous at 1600° C, a casing of Berlin
porcelain proves quite satisfactory, provided it does not come into contact
with anything in the furnace.

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 2), pp. 125-8.
t See p. 333.

Furnaces and Foundry Methods 333

As was expected, it was found impossible to make measurements of
any accuracy using direct current, owing to the development of a back
electromotive force, probably due to electrolysis of the refractory material.
Kesults were obtained with ease and certainty, however, by using an
electro-dynamometer method with alternating current.

Results for alundum, given in the form of a curve, show that whereas
the resistivity is as high as 9 x 10^ ohms at 20° C, it is as low as 190
ohms at 1600° C. The curve shows a point of inflection at 1100° C.
— S. L. A.

High Temperature Electric Furnace for Temperatures up to

1700° to 1800° C. — A laboratory electric tube furnace for temperatures
up to 1700° to 1800° C. of the carbon resistor type has been designed
by E. F. Northrup,* who gives general particulars of its construction
and capabilities.

The vertical tubular space available for heating purposes is 1 2 inches
long by If inches diameter. The heater is a graphite tube resistor, cut
in a special manner and mounted in a moulded refractory material sur-
rounded by what amounts to a hermetically sealed casing of polished
Monel metal, forming the outer walls of the furnace, the internal dimen-
sions of which are 18 J inches high by 13 inches diameter. The graphite
heater-tube is protected from oxidation by an atmosphere of carbon
monoxide developed from graphite which is not a part of the resistor.
The two terminals of graphite project from the upper end of the tube at
one side, and are covered with metal caps. They give no trouble and
have a life longer than the heating unit itself. The refractory materials
withstand a temperature of over 1800° C. and give at the same time the
highest possible thermal insulation.

The furnace, which will operate on either direct or alternating current,
is designed to work with a transformer of 4 kilowatt capacity and calls
for a maximum of 170 amperes at 23 volts. The regulation of tem-
perature is accomplished by the kilowatt input controlled by varying the
number of turns in circuit on the primary of the transformer.

Electric furnaces may be constructed with little heat insulation, and
a very high temperature be attained quickly with large power input,
or they may have a large amount of heat insulation and the same high
temperature be attained by the input of a small amount of energy con-
tinued over a long time. This furnace is of the latter type and heats
and cools very slowly. With an input of 4 kilowatts platinum is melted
in about 170 minutes. With 3 kilowatts copper is melted in about one
hour, and nickel in 125 minutes. 1'6 kilowatts give a final temperature
of 1260° C. and 2 kilowatts will finally melt nickel (1450° C). The
out.side of the furnace never exceeds 200° C when the interior is at the
temperature of melting platinum.

The various parts of the furnace are all standard in size and easily
and quickly interchangeable. At a conservative estimate the graphite
resistor tubes may be heated to 1500° C. at least 40 to 50 times.

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 1), pp. 31-3.

334 Abstracts of Papers

The furnace may be obtained through the Arthur H. Thomas Company
of Philadelphia. — S. L. A.

History of Electric Furnaces. — A short summary of the history

of the development of electric furnaces, accompanied by diagrammatic
sketches, is given. by W. M'A. Johnson and G. N. Sieger.* Prior to
the practicalization of the dynamo by Edison, Siemens, and others, little
could be attained by means of electric furnaces owing to the difficulty
of obtaining sufficient power from primary batteries. Previous to 1876,
therefore, we find little accomplished save of purely scientific interest.
Davy in 1800 built a small "arc" furnace, and Henry at Princeton
College had an electric furnace that was more than a scientific toy. Pepys
in 1815 made some experiments. In 1849 Depretz made the original
furnace of the "resistance" type. Edison in 1881 first exhibited the
electric dynamo and motor. With the advent of the dynamo the practical
stage of the electric furnace began.

In 1878 Siemens exhibited to the Royal Society of London a vertical
** arc " furnace, the prototype of the Heroult steel-refining furnace, in
which he melted several pounds of steel and boiled off several pounds
of copper. He also exhibited a horizontal " arc " furnace. Following
on these came the Heroult-Hall electrolytic furnace for production of
aluminium, the Wilson carbide furnace, and then the slag- resistance or
buried-arc type, in such common use in the manufacture of ferro-alloys.

In 1883 E. H. and A. H. Cowles developed the "resistance" type of
furnace, in which a core of carbonaceous material in the charge itself
carries the current in a horizontal direction. Their attempt to smelt
copper-zinc ores by this method was, however, commercially unsuccessful.
Moissan in 1890 performed his spectacular experiments in an arc furnace
in which he concentrated upwards of 200 horse-power in a space of less
than a cubic foot.

About this time the industrial limits of the electric furnace became
recognized, and it was realized that electric heat could only be used for
such purposes as its innate advantages gave it a metallurgical monopoly,
as, for example, in the^ production of aluminium, where by its combined
heating and electrolytic effect a metal originally selling for 5 dollars was
reduced to a price of 50 cents per pound. Such useful products as
calcium carbide, artificial graphite, and carborundum, need electric
furnace temperatures for their manufacture. The harnessing of water
power gave a large supply of energy and led to development of hydro-
electric plants. In 1905 the production of ferro-silicon in the electric
furnace became an important industrial success. Ferro- vanadium, chrome,
molybdenum, and titanium followed. About this time the production of
fine tool-steel in the electric furnace came into engineering prominence.
The genius of Heroult developed the combined process of partial refining
by fire processes with subsequent electric furnace treatment. There are
few businesses which offer so great a profit with so little risk as does the
manufacture of steel castings from cheap preheated scrap in the electric
furnace. — S. L. A.

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 1), pp. 41-3.

Furnaces and Foundry Methods 335

Improved Tammann Furnace. — The well-known Tammann labor-
atory furnace has been modified by U. Raydt,* who uses copper blocks
in place of the former carbon and iron contact pieces. These blocks are
perforated, and a stream of water is passed through them. The life of
the carbon tube is greatly increased by this change. — C. H. D.

Melting-points of Refractory Oxides. — In a preliminary article,
C. W. Kanolt f describes experiments to determine the melting-points of
some refractory oxides by a heating-curve method. Temperatures were
measured by a Morse optical pyrometer.

Some difficulty was encountered on account of the production of fumes,
which caused the optical pyrometer to read too low. This was obviated
by working in a high vacuum, or (in the case of lime and magnesia) in
an atmosphere of inert gas.

Contamination of the test by the material used as a support was
overcome by employing either graphite or tungsten supports according
to circumstances, or by forming the material to be tested into a tube
one end of which was supported in the colder end of the furnace.

Melting-point.

Magnesia 2800° C.

Lime 2572° C.

Alumina 20.50° C.

Chromium oxide 1990° C.

The melting-points of four oxides was found as above, the probable
errors in temperature being not more than±0"3 per cent. — D. E.

New Type of Electric Furnace. — A new type of electric furnace
for the reduction of ores is described by F. Louvrier.J The furnace is
characterized by the use of electrodes which are practically fixed, and
the regulation of temperature is accomplished by simple manipulation
of switches, by means of which the number of electrodes in circuit or
the position which they occupy towards one another can be varied.

The furnace proper consists of three principal parts, the shaft wherein
the progressive heating of the charge takes place, the bosh which is the
zone of reduction, and the crucible where the molten metal collects. The
bottom of the furnace is conducting and connected to one of the phases
of the current. A series of openings are horizontally disposed at various
heights in the two opposite walls of the bosh, and through each of these
openings passes a well-fitting electrode. These electrodes form two
symmetric series opposite to each other. Each series corresponds to a
phase of the current, and each electrode in the series can be connected
with its corresponding phase by means of a switch. The electrodes are
pushed through the openings into the furnace, so that they touch the
charge without being immersed in it. The current passes through the
charge between the two series of lateral electrodes, and between these

* Zeitschriftfiir Elektrochemie, 1914, vol. xx. p. 185.

+ Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. clxxvi. p. 587.

% Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1913, vol. xi. (No. 12), pp. 711-13.

336 Abstracts of Papers

and the bottom electrode. The furnace is arranged in the same manner
for use with single phase or continuous current.

The furnace has the advantages of simplicity of construction, ease
of regulation, and uniformity of temperature, possibility of using high
voltages (350 to 400 volts in large furnaces), and low electrode consump-
tion. Details of construction and operation in the case of the smelting
of iron, copper, lead, and zinc, together with sectional diagrams of the
furnace are given.— S. L. A.

Refractories — Kieselguhr. — The mode of occurrence, nature, and
properties of Kieselguhr are summarized by P. A. Boeck.* Some of the
almost endless applications and uses of this material have long been
known. The Greeks and Romans made the so-called " swimming brick,"
and the Emperor Justinian in a.d. 522 ordered the dome of the Hagia
Sophia to be built of brick made of this material to lighten the weight
of the structure.

Kieselguhr, a natural mineral, is formed by the accumulation of count-
less myriads of the siliceous shells or casings of diatoms, one of the
groups of fiowerless aquatic plants which occur almost universally in all
waters from arctic to torrid. These diatoms vary in size from that of
a pin's head to such a minute size as only to be revealed by the highest
powers of the microscope. The valves or shells are in many instances
elaborately carved and ornamented with the most intricate and delicate
designs of marvellous variety. Literally mountains of this siliceous
material are found in California of a high degree of purity, containing
up to 95 per cent, of silica. The material is the most effective inorganic
thermal insulator known, which property has led to its extensive use for
this purpose in the form of loose powder, solid natural blocks, burned
insulating brick and tile, pipe covering, &c., for both high temperatures
in furnaces, ovens, &c., and for low temperatures. The thermal conduc-
tivity at 800° C. varies from 0-000315 gramme-calorie-second in the
natural dried block to 0-000791 in the burned fire-brick. The fineness,
together with the angularity, weakness, and low compressive strength
of the skeletons of the diatoms, produce a material unsurpassed for
polishing and burnishing objects without danger of scratching the surface
of the softest metal. The melting-point of natural powdered Kieselguhr
has been reported by the Bureau of Standards to be 1610° C, indicating
its high refractory nature. Kieselguhr fire-brick is acid, highly refrac-
tory, and a better insulator than any fire-brick now on the market. It
is used for building and lining high-temperature furnaces, kilns, &c.
The apparent density is 1-00. The Bureau of Standards reports the
melting-point to be 1650° C. The crushing strength is approximately
1200 lb. per square inch. — S. L. A.

Refractory Cement. — It is stated t that a refractory furnace lining
may be made from asbestos and water glass (sodium silicate) as below :

Fine asbestos 4 parts.

Water glass 6 ,,

* Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 2), pp. 109-13.
t Brass World, 1913, vol. ix. p. 360.

Furnaces and Foundry Methods 337

The ingredients are mixed with water tQ form a paste, which is said
to be superior to clay mixtures for patching and filling cracks. — D. E.

Test-bars for Non-ferrous Alloys. — Further experiments * on
the most suitable castings for mechanical test-bars of alloys are described
by V. Skillman.f

After a discussion of the relative merits of sand-cast test-bars attached
to the work, and of chill castings poured in a separate metal mould, it
is indicated that the adoption of chill cast test-bars is to be preferred,
since more consistent results are obtained with chill cast bars, although
the test specimens thus obtained will show better mechanical properties
than the actual work itself, when this has been sand cast. It is pointed
out that in any complicated casting, such as a motor car crank case,
differences in the thickness of various parts of the casting must neces-
sarily introduce variations in the rate of cooling, so that no matter how
the accompanying test-bars be cast, whether in sand or chill moulds,
they must be regarded as giving comparative figures rather than absolute
values for the mechanical properties of the casting as a whole.

The shape of test- bar to be employed is also considered.

Experiments were made with different kinds of bronze, the alloys
being cast into test-bars of nine varying patterns, and subsequently
machined in most cases to standard test- bar sizes — 2 inches long and
0'505 inch in diameter over the breaking section. Values are given
for ductility and maximum stress relating to seven copper-tin alloys,
containing varying quantities of lead, zinc, antimony, and phosphorus.
These tables show very clearly that great differences in the tensile pro-
perties of a given alloy are to be obtained on altering the shape of
test-bar employed; in the case of an alloy containing 89*15 per cent,
of copper, 9*97 per cent, tin, 0'12 per cent, lead, and 0"41 per cent,
phosphorus, the maximum stress is recorded as varying from 50,500 lb.
per square inch to 18,500 lb. per square inch, according to the shape
of test^bar employed. It may be doubted whether such very large differ-
ences in mechanical properties are to be attributed entirely to variations
in the form of mould, but the results are fairly consistent amongst them-
selves, the highest values for maximum stress being always obtained for
alloys cast in " pattern C " — an open iron mould giving a bar measuring
two feet in length and one inch square. No particulars as to casting
temperatures of the test-bars are given, but the castings were all made
from regularly melted foundry heats of large quantities of alloy. — D. E.

Uniformity of Temperature in Furnaces. — Improvements in the
laboratory electric furnace are described by A. W. Gray.J Two con-
centric heaters are used, consisting of nichrome ribbon wound longi-
tudinally, instead of helically on iron pipes. Micabeston, a preparation
of mica flakes and a resinous cement, is used for insulation. The

* See also Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1 , 1913, vol. ix. p. 248.
■ t Metal Industry, 1914, vol. vi. p. 110.
X Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1914, vol. iv. p. 134.

338 Abstracts of Papers

winding is non-inductive, and there is little danger of short-circuiting.
With a furnace 30 cm. long, the mean temperature throughout the whole
length has been found to be 0-37° lower than the temperature at the
centre, the maximum drop at the extreme ends being 1°, when the mean
temperature was 667° C. Without regulating the heating current, the
temperature was only found to vary 0*067° in 20 minutes. — C. H. D.

Use of the Oxy-acetylene Torch in Foundries.— H. C Estep *
states that the combustion of acetylene in a stream of oxygen in a
properly constructed blowpipe forms sufficient heat to cut steel rapidly,
and also to weld cast iron, steel, copper, aluminium and other metals by
a true fusion process.

With all metals which oxidize at high temperatures, a flame having
a slight excess of acetylene should be used, and a smaller amount of
oxygen is required than for welding the same thickness of work in steel.
In welding aluminium a flux is used to dissolve any oxide formed and
to minimize oxidation.

As with cast iron, a preheating and an annealing after welding lessen
the risks of injury by unequal expansions and contractions. With
ductile metals the strains left in the vicinity of the weld are very slight,
even if annealing be omitted.

A badly - cracked aluminium transmission case was welded in 30
minutes at a cost of 52 cents.

In welding brass castings, a manganese-bronze alloy rod is generally
used for filling. This is fused by the flame, and forms a strong homo-
geneous weld answering all practical purposes.

There is a wider margin of profit in welding the non-ferrous metals
and alloys which have a higher value than cast iron and steel, whilst
the cost of welding is about the same.

In welding copper, oxidization is minimized by using a reducing flame,
but the author does not point out the danger of doing this if the copper
contains oxygen. Copper castings, however, are usually efficiently
deoxidized. A flux is also used to protect the metal, and it consists of
a mixture of potassium phosphate and potassium carbonate spread in
a layer about \ inch thick. This mixture fuses and forms a protective
glaze under the application of the flame.

Repairing silicon-copper castings is described. The castings formed
parts of acid-distilling apparatus, but were porous and leaky. As there
were six or seven defective castings and their value was considerable,
the oxy-acetylene process was adopted for effecting a remedy. Some
of the castings were of rectangular box design, and each one contained
two baffle trays cast solid with three sides of the casting, therefore
preheating for the welding operation had to be carefully performed in
order to prevent cracking. The welding was carried out while the
castings were at a high temperature (uniform red heat) in a loose fire-
brick oven fired by an oil-burner. The castings were allowed to cool
slowly with the oveii after welding. Several heatings and weldings

* The Irofi Trade Review, 1914, vol. liv. p. 243.

Furnaces and Foundry Methods 339

were necessary, owing to the fragility of the castings at the high tem-
peratures prohibiting handling.

After welding was complete, the castings were subjected to hydrostatic
pressure, and found to be water-tight. — F. J.

Vacuum Electric Furnace. — Improvements in this furnace are
described by O. RuflF.* The furnace is of the carbon tube pattern, and
at 2700° requires 900 amperes at 20 volts. A larger furnace has been
constructed for use with alternating currents, with a heating tube
7 "5 to 8 cm. inside diameter, consuming 30 to 35 kilowatts at 2000°.

Another pattern, horizontal instead of vertical, is described by O. Ruff.f
The carbon tube heater is 30 cm. long, 2 cm. inside and 5 cm. outside
diameter, and at 2850° requires 500 amperes at 30 volts. — C. H. D.

* ZeiUchnftfur Elektrochemie , 1914, vol. xx. p. 177. t Ibid., p. 1.

( 340 )

S T A T I S T I C S.

Algerian Mining in 1913. — The value of the mineral output of
Algeria* in 1913 was ^2,060,000, an increase of nearly 50 per cent,
over the year 1910, when it amounted to .£1,500,000. There are no
smelting works in the country. The table given below shows the
number of tons of minerals shipped for each metal : —

1911. 1912. 1913.

Copper ores .
Lead ores
Antimony ores
Mercury

4,939

31G

2.299

00,895

84.495

82,085

7.428

2.165

497
10

British Columbia Mineral Output, 1912. — According to the
Annual Report of tlip Minister of Mines for British Coluinhia,] the
Mineral Production for 1912 was the greatest in the history of the
Province, the total value of the output for the year being .$32,440,800,
an increase of $8,941,728 over that of 1911.

The output of copper was $8,408,513, which is 84 per cent, in excess
of that for 1911.

The value of the gold output was $5,877,942, $5,322,442 of which
represents lode mining and $555,500 placer mining, corresponding to
increases of $596,929 and $129,500 respectively, as compared with 1911.

The output of silver was $1,810,045, an increase of $851,752; of
lead $1,805,627, an increa.se of $736,106, and of zinc $316,139, an
increase of $187,047 over the output for 1911.

British Columbia Mineral Output, 1913.— The British Columbia
Bureau of Mines J has published a preliminary review and estimate of
the mineral production of the province for the year 1913.

The estimated production is as follows : gold, 266,547 ozs. ; silver,
3,569,642 ozs.; lead, 54,205,594 lb.; copper, 46,042,379 lb.; zinc,
7,100,000 lb.; coal, 2,136,694 tons; coke, 285,123 tons.

* Mining Journal, vol. civ.. No. 4097, p. 211.

+ Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1913, vol. xi. No. 4, p. 669.

% Canadian Alining Journal, vol. xxxv. No. 3, p. 74.

Statistics 341

The total value of the production for 1913 was $30,158,793, as com-
pared with $32,440,800 in 1912. The production of gold, silver, lead,
and zinc shows an increase, but the output of copper and coal was
considerably smaller than in the previous year.

Galifornian Gold Production. — The mine production of gold in
California in 1912 is reported by the U.S. Geological Survey* to have
aggregated $19,713,478, a decrease of $23,430 from 1911.

The leading gold-producing countries in the year, and the values
produced by each, were : —

Country. Value in Dollars.

Amador 2,796,194

Luba 2,753,408

Butte 2.346,229

Nevada 2,081,958

Sacramento 1,712,587

Tuolumne 1,113,291

Canadian Mineral Production, 1912. — The annual report of
John M'Leish,! containing revised figures for 1912, has been published
by the Mines Branch, Ottawa.

The production of metalliferous products in 1912 was valued at
$61,172,753, being 45-3 per cent, of the total mineral output. The
value of non-metalliferous products was $45,080,674.

Federated Malay States Tin Output in 1913.— The output of
tin from the above States in 1913 is given \ as 50,128 tons, as compared
with 48,250 tons in 1912, and 43,967 tons in 1911.

French Manufacture of Aluminium.— A summary of the present
status of the manufacture of aluminium in France is given in La Revue.
Eledrique, 5th September 1913.§ Five French companies produce
aluminium as follows : —

Societe Eledrometallurgiqv£ Fran^aise. — Dr. Paul Heroult's Company
formed in 1888. Capital 15,500,000 francs. In the different plants
of the Company at Froges la Praz, Saint- Michel-de-Maurienne, and
L'Argentiere (Brian9on) 65,000 to 70,000 horse-power are available.
Besides aluminium ingots, bar, wire, cable, tube, cooking utensils,
and pure aluminium, the Company produces ferro-alloys, electric steel
(Heroult process), and carbon electrodes.

Compagnie des Produits Chimiques d'Alais et de la Compargue. — •
Founded in 1855. Capital 10,500,000 francs. Its plant at Salindres
(Gard), originally intended to manufacture soda by the Le Blanc process,
was later devoted successfully to soda manufacture, and began in 1861
to produce aluminium by the purely chemical process of Sainte-Claire
Deville. For thirty years it was the sole producer of aluminium.

* Engineering and Afining Journal, 1913, vol. 96, No. 19, p. 890.

t Canadian Mining Journal, 1913, vol. xxxiv. p. 661.

t Board of Trade Journal, 1913. vol. Ixxxiv. p. 299.

§ Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1913, vol. xi. (No. 11), p. 632.

342 A bstracts of Papers

S')ciete de Produits Electrochimiques et Metallurgiques des Pyrenees. —
Founded in 1906, this Company has now a capital of 6,000,000 francs. Its
Auzat plant of 16,000 horse-power has a maximum output of 6 tons of
aluminium, 9 tons of chlorates or perchlorates, and 10 tons of calcium
carbide or ferro-alloys, per day.

Societe des Forces Motrices et Usines de VArve. — Founded in 1895,
and has capital of 4,100,000 francs. Its Chedde plant of 22,000 horse-
power has a maximum output of 6 tons of aluminium and 20 tons of
chlorates or perchlorates per day.

Sociele d^ Electro-Chimie. — Founded in 1889, and has a capital of
10,000,000 francs. In its numerous plants the Company produces
chlorates, aluminium, alumina, and calcium hydride, sodium, potassium,
and potassium cyanides, &c.

These five companies have formed another company, L' Aluminium
Franfais, which acts not only as sales agent, but is also intended to
carry out research work on the applications of aluminium. This Com-
pany also manufactures in its plants at Selzaete (Belgium) and Mennessis
(France) considerable quantities of alumina, sulphate of aluminium, &c.
It is now erecting at Arrean in the Pyrenees an aluminium factory, and
at Chembery in Savoy a rolling mill for the manufacture of aluminium
sheet, &c. At Kremlin-Bicetre, near Paris, it has a factory for the manu-
facture of tubes, &c.

German Production and Consumption of Metals in 1913.—

The Frankfurter Zeitung of 15th January 1914, reporting on the metal
market in 1913, states * that the world's copper production showed but a
slight increase over that of the previous year. In Germany the consump-
tion of copper in 1913 amounted to 276,714 metric tons, about 20,000
metric tons more than in 1912.

German lead consumption is given as 215,000 metric tons, a decrease
of 5500 metric tons on the figure for 1912. Zinc production in Germany
is estimated at 275,000 metric tons, or 8000 metric tons more than in
the previous year ; whilst the tin industry, after opening badly, showed a
production for the year of 13,000 metric tons, a slight increase on the
figure for 1912. German consumption of this metal is given as 22,000
metric tons, also slightly above the corresponding value for the year
1912.

Gold Coast Gold Exports in 1913. — The Government Gazette t of
the Gold Coast states the exports of gold from that Colony in 1913 as
422,562 oz., value XI, 625,878, as compared with 377,659 oz., value
Xl,439,268 in 1912.

New Zealand Mineral Production in 1912.— The Trade Com-
missioner for New Zealand X gives the following figures for its mineral
output in 1911 and 1912 :—

♦ Board of Trade Journal, 1914, vol. Ixxxiv. p. 234. f /*»''•. P- 493.
X tUd. , 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 418.

Statistics

343

1911.

1912.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Gold(o7.s.) ....
1 Silver (ozs.) ....
Mixed metals (tons)
Coal (tons) ....
Coke (tons) ....

Total .

1 - - .

455,226

1,311,043

3,470

2,066,073

1,816,782

131,587

22,241

1,126,086

343.163

801,165

1,729

2.177,615

1,345,131

84.739

20,571

1.190,471

4,492,403

3.042,224

The decrease of nearly i£ 500, 000 is attributed to disastrous strikes,
which lasted from May to November, on three of the principal mining fields.

Peruvian Minerals in 1912. — H.M. Minister at Lima reports * that
the coal production of Peru dropped from 324,000 tons in 1911 to
268,000 tons in 1912. The Government is apparently prepared to
encourage the development of the native coal deposits.

The production of silver in Peru in 1912 was valued at £1,058,860,
and of copper £1,977,796, as compared with £626,713 and £1,411,416,
the respective figures for 1911.

Prolongation of Zinc Syndicates. — It is announced t that, on the
decision to prolong the International Zinc Works Union till April 1916,
the German syndicate has followed suit, being prolonged till the same
date.

Out of the total world's production of zinc in 1912 of 975,000 metric
tons, 360,000 metric tons were controlled by the German syndicate and
580,000 by the International Syndicate.

Prussian Mineral Output, 1912. — The output of mining products
in Prussia during 1911 and 1912 have now been officially reported, J and
are given below, in metric tons : —

Ores of

1911.

1912.

Zinc ....

696.903

647,081

Lead ....

139,235

140,158

Copper ....

868,495

967.785

Nickel ....

9,609

12,113

Manganese

86,902

92,474

Arsenic ....

4,476

4,870

Pyrites ....

203,249

233,397

♦ Board of Trade Journal, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 302. t Ibid., p. 700.
X Engineering and Mining Journal, 1914, No. 1, vol. 97, p. 14.

344

Abstracts of Papers

Prussian Mineral Production in 1912.— The output of some of

the principal minerals from Prussia in 1912 are stated in an official
report * of the Prussian Ministry of Commerce and Industry as under : —

Quantity
(Metric Tons).

Value
(1000 Marks).

Coal

Lignite .
Petroleum
Zinc ore .
Lead ore .
Copper ore
Manganese ore
Pyrites .

165,302,784

65,803,959

87,443

647,081

140,158

967,785

92,474

233,397

1,722,560

130,468

6,586

52,238

19,155

32,489

1,168

2,214

Metric ton = 2204-6 lb. ; mark = ll-8d.

Russian Platinum Production, 1913.— The production of crude
platinum in the Ural region of Russia in 1913 show a decrease, accord-
ing to the official figures just published.! The total production was
299-45 poods, which is a decrease on 1912 of 37-775 poods. The table
given below shows the production in troy ounces, for the last ten years.
The figures are for crude metal, usually taken as 83 per cent, platinum.

1904 .

161,197

1909 .

. 164,513

1905 .

168,343

1910 .

. 176,020

1906 .

18(;,H74

1911 .

. 185,529

1907 .

173,500

1912 .

. 177,515

1908 .

157,051

1913 .

. 157,630

Silesian Zinc Industry in 1913. — The Borsen Zeitung of 28th
January 1914 J gives the j^roduction of raw zinc in Upper Silesia during
1913 as practically the same as that of the previous year. Thus the
state of the zinc industry is unsatisfactory ; this is attributed to the
railway tariflf disabilities on the large amounts of sulphuric acid pro-
duced as a bye-product in the zinc industry. In 1900 the production of
sulphuric acid per ton of raw zinc was only 0-8 metric ton; in 1913 it
was 1'34 metric tons ; in view of this increase it is well that a reduction
of railway rates for sulphuric acid is now in view. The production of
sheet zinc in 1913 shows an increase of 5487 metric tons, or about 9-7
per cent, over that in 1912.

Metric ton = 2204-6 lbs.

South African Mineral Output.— The total output of gold in

the Union of South Africa for the year 1913, as given by the Mines
Department,§ was 8,798,712-773 fine ounces, value £37,374,553. Of

* Board of Trade Journal, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 419.

t Engineering and Mining Journal, 1914, No. 12, vol. 97i p. 626.

X Board of Trade Journal, 1914, vol. Ixxxiv. p. 417.

§ South African Engineering, 1914, vol. xxi., No. 2, p. 25.

Statistics 345

this total the Witwatersrand contributed 8,424, 950*9 fine ounces, value
£35,786,915, and other districts in the Transvaal 373,384-719 fine
ounces, value £1,586,032. The total output of the other provinces was
377 "154 fine ounces, value £1,604. The Rhodesian output is not
included in these figures, as Rhodesia is not in the Union of South
Africa.

The output of silver was 952,596'814 fine ounces, value £115,822.

Swiss Aluminium Production. — In a report on the electro-
chemical industries of Switzerland, R. Pitaval * states that that country,
with abundance of water power, is hampered by the distance of the
power stations from rivers or railways, most of the sources being in
narrow and remote valleys.

During 1912 the price of aluminium has been increased. The new
factory of the Neuhausen Company at Chippis has been working. A
new outlet for the metal has been found in the manufacture of
aluminium paper for wrapping chocolate, &c. This consumed 1200
tons of aluminium during the year, and its use is likely to increase.
Forty-two square metres are obtained from 1 kilogram of the metal.
The exportation of aluminium (ingots and worked products) was 85,710
metric quintals in 1912, against 38,032 in 1911.

United States Metal Production in 1913. — The figures given
below for copper and lead refer only to metal produced from United
States ore, but those for zinc include production from imported ore.f

Metal. j. 1912.

1913.

Copper (lb.) 1.241,762,508

Ferro-manganese (tons) .... 227,725

Gold (dollars) 93 451,500

Lead (tons of 2000 lb.) .... 410,006
Mercury (flasks of 751b. each) 25,147

Silver (oz.) 63,766,800

Zinc (tons of 2000 lb.) .... 348,638
Arsenic (lb.) 5,852,000

1,228,811,581

353,100

88,301,023

433,476

*21,000

67.601.111

356,146

4,624,140

* Estimated.

Victoria Mineral Output in 1912. — The Secretary of Mines for
Victoria | reports the total value of minerals raised in that State in
1912 as £2,331,294, as compared with £2,463,865 in 1911. The table
below gives the production of some of the items for 1912 and for
1911:—

* Journal du Four EUctrique, 1914, vol. xxiii. p. 578.
+ Engineering and Mining Journal, 1914, vol. 97, p. 49.
X Board of Trade Journal, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 199.

346

Abstracts of Papers

Quantity.

Value.

1911.

1912.

1911. 1912.

Gold(oz.) ....
Silver (oz.) ....
Coal (tons) ....
Tin ore (tons)
Antimony ore (tons)
Wolfram (tons)
Magnesite (tons) .

504,000

18,494

653,864

1,098

166

480,131

17,424

589,143

2,430

211

2,140.855

2,070

298,829

3,417

8,928

1,309

498

2,039,464

2,200

258,455

5,733

16.162

574

633

West Australian Mineral Production in 1912— The Depart-
ment of Mines of Western Australia * gives the following figures for the
mineral output of that State during the year 1912 : —

1911.

1912.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Coal (tons)
Copper ore (tons)
Copper ingot, matte, &c.
(tons) ....
Gold(oz.)
Silver (oz.)
Lead ore (tons)
Pyritic ore (tons)
Tin ore and ingot (tons) .
Wolfram (tons) .
Zinc, spelter, &c. (tons) .
Unenumerated .

Total .

249,899
i 9,825

828

! 1,370,867

169,043

1 1,549

9,939

495

£
111,154
33,709

44,409

5,823,075

18,333

15.002

3,529

55,220

826

189

407

295,079
9,556

1,282,658

138,039

1,868

7,626

575

£
135,857
59,388

1,149

5,448,385

16,353

22,565

2,543
70,578

■■217
3,172

i -

6.105,853

...

5,760,207

World's Production of Copper. — The following table of statistics,
compiled by Henry R. Merton «fe Co.,t shows the world's copper output,
in English tons of fine copper, for the past three years : —

* Board of Trade Journal, 1913, vol. Ixxxiii. p. 251.
t Minitig Journal, 1914, vol. cv. No. 4102, p. 329.

Statistics

347

Country.

1911.

1912.

1913.

Africa —

Katanga

i 1,000^0

2,3451 o

6,790"! o

Cape Colony

4,480 1 «

3,870 U^

3,220 b

Namaqua

1 2,500 f i"

2,500 (^

2.500 [r^i

Sundries

1 g.oooj '-'

7,655j "

10,000j '^

Argentina

I 1,020

330

115

Australasia

41,840

47,020

46,680

Austria

2,440

3,860

3.765

Bolivia

1,800

1,850

3,600

Canada

24,930

34,710

34,365

Chile .

29,595

37,305

39,386

Cuba .

3,695

4,325

3,365

England

1 400

300

*300

Mansfeld

20,520

20,180

19,980

Other German ....

1.490

5,040

4,930

Hungary

100

305

Italy

2,600

2,300

1,600

Japan

55.000

65,500

72,000

Boleo

12,165

12.450

12,795

Other Mexican ....

+48.740

+60,005

+39,185

Newfoundland

1.155

540

Norway —

Sulitelma

j 3,590

4,755

4,610

Other Norwegian ....

5.835

6.225

7,000

Peru

28,050

26,0(55

25.310

Russia

25,310

33,010

38.240

Servia

6,885

7,240

6,257

Sweden

2,000

1,500

1,000

Spain and Portugal-

Rio Tinto

33,385>,

39,925 ■>
3,375 o
3,540 -«l
1,390 g

10,700^

36.320-v

Tharsis

1 3,395 o

3,220 ^

Mason and Barry ....

1 2,920 y«»

3,135 y«i

Sevilla

1.530 g

1,510 g

Other Mines

j 9,700-'

9,650^

United States of America-

Calumet and H

1 +35,000-1
1 +61,615 §
+121,410 -*-
+134,185 «
+131,655-'

+35,000^

+68,405 §

+138,055 ^tZ-

+159,800 S

+153,100^ ^

+20,000%

Other Lake

+15,875 15

Montana

+126,880 V^-

Arizona

+179,115 1

Other States . . . .

+170,705-'

Turkey

1,000

500

1,340

1,250

Total

871,920

1,006,110

986,375

Average of Prices of Standard on 1st
of each month ....

£68 5 9

£73 1 3

£55 16 2

The growth of the world's copper production during the fifteen years
1898-1912 is traced by J. B. C. Kershaw { with the aid of statistics
published by Messrs. H. R. Merton & Co., London. Taking the average
price of bar copper during this period as .£60 per ton, the aggregate

* Those marked with an asterisk are estimated.

+ As given by the Engineering and Mining Journal, New York.

X Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 1913, vol. xi. (No. 11), pp. 617-019.

348

Abstracts of Papers

annual value of the world's output has increased from £15,480,000 in
1898 to £60,024,000 in 1912, an increase of nearly 400 per cent.—

Year

World's Output

Increase or

Average Price

in Tons.

Decrease.

per Ton.

£ s. d.

1898

429,262

29,896

57 7 10

1899,

472,244

42,618

72 10 6

1900.

479,514

7,270

73 19 7

1901.

516,628

37.114

67 17 3

1902.

541,295

24,667

.52 13 5

1903.

574,775

33,480

57 18 8

1904.

644,000

69,225

58 14 8

1905.

682,125

38.125

69 2 6

1906.

714.100

31.975

86 5 2

1907.

713.965

-135

87 1 8

1908.

754,180

40,215

60 0 6

1909.

839.425

85,245

58 17 3

1910.

864,275

24.850

57 3 2

1911 .

871,920

7.645

55 16 2

1912 . ....

1,004,485

132,565

73 1 3

In the above table the annual variations in total world's output are
seen to have been very irregular, ranging from a decrease of 135 tons in
1907 to the enormous increase of 132,565 tons in 1912. The output has
more than doubled during the period 1898-1912, and if present prices
can be accepted as any criterion the demand for the red metal still grows.

The predominating position occupied and still maintained by the
American mines is evident from the fact that the output from these
mines was 234,271 tons in 1898 and 554,835 tons in 1912, representing
55 per cent.

The output of the other producing countries of the world in 1898 and
in 1912 was as follows: —

1898.

1912.

Tons.

Mexico ....

16,435

70,845

Japan

25,175

65,500

Portugal

52,375

58.930

Australia

18.000

47.020

Chili .

24,850

37,305

Canada .

8,040

34,710

Russia .

6,260

33,010

Peru

3,040

27.165

Germany

20,085

23.920

Africa .

7.110

16.370

Norway .

3,616

10,980

Servia * .... | *

7.240

The price boom of 1898-1899 was due to the formation of the
Amalgamated Copper Company in the States,

* 2140 tons in 1908.

Statistics

149

World's Production of Zinc, 1913. — Messrs. Henry R. Merton and
Company * have issued their statement of the production of zinc, or
spelter, for the year 1913. The production for 1913 shows an increase
of 28,360 tons, or 2*9 per cent, over the production for 1912, and over
1911 of 102,970 tons, or 11-6 per cent. The table below shows the
production in long tons : —

1911.

1912.

1913.

Belgium

192,020

197,045

194,590

Holland .

22,375

23,555

23,940

Germany, East .

153,715

166,425

167,440

Germany, West

92,735

100,370

111,055

Great Britain .

65,900

.56,330

58,215

France and Spain

03.210

71,025

69,905

Austria and Italy

16,610

19,295

21,300

Poland

9.780

8,625

8,500

Norway

1 6,575

8,000

17.000

Total for Europe

622,920

650.670

671,945

Australia

1,700

2,200

3,665

United States ....

263,260

309,560

315,240

Total

887,880

962,490

990,850

* Engineering and Miniiig Journal, 1914, %ol. 97, No. 5, p. 295.

( 350 )

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and nickel, including descriptions of the electric welding processe?, and of the
torches and apparatus in general.]

Heath, C. E. The Beginner's Guide to the Microscope. 1913. Pp. 116.
London : P. Marshall & Co. (Price Is.)

Hind, H. Lloyd, and W. Brough Randles. Handbook of Plwtomicrography.*
1913. 8vo, pp. x+292, with 164 illustrations. London : George
Routledge & Sons, Limited. (Price 7s. Qd.)

[Tho Handbook gives an account of modern methods employed in photo-
micrography, with a description of the apparatus and processes treated from a
microscopic and photographic point of view. There is a useful illustrated section
specially devoted to Metallography.]

HoBART, James F. Soft Soldering, Hard Soldering, and Brazing.* 1913. Pp.
xiii X 190, with 62 illustrations. London : Constable & Co., Limited.
(Price 4s. net.)

[This book has been written to serve as a practical aid to improved methods
in soldering, and should be of service to those employers who are alert to the
importance of eflBciency and economy in the methods pursued in their estab-
lishments. The author has dwelt with considerable fullness upon the many phases
■ of soldering and brazing, giving the results of experience and observation.]

HoBSON, J. A. Gold, Prices and Wages. 1913. Pp.181. London : Methuen
and Co., Limited. (Price 6s. 3d.)

Holding, R. H. Weight of Steel Bars : Shovnng Millimetre Sizes with English
Weights per Metre. 1914. 5x3 inches. Pp. 50. Sheffield : R. H.
Holding. (Price Is.)

[Includes information on the factor for finding the weights of non-ferrous
metals and alloys from the weight of a bar of steel of the same size.]

Bibliography 353

Hooper, J., and A. J. Shirley. Handicraft in Wood and Metal. 1913.
8vo, pp. 240, with 300 illustrations. London : B. T. Batsford.
(Price 7s. 6d.)

Horner, Joseph G., and Otto Holtzmann. A Pocket Glossary of English
and German Technical Terms* London : Crosby, Lockwood & Son.
(Price 3s. net.)

[This pocket dictionary should prove exceedingly useful both to British and
German engineers, containing, as it does, many technical terms which are not
included in the ordinary dictionaries, and most of those used by metallurgical
engineers.]

HuTTON, William. Joint Wiping and Lead Work* 8vo, pp. ix + 75, with
115 illustrations. New York : David Williams Company. (Price 2s.
net.)

[This little book is intended as a guide, for the young plumber, in the art of
preparing lead pipe, and wiping joints of various types. The illustrations, of
which there are a very large number, show clearly the different stages in the
various operations.]

Illingworth, S. Roy. The Co-operation of Science and Industry. London :
Charles Griffin & Co., Limited. (Price Is. 6d. net.)

Industrial Chemistry. Edited by A. Rogers and A. B. Aubert, in collabora-
tion with thirty-four specialists. Large 8vo, pp. 854, with 340
illustrations. New York : D. Van Nostrand. (Price £l. Is.)

[Contents embrace general processes, materials of construction, fuel, producer
gas, electro-chemical industries, oils, paints, the petroleum industry.]

The Ironmonger Metal Market Year Book, 1914. Eighth year. London :
The Ironmonger. (Price 2s. 6d.)

Jaeger, F. M. Eine Anleitung zur Aiisfiihrtmg exakter Physiko-chemischer
Messungen bei Hoheren Temperaturen. 1913. Groningen : J. B. Welters.

Kalender der Berliner Kupferborse 1914. Edited by the Vorstand des
Vereins der Interessenten der Metalborse in Berlin. 1914. Pp. 236.
Berlin : A. MoUing & Co. (Price 2s.)

Kempe, H. R. Engineer's Year Book of Formulce, Rules, Tables, Data, and
Memoranda for 1914. Compiled and edited with the collaboration of
eminent specialists. Twenty-first Annual Issue. Crown 8vo, pp.
1800, with 1500 illustrations. London : Crosby, Lockwood, & Son.
(Price 15s.)

Langbein, G. a complete treatise on the Electro-deposition of Metals. Trans-
lated from the latest German edition, with additions by W. S. Brannt.
Seventh edition, revised and enlarged. 1913. 8vo, pp. 33 + 720, with
155 engravings. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird & Co. (Price £1, Is.)

La Soudure Autogene. Redige par I'lnstitut Scientifique et Industriel, 1913.
8vo, pp. 108, with 83 illustrations, and an alphabetical index of
subjects. Paris, Mois Scientifique et Industriel. (Price 2s. 6d.)

[The text is subdivided as follows : I. General definitions, &c. II. Welding
at the forge. III. Oxy-hydrogen welding. IV. Oxy-acetylene welding. V.
Welding by the aid of oxygen gas. VI. Welding with the aid of gaseous
mixtures. VII. Electric welding. VIII. Alumino-thermic welding, and weld-
ing by recasting. IX. Comparison of different modes of welding. X. Cutting
by means of the blow-pipe.]

354 Bibliography

Law, E. F. Alloys and their Industrial Applications.* 1914. Second edition,
revised and enlarged. 8vo, pp. 332, with numerous illustrations in
the text, and plates. London : Charles Griffin & Co., Limited. (Price
12s. 6d. net.)

[In this new edition the author has succeeded admirably in bringing the
information up to date by including the results of recent research and inven-
tion. These results are interpreted in such a way as to make them particularly
acceptable to the practical man. The work includes chapters on the following :
Properties of Alloys ; Methods of Investigation ; Constitution ; Influence of
Temperature on Properties ; Corrosion of Alloys ; Copper Alloys, Brass, Bronzes,
Special Brasses and Bronzes ; German Silver and Miscellaneous Copper Alloys ;
White Metal Alloys ; Aluminium Alloys ; Silver and Gold Alloys ; Iron Alloys ;
and Miscellaneous Alloys (Amalgams, &c.).]

Le Chatelier, H. La Silice et les Silicates.* 1914. 6J in. x lOJ in. •
Pp. 574, 60 illustrations. Paris : A. Hermann et Fils. (Price Fr. 15.)

Ledebur, a. Les laboratoires sid^rurgiques. Manuel pratique a I'usage des
chimistes metallurgistes. Ninth edition, revised by W. Heike and
translated from the German by M. Diamant and M. Coste, 1914.
8vo, pp. 224, with 26 illustrations. Paris : Dunod & Pinat.
(Price 5s.)

Liebig, R. G. Max. Zink imd Cadmium. 16 x 23 centimetres. 598 pages
(no index), 205 illustrations, 10 plates. Leipzig : Otto Spamer.
(Price 32 marks.)

[The book handles systematically, completely, and clearly every branch of
the metallurgy of zinc]

Lunge, 6., and E. Berl. Tachenbuch fiir die Anorganiscli-Chemische
Grossiiidustrie. 1914. Fifth edition. Pp. 305, with 15 figures in
the text. Berlin : Julius Springer. (Price 8 M.)

Maier, G. Dus Geld und sein Gebrauch. Pp. 126. Leipzig, 1913 : B. G,
Teubner! (Price Is. 3d.)

Makower, W., and H. Geiger, Practical Measurements in Radio- Activity.*
5| in. x8| in. Pp. ix+151, illustrated with 61 figures. London:
Longmans, Green, & Co. (Price 5s. net.)

[This book is primarily intended as a laboratory course in radio-activity, but
an attempt has also been made to meet the requirements of those engaged in
original investigations. Tables of radio-active constanta and of decay of different
substances are given.]

Meqraw, Herbert A. Details of Cyanide Practice. 1914. 6 in. x 9 in.
Pp. 215, fully illustrated. New York : McGraw-Hill Book Company.
(Price 8s. 4d. net.)

Mellor, J. W. A Treatise on Quantitative Inorganic Analysis, with special
reference to the Analysis of Clays, Silicates, and Related Minerals. 1913.
8vo, pp. 778, with illustrations and plates. London : Charles Griffin
and Co., Limited. (Price 30s.)

Bibliography 355

M.daX&tatiiiics,\^\^.* Seventh Annual Edition, 1914. 6jin. x4in. Pp.
287. New York: American Metal Market Company. (Price
60 cents.)

[The seventh annual edition contains the usual tables, and also certain addi-
tional ones. Statistics are given regarding: copper, tin, iron and steel, lead,
spelter, aluminium, antimony, and silver ; also miscellaneous tables for : gold
' production ; production of secondary metals ; metal duties ; English- American

price equivalents; metal prices in 1913; quicksilver prices, platinum prices,
&c. &c.

The book is practically complete in both the ferrous and non-ferrous metal
fields.]

Mexican Fuel Oil.* 1914. Pp. 150, illustrated. London : Anglo-
American Petroleum Products Company, Limited. (Price 3s. 6d. net.)
[The use of oil for heating purposes in connection with metallurgical processes
is dealt with in Chapter VIII.]

Michel, J. Travail des Metaux, Nouvelle collection des recueils de
Eecettes rationelies. Pp. 356, with 153 illustrations. Paris :
H. Desforges. (Price Fr. 5"75).

OsTWALD, WiLHELM. Outlines of General Chemistry.* Translated with the
author's sanction by W. W. Taylor. Third edition, xvii + 596 pages.
London : Macmillan and Company, Limited. (Price 17s. net.)

[This is the third edition of Professor Ostwald's book, and has been translated
from the fourth German edition of his work.

The author, in revising the book, has borne in mind the reproach levelled
against the previous edition of Outlines, that, in contrast with his other books,
Outlines is "too difficult." These disadvantages have now been remedied to
some extent.

The whole book has been carefully revised, and several new chapters have
been introduced, amongst which will be noted chapters on ions in gases, and
radio-activity, and on colloids.]

Pancke, E. Legierungs-Metalle : Ihre Bestimmung und Kritische Beleuchtung
der vorgeschlagenen Analysengange nehst ihrer Verivendung. 1913. 8vo,
pp. 82. Halle a. S. : Wilhelm Knapp. (Price 4s. 6d.)

[The metals which are considered with special attention to their alloys are
tin, lead, antimony, copper, zinc, arsenic, bismuth, aluminium, nickel, cadmium,
and mercury. A series of calculation tables is given at the end of the book.]

Paneth, F. Ueber Kolloide Losungen radioaktiver Substanzen, 1913. 8vo,
pp. 6. Wien : A. Holder. (Price 6d.)

Park, J. The Cyanide Process of Gold Extraction. 1913. 5th English
edition, revised and enlarged. Cr. 8vo, pp. 362. London : Charles
Griffin & Co. (Price 8s. 6d.)

Phillips, F. C. Chemical German : An Introduction to tlie Study of German
Chemical Literature. Including rules of nomenclature, exercises for
•practice, and a collection of extracts from the imitings of German chemists
and other scientists, and a vocabulary of German chemical terms and others
used in technical literature. 1913. 8vo, pp. 241. Easton, Pa. : The
Chemical Publishing Company. (Price 8s. 4d.)

356 Bibliography

Power, F. Danvers. A Pocket Booh for Miners and Metallurgists* 1914.
Third edition, corrected. Pp. vi+STl, with illustrations. London :
Crosby, Lockwood, & Son. (Price 6s. net.)

[This, tlie third edition of tbis little work, should be found very useful by all
those engaged in the Mining and Metal Industries. It comprises a multitude of
rules, formulae, tables, and notes for use in field and office work. The portion
on "Assaying" has been entirely rewritten.]

Quinh Metal Handbook and Statistics, 1914.* Pp. 156. 4^ in. x 6^ in.
London: L. H. Quin. (Price 3s. 6d. net.)

[This pocket-book gives a large amount of information with regard to the
leading metals. In addition there are daily price lists for the leading metals,
and much useful miscellaneous information.]

Reinhardt, E. Die Ktipferversorgung Deidschlands und die Entwicklung der
deutschen Kupferborsen. Pp. 108, with 2 plates. Bonn : A. Marcus and
E, Webers Verlag. (Price 3s. 3rf.)

RoscoE, H. E., and C. Schorlemmer. Treatise on Chemistry. Volume II. —
The Metals. New edition (5th), completely revised by Rt. Hon. Sir
Henry Roscoe and others. 1913. 4to, pp. xvi + 1445, and 212
illustrations. London : Macmillan & Co. (Price 30s. net.)

[Amongst others, there are chapters on : Crystalline Form of Metals ; Colloidal
Solutions of Metals ; Alloys and Amalgams ; Metallic Oxides, Hydroxides, and
Salts ; Crystallography ; The Radio-active Elements, Radium, Actinium, Thorium,
Uranium. ]

Rutherford, E. Badioaktive Suhstanzen und ihre Strahlungen. Translated
from English by Professor Marx, under the supervision of Professor
Rutherford. 1914. Pp.642. Leipzig : Akademische Verlagsgesell-
schaft.

Sheppard, S. E. Photo-Chemistry. 1914. Pp. ix-f446. Crown 8vo.
Illustrated. London : Longmans, Green, & Co. (Price 12s. M.
net.)

SiSLEY, G. E. The Mining \Yorld Index of Current Literature, Vol. III. First
half-year 1913. Pp. xxvi-f 158. Svo. Chicago : The Mining World
Company. (Price $1-50.)

Skinner, Walter R. The Mining Manual and Mining Year Book, 1914.

Pp. 1500. Demy 8vo. London : Financial Times. (Price 15s. net.)
Smith, E. F. Elements of Electro-Cliemistry. Size 5J x 4 inches. Pp. 253.

Philadelphia, Pa. : The John C. Winston Company. (Price 4s.)

Stansfield, Alfred A. The Electric Furnace, its Construction, Operation, and
Uses.* 1914. Second edition. Revised, enlarged, and reset. 6 in.
x9 in. Pp. 415, with 155 illustrations. London: The Hill
Publishing Company, Limited. (Price 17s. net.)

[The development and use of electric furnaces has made such rapid strides
during the past seven years, since the publication of the first edition of Professor
Stansfield's book, that all interested in electric furnaces will welcome the second
edition of this work, which has been doubled in size owing to the great advance

Bibliography 357

in the industry and the demand for more detailed treatment of the subject. The
present edition covers not only the progress, but the essential, practical features of
design, operation, and use of the electric furnace, and is filled with valuable data,
drawings, and practical suggestions. There are fifteen chapters. The first is
historical ; four deal with the classification, efficiency, construction, and opera-
tion of electric furnaces ; nine chapters treat with the various uses of the electric
furnace, and in the last chapter an attempt has been made to indicate in which
directions future developments of the electric furnace may be expected. The
book is well got up in every way, and may be regarded as a standard work on the
subject.]

Stewart, Alfred W. Chemistry and its Borderland. 1914. Pp. xii + 314,

with 1 1 illustrations and two plates. London : Longmans, Green,

and Co. (Price 5s. net.)
Stieglitz, J. The Elements of Qualitative Cliemical Analysis. Volume I.,

Parts 1 and 2, pp. xi+312 ; Volume II., Parts 3 and 4, pp. viii + 153.

London : G. Bell & Sons, Limited. (Price 6s. net.)
Thomson, Sir J. J. Rays of Positive Electricity and their Application to Chemical

Analysis. 1913. Pp.132. London : Longmans, Green, & Co. (Price

5s. net.)

Thorpe, Sir Edward. Dictionary of Applied Chemistry.* Revised and en-
larged edition. In five volumes. Illustrated. London : Longmans,
Green, & Co. (Price £2, 5s. per volume.)

[During the twenty-two years which have elapsed since the first volume of
Thorpe's Dictionary was published, chemistry has made such rapid progress as
hardly to be recognizable with its former self. It has, therefore, been necessary
thoroughly to revise and enlarge the previous edition, and it is now issued in five
large volumes, containing in all some 4390 pages.

Although termed a " Dictionary," it will be found to be more of an Encyclo-
paedia, for many of the articles contained therein deal so extensively with the
subjects on which they are written as to form small text-books on those subjects
in themselves. Thus we find that there are 16 pages devoted to " Aluminium,"
102 to "Analysis," 15 to " Assaying," 15 to " Copper," 40 pages to " Lead," and
so on, each subject being well illustrated where necessary, and written by an
eminent specialist on each subject.

The books are all well-printed, well-illustrated, and well-bound, leaving
nothing to be desired. The information has been found, by constant use, to be
thoroughly reliable, and the work is to be heartily recommended to, and will be
found to be invaluable by, all those who are in search of an encyclopaedia of
the chemical and allied industries.]

TiLDEN, Sir William A. The Progress of Scientific Chemistry in Our Own
Times, with Bibliographical Notices. Second edition. 1913. Pp. 366,
including indices. London: Longmans, Green, & Co., Limited.
(Price 7». 6d. net.)

[This volume forms a very readable survey of the successive steps by which
the system of theory generally accepted by chemists at the present day has been
evolved.]

Treiber, E. Foundry Machinery. Translated and revised from the German,
and adapted to British practice, by Charles Salter. 7^ in. x 4J in.
Pp. 135, 51 illustrations. London : Scott, Greenwood, & Co., Limited .
(Price 3s. 6d. net.)

358

Bibliography

Waddell, J. Quantitative Analysis in Practice. 1913, Pp. 162. Phila-
delphia : P. Blakiston's Sons, & Co, (Price 6s. M.)

[Deals with cement, limestone, clay, coal, copper, iron ore, lead ore, nickel
and cobalt ore, zinc ore, bronze,]

Weed, Walter Harvey, The Copper Handbook. Volume XI,, 1912-13.
Houghton, Mich. : W. H. Weed. (Price $5.)

[A Manual of the Copper Mining industry of the World.]

White, A. H, Technical Gas and Fuel Analysis. 1913, 8vo, 276 pages, with
47 illustrations. New York : McGraw-Hill Book Company. (Price
$2.)

SECTION III.

MEMORANDUM AND ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION
AND LIST OF MEMBERS.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Memorandum of Association 361

1. Name of the Association 361

2. Registered Office of the Association 361

3. Objects of the Association 361

4. Income and Property of the Association 364

5. Condition on which License is granted to the Association . . . 365

6. Liability of Members 365

7. Contribution of Members in the event of the Winding-up of the Associa-

tion 365

8. Disposal of property remaining after Winding-up or Dissolution of the

Association 365

9. Accounts 366

Articles of Association 367

I. Constitution 367

II. Election of Members 368

III. Council and Mode of Election 370

IV. Duties of Officers 372

V. General Meetings 373

VI. Subscriptions 375

VII. Audit 376

VIII, Journal 377

IX. Communications 377

X, Property of the Association 377

XL Consulting Officers 377

XII. Indemnity 378

List of Members 379

Topographical Index to Members 413

( 361 )

The Companies {Consolidation) Act, 1908

flI^emora^^um of aeeociation

THE INSTITUTE OF METALS

1. The name of the Company is The Institute of Metals.

2. The Registered Office of the Association will be situate
in England.

3. The objects for which the Association is established
are: —

(a) To take over the whole or any of the property and
assets, which can be legally vested in the Asso-
ciation, and the liabilities and obligations of the
unincorporated Society known as the Institute
of Metals, and, with a view thereto, to enter
into and carry into effect, with or without
modifications, the agreement which has already
been engrossed and is expressed to be made
between Gilbert Shaw Scott of the one part,
and the Association of the other part, a copy
whereof has, for the purpose of identification,
been signed by three of the subscribers hereto.

(&) To promote the science and practice of non-ferrous
metallurgy in all its branches, and to assist the
progress of inventions likely to be useful to
the members of the Association and to the
community at large.

2 a

362 Memorandum of Association

(c) To afford a means of communication between mem-
bers of the non-ferrous metal trades upoi
matters bearing upon their respective manu-
factures other than questions connected witl
wages, management of works, and trad<
regulations.

(f?) To facilitate the exchange of ideas between mem-
bers of the Association and between members!
of the Association and the community at large
by holding meetings and by the publication of
literature, and in particular by the publication
of a Journal dealing wholly or in part with
the objects of the Association.

{e) To establish Branches of the Association either in^
the United Kingdom or abroad to be affiliated
to the Association upon such terms and con-
ditions as may be deemed advisable, but so
that all such Branches shall prohibit the dis-
tribution of their income and property by waj
of dividend or otherwise amongst their members'
to an extent at least as great as is imposed on
the Association by virtue of Clause 4 hereof.

(/) To acquire by purchase, taking on lease or other-
wise, lands and buildings and all other property
real and personal which the Association, for the ■
purposes thereof, may from time to time think
proper to acquire and which may lawfully be
held by them, and to re-sell, under-lease, or
sub-let, surrender, turn to account, or dispose
of such property or any part thereof, and to
erect upon any such land any building for the
purposes of the Association, and to alter or add
to any building erected upon such land.

(pf) To invest and deal with the moneys of the Associa-
tion not immediately required in such mannei
as may from time to time be determined.

Memorandum of Association 363

{K) To borrow or raise or secure the payment of money
in such manner as the Association shall think
fit, and in particular by Mortgage or Charge
upon any of the property of the Association
(both present and future), and to redeem and
pay off any such securities.

(t) To undertake and execute any trusts, the under-
taking "whereof may seem desirable.

(^•) To establish and support, or aid in the establishment
and support of associations, institutions, funds,
trusts, and conveniences calculated to benefit
employees or ex-employees of the Association
or the dependents or connections of such per-
sons, and to grant pensions and allowances and
to make payments towards insurances, and to
subscribe or guarantee money for charitable_ or
benevolent objects or for any Exhibition or for
any public, geileral, or useful object.

{I) To establish, form, and maintain a library and col-
lection of metals, alloys, models, designs, and
drawings, and other articles of interest in con-
nection with the objects of the Association, or
any of them.

(m) To give prizes or medals as rewards for research,
for inventions of a specified character, or for
improvements in the production or manufacture
of non-ferrous metals and their alloys, and to
expend money in researches and experiments,
and in such other ways as may extend the
knowledge of non-ferrous metals and their alloys.

{n) To do all things incidental or conducive to the
attainment of the above objects or any of them.

Provided that the Association shall not support with its
funds or endeavour to impose on or procure to be observed
by its members any regulations which, if an object of the
Association, would make it a Trade Union.

364 Memorandum of Association

Provided also that in case the Association shall take or
hold any property subject to the jurisdiction of the Charity
Commissioners or Board of Education for England and Wales,
the Association shall not sell, mortgage, charge, or lease the
same without such authority, approval or consent as may be
required by law, and as regards any such property the Council
or Trustees of the Association shall be chargeable for such
property as may come into their hands, and shall be
answerable and accountable for their own acts, receipts,
neglects, and defaults, and for the due administration of such
property in the same manner and to the same extent as they
would as such Council or as Trustees of the property of the
Association have been if no incorporation had been effected,
and the incorporation of the Association shall not diminish
or impair any control or authority exercisable by the Chancery
Division, the Charity Commissioners, or the Board of Education
over such Council or Trustees, but they shall, as regards any
such property, be subject jointly and separately to such
control and authority as if the Association were not incor-
porated. In case the Association shall take or hold any
property which may be subject to any trusts, the Association
shall only deal with the same in such manner as allowed
by law having regard to such trusts.

4. The income and property of the Association whenceso-
ever derived shall be applied solely towards the promotion of
the objects of the Association as set forth in this Memorandum
of Association, and no portion thereof shall be paid or trans-
ferred directly or indirectly by way of dividend, bonus, or
otherwise howsoever by way of profit, to the members of the
Association. Provided that nothing herein contained shall
prevent the payment in good faith of remuneration to any
oflEicers or servants of the Association, or to any member of
the Association, in return for any services actually rendered
to the Association, but so that no member of the Council
or governing body of the Association shall be appointed to
any salaried office of the Association or any office of the
Association paid by fees, and that no remuneration or other
benefit in money or money's worth shall be given to any

Memorandum of Association 365

member of such Council or governing body except repay-
ment of out of pocket expenses and interest at a rate not
exceeding 5 per cent, per annum on money lent, or reasonable
and proper rent for premises demised to the Association.
Provided that this provision shall not apply to any payment
to any railway, gas, electric lighting, water, cable, or telephone
company of which a member of the Council or governing body
may be a member, or any other company in which such
member shall not hold more than one-hundredth part of the
capital, and such member shall not be bound to account
for any share of profits he may receive in respect of such
payment.

5. The fourth paragraph of this Memorandum is a con-
dition on which a license is granted by the Board of Trade to
the Association in pursuance of Section 20 of the Companies
(Consolidation) Act, 1908.

6. The liability of the members is limited.

7. Every member of the Association undertakes to con-
tribute to the assets of the Association in the event of the
same being wound up during the time that he is a member,
or within one year afterwards, for payment of the debts and
liabilities of the Association contracted before the time at
which he ceases to be a member, and of the costs, charges,
and expenses of winding up the same, and for the adjust-
ment of the rights of the contributories amongst themselves,
such amount as may be required not exceeding one pound.

8. If upon the winding-up or dissolution of the Association
there remains, after satisfaction of all its debts and liabilities,
any property whatsoever, the same shall not be paid to or
distributed among the members of the Association, but shall
be given or transferred to some other Institution or Institu-
tions not formed or carrying on business for profit having
objects similar to the objects of the Association, to be
determined by the members of the Association at or before
the time of dissolution, or in default thereof by such
Judge of the High Court of Justice as may have or acquire
jurisdiction in the matter, and if and so far as effect cannot

366 Memorandum of Association

be given to the aforesaid provision, then to some charitable
objects.

9, True accounts shall be kept of the sums of money
received and expended by the Association, and the matter
in respect of which such receipt and expenditure takes place,
and of the property, credits, and liabilities of the Association,
and, subject to any reasonable restrictions as to the time
and manner of inspecting the same that may be imposed
in accordance with the regulations of the Association for
the time being, shall be open to the inspection of the
members. Once at least in every year the accounts of the
Association shall be examined and the correctness of the
balance-sheet ascertained by one or more properly qualified
auditor or auditors.

WE, the several persons whose names and addresses are
subscribed, are desirous of being formed into an Association
in pursuance of this Memorandum of Association.

Names, Addresses, and Descriptions of Subscribers

Gerard Albert Muntz, French Walls, Birmingham, Baronet.

Thomas Turner, The University of Birmingham, Professor of Metal-
lurgy.

Alfred Kirby Huntington, The University of London, Professor of
Metallurgy.

William H. Johnson, 24 Lever Street, Manchester, Iron Merchant
and Manufacturer.

James Tayler Milton, Lloyd's Register, E.G., Chief Engineer Surveyor.

Robert Kaye Gray, Abbey Wood, Kent, Civil Engineer.

Emmanuel Ristori, 54 Parliament Street, London, S.W., Civil
Engineer.

Cecil Henry Wilson, Pitsmoor Road, Sheffield, Gold and Silver
Refiner.

William Henry White, 8 Victoria Street, Westminster, Naval
Architect.

Henry John Oram, Admiralty, London, S.W., Engineer Vice-Admiral.

Dated this 27th Day of July 1910.

Witness to the above signatures —

Arthur E. Burton, Solicitor,

Hastings House, Norfolk Street,
Strand, W.C.

( 367 )
The Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908

Hrticlee of association

THE INSTITUTE OF METALS

Section I.— CONSTITUTION

1. For the purposes of registration the number of members
of the Association is to be taken to be 1000, but the Council
may from time to time register an increase of members.

2. The subscribers to the Memorandum of Association and
such other members as shall be admitted in accordance with
these Articles, and none others, shall be members of the
Association and shall be entered on the register of members
accordingly.

3. Every person who was a member of the unincorporated
Society known as the Institute of Metals on the day pre-
ceding the date of the incorporation of this Association, and
who has not already become a member of this Association
by virtue of having subscribed the Memorandum of Associa-
tion thereof, shall be entitled to be admitted to membership
of the Association upon writing his name in a book which
has been provided for that purpose, or upon notifying in
writing to the Association at its Registered Office his desire
to become a member, and immediately upon the making
of such entry or the receipt of such notice, shall be deemed
to have been admitted and to have become a member of
the Association and shall be placed upon the register of
members accordingly, and thereupon any sums due and
owing by such persons to the unincorporated Society shall
immediately become due and payable by him to the
Association.

368 Articles of Association

4. Members of the Association shall be either Honorary
Members, Fellows, Ordinary Members, or Student Members,
and shall be respectively entitled to use the following abbre-
viated distinctive titles : Hon. Members, Hon. M.Inst.Met. ;
Fellows, F.Inst. Met. ; Ordinary Members, M.Inst.Met. ; and
Students, S.Inst. Met.

5. Honorary Members. — It shall be within the province of
the Council to elect not more than twelve honorary members,
who shall be persons of distinction interested in or connected
with the objects of the Association. Honorary Members shall
not be eligible for election on the Council nor entitled to vote
at meetings of the Association, and the provisions of Article 7
and Clause 7 of the Memorandum of Association shall not apply
to such members.

Fellows shall be chosen by the Council, shall be limited in
number to twelve, and shall be members of the Institute
who have, in the opinion of the Council, rendered eminent
service to the Association.

Ordinary Members shall be more than twenty-three
years of age, and shall be persons occupying responsible
positions. They shall be either (a) persons engaged in
the manufacture, working, or use of non-ferrous metals and
alloys; or (b) persons of scientific, technical, or literary
attainments connected with or interested in the metal trades
or with the application of non-ferrous metals and alloys.

Student Members shall be more than seventeen years of
age, and shall not remain Student Members of the Association
after they are twenty-five years of age, and shall be either
(a) Students of Metallurgy ; or (b) pupils or assistants of
persons qualified for ordinary membership whether such
persons are actually members of the Association or not.
Student Members shall not be eligible for election on the
Council nor entitled to vote at the meetings of the Association.

Section II.— ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

6. Save as hereinbefore provided, applications for member-
ship shall be in writing in the form following marked " A,"

Articles of Association 369

and such application must be signed by the applicant and
not less than three members of the Association.

FORM A.
To the Secretary.

I, the undersigned, , being of

the required age and desirous of becoming a Member of the

Institute of Metals, agree that I will be governed by the regulations of
the Association as they are now formed, or as they may be hereafter
altered, and that I will advance the interests of the Association as far as
may be in my power ; and we, the undersigned, from our personal know-
ledge, do hereby recommend him for election.

Name in full

Address

Business or Profession

Qualifications

Signature

Dated this day of , 19 .

Signatures
of three
Members.

7. Such applications for membership as Ordinary Members
or Student Members as are approved by the Council shall
be inserted in voting lists. These voting lists will constitute
the ballot papers, and will specify the name, occupation,
address, and proposers of each candidate. They shall be
forwarded to the members for return to the Secretary at a
fixed date, and four-fifths of the votes recorded shall be
necessary for the election of any person.

Every such election shall be subject to the payment by the
applicant of his entrance fee and first annual subscription, and
he shall not become a member of the Association nor be
entered on the Register of Members until such sums are
actually received from him. In the event of his failing to
pay such sums within the time specified in the notification to

370 Articles of Association

him of his election, as provided in the next clause hereof, his
election shall be void.

8. Upon election under the preceding Article the Secretary
shall forward to the applicant so elected notice thereof in
writing in the form following marked " B."

FORM B.

Sir, — I beg to inform you that on the you

were elected a Member of the Institute of Metals, subject to

the payment by you of an entrance fee of £ , and of' your

first annual subscription of £ . These must be paid to

me on or before the day of 19 > otherwise your

election will become void.

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,

.Secretary.

9. In the case of non-election, no mention thereof shall be
made in the minutes.

Section III.— COUNCIL AND MODE OF ELECTION

10. The affairs of the Association shall be managed and
conducted by a Council, which shall consist of a President,
Past-Presidents, six Vice-Presidents, fifteen Members of
Council, an Hon. Secretary or Hon. Secretaries, and an Hon.
Treasurer. All members who have filled the office of
President shall be, so long as they remain members of the
Association, ex officio additional members of the Council under
the title of Past-Presidents. The first members of the Council
shall be the following : — President, Sir Gerard Muntz, Bart. ;
Vice-Presidents, Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter, Prof. W. Gowland,
Prof. A. K. Huntington, Engineer Vice- Admiral H. J. Oram,
Sir Henry A. Wiggin, Bart. Ordinary Members of Council,
T. A. Bayliss, G. A. Boeddicker, Clive Cookson, J. Corfield,
R. Kaye Gray, Summers Hunter, Dr. R. S. Hutton, E. Mills,
J. T. Milton, G. H. Nisbett, E. Ristori, A. E. Seaton, Cecil H.
Wilson, Prof. T. Turner (Hon. Treasurer), W. H. Johnson
(Hon. Secretary).

Articles of Association 371

11. Clauses 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, and 94 of the Table A in
the First Schedule of the Companies (Consolidation) Act,
1908, shall apply to and form part of the Regulations of
the Association, with the substitution of " Members of the
Council " for " Directors " wherever in such clauses occurring.

12. The quorum for the transaction of business by the
Council may be fixed by the Council, but shall not be less
than five.

13. The first business of the Association shall be to acquire
the property and assets, and to undertake the liabilities and
obligations of the unincorporated Society known as the
Institute of Metals, and for the purpose of so doing the
Council shall forthwith take into consideration, and, if
approved, adopt on behalf of the Association, the Agreement
referred to in Clause 3 (a) of the Memorandum of Association.

14. The President shall be elected annually, and shall be
eligible for re-election at the end of the first year, but shall
not be eligible for re-election again until after an interval of
at least two years.

15. Two Vice-Presidents and five Members of the Council,
in rotation, shall retire annually, but shall be eligible for
re-election. The members of the Council to retire in every
year shall be those who have been longest in office since their
last election, but as between persons who became members of
the Council on the same day, those to retire shall (unless
they otherwise agree among themselves) be determined by lot.
In addition, those Vice-Presidents and Members of Council
shall retire who have not attended any meeting of the Council
or Association during the previous year, unless such non-
attendance has been caused by special circumstances which
shall have been duly notified to, and accepted by, the Council
as sufficient explanation of absence.

16. At the Ordinary General Meeting preceding the Annual
Meeting, the Council shall present a list of members nomi-
nated by them for election on the Council. Any ten mem-
bers may also, at such Meeting, nominate a candidate other

372 A^'ticles of Association

than one of those nominated by the Council. A list of candi-
dates so nominated shall be forwarded to each member of the
Association, and must be returned by him to be received by
the Secretary not later than seven days preceding the Annual

Meeting.

17. A member may erase any name or names from the list
so forwarded, but the number of names on the list, after such
erasure, must not exceed the number to be elected to the
respective offices as before enumerated. The lists which do
not accord with these directions shall be rejected by the
Scrutineers. The votes recorded for any member as Presi-
dent, shall, if he be not elected as such, count for him as
Vice-President, and, if not elected as Vice-President, shall
count for him as ordinary member of the Council. And the
votes recorded for any member as Vice-President shall, if he
be not elected as such, count for him as ordinary member
of the Council.

18. The Council shall have power to appoint a member
to fill up any vacancy that may occur in the Council during
their year of office, but any person so appointed shall hold
office only until the next following Ordinary General Meeting,
and shall then be eligible for re-election.

Section IV.— DUTIES OF OFFICERS

19. The President shall be Chairman at all Meetings at
which he shall be present, and in his absence one of the
Vice-Presidents, to be elected, in case there shall be more
than one present, by the Meeting. In the absence of a
Vice-President, the members shall elect a Chairman for
that Meeting.

20. An account shall be opened in the name of the
Association with a Bank approved by the Council, into which
all moneys belonging to or received by the Association shall
be paid. All cheques on such account shall be signed by
a member of the Council and countersigned by the Honorary

Articles of Association 373

Treasurer. No account shall be paid before it has been
certified as correct by the Council.

21. The Hon. Secretary or Secretaries shall be elected or
appointed by the Council. He or they shall attend all Meetings,
shall take minutes of the proceedings, shall be responsible
for the safe custody of all papers, books, and other moveable
property of the Association, and shall perform such other
duties as may be prescribed by the Council from time to time.
In particular, he or they shall be responsible for editing the
Jmirnal of the iTistitute of Metals.

The Council shall have power to appoint a paid Secretary
or Secretaries, and to delegate to him or them all or any of
the duties of the Hon. Secretary or Secretaries.

Section V.— GENERAL MEETINGS

22. The First General Meeting shall be held at such time,
not being more than three months after the incorporation
of the Association, and at such place as the Association
may determine. Subsequent there shall be at least two
General Meetings in each calendar year, one of which shall
be held in London during the first three months of the
calendar year, and the other at such time after the said
Meeting to be held in London and in such locality as the
Council may direct. The Meeting in London shall be the
Annual General Meeting.

The quorum for a General Meeting shall be 10 members
personally present.

23. The Council may convene an Extraordinary General
Meeting for any special purpose whenever they consider it to
be necessary. The Council shall convene an Extraordinary
General Meeting for a special purpose, upon a requisition to
that effect, signed by not less than twenty members. The
business of such a Meeting shall be confined to the special
subjects named in the notice convening the same. No mem-
ber whose subscription is in arrear shall be entitled to debate
or to vote at any General Meeting.

374 Articles of Association

In case of equality of voting at any Meeting the Chairman
shall have an additional or casting vote.

24. Seven days' notice at the least (exclusive of the day on
which the notice is served or deemed to be served, but in-
clusive of the day for which notice is given) specifying the
place, the day, and the hour of Meeting, and, in case of special
business, the general nature of that business, shall be given in
manner hereinafter mentioned, or in such other manner, if
any, as may be prescribed by the members of the Association
in General Meeting, to such persons as are, under the regula-
tions of the Association, entitled to receive such notices from
the Association, but the non-receipt of the notice by any
member shall not invalidate the meeting.

25. A notice may be given by the Association to any mem-
ber, either personally or by sending it by post to him to his
registered address, or (if he has no registered address in the
United Kingdom) to the address, if any, within the United
Kingdom supplied by him to the Association for the giving of
notices to him.

Where a notice is sent by post, service of the notice shall be
deemed to be effected by properly addressing, prepaying, and
posting a letter containing the notice, and a certificate of the
Secretary or other Officer of the Association that such notice
was so posted shall be sufficient proof of service. A notice so
posted shall be deemed to have been served the day following
that upon which it was posted.

26. If a member has no registered address in the United
Kingdom, and has not supplied to the Association an address
within the United Kingdom for the giving of notices to him,
a notice addressed to him and advertised in a newspaper
circulating in the neighbourhood of the registered office of
the Association shall be deemed to be duly given to him on
the day on which the advertisement appears.

27. Notice of every General Meeting shall be given in
some manner hereinbefore authorised to every member of the
Association, except those members who (having no registered

Articles of Association 375

address within the United Kingdom) have not supplied to
the Association an address within the United Kingdom for
the giving of notices to them. No other persons shall be
entitled to receive notices of General Meetings, but the Asso-
ciation may, but shall not be bound to give notice of General
Meetings to members not entitled thereto in such manner as
in the opinion of the Council may be practicable and con-
venient.

Section VI.— SUBSCRIPTIONS

28. The subscription of each ordinary member shall be two
guineas per annum, and of each student member one guinea
per annum. Ordinary members shall pay an entrance fee of
two guineas each, and students an entrance fee of one guinea
each. Provided that no entrance fee shall be required from
any person who was a member of the unincorporated Society
known as the Institute of Metals on the day preceding the
Incorporation of this Association, and who had paid an en-
trance fee to the said Society. No entrance fee or sub-
scription shall be payable in the case of Honorary members.

29. Subscriptions shall be payable in advance on July 1st
in each year, save in the case of Ordinary Members and
Student Members elected under Clauses 6 and 7 hereof,
whose entrance fee and annual subscription shall become
payable in accordance with the notification to them of their
election. Every subscription shall cover the period down to
the 30 th of June next following, and no longer, and for this
purpose any subscription paid to the unincorporated Society
for the period of July 1st, 1909, to June 30th, 1910, by any
person who becomes a member of this Association shall go and
be in satisfaction of any payment due in respect of membership
of this Association up to the 30th of June 1910.

30. Subject to the provisions of Clause 7 hereof, any
member whose subscription shall be six months in arrear,
shall forfeit temporarily all the privileges of the Association.
Due notice in the Form following marked " C " shall be
given to such member, and if such subscription remains

376 Articles of Association

unpaid upon the date specified for payment in this notice,
the Council may remove such member from the Register
of Members of the Association, and thereupon any member
whose name is so removed shall cease to be a member
thereof, but shall nevertheless remain liable to the Association
for such arrears.

FORM C.

Sir, — I am directed to inform you that your subscription to the

Institute of Metals, due , and amounting to L ,

is in arrear, and that if the same be not paid to me on or before the

day of , 19 , your name will be removed

from the Register of Members of the Association.

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,

Secretary.

31. The Council may, in their discretion, and upon such
terms as they think fit (including the payment of all arrears),
accede to any application for reinstatement by a person whose
name has been removed from the Register under the last
preceding Clause hereof, and the name of any person so
reinstated shall be placed upon the Register of Members
accordingly.

The Council, in their discretion, may remove from the
Register the name of any member who shall, in the opinion
of the Council, be undesirable or unfit to remain a member
after first giving him a reasonable opportunity of being
heard, and thereupon he shall cease to be a member of the
Association.

Section VII.— AUDIT

32. The provisions of the Companies (Consolidation) Act,
1908, as to Audit and Auditors shall apply to and be observed
by the Association, the first General Meeting being treated as
the Statutory Meeting, the Council being treated as the
Directors, and the members being treated as the Shareholders
mentioned in that Act.

Articles of Association 377

Section VIIL— JOURNAL

33. The Journal of the Association may include one or
more of the following : —

(«) Communications made by members, students, or

others.
(6) Abstracts of papers appearing elsewhere,
(c) Original papers appearing elsewhere.
{d) Advertisements approved by the Council.

Every member shall be entitled to receive one copy of each
issue of the Journal, delivered, post free, to his registered
address.

Section IX.— COMMUNICATIONS

34. All communications shall be submitted to the Council,
and those approved may be brought before the General
Meetings. This approval by the Council shall not be taken
as expressing an opinion on the statements made or the
arguments used in such communications.

Section X.— PROPERTY OF THE ASSOCIATION

35. All communications so made shall be the property of
the Association, and shall be published only in the Journal
of the Association, or in such other manner as the Council
may decide.

36. All books, drawings, communications, models, and the
like shall be accessible to members of the Association, and the
Council shall have power to deposit the same in such place or
places as they may consider convenient for the members.

Section XI.— CONSULTING OFFICERS

37. The Council shall have power to appoint such con-
sulting officers as may be thought desirable from time to
time, and, subject to the provisions of Clause 4 of the
Memorandum of Association, may vote them suitable re-
muneration.

378 Articles of Association

Section XIL— INDEMNITY 1

38. Every member of Council, Secretary, or other officer '\
or servant of the Association, shall be indemnified by the

Association against, and it shall be the duty of the Council \

out of the funds of the Association to pay all costs, losses, !

and expenses which any such officer or servant may incur ^
or become liable to by reason of any contract entered into

or act or thing done by him as such officer or servant j
or in any way in the discharge of his duties, including

travelling expenses. i

Names, Addresses, and Descriptions of Subscribers \

Geraed Albert Muntz, French Walls, Birmingham, Baronet. J

Thomas Turner, The University of Birmingham, Professor of Metal- 1

lurgy. I

Alfred Kirby Huntington, The University of London, Professor of ;

Metallurgy. j

William H. Johnson, 24 Lever Street, Manchester, Iron Merchant i

and Manufacturer. i

James Tayler Milton, Lloyd's Register, &c.. Chief Engineer Surveyor. '

Robert Kaye Gray, Abbey Wood, Kent, Civil Engineer. j

Emmanuel Ristori, 54 Parliament Street, London, S.W., Civil '

Engineer. .

Cecil Henry Wilson, Pitsmoor Road, Sheffield, Gold and Silver j

Refiner.
William Henry White, 8 Victoria Street, Westminster, Naval

Architect. j

Henry John Oram, Admiralty, London, S.W., Engineer Vice-Admiral. .•

Dated this 27th day of July 1910. I

\
Witness to the above signatures —

Arthur E. Burton, Solicitor, ^

Hastings House, Norfolk Street, [

Strand, W.C.

( 379 )

LIST OF MEMBERS

Members of Council are indicated by italics.
Original Members are those who were elected 1908-9.
t Denotes Cofttributor of Paper.

1910

1912
1910

1911

1908-9

1910

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

HONORARY MEMBERS

Glazbbrook, Richard Tetley, C.B., M.A., Sc.D,, F.R.S.,
Director, The National Physical Laboratory, Ted-
dington, Middlesex.
Le Chatelier, Professor Henry,

75 Rue Notre Dame des Champs, Paris, France.
Noble, Captain Sii- Andrew, Bart., K.C.B., D.L., D.C.L.,
Sc.D., F.R.S.,

14 Pall Mall, S.W.

ORDINARY MEMBERS

Abbott, Robert Rowell, B.Sc.

Peerless Motor Car Co., Cleveland, 0., U.S.A.
Adams, George,

Strathblane, Forest Glade, Leytonstone, Essex.
Adamson, Joseph,

Oaklands, Hyde, Cheshire.
Ainsworth, George,

The Hall, Consett, Durham.
Allan, Andrew, Jun.,

A. Allan & Son, 486 Greenwich Street, New
York, U.S.A.
Allan, James McNeal,

Cammell, Laird & Company, Limited, Cyclops
Works, Sheffield.
Allely, William Smith,

3 Regent Street, Birmingham.
Allen, John Hill,

54 Westfield Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

380

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member

1912 Allbn, Thomas James Wigley,

German Silver Works, Spring Hill, Birmingham.
1908-9 Allen, William Henry,

W. H. Allen, Son & Company, Limited, Queen's
Engineering Works, Bedford.
1911 Anderson, Frederic Alfred, B.Sc,

Bank Chambers, 24 Grainger Street West, New-
castle-on-Tyne.
1908-9 t Andrew, John Harold, M.Sc,

Victoria University, Manchester.

1910 Andri, Alfred,
General Manager, Fabrique Nationale d'Armes de

Guerre, Herstal-pres-Liege, Belgium.
1908-9 Appleton, Joseph,

Appleton & Howard, 12 Salisbury Street, St. Helens.

1911 Appleyard, Rollo,
79 St. Mary's Mansions, Paddington, W.

1908-9 Archbutt, Leonard,

4 Madeley Street, Derby.
1910 Ash, Engineer-Commander Harold Edward Haydon,

R.N.,

London and Glasgow Engineering Company, 172
Lancefield Street, Glasgow.

1912 Ash, Percy Claude Match wick,
10 Broad Street, Golden Square, W.

1908-9 ASHOFF, WiLHELM,

Basse and Selve, Altena, Westphalia, Germany.
1908-9 Aston, Henry Hollis,

Tennal House, Harborne, Birmingham.
1914 Ayers, Engineer-Capt. Robert Bell, M.V.O., R.N. (Rtd),

15 Infield Park, Barrow-in-Furness.

1908-9 t Bailey, George IIerbert, D.Sc, Ph.D.,

Edenmor, Kinlochleven, Argyll, N.B. i

1908-9 Bain, James, ;

The Cunard Engine Works, Huskisson Docks, j
Liverpool. i

1908-9 Baker, Thomas, D.Sc, M.Met., '

" Westville," Doncaster Road, Rotherham.
1908-9 Bamford, Charles Clifford,

Winfields Rolling Mills, Limited, Cambridge Street, ,
Birmingham.
1908-9 t Bannister, Charles Olden, A.R.S.M.,

60 West Side, Clapham Common, S.W. *

1910 Barclay, Alexander Clark, \

Westholm, Jordanhill, Glasgow.

List of Members

381

Elected ■
Member.

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1908-9

1910

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1908-9

1913

1908-9

1910

Barclay, William Robb,

50 Upper Albert Road, Meersbrook, Sheffield.
Barker, John Henry,

Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company, Ltd.,
Adderley Park Mills, Birmingham.
Barnard, Alfred Henry,

H. B. Barnard & Sons, 1481 Fenchurch St., E.G.
Barnard, George,

Callendar's Cable and Construction Company, Ltd.,
Cambridge Street, Birmingham.
Barr, Professor Archibald, D.Sc. {Glas.),

Westerton, Milngavie, N.B.
Barwell, Charles H.,

Barwells Ltd., Pickford Street, Birmingham.
Bassett, William H.,

American Brass Co., Waterbury, Conn., U.S.A.
Bawden, Frederick,

Garston Copper Works, Liverpool.
Baylay, Willoughby Lake,

Foremark, Dorridge, Warwickshire.
Bayliss, Thomas Abraham,

King's NoHon Metal Co., Ltd., King's Norton, Bir-
mingham.
Bayliss, Thomas Richard,

Belmont, Northfield, Birmingham.
Bean, G.,

Allen Everitt <k Sons, Ltd., Kingston Metal
Works, Smethwick, Birmingham.
Beare, Professor T. Hudson, B.A. (Adelaide), B.Sc.
(Lond.),

Engineering Laboratories, The University,
Edinburgh.
Becker, Pitt,

18/19 Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Bedford, Charles Yvone Riland,

H. H. Vivian & Co., Ltd., Icknield Port Read,
Birmingham.
Bedson, Joseph Phillips,

137 Lapwing Lane, Didsbury, Manchester.
Beer, Emil,

120 Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Beer, Ludwig,

Beer, Sondheimer & Co., Frankfurt - am - Main,
Germany.
Be/LBV, George Thomas, LL.D., F.R.S.,

11 University Gardens, Glasgoio.

382

The Institute of Metals

1912 Belaiew, Captain Nicholas T.,

Chemical Laboratory, Michael Artillery Academy,
St. Petersburg, Russia.
1908-9 Bell, Sir Hugh, Bart., D.L., D.C.L., LL.D.,

Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
1908-9 Bell, Thomas,

J. Brown & Co., Ltd., Clydebank, Dumbartonshire.

1911 t Benedicks, Professor Carl Axel Fredrik, Ph.D.,

Tegnerlunden 3'^, Stockholm Va, Sweden.
1908-9 t Bengough, Guy Dunstan, M.A. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Liv.),

The University, Liverpool.
1908-9 Benton, Arthur,

Benton Brothers, Rodley Foundry, Sheffield.
1908-9 Bevis, Henry,

Pirelli, Limited, 144 Queen Victoria Street, E.C.
1910 Bevis, Restal Ratsey,

" Hamptoune," Vyner Road, Birkenhead.
1908-9 Bibby, John Hartley,

John Bibby & Company (Garston), Limited, Garston
Copper Works, Liverpool.
1908-9 Biles, Professor Sir John Harvard, Kt., LL.D., D.Sc,

10 University Gardens, Glasgow.
1908-9 BiLL-GozzARD, George,

Stephenson Chambers, 39a New Street, Birmingham.
1908-9 Billington, Charles,

" Heimath," Longport, Staffordshire.
1908-9 Birch, Harry,

" Inglewood," Chester Road, Streetly, Birmingham.
1908-9 Blaikley, Arthur,

10 Provost Road, South Hampstead, N.W.
1908-9 Bloomer, Frederick John,

" Penpont," Clydach, S.O., Glamorganshire.
1908-9 Blount, Bertram,

76/78 York Street, Westminster, S.W.
1910 Blundell, Frederick Hearn,

199 Wardour Street, W.
1908-9 BoEDDiCKER, GusTAV Adolf {Vice-President),

Henry Wiggin ^ Company, Limited, Wiggin Street
Works, Birmingham.

1912 Bolton, Edward John,

Thornbury Hall, Cheadle, Staffordshire.
1908-9 Bolton, Thomas,

T. Bolton & Sons, Limited., 57 Bishopsgate, E.C.
1912 Boote, Edgar Middleton,

2 Lithos Road, Hampstead, N.W.
1908-9 Booth, Cuthbert Rayner,

Jas. Booth & Co., Ltd., Sheepcote St., Birmingham.

List of Members

383

BoRCHERS, Professor Wilhelm, Dr.lng., Dr.Ph.,

Ludwigsallee 15, Aachen, Germany.
IJosciiERON, Louis,

Hollogne-aux-Pierres, Belgium.
BowRAN, Robert,

Robert Bowran & Company, Limited, 4 St. Nicholas'
Buildings, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
BoYLSTON, Herbert Melville, B.Sc, M.A.,

Sauveur & Boylston, Abbot Building, Harvard
Square, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
Braby, Cyrus.

F. Braby & Co., Ltd., 110 Cannon Street, E.C.
Bradley, Benjamin,

Hedgefield, Harpenden, Herts.
Brain, Henry Richard,

55 Brockley Grove, Crofton Park, S.E.
Bray, David,

"Glenwood," Hardwick Road, Streetly, Birmingham.
Bregowsky, Ivan M.,

Crane Company, 1214 Canal Street, Chicago, HI.,
U.S.A.
Broadfoot, James,

Bull's Metal Company, Yoker, Glasgow.
Broadfoot, William Ritchie,

John Broadfoot & Sons, Ltd., Inchholm "Works,
James Street, Whiteinch, Glasgow.
Brockbank, John George,

1 Cannon Street, Birmingham.
Brook, George Bernard,

" Cravenhurst," Fulwood, Sheffield.
Brooks, John Frederick,

Engineering Department, Municipal Technical
School, Leicester.
Brotherhood, Stanley,

Peterborough.
Brown, Charles A. J.,

"Glenroy," Gillott Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Brown, James,

Scotts' Shipbuilding and Engineering Company,
Limited, Greenock.
Brown, Robert John,

W. Turner & Company, 75-79 Eyre Street,
Sheffield.
Brown, William,

London Works, Renfrew.
Brown, William Meikle,

46 Bede Burn Road, Jarrow-on-Tyne.

384

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1911 Browne, Sir Benjamin CnAPMAft, Kt.,

Westacres, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1908-9 Brownsdon, Henry Winder, M.Sc, Ph.D.,

109 Oxford Road, Moseley, Birmingham.

1913 Bryant, Charles William,
Stanground House, Peterborough.

1908-9 Buchanan, Charles,

Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping,
71 Fenchurch Street, B.C.

1914 Buck, Henry Arthur,
" Malahide," Harrowdene Road, Wembley,

Middlesex.
1908-9 Buckwell, George William,

Board of Trade Surveyors' Office, 73 Robertson
Street, Glasgow.

1911 Buell, William Heaney, Ph.B.,
Winchester Repeating Arms Company, New Haven,

Conn., U.S.A.
1908-9 BuLLEiD, Professor Charles Henry, M.A.,

University College, Nottingham.

1912 Burner, Alfred,
A. G. Mumford, Limited, Culver Street Engineering

Works, Colchester.

1913 Burnett, Jacob Edward,
.53 Percy Park, Tynemouth.

1913 Butler, Reginald Henry Brinton, B.Sc,

" Kiikbymead," Hermon Hill, S. Woodford, Essex.

1908-9 Buttenshaw, George Eskholme,

" Lynbrook," Wilbraham Road, Chorlton-cum-
Hardy, Lancashire.

1908-9 Butterfield, John Cope,

79 Endlesham Road, Balham, S.W.

1908-9 Caird, Patrick Tennant,

Belleaire, Greenock, Renfrewshire.

1908-9 Caird, Robert, LL.D.,

56 Esplanade, Greenock, Renfrewshire.

1913 Caldwell, Robert John, D.Sc. (Lond.),

" Rosendale," Holland Park, Belfast, Ireland.

1910 Campion, Professor Alfred,
The Royal Technical College, Glasgow.

1908-9 Canning, Thomas Richard,

W. Canning & Co., 133 Great Hampton Street,
Birmingham.

1911 Capp, John A.,
General Electric Company, Schenectady, N.Y.,

U.S.A.

List of Members

385

Elected
Member.

1912 Cardozo, Henri Alexandre,
54 Rue de Prony, Paris, France.

1910 Carels, Gaston Louis,
53 Dock, Ghent, Belgium.

1913 Carnt, Engineer-Commander Albert John, R.N.,
" St. Bedes," Walton, Peterborough.

1908-9 Carnt, Edwin Charles,

Westwood, Wootton Bridge, Isle of Wight.
1908-9 t Carpenter, Professor Henry Cort Harold, M.A.
{Oxon.), Ph.D. {Leipzig), {Vice-President),

Royal Scliool of Mines, South Kensington, S. W.
1908-9 Carr, James John William,

Charles Carr, Limited, Woodlands Bell and Brass
Foundry, Smethwick, Birmingham.

1914 Carruthers, Engineer-Commander David John, R.N.,
The Admiralty, Whitehall, Westminster, S.W.

1908-9 Carter, Arthur,

Brookfield Villa, Stalybridge, Manchester.
1914 Carter, George John,

Cammell, Laird & Company, Limited, Birkenhead.
1908-9 Chalas, Emile Clayey,

Chalas & Sons, Finsbury Pavement House, Fins-
bury Pavement, E.C.
1908-9 Chambers, David Macdonald,

D. M. Chambers <fe Company, Norfolk House,
Laurence Pountney Hill, Cannon Street, E.G.

1913 Chapman, Arthur Jenner,
F. Claudet, Limited, 6 and 7 Coleman Street, E.C.

1911 Charpy, Georges,
Directeui' des Usines St. Jacques, Montlu9on, France.

1908-9 Clamer, Guilliam H., B.S.,

The Ajax Metal Company, Frankford Avenue,
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
1908-9 Clark, George,

Richardsons, Westgarth & Company, Limited,
Hartlepool.
1908-9 Clark, Henry,

George Clark, Limited, Southwick Engine Works,
Sunderland.
1908-9 Clark, John,

British India Steam Navigation Company, Limited,
9 Throgmorton Avenue, E.C.

1914 Clark, William Edwards,
" Newnham," Holly Lane, Erdington, Birmingham.

1913 Clark, William Wallace,

American Vanadium Company, Bridgeville, Pa.,
U.S.A.

386

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1914 Clarke, Walter G.,

39 Old Broad Street, E.G.
1908-9 Clayton, George Christopher, Ph.D.,

Croughton, near Chester.
1908-9 Cleghorn, Alexander,

14 Hatfield Drive, Kelvinside, Glasgoio.
1908-9 Cleland, William, B.Sc,

Sheffield Testing Works, Blonk Street, Sheffield.
1908-9 CoE, Harry Ivor, M.Sc,

The University, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1908-9 Collie, Charles Alexander,

Earle, Bourne & Company, Limited, Lejonca,,
Bilbao, Spain.
1913 Colver-Glauert, Edward, Dr.Ing.,

Brooklands, Osgathorpe, Sheffield.

1909 Connolly, James,
Zuurfontein Foundry, Zuurfontein, Transvaal,:

South Africa.
1908-9 Constantine, Ezekiel Grayson,

58 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
1908-9 CooKSON, Clive,

Cookson & Company, Limited, Milburn House,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1908-9 CoRFiELD, John,

Dillwyn & Company, Limited, Swansea.
1908-9 CoRFiELD, Reginald William Godfrey, A.R.S.M.,

5 Richmond Villas, Swansea.
1908-9 Corse, William Malcolm, B.Sc,

Secretary, American Institute of Metals, c/o'
Empire Smelting Company, Depew, N.Y.,
U.S.A.
1908-9 Courtman, Ernest Owen, A.R.S.M.,

Denford House, Atkins Road, Clapham Park,
S.W.
1912 Cowan, George Dunford,

Bridge House, Bridge Road, Millwall, E.
1908-9 CowPER-CoLES, Sherard Osborn,

" The Cottage," French Street, Sunbury-on-Thame.«.

1910 Crawford, William Mitchell,
41 Kelvinside Gardens N., Glasgow.

1908-9 Crighton, Robert,

Harland & Wolff, Limited, Bootle, Liverpool.

1911 Crofts, Frederick J.,
Bloomfield House, Tipton.

1908-9 Crossley, Percy Broadbent,

The Park, Ishapore, E.B.S. Railway, Nawabgunj,
near Calcutta, India.

List of Members

387

1908-9

1911

Cbowther, James Guest,

5 Sharrow Mount, Psalter Lane, Sheffield.
CuLLEN, William Hart,

Castner - Kellner Alkali Company, Limited,
Wallsend, Northumberland.

1911 Dale, Robert Davidson,
Cornwall Buildings, 45 Newhall Street, Birmingham.

1908-9 Danks, Aaron Turner,

John Danks & Son, Proprietory, Limited, 391
Bourke Street, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

1909 Davies, Peter, Jun.,
W. Roberts & Company, Garston, Limited, Crown

Copper Mills, Garston, Liverpool.
1908-9 Davison, Captain Herbert,

379 Upper Richmond Road, S.W.

1912 Dawlings, Richard Maurice Neave,
85 Teignmouth Road, Brondesbviry, N.W.

1910 Dawson, William Francis,
The General Electric Company, West Lynn, Mass.,

U.S.A.
1908-9 Deer, George,

Rio Tinto Company, Port Talbot, South Wales.
1908-9 Dendy, Edward Evershed,

Elliott's Metal Company, Limited, Selly Oak,
Birmingham.
1908-9 Denny, James,

Engine Works, Dumbarton.
1908-9 t Desch, Cecil Henry, D.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Wurz.),
Metallurgical Chemistry Laboratory,
The University, Glasgow.
1914 Dbwar, James McKie,

Oammell, Laird & Company, Limited, 3 Central
Buildings, Westminster, S.W.

1911 t Deweance, John,
165 Great Dover Street, S.E. '■

1908-9 Dingwall, Frederick William,

40 Chapel Street, Liverpool.

1913 Dixon, Engineer- Commander Robert Bland, R.N.,
H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

1908-9 DoBBS, Ernest Walter,

110 Holly Road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1914 Donaldson, Thornycroft,
J. I. Thornycroft & Company, Limited,

Southampton.
1908-9 Drury, Harry James Hutchison,

4 Priorton Terrace, Swansea.

388

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1911
1908-9

1911

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1908-"9

1908-9

1914

1911

1910
1913
1910

Duff, Philip John,

42 Comely Bank Avenue, Edinburgh, Scotland.
DuGARD, George Heaton,

Dugard Brothers, Vulcan Mills, Birmingham.
DuGARD, Herbert Arthur,

Dugard Brothers, Shadwell Street Mills,
Birmingham.
Duncan, Hugh Malcolm, B.Sc,

5 King Edward's Road, Heaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Dunn, John Thomas, D.Sc. (Dur.),

Public Analyst's Laboratory, 10 Dean Street,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
DuNSMUiR, George Augustus,

Dunsmuir & Jackson, Limited, Govan Engine
Works, Govan, Glasgow.
Dyson, William Henry,

The Amalgams Company, Limited, Attercliffe Road,
Sheffield.

Earle, John William,

Heath Street South, Birmingham.
EccLES, Ernest Edward,

The British Aluminium Company, Ltd., Foyers,
N.B.
EcHEVARRi, Juan Thomas Wood,

43 Merton Hall Road, Wimbledon, S.W.
Eden, Charles Hamilton,

Glynderwen, Blackpill, S.O., Glamorganshire.
Edmiston, John Alexander Clark,

53 West Road, Irvine, Ayrshire.
Edwards, Professor Charles Alfred, D.Sc,

The University, Manchester.
Edwards, John James,

Royal Laboratory, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
Ellis, Henry Disney,

30 Blackheath Park, S.E.
Ellis, Owen W.,

115 Varna Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Ely, Talfourd,

India-rubber, Gutta-percha, and Telegraph Works
Company, Limited, Silvertown, E.
Enthoven, Henry John,

153 Leadenhall Street, E.C.
EspiR, Fernand,

3 East India Avenue, E.C.
Esslemont, Alfred Sherwood,

Oide House, Morpeth, Northumberland.

List of Members

38d

Elected
Member.

1908-9

1914
1911

1913

1908-9

1911

1908-9

1911

1908-9

1913
1914
1911

1911

1910

1908-9
1908-9
1908-9

1908-9

Evans, Samuel, M.Sc,

Bradley Williams Ore Treatment Company (1910),
Limited, Dunston Metal Works, Dunston-on-
Tyne.
Evans, Ulick Richardson, B.A.,

28 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
EvERED, Stanley,

Evered & Company, Limited, Surrey Works,
Smethwick, Birmingham.

Falk, Erik,

Swedish Metal Works Company, Limited, Westeras,
Sweden.
Farley, Douglas Henry,

Union Lane, Sheffield.
Fay, Henry, A.M., Ph.D.,

Mass. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Feron, Albert,

49 Rue du Chatelain, Brussels, Belgium.
Ferry, Charles,

Bridgeport BrassCompany,Bridgeport, Conn., U.S. A.
Fisher, Henry Jutson,

A. T. Becks & Company, 54 Clement Street,
Birmingham.
Fitz-Brown, George, A.R.S.M.,

Ditton Copper Works, Widnes.
Fleminger, Reginald Edward,

River Plate House, Finsbury Circus, E.C.
Foersterling, Hans,

The Roessler and Hasslacher Chemical Company,
Perth Amboy, N.J., U.S.A.
FoRSBERG, Erik August,

Aktiebolaget Separator, Fleminggatan 8, Stock-
holm, Sweden.
Forsstedt, James,

Finspongs Metallverks, Aktiebolag, Finspong,
Sweden.
Francis, Arthur Aubrey,

92/94 Gracechurch Street, E.C.
Francis, Reginald,

92/94 Gracechurch Street, E.C.
Eraser, Kenneth,

The Yorkshire Copper Works, Limited, Pontefract
Road, Leeds.
Feey, J. Heinbich,

Zurich, Switzerland.

390

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1908-9 Gardner, Henry,

H. R. Merton & Company, Limited, Billiter
Buildings, E.G.
1908-9 Gardner, James Alexander,

21 Outhbert Place, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.
1908-9 Garfield, Alexander Stanley, B.Sc,

10 Rue de Londres, Paris, France.
1912 t Garland, Herbert,

P.O. Box 417, Cairo, Egypt.
1908-9 Garnham, Frederick Malcolm,

8 West Bank, Stamford Hill, N.
1908-9 Garnham, James Coote,

132 Upper Thames Street, E.G.
1912 Garrett-Smith, Noel,

Edison & Swan United Electric Light Company,
Limited, Bonder's End, Middlesex.
1908-9 Gaywood, Charles Frederick,

Sydney Cottage, Durham Road, Sparkhill,
Birmingham.

1912 Gem, Evelyn Percy,
George Johnson <fe Company, Montgomery Street,

Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
1914 GiBB, Allan, A.R.S.M.,

29 Buckingham Palace Mansions, S.W.
1911 GiBB, Maurice Sylvester,

Central Marine Engine Works, West Hartlepool.
1908-9 GiBBiNS, William W^aterhouse, M.A.,

Selly Oak, Birmingham.
1908-9 Gibbons, William Gregory,

" Viewpark," Russell Place, Trinity, Edinburgh.

1913 Gibbs, Leonard,
" Abermaw," School Road, Hall Green, Birming-
ham.

1908-9 Gilchrist, James,

Stobcross Engine Works, Glasgow.
1910 Gillett, Horace W., A.B., Ph.D.,

Morse Hall, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

1914 Gilley, Thomas Barter,
The Metallurgical Company, Limited, Newcastle-

on-Tyne.
1910 GiRDWooD, Robert Walker,

Wm. Gallimore & Sons, Arundel Works, Sheffield.
1908-9 GiRTiN, Thomas, M.A.,

H. L. Raphael's Refinery, 48 Thomas Street,
Limehouse, E.
1913 Gladitz, Charles,

Duram Works, Hanwell, W.

List of Members

391

Elected
Member.

1908-9 GoLDSCHMiDT, Professor Hans, Ph.D.,

Th. Goldschmidt Chemical and Tin Smelting Works,
Essen-Ruhr, Germany.
1908-9 Goodwin, Engineer-Rear- Admiral George Goodwin, R.N.,

C.B.,

" Meadowside," 91 Thurleigh Road, Wandsworth
Common, S.W.
1912 Gordon, Joseph Gordon,

15 Queen Anne's Mansions, S.W.
1908-9 Gower, Francis William,

The Birmingham Aluminium Casting (1903) Com-
pany, Limited, Cambridge Street, Birmingham.
1908-9 t GowLAND, Professor William, F.R.S., A.R.S.M. (Past-
President),

13 Russell Road, Kensington, W.
1908-9 Gracie, Alexander, M.V.O.,

Fairfield Works, Govan, Glasgow.
1912 Graham, Alfred Henry Irvine,

Fuller's Cottage, Ditton Road, Surbiton.
1910 Grazebrook, Engineer-Lieutenant Robert, R.N,,

The Admiralty, Whitehall, Westminster, S.W.
1908-9 t Greenwood, Herbert William,

The Boundary Chemical Company, Limited,
Cranmer Street, Liverpool.
1908-9 Greenwood, Thomas,

Rosegarth, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
1910 Greenwood, Vladimir Edward,

{Address missing.)
1908-9 Greer, Henry Holme Airey,

James C. Greer & Son, 50 Wellington Street,
Glasgow.

1910 Gregory, Sewell Harding,
120 Coleherne Court, S.W.

1908-9 Grice, Edwin,

5 Beach Mansions, Southsea, Hampshire.
1908-9 Griffiths, Harold,

The New Delaville Spelter Company, Limited,
Spring Hill, Birmingham.
1909 Grimston, Francis Sylvester,

Hawksdale, Naini Tal, Upper India.

1912 Groves, Clarence Richard, M.Sc,
Gamble Institute, St. Helens, Lancashire.

1913 Guernsey, The Rt. Hon. Lord,
9 Sussex Square, W.

1911 t GuERTLER, William Minot, Ph.D.,
Kunz-Buntschuh-Str. 7b, Berlin-Grunewald,

Germany.

392

The Institute of Metals

1912 Guess, Professor George A.,

Oakville, Ontario, Canada.
1908-9 GuiLLEMiN, Georges,

16 Rue du Sommerard, Paris (5®), France.
1908-9 GuiLLET, Professor Ld:oN,

8 Avenue des Ternes, Paris, France.
1908-9 t Gulliver, Gilbert Henry, B.Sc,

99 Southwark Street, S.E.
1908-9 GwYER, Alfred George Cooper, B.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D.

(Gott.).

The British Aluminium Company, Limited, Milton,
Staffordshire.
1914 GwYNNE, Nevill G.,

Gwynnes, Limited, Hammersmith Ironworks, W.

1910 Haddock, Walter Thorpe,
The Heeley Silver-Rolling and Wire Mills, Ltd.,

Sheffield.
1908-9 Hadfield, Sir Robert Abbott, Kt., D.Sc, D.Met., F.R.S.,

22 Carlton House Terrace, S.W.
1908-9 Hall, Henry Platt,

Piatt Brothers and Company, Limited, Oldham.
1908-9 Hall-Brown, Ebenezer,

Richardsons, Westgarth & Co., Ltd., Middlesbrough.
1908-9 Hallett, Joseph,

70 Fenchurch Street, E.G.
1914 Ham, Engineer-Captain John William, R.N.,

28 Telford Avenue, Streatham Hill, S.W.
1908-9 Hamilton, Gerard Montague,

Calle Chicarreros 10, Sevilla, Spain.

1911 Hankinson, Alfred,
Richard Johnson, Clapham & Morris, Limited, P.O.

Box 1102, Sydney, Australia.
1911 Hanna, Robert Walker,

4 Birch Terrace, Dickenson Road, Rusholme,
Manchester.
1911 Hanna, William George,

4 Birch Terrace, Dickenson Road, Rusholme,
Manchester.
1908-9 Harbord, Frank William, A.R.S.M.,

16 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
1908-9 Harlow, Bernard Schaffer,

Robert Harlow & Son, H^aton Norris, Stockport.
1914 Harris, Jonathan Wistar, B.S.,

Western Electric Company, 463 West Street, New
York, N.Y., U.S.A.

List of Members

393

Qectod
Member.

1911

1908-9

1911

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9
1908-9

1908-9

1911

1908-9
1912

1911

1908-9

1914

1908-9

1914
1911
1908-9

Harris, Thomas Robert,

2 Calverley Villas, Dawley Road, Harlington,

Middlesex.
Harrison, John Samuel,

"Llanberis," Chester Road, near Erdington,
Birmingham.
Hartley, Richard Frederick, B.Sc. (Glas.),

Royal Laboratory, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
Haughton, John Leslie, M.Sc,

" Oakhurst," Thicket Road, Sutton, Surrey.
Heap, John Henry,

The British Mining and Metal Company, Limited,
123-127 Cannon Street, E.G.
Heap, Ray Douglas Theodore,

Kingsway House, Kingsway, London, W.C.
Heathcote, Henry Leonard, B.Sc,

Rudge-Whitworth, Limited, Coventry.
Heberlein, Ferdinand,

Bockenheimer Anlage 45, Frankfurt-am-Main,
Germany.
Heckford, Arthur Egerton,

Birmingham Metal Works, Frederick Street,
Birmingham.
Hendry, Colonel Patrick William,

Chairman, Hendry Brothers, Limited, 32 Robertson
Street, Glasgow.
Herdsman, William Henry,

22 Newlands Park, Sydenham, S.E.
Heusler, Friedrich, Ph.D.,

Isabellen-Hutte, Dillenburg (Hessen-Nassau),
Germany.
Hewitt, Professor John Theodore, M.A. (Cantab.),
D.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Heid.), F.R.S.,
Clifford House, Bedfont, Middlesex.
Heycock, Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.,

3 St. Peter's Terrace, Cambridge.
HiGGS, Claude,

3 Museum Mansions, Great Russell Street, W.C.
Highton, Douglas Clifford, M.A.,

Highton & Son, Limited, Brassfounders and
. Engineers, 20 Graham Street, City Road, N.
Hill, Eustace Carey,

Clifton House, Park Road, Coventry.
Hill, Ernest Henry,

13 East Grove Road, Sheffield.
Hills, Charles Harold, B.Sc,

5 Windsor Crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

394

The Institute of Metals

1908-9
1911

1908-9

1908-9
1911

1908-9
1908-9

1908-9

1912
1910
1908-9

1908-9

1913

1908-9
1910

1908-9

Hirst, Tom Gkeenough,

49 Union Street, Leigh, Lancashire.
HoBSON, Arthur E.,

International Silver Company, Meriden, Conn.,
U.S.A.
HoDGKiNSON, Professor William Richard E., M.A.,
Ph.D. (Wiirz.),
89 Shooter's Hill Road, Blackheath, S.E.
HoFMAN, Professor Heinrich Oscar, Ph.D. (Ohio),

Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
Hogg, Thomas Williams,

John Spencer & Sons, Ltd., Newburn Steel Works,
near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
HoLLOWAY, George Thomas,

9-13 Emmett Street, Limehouse, E.
Holmes, Joseph,

Welsh Tinplate and Metal Stamping Company,
Limited, Brondeg, Llanelly, South Wales.
Holt, Harold,

E. Kempster & Sons, Borough Brass Works, Bury,
Lancashire.
Holt, Thomas William,

103 Wakefield Road, Staly bridge, Manchester.
Hood, James MacLay,

" Rowallan," Maryland Drive, Glasgow, S.W.
Hooton, Arthur J. S.,

S. H. Johnson & Company, Limited, Engineering
Works, Carpenter's Road, Stratford, E.
Hopkins, Suwarrow Moore,

Birmingham Battery and Metal Company, Ltd.,
Selly Oak, Birmingham.
HoPKiNsoN, Frank Addy,

Chairman, J. Hopkinson & Company, Limited,
Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Howe, Professor Henry Marion, A.M., B.Sc, LL.D.
(Harv. and Lafayette),
Broad Brook Road, Bedford Hills, N.Y., U.S.A.
Hoyt, Professor Samuel Leslie,

School of Mines, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.A.
Hudson, Oswald Freeman, M.Sc,

The University, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Hughes, George,

Lancashire and Yorkshire Railioay Works, Horwich,
Lancashire.
Hughes, George Frederick,

Box 23, Pietersburg, Transvaal, South Africa.

List of Members

395

Hughes, Joseph,

Albion Metal Works, Woodcock Street, Birmingham.
Hughes, Theophilus Vaughan, A.R.S.M.,

130 Edmund Street, Birmingham.
Hull, Daniel Raymond,

American Brass Company, Kenosha, Wisconsin,
U.S.A.
Humphries, Henry James,

Atlas Metal and Alloys Company, 52 Queen Victoria
Street, E.C.
Hunter, George Burton, D.Sc. (Dur.),

Wallsend-on-Tyne.
Hunter, Summers {Vice-President),

1 Manor Terrace, Tynemouth, Northumh&rland.
Huntington, Professor Alfred Kirby, A.R.S.M. (Past-
President),

Metallurgical Laboratories, King's College, London.
Hurburgh, Leonard Henry,

W. F. Dennis & Co., 49 Queen Victoria Street, E.G.
HuRREN, Frederick Harold,

25 Spencer Avenue, Coventry.
Hussey, Arthur Vivian,

Dolgarrog Works, Tal-y-cafn, North Wales.
HuTTON, Robert Salmon, D.Sc,

William Hutton ^ Sons, Limited, Sheffield.
Hyman, Walter,

I. & J. Hyman, Thornhill Bridge Wharf, London,N.

Inglis, George Alexander, B.Sc,
64 Warroch Street, Glasgow.

Jack, Henry Joseph,

The Aluminium Corporation, Limited, 52 Coleman
Street, E.C.
Jacob, Arthur,

The British Aluminium Company, Limited, 109
Queen Victoria Street, E.C.
Jacob, Henry,

Henry Jacob & Company, 9 Water Lane, E.C.
Jacobs, Harry,

Exchange Buildings, New Street, Birmingham.
Jago, William Henry,

59 Vancouver Road, Forest Hill, S.E.
James, Garnet Williams, M.A. (Oxon.),

J. Stone & Company, Limited, Deptford, S.E.
Jameson, Charles Godfrey,

The British Aluminium Company, Limited,
Kinlochleven, Argyllshire.

396

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1911 Jarry, E. v.,
R. Buckland & Son, 10/11 Hop Gardens, St. Martin's

Lane, W.C.

1912 Jennison, Herbert Chabnock,
P.O. Box 348, Ansonia, Conn., U.S.A.

1908-9 Johnson, Arthur Laurence, M.A.,

Woodleigh, Altrincham.
1908-9 Johnson, Bernard Angas,

c/o National Provincial Bank, Finchley Road,
Hampstead, N.W.
1908-9 Johnson, Ernest, M.A.,

Richard Johnson & Nephew, Limited, Bradford
Iron Works, Manchester.
1908-9 t Johnson, Frederick, M.Sc,

Metallurgical Department, Municipal Technical
School, Suffolk Street, Birmingham.
1908-9 Johnson, Harold Marsland,

Bradford Iron Works, Manchester.
1908-9 Johnson, William Morton, M.A.,

Richard Johnson, Clapham & Morris, Limited,
24 Lever Street, Manchester.
1908-9 Jude, Alexander Archie,

Belliss and Morcom, Limited, Birmingham.

1908-9 Kamps, Hans,

Directeur de la Fabrique Nationale de Tubes sans
Soudre, Merxem-lez-Anvers, Belgium.
1908-9 Kaye, Harry,

H. B. Barnard & Sons, 148i Fenchurch Street, E.G.
1908-9 Keeling, A. D.,

Warstone Metal Works, Hall Street, Birmingham.
1908-9 Keiffenheim, Erwin Charles,

The Metallurgical Company, A. Keiffenheim and
Sons, Milburn House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1908-9 Kemp, John Frank,

A. Kemp & Son, Tenby Street North, Birmingham.
1908-9 Kendrew, Thomas,

Broughton Copper Company, Limited, Manchester.
1910 KiDSTON, William Hamilton,

81 Great Clyde Street, Glasgow.
1908-9 King, Ernest Gerald, Editor, T]ie Metal Industry,

33 Bedford Street, Strand, W.C.
1908-9 KiRKPATRicK, Vincent,

Closeburn, Hartopp Road, Four Oaks, Sutton
Coldfield, Birmingham.
1908-9 t Klein, Carl Adolphe,

4 Brimsdown Avenue, Enfield Highway, Middlesex.

List of Members

397

Lacy, William Yaveir,

Oak Mount, Westbourne Road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
Laing, Andrew,

15 Osborne Road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Lambert, Arthur Reginald,

Mitsui & Company, Limited, 33 Lime Street, E.G.
Lambert, Wesley, A. K. C,

" Whitefriars," 41 Bromley Road, Catford, S.E.
Lancaster, Harry Charles,

Locke, Lancaster and W. W. and R, Johnson and
Sons, Limited, 14 Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Landsberg, Heinrich,

Heddernheimer Kupferwerk und Siiddeutsche
Kabelwerke, Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt-am -
Main, Germany.
Lang, Charles Russell,

G. & J. Weir, Limited, Holm Foundry, Cathcart,
Glasgow.
Langdon, Palmer H., Editor, The Metal Industry,

99 John Street, New York City, U.S.A.
Langenbach, Oscar,

17 Bolton Gardens, is. W.
Lantsberry, Frederick C. A. H., M.Sc,

63 Walford Road, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
Law, Edward Fulton, A.R.S.M.,

Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Company,
Limited, Ashton Road, Openshaw, Man-
chester.
Lazarus, William,

193 Regent Street, W.
Ledoux, Albert Reid, A.M., M.S., Ph.D.,

Ledoux & Company, 99 John Street, New York
City, N.Y., U.S.A.
Lees, Charles,

Loanda, Wickwar, Gloucester.
Leigh, Cecil,

Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company,
Limited, Birmingham.
Leslie, Robert,

P. & 0. Steam Navigation Company, 122
Leadenhall Street, E.C.
Lessner, Charles Bluthner,

The San Finx Tin Mines, Limited, Carril, Spain.
Lester, Walter,

The Phosphor Bronze Company, Limited, 87
Sumner Street, S.E.

398

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1911 Letcher, William Whitburn,

84 Queen Elizabeth's Walk, Lordship Park, N.

1910 Levi, Olive Joseph, B.Sc,
143 Newhall Street, Birmingham.

1912 Little, Arthur Dehon,
Arthur D. Little, Inc., 93 Broad Street, Boston,

Mass., U.S.A.

1911 LiVERSiDGE, Engineer-Commander Edward WilliaMjR.N.,
H.M. Torpedo Depot, Chatham Dockyard.

1908-9 LoNGMUiR, Percy, D.Met.,

Ravenscrag, Wortley, near Sheffield.
1908-9 Lord, Fitzherbert Albert Bugby,

49 Queen Victoria Street, E.C.
1910 t Louis, Professor Henry, M.A., D.Sc, A.R.S.M.,

4 Osborne Terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1910 Low, Archibald Nicol,

Partick Brass Foundry Company, Merkland Works,
Partick, Glasgow.

1908-9 McCoNWELL, Arthur,

60 Drury Buildings, Water Street, Liverpool.
1910 Macfee, Robert,

15 Alexandra Grove, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester,

1912 Macintosh, James Rae, B.Sc. (Glas.),
Siemens Brothers Dynamo Works, Limited,

Central House, Birmingham.
1908-9 McKechnie, Alexander,

McKechnie Brothers, Rotton Park Street,
Birmingham.

1910 McKechnie, James,
Vickers, Limited, Barrow-in-Furness.

1908-9 Mackenzie, William,

McKechnie Brothers, 90 Pilgrim Street, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.
1908-9 McLaurin, Engineer-Commander John, R.N.,

The Laurels, Bi'anksome Wood Road, Fleet,
Hampshire.
1908-9 t McWiLLiAM, Professor Andrew, A.R.S.M., D.Met. (Shef.),
Kalimati, B. N. Railway, India.

1913 Main, Engineer-Commander Reuben, R.N.,
86 Cavendish Drive, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.

1912 Malby, Seth Grant,

Aluminium Company of America, 99 John Street,
New York City, U.S.A.

1911 Mallisont, George,
5 South CliflEe Avenue, Eastbourne.

List of Members

399

Mannell, John,

G. Thompson & Company, Limited, Aberdeen
White-Star Line, Billiter Square, E.G.
Mapplebeck, Edward,

Liverpool Street, Birmingham,
Mapplebeck, Edward Percy Wilkes,

J. Wilkes, Sons & Mapplebeck, Limited, Liverpool
Street, Birmingham.
Marshall, Engineer-Commander Frederick William,
R.N.

H.M.S. "Monarch," 2nd Battle Squadron, Home
Fleet.
Mason, Frank,

Wayland House, 70 Wayland Road, Sheffield,
Maw, William Henry, LL.D.,

18 Addison Road, Kensington, W.
May, William Walker,

Woodbourne, Minard Avenue, Partickhill, Glasgow.
Mayo, Charles Robert,

155 Dashwood House, New Broad Street, E.G.
Menzies, John,

Merton Abbey, S.W.
Mercer, James Bury,

HoUycroft, Deepthwaite, Milnthorpe, Westmorland.
Merrett, William Henry, A.R.S.M.,

Hatherley, Grosvenor Road, Wallington, Surrey.
Meyjes, Anthony Cornelius, Editor, Tlie Ironmongei',

42 Cannon Street, E.G.
Mbyrick, Lewis Jenkin,

137 City Road, Birmingham.
Michie, Arthur C, D.Sc,

The Wallsend Laboratories, Neptune Road,
Wallsend-on-Tyne.
Miller, John,

365 Potomoe Avenue, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.A.
Millington, Ernest,

Manor Road, Borrowash, Derby.
Mills, Edward,

Williams, Foster <k Company, and Pascoe,
Grenfell & Sons, Limited, Morfa Copper
Works, Swansea.
Mills, Harry,

Grice, Grice & Son, Limited, Nile Street,
Birmingham.
Mills, John Hodgson,

Atlas Aluminium Works, Grove Street, Birming-
ham.

400

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1908-9

1910
1913

1908-9
1908-9

1914

1908-9

1913

1909

1908-9

1910

1908-9

Mills, William,

" Danesbury," Alderbrook Road, Solihull,
Warwickshire.
Milton^ James Tayler (Vice-President),

Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping,
71 Fenchurch Street, E.G.
MiTTON, Thomas E.,

Hunt & Mitton, Crown Brass Works, Oozells Street
North, Birmingham.
MoRCOM, Edgar Llewellyn, M.A. (Cantab.),

Trencrom, Woodbourne Road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
MoREHEAD, Charles,

72 Highbury, West Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
MoRisoN, Engineer-Commander Richard Barns, R.N.,

The Admiralty, Whitehall, Westminster, S.W.
MoRisoN, William,

172 Lancefield Street, Glasgow.
Morrison, William Murray,

The British Aluminium Company, Limited, 109
Queen Victoria Street, E.G.
Mortimer, Eng.-Com. John Ernest, R.N. (Rtd.),

34 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
Mount, Edward,

Oaklands, Aughton, near Ormskirk, Lancashire.
Muirhead, William,

Holmfield, Kirkintilloch, Renfrewshire.
MiJNKER, Emil,

III Sechskriigelgasse 8, Vienna, Austria.
MuNTZ, Sir Gerard Albert, Bart. {Past-President),

Muntz's Metal Gompany, Limited, French Walls,
near Birmingham.
Murray, Myles Thornton, M.Sc,

South African School of Mines, Johannesburg,
Transvaal, South Africa.
Murray, William, Jun.,

John Mills & Sons, Walker-Gate Brass Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1912 Narracott, Ronald William, D.Sc,

The James Bridge Copper Works, Walsall.
1912 Nead, John Hunter, B.S.,

17 Paul Street, Watertown, Mass., U.S.A.
1908-9 Nesbit, David Mein,

Northumbria, Knighton Drive, Leicester.
1908-9 i Niggemann, Bernhard Joseph,

26 Chapel Street, Liverpool.

List of Members

401

NiSBETT, George Hind,

British Insulated and Helsby Cables, Limited,
Prescot, Lancashire.
Norman, John Thomas,

The City Central Laboratory, 23 Leadenhall Street,
E.C.

Oakden, Professor William Edward,

2 Gladhow Terrace, South Kensington, S.W.
Ogg, Major George Sim, R.A.,

Address missing.
Olsson, Martin Campbell,

6 St. Helen's Place, E.C.
Onyon, Engineer-Captain William, M.V.O., R.N.,

W. Beardmore & Co., Dalmuir, N.B.
Oram, Engineer Vice-Admiral Sir Henry John, K.C.B.,
F.R.S. {President),

The Admiralty, Whitehall, Westminster, S. W.
Orde, Edwin Lancelot,

Sir W. G, Armstrong, Whitworth & Company,
Limited, Walker Shipyard, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
Owen, Halsall,

Burfield, Appleton, near Warrington.

Palmer, Arthur Cecil Hunter,

Queensland Government Offices, 410 Strand, W.O.
Parker, William Bajley,

1 Murray Road, Rugby.
Parsons, The Hon. Sir Charles Algernon, K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.Sc, M.A., D.Eng., F.R.S.,
Holeyn Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne.
Parsons, The Hon. Geoffry Laurence, M.A. (Oxon.),
C. A. Parsons k Company, Heaton Works,
Newcastl e-on-Ty n e.
Patchett, Colonel James,

The Shropshire Iron Company, Limited, Hadley,
near Wellington, Shropshire.
Paterson, David,

Vickers Street, Miles Platting, Manchester.
Paterson, John,

Park & Paterson, Limited, 22 Backcauseway Street,
Parkhead, Glasgow.
Paterson, William,

Park & Paterson, Limited, 22 Backcauseway Street,
Parkhead, Glasgow.

402

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1908-9

1913

1908-9

1912

1913

1908-9

1911

1908-9
1912

1908-9
1908-9

1914

1908-9

Paul, Matthew,

Levenford Works, Dumbarton.
Pearce, Gilbert Bennett,

" The Beeches," Hayle, Cornwall.
Pearce, Richard, Ph.D. (Columb.),

6 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
Pearson, George Charles,

129 Victoria Road, Old Charlton, S.E.
Petavel, Professor Joseph Ernest, D.Sc, (Man.), F.R.S.,

The University, Manchester.
Phelps, John, M.A. (Oxon.),

Newcroft, Egmont Road, Sutton, Surrey.
Philip, Arnold, B.Sc, A.R.S.M.,

Admiralty Chemist's Department, H.M. Dockyard,
Portsmouth.
Phillips, Henry Harcourt,

Lynwood, Turton, Lancashire.
Player, William,

54 Calthorpe Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Pollard, William Branch, B.A.,

Beit-el-Barrache, Bulak Dakrur, Egypt.
PoppLETON, George Graham, C.A., C.C. (Honorary

Auditor), 26 Corporation Street, Birmingham.
PoTTiE, George,

42 Mansfield Road, Ilford, Essex.
Preece, Arthur Henry,

Preece, Cardew & Snell, 8 Queen Anne's Gate,
Westminster, S.W.
Preston, Panizzi,

Landford Manor, Salisbury, Wiltshire.
Price, William B., Ph.B.,

Scovill Manufacturing Company, Waterbury, Conn.,
U.S.A.
Primrose, Harry Stewart,

Usines Carels Freres, Ghent, Belgium.
Primrose, John Stewart Glen,

Consolidated Diesel Engine Manufacturers, Limi-
ted, Ipswich.

QuiN, Lawrence Howard,

3 East India Avenue, E.C.
Quirk, George Henry,

33 Bishopsgate, E.C.
Quirk, John Steele,

Quirk, Barton & Burns, St. Helens, Lancashire.

List of Members

40;

Elected
Member.

1908-9 Radley, William Albert,

5 Lyddon Terrace, Leeds.
1914 Randall, Engineer-Lieutenant Charles Russell Jekyl,

R.^^,

2 Furness Park Road, Barrow-in-Furness,
1911 Rao, Seshagiri Raghavendra, B.A., B.Sc,

Superintendent of Industries, Camp Kunigal,
Mysore Province, India.
1913 Rasquinet, Albert,

84 Rue de Froidmont, Li^ge, Belgium.

1911 Raven, Vincent Litchfield,

North- Eastern Railway, Darlington.
1913 Raworth, Benjamin Alfred, Wh.Sc,

Engineering, 35 and 36 Bedford St., Strand, W.C.
1913 t Read, Professor Arthur Avery, M.Met. (Shef.),

University College, Cardiff.
1908-9 Redding, Frederick Chapman, ,

Gun and Shell Factory, Cossipore, E.B.S. Railway,
near Calcutta, India.
1910 Redwood, Sir Boverton, Bart., D.Sc,

The Cloisters, 18 Avenue Road, Regent's Park,
N.W.
1908-9 Reed, Joseph William,

Mayfield, Jarrow-on-Tyne.
1908-9 Reid, Andrew Thomson,

Hyde Park Locomotive Works, Glasgow.
1908-9 Reid, Edwin Safford,

National Conduit and Cable Company, Limited,
Oxford Court, Cannon Street, E.C.

1912 Rejto, Professor A.,

Muegyetem, Budapest, Hungary.

1913 Renaud, Victor,

22 Quai des Moines, Ghent, Belgium.
1908-9 t Rhead, Ezra Lobb, M.Sc.Tech.,

Municipal School of Technology, Manchester.
1908-9 Richards, Engineer-Commander John Arthur, R.N.,

47 Ridgmount Gardens, W.C.

1913 Rider, Joseph Jackson,

" Roxton," Chester Road, Erdington, Birmingham.
1908-9 Ridge, Harry Mackenzie,

H. M. Ridge & Company, 62 London Wall, E.C.
1908-9 RiQBY, Robert,

New John Street Metal Works, Birmingham.

1914 Rix, Harry,

333 Stratford Road, Hulme, Manchester.
1914 Roberton, Charles George,

12 Cavendish Park, Barrow-in-Fvirness,

404

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1908-9

1911

1908-9

1908-9
1910

1912

1908-9

1909

1913

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1911

1908-9

Robertson, Walter Henry Antonio,

Robertson & Company, Limited, Engineers,
Lynton Works, Bedford.
Robinson, Joseph Henry,

Globe Road, E.
RoBSON, Oswald Henry,

273 New Cross Road, S.E.
RoDGERS, John,

Joseph Rodgers & Sons, Limited, 6 Norfolk Street,
Sheffield.
Rogers, Henry,

"Gartly," 75 Blenheim Road, Moseley, Birmingham.
Ronald, Henry,

Brybton House, Warwick Road, Olton, Warwick-
shire.
Rosambert, Charles,

Metallwerk, Manfred Weiss, Ctepel, near Budapest,
Hungary.
Rose, Thomas Kirke, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.S.M.,

Royal Mint, E.
RosENHAiN, Walter, D.Sc. (Melb.), F.R.S.,

The National Physical Laboratory, Teddington,
Middlesex.
Rosenthal, James Hermann,

Babcock & Wilcox, Ltd., Oriel House, Farringdon
Street, E.C.
Ross, Archibald John Campbell,

R. & W. Hawthorn, Leslie & Company, Limited,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Rowley, Ernest Whitworth,

Chemical Laboratory, North- Eastern Railway,
Darlington.
Ruck, Edwin,

19 Bryn Road, Swansea.
Ruck-Keene, Harry Arthur,

Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping,
71 Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Rush, Engineer-Commander Henry Charles, R.N,,

Bryn Elvet, Halesworth, Suffolk.
Russell, Charles Arthur,

C. Holdin & Company, Limited, 17 Exchange
Buildings, Birmingham.
Russell, Stuart Arthur,

India-rubber, Gutta-percha, and Telegraph Works
Company, Limited, Silvertown, E.
Ruthenburg, Marcus,
1 Kingsway, W.C.

List of Members

405

, Klected
' Member.

1908-9

1911

1908-9

1914

1913

1912

1908-9

1909

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1908-9
1912

1909
1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

Rutherford, William Paterson,

The Tharsis Sulphur and Copper Company, 136
West George Street, Glasgow.
Ryder, Tom,

Thomas Ryder & Son, Turner Bridge Works, Tonge,
Bolton.

Saklatwalla, B. D., B.Sc, Dr.Ing.,

American Vanadium Co., Bridgeville, Pa., U.S.A.
Sales, Harry,

15 Musgrove Road, New Cross, S.E.
Sanders, Alfred,

5 and 6 Warstone Lane, Birmingham.
Saposhnikow, Professor Alexis,

Zabalkansky pr. 9, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Sauveur, Professor Albert, S.B.,

20 Elmwood Avenue, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
Schleicher, Aladar Paul, Ph.D.,

Merleg-utcza, 11 I., Budapest, V., Hungary.
ScHLUND, Leon, M.Sc,

32 Clerkenwell Road, E.C.
ScoTT, Augustine Alban Hamilton,

13 Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, W.C,
Scott, Charles,

Scott & Hodgson, Ltd., Guide Bridge Iron Works,
near Manchester.
Seaton^ Albert Edivaed,

32 Victoria Street, S. W.
Seligman, Richard, Ph.Nat.D.,

Point Pleasant, Putney Bridge Road, Wandsworth,
S.W.
Seligmann, Hardy,

38 Lime Street, E.C.
Sharples, James,

846 Ashton Old Road, Higher Openshaw,
Jklanchester.
Sheppard, Robin Mylrea,

French Walls, Birmingham.
Siemens, Alexander,

Siemens Brothers & Company, Limited, Caxton
House, Westminster, S.W.
Silvester, Harry, B.Sc,

36 Paradise Street, Birmingham.
SiMKiNS, Alfred George,

Walkers, Parker & Company, Limited, 63 Belvedere
Road, Lambeth, S.E.

406

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1908-9

1912
1910
1912

1913

1908-9

1910

1912

1914

1908-9

1914

1909

1908-9

Sinclair, Alexander,

6 Richmond Villas, Swansea.
SiTWELL, Captain Norman Sisson Hurt, R.A.,

Ammunition Factory, Dum Dum, Bengal, India.
Sjogren, Andreas Samuel,

Svenska Metallverken, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Sjogren, Justus Fredrik,

S. A. Edwards & Company, Limited, 30 Easy Row,
Birmingham.
Skelton, Herbert Ashlin,

The British Aluminium Company, Limited, Foyex's,
Inverness-shire.
Skillman, Verne,

Lumen Bearing Company, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.A.
Smith, Ernest Alfred, A.R.S.M.,

Assay Office, Leopold Street, Sheffield.
Smith, Frederic,

Anaconda Works, Salford, Manchester.
Smith, Hugh Dunforu,

7 and 9 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Smith, Herbert Melville,

Hill Top, Abbey Wood, Kent.
Smith, Herbert Procter,

Hawarden Bridge Steel Works, Shotton, Chester.
Smith, Philip Warton,

5 Philpot Lane, E.C.
Smith, Sydney William, B.Sc., A.R.S.M.,

Royal Mint, E.
Smith, Sir William Edivard, C.B.,

10 Hillhury Road, Balham, S. W.
Speier, Leopold,

Altheimer Speier & Company, Frankfurt-am-Main,
Germany.
Spittle, Arthur,

30 Regent Street, Smethwick, Birmingham.
Spyer, Arthur,

Oriel House, Farringdon Street, E.C.
Stanley, Professor George Hardy, A.R.S.M.,

South African School of Mines, P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg, South Africa.
Stanley, William Neems,

12 Spencer Road, Cottenham Park, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
Stansfield, Professor Alfred A., D.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.S.M.,

Chemistry Building, McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

List of Members

407

Blected
Member.

1908-9 t Stead, John Edward, D.Sc, D.Met., F.R.S.,

11 Queen's Terrace, Middlesbrough.
1911 Stenhouse, Thomas, B.Sc. (Lend.), A.R.S.M.,

Admiralty Chemist's Department, H.M. Dockyard,
Portsmouth.
1908-9 Stephen, Alexander Edward,

Linthouse, Govan, Glasgow.
1908-9 Steven, Carl,

Carlswerk, Miilheim-am-Rhein, Germany.
1908-9 Steven, James,

Steven & Struthers, Eastvale Place, ,Kelvinhaugh,
Glasgow.
1910 Stevens, Victor G.,

75 Livingstone Road, King's Heath, Birmingham.

1910 Stevenson, Robert,
72/80 Brown Street, Glasgow.

1913 Stewardson, George,

80a Taranaki Street, Wellington, New Zealand.
1908-9 Stockhausen, Friedrich, Ph.D.,

Weissfrauen Strasse 7/9, Frankfurt-am-Main,
Germany.

1911 Stonet, George Gerald, F.R.S.,
" Oakley," Heaton Road North, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.
1908-9 Storey, William Edward,

Lowood, Torrington Park, North Finchley, N.
1908-9 Strange, Henry,

8 Boldmere Road, Erdington, Birmingham.
1910 Stutz, R.,

Thermit, Limited, 27 Martin's Lane, Cannon
Street, E.G.
1908-9 SuiiMAN, Henry Livingstone,

44 London Wall, E.G.
1908-9 Sumner, Leonard, M.Sc,

The Broughton Copper Works, Manchester.
1908-9 Sutherland, John,

The Bauxite Refining Company, Hebburn-on-Tyne.

1910 Swift, James Beaumont,
77 Upper Tulse Hill, S.W.

1911 Symonds, Harry Lambert,
"Sunnyside," Woodland Avenue, Hornchurch,

Romford.

1908-9 Tawara, Professor KuNtiCHi,

5 Kamifujimayecho, Komagome, Hongo, Tokyo,
Japan.

408

The Institute of Metals

1908-9

1913

1911

1908-9

1911

1910

1908-9
1908-9
1911

1908-9
1912

1910

1908-9

1912

1908-9

1908-9
1912
1911
1908-9

Taylor, Charles,

Lathe and Tool Works, Bartholomew Street,
Birmingham.
Taylor, Engineer-Captain Charles Gerald, R.N.,

Royal Naval College, Keyham, Devonport.
Taylor, Charles Wardrope,

North-Eastern Foundry and Engineering Works,
South Shields.
Taylor, J. S.,

The Corinthians, Acock's Green, Birmingham.
Taylor, William Ivan,

Kynock, Limited, TJmbogintwini, Durban, S. Africa.
Tearoe, James,

The Queensland Government Offices, 409 Strand,
W.C.
Teed, Engineer-Commander Henry Richard, R.N.,

54 Riverdale Road, Sheffield.
Tertzweil, Leon,

Clouterie des Flandres, Gentbrugge, Belgium.
Thomas, Frank Moreton,

Stores Superintendent, Port of London Authority,
106 Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Thomas, Hubert Spence,

Melingriffith Works, near Cardiff, South Wales.
Thompson, John Fairfield, B.Sc, Ph.D. (Columb.),

The International Nickel Company, Orford Works,
Bayonne, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Thompson, Robert,

155 Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Thorne, Emmanuel Isaac,

13 Cantwell Road, Plumstead, Kent.
TiDSALL, Eugene,

49 Willow Road, Bournville, Birmingham.
TiEMANN, Hugh Philip, B.S., A.M. (Columb.),

Carnegie Building, Pittsburg, Pa., U.S.A.
TiTLEY, Arthur,

Titley & Wall, Curzon Chambers, Paradise Street,
Birmingham.
ToMLiNSON, Frederick,

Broughton Copper Company, Limited, Manchester.
Tucker, Alexander Edwin,

55 Station Street, Birmingham.
Tucker, Percy Alexander,

" Cedar Court," Aldridge, Staffordshire.
TuRNBULL, Nicholas King,

3 York Street, Manchester.

List of Members

409

Elected
Member.

1911

1913
1908-9

1913

I 1911

1914

1908-9

1908-9
1908-9

1912
1911
1910

1911

1908-9

1914

1913

1908-9

Turner, Alfred,

70 Cavendish Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Turner, Harold,

73-79 Eyre Street, Sheffield.
Turner, Professor Thomas, M.Sc. {Birm.), A.R.S.M.
(Vice-President and Honorai-y Treasurer),

The University, Edgbaston, BiiTningJiam.
Tyschnoff, Wsewolod,

Motowilicha, Perm Gun Works, Perm, Russia.

Vance, Robert,

Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping,
Caixa 636, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, South
America.
Varley, John William,

Honorville, Finnemore Road, Ideal Village, Little
Bromwich, Biimingham.
Vaughan, William Isaiah,

Cogan House, Sully Road, near Penarth,
Glamorganshire.
Vivian, Hugh,

Vivian & Sons, Hafod Copper Works, Swansea.
Vivian, The Hon. Odo Richard, M.V.O.,

Vivian & Sons, Hafod Copper Works, Swansea.

Wainwright, Thomas George,

Fern Lea, Stocks Lane, Stalybridge, Manchester.
Wales, Thomas Coulthard,

T. W. Ward, Limited, Albion Works, Sheffield.
Walker, Herbert Carr,

Tyrie, Greenhead Road, West Park, Headingley,
Leeds.
Walker, James William,

Churnet View, Oakamoor, Stoke-on-Trent.
Walmsley, Robert Mullineux, D.Sc, F.R.S.E.

Principal, Northampton Polytechnic Institute, E.G.
Walters, William Llewellyn,

5 Knole Avenue, Swansea.
Warburton, Frederick William,

Duram Works, Hanwell, W.
Watson, Frederick Mackman,

Cranworth House, Rotherham.
Watson, George Coghlan,

St. George's Wharf, Deptford, S.E.
Watson, William Edward,

Atlas Metal and Alloys Company, 52 Queen Victoria
Street, E.G.

410

The Institute of Metals

Elected
Member.

1914 Watts, Sii- Philip, K.C.B., F.R.S.,

10 Chelsea Embankment, S.W.
1908-9 Webb, Arthur James, M.A., B.Sc,

Johnson, Matthey & Company, Limited, 78 Hatton
Garden, E.G.
1914 Webb, Herbert Arthur,

18 Sheredan Road, Highams Park, Ghingford, N.E.
1908-9 Webster, William Reuben,

Bridgeport Brass Go., Bi'idgeport, Conn., U.S.A.
1908-9 Weeks, Henry Bridges, ,

Vickers, Limited, Barrow-in-Furness.
1908-9 Weir, William,

Holm Foundry, Cathcart, Glasgow.

1912 Weiss, Eugen von,

Andrassy-ut 116, Budapest, Hungary.

1910 Westwood, Arthur,

Assay Office, Birmingham.
1908-9 Wheeler, Richard Vernon, D.Sc,

Home Office Experimental Station, Eskmeals,
Cumberland.

1911 Whipple, Robert Stewart,

Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company,Limited,
Cambridge.
1911 White, Colonel Richard Saxton, V.D.,

Shirley, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1911 Whitney, Willis R., B.S., Ph.D. (Leip.),

Research Laboratory, General Electric Co.,
Schenectady, N.Y., U.S.A.
1910 Whitworth, Leslie,

2 Palace Gardens, Enfield, N.
1908-9 Widdowson, John Henry,

25 Withington Road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1908-9 WiGGiN, Alfred Harold, B.A.,

Bordesley Hall, Alvechurch, Worcestershire.
1908-9 WiGGiN, Charles Richard Henry, B.A.,

The Forehill House, near King's Norton,
Worcestershire.
1908-9 WiGGiN, Sir Henry Arthur, Bart.,

Walton Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

1913 Wilkes, Joseph,

75 Hillaries Road, Gravelly Hill, Birmingham.
1908-9 WiLKiNS, Harry,

99 Rustlings Road, Sheffield.
1908-9 Williams, Harold Wilfred,

Grand Hotel, Birmingham.

1914 Williams, Harris Gregory,

'' Boscombe," Elmfield Road, Gosforth, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.

List of Members

411

WiLLOTT, Frederic John,

The Priestman Collieries, Ltd., Milburn House,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Wilson, Anthony,

Braithwaite, Keswick.
Wilson, Cecil Henry,

Sheffield Smelting Company, Limited, Sheffield.
Wilson, James Howard,

Dorridge House, Dorridge, Warwickshire.
Wilson, John Howard,

15 Thornsett Koad, Sharrow, Sheffield.
Wilson, Osborne Ernest,

" Meadow Bank," Kingston Road, Didsbury,
Manchester.
WiSNOM, Engineer-Commander William McKee, R.N.,

Denny & Co., Engine Works, Dumbarton, N.B,
Wood, Richard Sibbering-,

Coventry Ordnance AVorks, Limited, Coventry.
Wood, Engineer-Commander William Henry, R.N.,

John Brown & Company, Limited, Clydebank,
Scotland.
WooDHOusE, Henry,

Radley House, 80 High Street, Cheshunt, Herts.

WOOLLVEN, ROLFE ARMSTRONG,

" Fairview," Cedar Road, Sutton, Surrey.
WooRE, Harold Linton Lea,

" West Bank," Epping, Essex.
Wright, Charles William,

2 Evelyn Street, Deptford, S.E.
Wright, Reginald,

Nasmyth, Wilson & Co., Bridgewater Foundry,
Patricroft, near Manchester.
Wi)ST, Geh. Reg. Rat. Prof. Dr.Ing. Fritz,

Ludwigsallee 47, Aachen, Germany.

Yardley, William Henry,

Princeps & Company, Matilda Street, Sheffield.
Yarrow, Alfred Fernandez,

Campsie Dene, Blanefield, Stirlingshire.
Young, Horace John,

North - Eastern Marine Engineering Company,
Limited, Northumberland Engine Works,
Wallsend-on-Tyne.

Zapf, George,

Felton & Guilleaume Oarlswerk, A. G., Miilheim-
am-Rhein, Germany.

412

The Institute of Metals

STUDENT MEMBERS

Elected
Members.

1910 Almond, George,

Meek, Holt County, Nebraska, U.S.A.
1908-9 t Bruhl, Paul Theodor, M.Sc,

Societc FraiKjaise des Mines de Cuivre, CoUahuasi
La Grande, Chili, South America.

1910 Cartland, John, M.Sc,

Solihull, Warwickshire.

1911 Crosier, Edward Theodore,

51 Clarence Road, Teddington, Middlesex.
1910 Dawson, Stanley Ernest,

21 Hayburn Crescent, Partick, Glasgow.
1913 Gibson, Heseltine,

9 Barnsley Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1913 Gresty, Colin,

Northumberland Engine Works, Wallsend-on-Tyne.
1913 Heath, William Stanley,

Heather Rocks, Stockton Brook, Stoke-on-Trent.
1910 Hubbard, Norman Frederick Septimus, B.Sc,

23 Plymouth Avenue, Manchester.

1910 Hunter, Summers, Jun.,

1 Manor Terrace, Tynemouth, Northumberland.

1911 Jenkins, Ivor Owen,

"Gwynfa," Penywern, Neath, South Wales.

1912 Johnson, Albert William,

31 Angus Street, New Cross, S.E.

1913 Nevill, Richard Walter, B.Sc,

" Clovelly," Earlsdon Avenue, Coventry.

1910 Paterson, William, Jun.,

Braemar, Parkhead, Glasgow.

1911 Powell, Harry,

Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., Ltd., St. Peter's Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1908-9 Sharp, Robert S.,

" St. Lucia," Nithsdale Road, Dumbreck, Glasgow.

1910 t Tabor, Howard James,

17 Sebert Road, Forest Gate, E.

1911 Thompson, Norman Vivian,

251 Shaftesbury Place, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
1910 t West, Tom, M.Sc,

157 Congregation Street, Montreal, Canada.

1912 Whiteley, William,

22 Myrtle Terrace, Sowerby Bridge, Yorkshire,

W.R.

( 413 )

TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX

MEMBERS

INSTITUTE OF METALS

RESIDENTS IN GREAT BRITAIN

Abbey Wood-
Smith, H, M.

Aldridge—
Tucker, P. A.

Altrincbam —
Johnson, A. L.

Alvechurcb —
Wiggin, A. H.

Barrow-in-Furness—

Ayers, Eng.-Capt. R. B.
McKechnie, J.
Randall, Eng.-Lieut.

C. R. J.
Roberton, C. G.
Weeks, H. B.

Bedfont —

Hewitt, Prof. J. T.

Bedford-
Allen, W. H.
Robertson, W. H. A.

Birkenhead—

Bevis, R. R.
Carter, G. J.

ENGLAND

Birmingham —

Allely, W. S.
Allen. T. J. W.
Bamford, C. C.
Barker, J. H,
Barnard, G.
Barwell, C. H.
Bedford, C. Y. R.
Bill-Gozzard, G.
Boeddicker, G. A.
Booth, C. R.
Brockbank, J. G.
Canning, T. R.
Dale, R. D.
Dugard, G. H.
Dugard, H. A.
Earle, J. W.
Fisher, H. J.
Gower, F. W.
Griffiths, H.
Heckford, A. E.
Hughes, J.
Hughes, T. V.
Jacobs, H.
Johnson, F.
Jude, A. A.
Keeling, A. D.
Kemp, J. F.
Leigh, C.
Levi, C. J.

Birmingham (cmt.) —

Macintosh, J. R.
McKechnie, A.
Mapplebeck, E.
Mapplebeck, E. P. W.
Meyrick, L. J.
Mills, H.
Mills, J. H.
Mitton, T. E.
Muntz, Sir G. A.
Poppleton, G. G.
Rigby, R.
Russell, C. A.
Sanders, A.
Sheppard, R. M.
Silvester, H.
Sjogren, J. F.
Taylor, C.
Taylor, J. S.
Titley, A.
Tucker, A. E.
Westwood, A.
Williams, H. W.

Bolton—

Ryder, T.

Boumville —

Tidsall, E.

414

The Institute of Metals

Bury—

Dunston-on-Tyne—

Hall Green—

Holt, H.

Evans, S.

Gibbs, L.

Cambridge —

Eastbourne—

Handsworth—

Heycock, C. T.
Whipple R

Mallisont, G.

Dobbs, E. W.

Chatham —

Eccleshall—

Harbome —

Liversidge, Eng.-Com.

Wiggin, Sir H. A.

Aston, H. H.

E. W.

Edgbaston—

Harlington—

Cheadle—

Allen, J. H.

Harris, T. R.

Bolton, E. J,

Brown, C. A. J.

Coe, H. I.

Harpenden—

Cheshunt—

Ellis, 0. W.

Bradley, B.

Woodhouse, H.

Gibson, H.

Hudson, 0. F.

Hartlepool —

Chorlton-cum-

Lacy, W. Y.

Clark, G.

Hardy—

Morcom, E. L.

Buttenshaw, G. E.

Player, W.
Turner, A.

Hayle —

Chorlton-on-Med-

Turner, Prof. T.

Pearce, G. B.

lock—

Enfield Highway-

Hebbum-on-T3me-

Macfee, R,

Klein, C. A.

Sutherland, J.

Colchester —

Epping—

Horwich —

Burner, A.

Woore, H. L. L.

Hughes, G.

Consett—

Erdington—

Huddersfield—

Ainsworth, G.

Clark, W. E.

Hopkinson, F. A.

Coventry—
Heathcote, H. L.
Hill, E. C.

Harrison, J. S.
Rider, J. J.
Strange, H.

Hnlme—
Rix, H.

Hurren, F. H.
Nevill, R. W.

Eskmeals—

Hyde—

Wood, R. Sibbering-.

Wiieeler, R. V.

Adamson, J.

Croughton—

Fleet—

Ilford-

Clayton, G. C.

McLaurin, Eng.-Com. J.

Pottie, G.

Darlington-

Garston —

Ilkley—

Raven, V. L.

Davies, P. , Jun.

Greenwood, T.

Rowley, E. W.

Gateshead-on-Tyne —

Ipswich —

Derby-

Archbutt, L.

Thompson, N. V.

Primrose, J. S. G.

Millington, E.

Gosforth—

Jarrow-on- Tyne—

Brown, W. M.

Didsbury—

Williams, H. G.

Reed, J. W.

Bedson, J. P.
Wilson, 0. E.

Gravelly Hill-

Jesmond—

Wilkes, J.

White, Col. R. S.

Dorridge —

Bay lay, W. L.

Halesworth—

Keswick-

Wilson, J. H.

Rush, Eng.-Com. H. C.

Wilson, A.

Topographical Index to Members

415

Keyliam—
Taylor, Bng.-Capt. C. G.

King's Heath-
Stevens, V. G.

King's Norton—
Bayliss, T. A.
Wiggin, C. R. H.

Leeds—

Fraser, K.
Radley, W. A.
Walker, H. C.

Leicester-
Brooks, J. F.
Nesbit, D. M.

Leigh-
Hirst, T. G.

Leytonstone—
Adams, G.

Little Bromwich—
Varley, J. W.

Liverpool —
Bain, J.
Bawden, F.
Bengough, G. D.
Bibby, J. H.
Crighton, R.
Dingwall, F. W.
Greenwood, H. W.
McConwell, A.
Niggemann, B. J.
Pearce, R.

London—

Appleyard, R.
Ash, P. C. M.
Bannister, C. 0.
Barnard, A. H.
Becker, P.
Beer, E.
Bevis, H.
Blaikley, A.
Blount, B.
Blundell, F. H.
Bolton, T.
Boote, E. M.
Braby, C.
Brain, H. R.
Buchanan, C.
Butterfield, J. C.

London {coni!) —

Carpenter, Prof. H.C.H
Carruthers, Eng.-Com

D.J.
Chalas, E. C.
Chambers, D. M.
Chapman, A. J.
Clark, J.
Clarke, W. G.
Constantine, E. G.
Courtman, E. O.
Cowan, G. D.
Davison, Capt. H.
Dawlings, R. M. N.
Dewar, J. M.
Dewrance, J.
Ellis, H. D.
Ely, T.

Enthoven, H. J.
Espir, F.
Evans, U. R.
Fleminger, R. E.
Francis, A. A.
Francis, R.
Gardner, H.
Garnham, F. M.
Garnham, J. C.
Gibb, A.
Girtin, T.
Gladitz, C
Goodwin, Eng.-Rear-

Admiral G. G.
Gordon, J. G.
Gowland, Prof. W.
Grazebrook, Eng.-

Lieut. R.
Gregory, S. H.
Guernsey, The Rt. Hon.

Lord
Gulliver, G. H.
Gwynne, N. G.

Hadfield, Sir R. A.

Hallett, J.

Ham, Eng.-Com. J. W.

Harbord, F. W.

Heap, J. H.

Heap, R. D. T.

Herdsman, W. H.

Higgs, C.

Highton, D. C.

Hodgkinson, Prof.
W. R. E.

Holloway, G. T.

Hooton, A. J. S.

Humphries, H. J.

Huntington, Prof. A. K

Hurburgh, L. H.

Hyman, W.

Jack, H. J.

London (coni^ —

Jacob, A.
Jacob, H.
Jago, W. H.
James, G. W.
Jarry, E. V.
Johnson, A. W.
Johnson, B. A.
Kaye, H.
King, E. G.
Lambert, A. R.
Lambert, W.
Lancaster, H. C.
Langenbach, 0.
Lazarus, W.
Leslie, R.
Lester, W.
Letcher, W. W.
Lord, F. A. B.
Mannell, J.

Marshall, Eng, - Com.
F. W.

Maw, W. H.

Mayo, C. R.

Menzies, J.

Meyjes, A. C.

Milton, J. T.

Morison, Eng.-Com.
R. B.

Morrison, W. M.

Mortimer, Eng.-Com.
J. E.

Noble, Capt. Sir A.

Norman, J. T.

Oakden, Prof. W. E.

Olsson, M. C.

Oram, Admiral Sir H. J.

Palmer, A. C. H.

Preece, A. H

Quin, L. H.

Quirk, G. H.

Raworth, B. A.

Redwood, Sir B.

Reid, E. S.

Richards, Eng.-Com.
J. A.

Ridge, H. M.

Robinson, J. H.

Robson, O. H.

Rose, T. K.

Rosenthal, J. H.
Ruck-Keene, H. A.
Russell, S. A.

Ruthenburg, M.
Sales, H.
Schlund, L.
Scott, A. A. H.
Seaton, A. E.
Seligman, R.

416

The Institute of Metals

London {cord.)—
Seligmann, H.
Siemens, A.
Simkins, A. G.
Smith, P. W.
Smith, S. W.
Smith, Sir W. E.
Spyer, A.
Storey, W. E.
Stutz, R.
Sulman, H. L.
Swift, J. B.
Tabor, H. J.
Tearoe, J.
Thomas, F, M.
Thompson, R.
Walmsley, R. M.
Warbnrton, F. W.
Watson, G. C.
Watson, W. E.
Watts, Sir P.
Webb, A. J.
Webb, H. A.
Whitworth, L.
Wright, C. W.

Longport—

Billington, C.

Manchester —
Andrew, J. H.
Edwards, Prof. C. A.
Hubbard, N. F. S.
Johnson, E.
Johnson, H. M.
Johnson, W. M.
Kendrew, T.
Paterson, D.
Petavel, Prof. J. E.
Rhead, E. L.
Scott, C.
Sumner, L.
Tomlinson, F,
Turnbull, N. K.
Widdowson, J. H.
Wright, R.

Meersbrook—
Barclay, W. R.

Middlesbrough—

Hall-Brown, E.
Stead, J. E.

Milnthorpe —

Mercer, J. B.

Milton —

Gwyer, A. G. C.

Morpeth—

Esslemont, A. S.

Moseley—

Brownsdon, H. W.
Rogers, H,

Newcastle-on-Tyne—

Anderson, F. A.
Bowran, R.
Browne, Sir B. C.
Cookson, C.
Duncan, H. M.
Dunn, J. T.
Gilley, T. B.
Hills, C. H.
Hogg, T. W.
Keiflfenheim, E. C.
Laing, A.
Louis, Prof. H.
Mackenzie, W.
Morehead, C.
Murray, W., Jun.
Orde, E. L.

Parsons, The Hon. G. L.
Powell, H.
Ross, A. J. C.
Smith, H. D.
Stoney, G. G.
WiUott, F. J.

Northallerton-
Bell, Sir H.

Northfield—

Bayliss, T. R.

Nottingham—
BuUeid, Prof. C. H.

Old Charlton—

Pearson, G. C.

Oldham —
Hall, H. P.

Olton—

Ronald, H.

Openshaw—
Law, E. F.

Openshaw, Higher-
Sharpies, J.

Ormskirk—

Mount, E.

Osgathorpe —
Colver-Glauert, E.

Peterborough-
Brotherhood, s.

Bryant, C. W.

Carnt, Eng.-Com. A. J.

Plumstead—

Thome, E. I.

Bonder's End—

Garrett-Smith, N.

Portsmouth —

Dixon, Eng.-Com. R. B.
Philip, A.
Stenhouse, T,

Prescot—
Nisbett, G. H.

Rock Ferry-
Main, Eng.-Com. R.

Romford —

Symonds, H. L.

Rotherham—

Baker, T.
Watson, F. M.

Rugby-
Parker, W. B.

Rusholme—
Hanna, R. W.
Hanna, W. G.

St. Helens —

Appleton, J.
Groves, C. R.
Quirk, J. S.

Salford—
Smith, F.

Salisbury —
Preston, P.

Topographical Index to Members

417

Selly Oak—

Dendy, E. E.
Gibbins, W. W.
Hopkins, S. M.

Sharrow—
Wilson, J. H.

Sheffield-
Allan, J. M.
Benton, A.
Brook, G. B.
Brown, R. J.
Cleland. W.
Crowther, J. G.
Dvson, W. H.
Farley, D. H.
Girdwood, R. W.
Haddock, W. T.
Hill, E. H.
Hutton, R. S.
Mason, F.
Rodgers, J.
Smith, E. A.
Teed, Eng.-Com. H. R.
Turner, H.
Wales. T. C.
Wilkins, H,
WUson.C. H.
Yardley, W. H.

Shotton—

Smith, H. P.

Smethwick —
Bean, G.
Carr, J. J. W.
Evered, S.
Spittle, A.

SoUhull—
Cartland, J.
Mills, W.

Southampton —

Donaldson, T.

Southsea—
Grice, E.

South Shields-
Taylor, C. W.

South Woodford-
Butler, R. H. B.

Sowerby Bridge—
Whiteley, W.

Sparkbrook—

Gem, E. P.
Lantsbury, F. C. A. H.

Sparkhill—

Gay wood, C. F.

Stalybridge—

Carter, A.
Holt, T. W.
Wainwright, T. G.

Stockport-
Harlow, B. S.

Stoke-on-Trent—

Heath, W. S.
Walker, J. W.

Streetly—

Birch, H.
Bray, D.

Sunbury-on-Thames-

Cowper-Coles, S. 0.

Sunderland-
Clark, H.

Surbiton—
Graham, A. H. I.

Sutton —

Haughton, J. L.
Phelps, J.
WooUven, R. A.

Sutton Coldfield—
Kirkpatrlck, V.

Teddington—

Crosier, E. T.
Glazebrook, R. T.
Rosenhain, W.

Tipton—

Crofts, F. J.

Turton—
Phillips, H. H.

Tynemouth—

Burnett, J. E.
Hunter, S.
Hunter, S., Jun.

Wallington—
Merrett, W. H.

Wallsend-on-Tyne—

Cullen, W. H.
Gresty, C.
Hunter, G. B.
Michie, A. C.
Young, H. J.

Walsall—

Narracott, R. W.

Warrington-
Owen, H.

Wellington—
Patchett, Col. J,

Wembley-
Buck, H. A.

West Hartlepool—

Gibb, M. S.

Wickwar—

Lees, C.

Widnes—

Fitz-Brown, G.

Wimbledon—
Echevarri, J. T. W.
Stanley, W. N.

Woolwich-
Edwards, J. J.
Hartley, R. F.

Wootton Bridge
(I. 0. W.)
Carnt, E. C.

Wortley—

Longmuir, P.

Wylam-on-Tyne—

Parsons, The Haa^ Sir

C. A.

2 E

418

The Institute of Metals

IRELAND

Belfast— Caldwell, R. J.

Blanefield—

Yarrow, A. F.

Cathcart—

Lang, C. R.
Weir, W.

Clydebank-
Bell, T.
Wood, Eng.-Com.W. H.

Dalmuir —

Onyon, Eng.-Capt. W.

Dumbarton —
Denny, J.
Paul, M.

Wisnom, Eng.-Com.
W. M.

Edinburgh—

Beaie, Prof. T. H.
Duff, P. J.
Gibbons, VV. G.

Foyers—

Eccles, E. E.
Skelton, H, A.

SCOTLAND

Glasgow —

Ash.Eng.-Com.H.E.H.
Barclay, A. C.
Beilby, G. T.
Biles, Prof. Sir J. H.
Broadfoot, J.
Buckwell, G. W.
Campion, Prof. A.
Cleghorn, A.
Crawford, W. M.
Dawson, S, E.
Desch, C. H.
Gilchrist, J.
Gracie, A.
Greer, H. H. A.
Hendry, Col. P. W.
Hood, J. McL.
Inglis, G. A.
Kid.-ton, W. H.
Low, A. N.
May, W. W.
Morison, W.
Reid, A. T.
Rutherford, W. P.
Sharp, R. S.
Steven, J.
Stevenson, R.

Govan—

Dunsmore, G. A.
Stephen, A. E.

Greenock-
Brown, J.
Caird, P. T.
Caird, R

Irvine—

Edmiston, J. A

Kilmarnock —

Gardner, J. A.

Kinlochleven—
Bailey, G. H.
Jameson, C. G.

Kirkintilloch —

Muirhead, W.

Milngavie—

Barr, Prof. A.

Parkhead—

Paterson, J.
Paterson, W.
Paterson, W.

Jun.

Renfrew —

Brown, W.

Whiteinch —
Broadfoot, W. R.

Blackpill—

Eden, C. H.

Brondeg —
Holmes, J.

Cardiff-
Read, Prof. A. A.
Thomas, H. S.

Glydach

Bloomer, F. J.

WALES

Neath-
Jenkins, L O.

Penarth —
Vaughan, W. L

Port Talbot—
Deer, G.

Swansea —
Corfield, J.

Swansea (cont)—
Corfield, R. W. G.
Drury, H. J. H.
Mills, E.
Ruck, E.
Sinclair, A.
Vivian, H.

Vivian, The Hon. 0. R.
Walters, W. L.

Tal-y-cafn—
Hussey, A. V.

Topographical Index to Members

419

Durban-
Taylor, W. I.

FOREIGN LIST
AFRICA

TRANSVAAL

Johannesburg —

Murray, M. T.
Stanley, Prof. G. H.

EGYPT

Pietersburg—

Hughes, G. F.

Zuurfontein—
Connolly, J.

Bulak Dakrur— Pollard, w. B. |

Cairo — Garland, H.

AMERICA

BRAZIL

Rio de Janeiro— Vance, R.

CANADA

Oakville — Guess, Prof. G. A. I Montreal — Stansfield, Prof. A.

I West, T.

CHILI

Callahuasi La Grande— Bruhl, P. T.

Ansonia—

Jennison, H. C

Bayonne—

Thompson, J. F.

Bedford Hills-
Howe, Prof. H. M.

Boston-
Fay, H.

Hofman, Prof. H. O.
Little, A. D.

Bridgeport-
Ferry, c.

Webster, W. R.

UNITED STATES OF

Bridgeville—

Clark, W. W.
Saklatwalla, B. D.

BuflFalo—

Miller, J.
Skillman, V.

Cambridge-
Boy iston, H. M.
Sauveur, Prof. A.

Chicago—

Bregowsky, I. M.

Cleveland-
Abbott, R. R.

AMERICA

Depew —
Corse, W. M.

I Ithaca—

! Gillett, H. W.

' Kenosha —
Hull, D. R.

Meriden —

Hobson, A. E.

Minneapolis—
Hoyt, Prof. S. L.

Nebraska-
Almond, G.

420

New Haven—

Buell, W. H.

New York-
Allan, A., Jun.
Harris, J. W.
Langdon, P. H.
Ledoux, A. R.
Malby, S. G.

Perth Amboy—
Foersterling, H.

The Institute of Metals

Philadelphia — | Waterbury—

Clamer, G. H.

Pittsburg —
Tiemann, H. P.

Schenectady—

Capp, J. A.
Whitnej, W. R.

Bassett, W. H.
Price, W. B.

Watertown—

Nead, J. H.

West Lynn-
Dawson, W. F.

Calcutta —

Redding, F. C.

Camp Kunigal

(Mysore)—
Rao, S. R.

ASIA

INDIA

Dum Dum— Kalimati—

Sitwell, Capt, N. S. H. McWilliam, Prof. A.

Ishapore-

Crossley, P. B.

Naini Tal-
Grimston, F. S.

JAPAN

Tokyo— Tawara, Prof. K.

AUSTRALASIA

NEW SOUTH WALES

Sydney— Hankinson, A.

NEW ZEALAND

Wellington — Stewardson, G.

VICTORIA

Melbourne — Banks, A. T.

Topographical Index to Members

421

EUROPE

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Budapest-

-Kejto, Prof. A.
Schleicher, A. P.
Weiss, E.

Ct^pel— Rosambert, C.
Vienna — Munker, E.

Brussels—

F^ron, A.

Gentbrugge—

Tertzweil, L.

BELGIUM

Ghent—

Carels, G. L.
Primrose, H. S.
Renaud, V.

Herstal-pr^s-Li^ge-
Andri, A.

Hollogne-auz-Fierres
Boscheron, L.

Liege—

Rasquinet, A.

Merxem- lez-Anvers —
Kamps, H.

MontluQon—
Charpy, G.

Paris—

Cardozo, H. A.

FRANCE

Paris {cont.) —

Garfield, A. S.
Guillemin, G.

Paris {cont.)—

Guillet, Prof. L. •
Le Chatelier, Prof. H.

Aachen—

Borchers, Prof. W.
Wiist, Prof. F.

Altena —

Ashoff , W.

Berlin-Grunewald-
Guertler, W. M.

GERMANY

Essen-Ruhr —
Goldschmidt, H.

Frankfurt-am-Main-

Beer, L.
Heberlein, F.
Landsberg, H.
Speier, L.
Stockhausen, F.

Hessen-Nassau—
Heusler, F.

Miilheim-am-Rhein-

Steven, C.
Zapf , G.

Perm — Tyschnoflf, W.

RUSSIA

St. Petersburg— Belaiew, Capt. N. T.
Saposhnikow, Prof. A.

422

The Institute of Metals

Bilbao —

CoUie, C. A.

SPAIN

Carril—
Lessner, 0. B.

Sevilla—

Hamilton G. M.

Finspongs —
Forsstedt, J.

Gothenburg —

Sjogren, A. S.

SWEDEN

Stockholm —

Benedicks. Prof. C. A. F.
Forsberg, E. A.

Westerns—

Falk, E.

SWITZERLAND

Ziirich— Frey, J. H.

( 423 )

INDEX

Accounts, statement of, 9.

Adams, L. H. , on calibration tables for thermocouples, 322.

Algerian mining in 1913, 340.

Allotropy of cadmium, 309.

Alloys, 295.

Alloys, copper-aluminium, influence of nickel on, 169.

Alloys, nomenclature of, 304.

Alloys, nomenclature of, first report of committee on, 45,

Alloys, properties of, 290.

Alloys, specific heat of, 317.

Aluminium alloy, 296.

Aluminium alloys, light, 299.

Aluminium analysis, 322.

Aluminium, copper and nickel alloys, 298.

Aluminium, improvement of, 299.

Aluminium, manufacture of, in France, 341.

Aluminium, micro-chemical recognition of, 325.

Aluminium, nickel plating, 291.

Aluminium production of Switzerland, 345.

Aluminium and tin alloys, 296.

Amalgams, volume changes in, 319.

Amorphous metals, 311.

Analysis and testing, 322.

Andrew, J. H., on Brinell hardness tests, 314.

Annealing hard zinc, changes in structure on, 291,

Annealing temperatures, minimum, 315.

Annual Dinner, Fifth, 273.

Annual General Meeting, 1.

Arpi, R., on viscosity and density of fused metals, 319.

Arrivant, G, , on manganese and silver alloys, 302.

Arsenic and gold, 299.

Arsenic, melting-point of, 315.

Arthur, W., on soldering fluxes for soft solder, 307.

Articles of Association, 368.

Atomic and weight percentages, 322.

Auditor, election of, 17.

Ayers, Robert Bell, elected member, 14.

Balta, R, de C, book by, 350,

Barrows, F. W., book by, 350.

Bayliss, T. A., malleable zinc alloy patented by, 301.

424 Index

Bayliss, T. A., on nomenclature of alloys, 52.

Beckhurts, H., book by, 350.

Beer, Emil, elected member, 14.

Beilby, G. T. , on solidification of metals from the liquid state, 107. \

Beilby, G. T., on surface films produced in polishing, 318. ;

Beilby, G. T. , speech by, 27<J. J

Beilby Prize Committee, first report to, by C. H. Desch, 57. j

Beilby Research Prize, 5.

Belluomini, G., book by, 350. !

Benedicks, C, on molecular changes in metals and the quantum hypothesis, 315. ;

Bengough, G. D., on micro-chemistry of corrosion, 246. (

Bengough, G. D., on vanadium in brass, 164. '

Bennett, C. W., on electrolytic copper refining, 320. J

Berl, E., book by, 354. I

Bernard, V., on resilience of copper alloys, 317. ,

Bernewitz, M. W. von, book by, 350. j

Bertiaux, L., on commercial nickel, 323. ■

Best, W. N., book by, 350. ,

Beutel, E. , book by, 350. J

Bhattacharyya, H. P., on aluminium analysis, 322.

Bibliography, 350.

Billington, C., on bronze, 228.

Billington, C. , on influence of nickel on some copper-aluminium alloys, 209.

Billington, C, on nomenclature of alloys, 54.

Billington, C, vote of thanks by, 25.

Billy, M., on preparation of rare metals, 205. I

Binary alloys, quantitative effect of rapid cooling upon the constitution of, 252.

Birmingham Local Section, 5. ,

Bismuth, cadmium and zinc alloys, 297. ;

Bismuth and silicon, cerium alloys with, 298. \

Bismuth and thallium alloys, 297-

Boeck, P. A., on occurrence, nature, and properties of Kieselguhr, 336.

Boeddicker, G. A., on bronze, 227, 234. I

Boeddicker, G. A., on Muntz metal, 142. I

Boeddicker, G. A., on vanadium in brass, 165. i

Boeddicker, G. A., vote of thanks by, 18.

Bohm, C. R., book by, 350. i

Bolton, E. J., on bronze, 231.

Bolton, E. J., on nomenclature of alloys, 52. ,

Borchers, R., book by, 350.

Brame, J. S. S., book by. 350. I

Brass, 298. i

Brass, definition of, 50. ,

Brass, effect of vanadium on the constitution of, 151.

Brass gauze, fine-meshed, as a substitute for platinum in electro-analysis, .324. '

Brass melting furnaces, electric, 329. i

Brass, standard sheet, 308.

Brasses and bronzes, commercial, melting-points of, 302. j

Brinell hardness tests, 314. |

British Columbia mineral output, 1912 and 1913, 340.

Bronze, 214.

Bronze, definition of, 51. t

Bronze propellers, erosion of, 313. i

Bronzes and brasses, commercial, melting-points of, 302. j

Brotherhood, Stanley, elected member, 14. ]

Brown, C. O., on electrolytic copper refining, 320. ^

Index 425

Bryant, Charles William, elected member, 14.
Buchner, G., book by, 350.
Buck, Henry Arthur, elected member, 14.
Burgess, G. K., on nomenclature of alloys, 306.
Burnett, Jacob Edward, elected member, 14.
Butler, Reginald Henry Brinton, elected member, 14.
Byers, H. G., book by, 351.

Cadmium, allotropy of, 309.
Cadmium, bismuth, and zinc alloys, 297.
Cadmium, tin, and zinc alloys, .308.

Cadmium and zinc, alloys of, hardness and conductivity of, 314.

Calhane, D. F. , on fine-meshed brass gauge as a substitute for platinum in electro-
analysis, 324.
Calibration tables for thermocouples, 322.
Californian gold production, 1912, 341.
Canac, F., on nickel plating aluminium, 291.
Canadian mineral production, 341.
Carnt, Albert John, elected member, 15.
Carter, George John, elected member, 15.
Cartwright, C. T., book by, 351.
Cement, refractory, 336.
Cerium alloys with silicon and bismuth, 298.
Cesaris, P. de, on gold, nickel, and copper, 299.
Chromium and cobalt, alloys of, properties of, 295.
Chromium and nickel, alloys of, properties of, 295.
Clamer, G. H., on electric brass melting furnaces, 329.
Clark, William Edwards, elected member, 15.
Clark, William Wallace, elected member, 15.
Clarke, Walter G. , elected member, 15.
Classen, A., book by, 351.

Clere, F. L., on condensation of zinc vapour, 290.
Clewell, Clarence E., book by, 351.
Cobalt-chromium alloys, properties of, 295.
Cobalt and manganese, 301.
Cobalt and molybdenum alloys, 303.
Cohen, E., on allotropy of cadmium, 309.
Cold-rolled silver, softening of, 315.
Cold-working, 309.

Colorimetric estimation of nickel, 323.
Commercial nickel, 323.
Common metals, 290.

Compagno, J., on electrolytic analysis of white metals, with tin basis, 323.
Conductivity of alloys of cadmium and zinc, 314.
Coolidge, W. D. , on method of making ductile tungsten, 295.
Cooling, rapid, quantitative effect of, upon the constitution of binary alloys, 252.
Copper alloys, resilience of, 317.
Copper-aluminium alloys, influence of nickel on, 1C9.
Copper, corrosion of, 309.
Copper, nickel, and aluminium alloys, 298.
Copper, nickel, and gold, 299.
Copper refining, electrolytic, 320.
Copper, refining, .with magnesium, 292.

2 F

426 Index

Copper, resistivity of, from 20° to 1450° C. , 292.

Copper tubing, flat perfc rated, production of, 291.

Copper, world's production of, 346.

Copper and zinc, corrosion of the a-alloys of, 235.

Cornubert, R. , book by, 351.

Corrosion Committee, 4.

Corrosion of copper, 309.

Corrosion, micro-chemistry of, 235.

Corse, W. M., on nomenclature of alloys, 304.

Council, Report of, 2.

Crystal growth in metals, 310.

Crystalline and amorphous metals, 311.

Crystals, metallic, optical orientation of, 315.

Cumming, A. C. , book by, 351.

Cuprous oxide, silver and, 307.

Damour, E., on durability of lime-sand brick, 329.

Dean, S., book by, 351.

Dennis, L. M., book by, 351.

Density of fused metals, 319.

Density of liquid metals, 312.

Deposition of lead on the cathode, 323.

Desch, C. H., books by, 351.

Desch, C. H., on bronze, 229.

Desch, C. H. — /'a/^r on " The micro-chemistry of corrosion. Part II. — The a-alloys of
copper and zinc." 5« Whyte, S.

Desch, C. H. — Paper on " The soUdification of metals from the liquid state ; " being the
first report to the Beilby Prize Committee, 57 ; introduction, 57 ; the cellular
structure of metals, 60 ; crystallization from centres and the formation of crystallites
or crystal skeletons, 61 ; foam-structures and Quincke's hypothesis, 71 ; cellular
structures in cooling liquids, 75 ; liquid crystals, 81 ; the influence of surface-
tension, 84 ; undercooHng and the existence of a metastable limit, 88 ; changes of
volume on solidification, 93 ; the thrust exerted by growing crystals, 107 ; pro-
gramme of experimental work, 104. Discussion : Sir Henry J. Oram, 107 ; G. T,
Beilby, 107; A. K. Huntington, 108; W. Rosenhain, 109; J. E. Stead, 111 ; C.
H. Desch, 112. Communications: G. Quincke, 114; T, K. Rose, 116; S. W.
Smith, 116 ; C. H. Desch, 117.

Desch, C. H., on vanadium in brass, 165.

Desch, C. H. , remarks by, 10.

Dewar, James M'Kie, elected member, 15.

Dewrance, J. — Paper on " Bronze," 214 ; tests on bronze, 214 ; determination of the con-
tent of oxygen in bronze — Experiment I, 220; Experiment II, 220 ; Experiment
III, 221; Experiment IV, 222. Discussion: Sir Henry J. Oram, 224; G. A.
Boeddicker. 227; J. E. Stead, 227 ; A. K. Huntington, 227; C. Billington, 228;
J. S. G. Primrose, 228; C. H. Desch. 229; A. PhiHp, 230; A. E. Seaton, 231 ; E.
J. Bolton, 231; J. Dewrance, 232. Communication: G. A. Boeddicker, 234.

Dewrance, J., on micro-chemistry of corrosion, 248.

Dinner, Fifth Annual, 273.

Dippel, E., on specific heat of alloys, 318.

Donaldson, Sir H. F. , speech by, 284.

Dunn, R. J., and O. F. Hudson. — Paper on " Vanadium in brass : the effect of vanadium
on the constitution of brass containing 50 to 60 per cent, of copper," 151 ; method
of making the alloys used in the research, 158 ; thermal examination of the alloys.

Index 427

153; microscopic examination, 156; general conclusions, 159; appendix, 160;

bibliography, 101. Discussion : A. K. Huntington, 164; G. D. Bengcugh, 1G4 ;

G. A. Boeddicker, 105 ; C. H. Desch, 165; T. Turner, 100 ; A. Philip, 166; R.
J. Dunn, 167; O. F. Hudson, 167.
Duparc, L., book by, 3.51.
Dupuy, E. L, , on feebly magnetic alloys, 313.

Eastick, T. a., on corrosion of copper, 309.

Edge tools, alloy for, 295.

Electric brass melting furnaces, 329.

Electric furnace, laboratory improvements in, 337.

Electric furnace, new type of, 335.

Electric furnace for temperatures up to 1700° to 1800° C. , 333.

Electric furnace, vacuum, 339.

Electric furnaces, design, characteristics, and commercial applications of, 330.

Electric furnaces, history of, 334.

Electrical resistivity of refractory materials, 332.

Electro-analysis, fine-meshed brass gauze as a substitute for platinum in, 324.

Electro-chemical industries, growth of, 321.

Electro-chemical industries of Switzerland, 345.

Electro-metallurgy, 320.

Electro-metallurgy of zinc, 320.

Electrolytic analysis of white metals, with tin basis, 323.

Electrolytic copper refining, 320.

Electrolytically-deposited metals, adhesion of, 320.

Electrons, emission of, 312.

Endell, K., on optical orientation of metallic crystals, 315.

Erosion of bronze propellers, 313.

Estep, H. C, on use of the oxy-acetylene torch in foundries, 338.

Evans, Alick Richardson, elected member, 15.

Falk, Erik, elected member, 15.

Federated Malay States tin output in 1913, 341.

Fitzbrown, George, elected member, 15.

Fleminger, Reginald Edward, elected member, 15.

Fluxes for soft solder, 307.

Foulk, C. W., books by, 352.

Foundries, use of oxy-acetylene torch in, 338.

Foundry methods, 329.

French manufacture of aluminium, 341.

Furnaces and foundry methods, 329,

Furnaces, uniformity of temperature in, 337.

Fused metals, viscosity and density of, 319.

Or.

Gall, H. , on growth of electro- chemical industries, 321.
Gartenmeister, R., on deposition of lead on the cathode, 323.
Geiger, H., book by, 354.

German production and consumption of metals in 1913, 342.
German silver analysis, 325.

428 Index

Gibb, Allan, elected member, 15.

Gibbs, Leonard, elected member, 15.

Gillett, on melting-points of commercial brasses and bronzes, 302.

Gilley, Thomas Barter, elected member, 15.

Gladitz, Charles, elected member, 15.

Glasunoff, A. , on hardness and conductivity of alloys of cadmium and zinc, 314.

Glazebrook, R. T. , speech by, 277.

Goban, R. , on melting-point of arsenic, 315.

Gold and arsenic, 299.

Gold Coast gold exports in 1913, 342.

Gold, copper, and nickel, 299. i.

Gold, hydrocyanic acid as a solvent for, 293. j

Gold production of California, 341. ];

Gold, resistivity of, from 20° to 1500°, 317. ;

Gowland, W., vote of thanks by, 19. '

Granjon, R., book by, 352.

Gray, A. W. , on improvements in the laboratory electric furnace, 337.

Gray, Robert Kaye, obituary notice of, 286. ^

Greaves, R. H. — Paper on " The influence of nickel on some copper-aluminium alloys." i
See Read, A. A. I

Greer, H. H. A., on nomenclature of alloys, 52, 56. J

Grempe, P. M. , on duplicating phonograph discs, 320. '

Gresty, Colin, elected student, 15. ■.,

Grey tin, 314.

Griffiths, E., book by, 352. ^

Griffiths, E. , on specific heat of sodium, 318.

Griffiths, E. H., book by, 352.

Guernsey, Lord, elected member, 15. ^

Guertler, W., on nomenclature of alloys, 304. '

Guillet, L., on copper, nickel, and aluminium alloys, 298. j

Guillet, L. , on resilience of copper alloys, 317.

Gulliver, G. H. — Paper on " The quantitative effect of rapid cooling upon the constitu- i
tion of binary alloys," Part II., 252; calculation of the constitution of quickly
cooled alloys when the curvature of solidus and liquidus is considerable, 252 ; the
copper-tin alloys, 258; the copper-zinc alloys, 264 ; the copper-nickel alloys, 266;
calculation of the constitution of alloys cooled at ordinary rates, 268 ; summary, i
271. i

Gutbier, A., book by, 352. > |

Halla, F., on occlusion of hydrogen by palladium, 315.

Hanemann, H., on optical orientation of metallic crystals, 315.

Hanriot, on cold-working, 309.

Hanriot, on minimum annealing temperatures, 315.

Hansen, C. A., on method of making tungsten filaments, 294.

Hardness, 314.

Hardness and conductivity of alloys of cadmium and zinc, 314.

Hardness testing, 326.

Hart, R. N., book by, 352.

Hatt, W. K., book by, 352.

Haynes, E., on alloy for edge tools, 295.

Heath, C. E., book'by, 352.

Heinrich, F., on palladium and nickel alloys, 307.

Helderman, W. D., on allotropy of cadmium, 309,

Hering electric furnace, 329.

Hiege, H., on manganese and cobalt, 301.

Index 429

High temperature electric furnace for temperatures up to 1700° to 1800° C, 333.

Hill, Eustace Carey, elected member, 15.

Hind, H. L., book by, 352.

Hobart, J. F., book by, 352.

Hobson, J. A., book by, 352.

Holding, R. H. , book by, 352.

Holtzmann, O., book by, 353.

Hooper, J., book by, 353.

Horner, J. G., book by, 353.

Howe, H. M. , on testing of metal, 327.

Hudson, O. F. — Paper on. "Vanadium in brass." See Dunn, R. J.

Hudson, O. F., on Muntz metal, 143.

Hughes, T. v., on Muntz metal, 148.

Huntington, A. K. , on bronze, 227.

Huntington, A. K. , on influence of nickel on some copper-aluminium alloys, 209, 212.

Huntington, A. K., on Muntz metal, 141.

Huntington, A. K. , on solidification of metals from the liquid state, 108.

Huntington, A. K., on vanadium in brass, 164.

Huntington, A. K., remarks by, 10, 11, 13, 17. 19.

Huntington, A. K., remarks on death of W. H. Johnson, 1.

Hutton, W., book by, 353.

Hydrocyanic acid as a solvent for gold, 293.

Hydrogen, occlusion of, by palladium, 315.

ILLINGWORTH, S. R., book by, 353.

JAEGF.R, F. M., book by, 353.
Jameson, Charles Godfrey, elected member, 1(5.
Janecke, E., on atomic and weight percentages, 322.
Johnson, W. H., death of. President's remarks on, 1.
Johnson, William Henry, obituary notice of, 28().
Johnson, W. M'A., on electric furnaces, 330.
Johnson, W. M'A., on history of electric furnaces, 334.
Jouniaux, J., on density of liquid metals, 312.

Kanolt, C. W., on melting-points of refractory oxides, 3.35.

Karr, C. P. , on nomenclature of alloys, 306.

Kay, S. A., book by, 351.

Keene, H. B. , on passage of X-rays through metals, 316.

Kempe, H. R., book by, 353.

Kershaw, J. B. C, on world's production of copper, 347.

Kieselguhr, 336.

Kirkaldy, William George, obituary notice of, 287-

Knight, H. G., book by, 351.

Kurnakoff, N. S. , on bismuth and thallium alloys, 297.

Kurnakoff, N. S. , on hardness and plasticity, 314.

Laboratory electric furnace, improvements in, 337.
Laboratory furnace, Tammann, 335.

430 Index

Lahure, on cold-working, 309.

Lahure, on minimum annealing temperature, 315.

Lambert, H. T., on hydrocyanic acid as a solvent for gold, 293.

Langbein, G., book by, 353.

Law, E. F. , book by, 354.

Le Chatelier, H., book by, 354.

Lead, deposition of, on the cathode, 323.

Lebebur, A., book by, 354.

Liebig, R. G. M. , book by, 354.

Lime-sand brick, durability of, 329.

Lind, C. , on German silver analysis, 325.

Lindt, v., on colorimetric estimation of, 323.

Liquid metals, density of, 312.

List of members, 379.

Lorenz, R. , on aluminium and tin alloys, 296.

Lorenz, R., on tin, zinc, and cadmium alloys, 308.

Louvrier, F. , on new type of electric furnace, 335.

Lunge, E. G., book by, 354.

Lyon, D. A., on electro-metallurgy of zinc, 320.

M' Adams, W. A., on aluminium alloy, 29G.

M'Leish, J., on Canadian mineral production, 1912, 341.

McNeill, B., toast by, 273.

Magnesium, refining copper with, 292.

Maier, G., book by, 354.

Main, Reuben, elected member, 16.

Makower, W. , book by, 354.

Malleable zinc alloy, 301.

Manganese and cobalt, 301.

Manganese and silver alloys, 302.

Mannell, John, elected member, 16.

Marsh, A. L. , on nickel-silicon alloy for thermocouples, 304.

Martens hardness tester, 326.

Mathewson, C. H., on bismuth, cadmium, and zinc alloys, 2J7.

Mathewson, C. H., on silver and cuprous oxide, 307.

Matweeff, M., on hardness and conductivity of alloys of cadmium and zinc, 314.

May Lecture, 5.

Magnetic alloys, feebly, 313.

Meeting, Annual General, 1,

Megraw, H. A., book by, 354.

Meldola, R., speech by, 279.

Mellor, J. W., book by, 354.

Melting-point of arsenic, 315.

Melting-points of commercial brasses and bronzes, 302.

Melting-points of refractory oxides, 335.

Members, election of, 14.

Members, list of, 379.

Memorandum and Articles of Association, 359.

Metal production of the United States in 1913, 345.

Metallic crystals, optical orientation of, 315.

Metals and alloys, properties of, 290.

Metals, cold-working of, 309.

Metals, common, 290.

Metals, crystal growth in, 310.

Index 431

Metals, crystalline and amorphous, 311.

Metals, electrolytically deposited, adhesion of, 320.

Metals, fused, viscosity and density of, 319.

Metals, liquid, density of, 312.

Metals, molecular changes in, and the quantam hypothesis, 315.

Metals, passage of X-rays through, 316.

Metals, passivity of, 316.

Metals, polishing, surface films produced in, 318.

Metals, production and consumption of, in Germany in 1913, 342.

Metals, rare, 293.

Metals, rare, preparation of, 295.

Metals, solidification of, from the liquid state, 57.

Metals, testing of, 327.

Michel, J., book by, 355.

Micro-chemical recognition of aluminium, 325.

Micro-chemistry of corrosion, 235.

Mineral statistics, 341.

Moellendorff, R. von, on crystalline and amorphous metals, 312.

Molecular changes in metals and the quantam hypothesis, 315.

Molybdenum and cobalt alloys, 303.

Monel metal, 303.

Monnier, A., book by, 351.

Morison, Richard Barns, elected member, 16.

Muntz metal, 119.

Nevill, Richard Walter, elected student, 16.

New Zealand mineral production in 1912, 342.

Nickel, aluminium, and copper alloys, 298.

Nickel-chromium alloys, properties of, 295.

Nickel, colorimetric estimation of, 323.

Nickel, commercial, 323.

Nickel, gold, and copper, 299.

Nickel, influence of, on some copper-aluminium alloys, 169.

Nickel and palladium alloys, 307.

Nickel-plating aluminium, 291.

Nickel-silicon alloy for thermocouples, 304.

Nickel, thallium, tin, and zinc, polymorphic changes of, 317.

Nomenclature of alloys, 304.

Nomenclature of alloys, first report of the committee on, 45 ; composition of the
committee, 45 ; principle adopted by the committee in the conduct of their
work, 47 ; methods of dealing with difficulties arising when alloys of more than
three metals are to be described, and with regard to the question of impurities
when present in notable amount, 49 ; definition of brass, 50 ; definition of bronze,
51. Discussion: Sir Henry J. Oram, 52; J. E. Stead, 52; T. A. Bayliss, 52
H. H. A. Green, 52 ; E. J. Bolton, 52; Sir William Smith, 53; C. Billington, 54
T. Turner, 54; Sir Henry J. Oram, 54; W. Rosenhain, 55. Communications
H. H. A. Green, 56; W. Rosenhain. 56.

Nomenclature Committee, 5.

Non-ferrous alloys, test-bars for, 337.

Northrup, E. F., on electrical resistivity of refractory metals, 332.

Northrup, E. F., on high temperature electric furnace for temperatures up to 1700° to
1800" C. , 333.

Northrup, E. F., on resistivity of copper from 20° to 1450° C, 292.

432

Index

Northrup, E. F., on resistivity of gold from 20° to 1500°, 317.
Norton, on melting-points of commercial brasses and bronzes, 302.
Norton, Allen BuUard, elected student, 16.

Oakden, W. E., on micro-chemistry of corrosion, 248.

Oakley, W. E., on Monel metal, 303.

Obituary, 286.

Officers, election of, 12.

Optical orientation of metallic crystals, 315.

Oram, Sir Henry J., on bronze, 224.

Oram, Sir Henry J., on Muntz metal, 140.

Oram, Sir Henry J., on nomenclature of alloys, 52, 54.

Oram, Sir Henry J., " Presidential Address." 26 ; reference to the death of Sir Willi
White, 26 ; financial position of the Institute, 27 ; membership of the Institute, 1
amount of non-ferrous metals in warships, comparison with steel and iron, ;
effect of high temperatures on gun-metal, 31 ; corrosion of condenser tubes, \
development of tests and specifications of condenser tubes during the last twentj
five years, 36 ; failure of condenser tubes on service in the Fleet, 42.

Oram, Sir Henry J., on solidification of metals from the liquid state, 107.

Oram, Sir Henry J., remarks by, 23.

Oram, Sir Henry J., speech by, 275.

Oram, Sir Henry J., votes of thanks by, 18, 24.

Ores, reduction of, new type of electric furnace for, 335.

Orientation of metallic crystals, optical, 315.

Ostwald, Wilhelm , book by, 355

Oxides, refractory, melting-points of, 335.

Oxy-acetylene torch, use of, in foundries, 338.

Palladium estimation, 325.

Palladium and hydrogen, 315.

Palladium and nickel alloys, 307.

Pancke, E. , book by, 355.

Paneth, F., book by, 355.

Park, J., book by, 355.

Pascal, P., on density of liquid metals, 312.

Passivity of metals, 316.

Percentages by weight, 322.

Peruvian minerals in 1912, 343.

Phelps, John, elected member, 16.

Philip, A., on bronze, 230.

Philip, A., on influence of nickel on some copper-aluminium alloys 210.

Philip, A., on Muntz metal, 146.

Philip, A., on vanadium on brass, 166.

Philip, A., vote of thanks by, 25.

Phillips, F. C, book by, 355.

Phonograph discs, duplicating, 320.

Photo-electric effect, 316.

Physical properties, 309.

Pirani, M. von, on atomic and weight percentages, 322.

Pitaval, R. , on Swiss aluminium production, 345.

Platinum in electro-analysis, fine meshed brass gauze as a substitute for, 324.

Platinum, production of, in Russia, in 1913, 344.

Plumbridge, D., on aluminium and tin alloys, 296.

Index 433

Pluinbridge, D. , on tin, zinc, and cadmium alloys, 308.

Polishing metals, surface films produced in, 318.

Polymorphic changes of thallium, tin, zinc, and nickel, 317.

Poppleton, G. G. , vote of thanks by, 13.

Power, F. Danvers, book by, 356.

President. See Huntington, A. K., and Oram, Sir Henry J.

Presidential address of Sir Henry J. Oram, 26.

Primrose, J. S. G. , on bronze, 228.

Propellers, bronze, erosion of, 313.

Prussian mineral output, 1912, 343, 344.

QUANTAM hypothesis and molecular changes in metals, 315.

Quin, Laurence Howard, elected member, 16.

Quin, L. H., book by, 356

Quincke, G., on solidification of metals from the liquid state, 114.

Ramsay, W. , on erosion of bronze propellers, 313.

Ramsay, Sir William, on erosion of bronze propellers, 313.

Randall, Charles Russell Jekyl, elected member, 16.

Randies, W. B., book by, 352

Rare metals, 293.

Rare metals, preparation of, 295.

Rasquinet, Albeit, elected member, 16.

Rathert, W., on passivity of metals, 316.

Rathgen, F., on micro-chemical recognition of aluminium, 325.

Raworth, Benjamin Alfred, elected member, 16.

Raydt, U., on Tammann laboratory furnace, 335.

Raydt, W. , on molybdenum and cobalt alloys, 303-

Read, A. A., and R. H. Greaves. — Paper ow. " The influence of nickel on some copper-
aluminium alloys," 169; previous investigations, 169; materials used in present
research, 170 ; methods of analysis, 171 ; preliminary experiments, 172; melting
and casting of the ingots, 174; rolling of the ingots, 175; wire-drawing tests,
176 ; tensile tests, 176 ; effect of nickel on the mechanical properties, 178 ;
alternating stress tests, 188; hardness tests, 190; specific gravities, 194; melt-
ing-points, 195 ; conductivity for electricity, 196 ; corrosion tests, 197 ; micro-
scopic features of the alloys, 200 ; appendix — effect of acids and alkalies on the
nickel-aluminium-copper alloys, 206. Discussion.- W. Rosenhain, 208; A. K.
Huntington, 209; C. Billington, 209; A. E. Seaton, 210; A. Philip, 210; W.
Rosenhain, 210 ; R. H. Greaves, 210. Communication : A. A. Read and R. H.
Greaves, 211.

Reboul, G. , on photo-electric effect, 316.

Recrystallization of hard zinc, 201.

Refining copper with magnesium, 292.

Refractories, Kieselguhr, 336.

Refractory cement, 336.

Refractory materials, electrical resistivity of, 332.

Refractory oxides, melting-points of, 335.

Reinhardt, E. , book by, 356.

Report of Council, 2.

Resilience of copper alloys, 317.

Resistivity of copper from 20^ to 1450" C. , 292.

Resistivity of gold from 20° to 1500% 317.

434

Index

Resistivity of refractory materials, electrical, 332.

Richardson, O. W. , on emission of electrons, 312.

Richter, O., on specific heat of alloys, 317.

Robertson, Charles George, elected member, 16.

Robertson, Leslie S. , speech by, 285.

Robin, F., on crystal growth in metals, 310.

Roscoe, H. E. , book by, 356.

Rose, T. K. , on solidification of metals from the liquid state, 116.

Rose, T. K., vote of thanks by, 12.

Rosenberg, P. , book by, 352.

Rosenhain, W. , on crystalline and amorphous metal, 311.

Rosenhain, W. , on influence of nickel on some copper-aluminium alloys, 208, 210.

Rosenhain, W., on micro-chemistry of corrosion, 248.

Rosenhain, W. , on Muntz metal, 144.

Rosenhain, W., on nomenclature of alloys, 55, 56.

Rosenhain, W. , on solidification of metals from the liquid state, 109.

Rosenhain, W. , on testing of metals, 327.

Rosenhain, W. , speech by, 281.

Rosenhain, W. , vote of thanks by, 20.

Ross, Archibald John Campbell, elected member, 16.

Ruff, O. , on vacuum electric furnaces, 339.

Russian platinum, production in 1913, 344.

Rutherford, E. , book by, 356,

Sanders, Alfred, elected member, 16.

Schemtschuschny, S. F. , on bismuth and thallium alloys, 297.

Schemtschuschny, S. F., on hardness and plasticity, 314.

Schleicher, A. P., on gold and arsenic, 299.

Schlotter, M. , on adhesion of electrolytically-deposited metals, 320.

Schorlemmer, C, book by, 356.

Scofield, H. H., book by, 352.

Scott, W. M. , on bismuth, cadmium, and zinc alloys, 297.

Seaton, A. E., on bronze, 231.

Seaton, A. E., on influence of nickel on some copper-aluminium alloys, 210.

Seaton, A. E., vote of thanks by, 21.

Sergeant, E. W. , on erosion of bronze propellers, 313.

Sheet brass, standard, 308.

Sheppard, S. E., book by, 357.

Shirley, A. J., book by, 353.

Sieger, G. N., on electric furnaces, 330.

Sieger, G. N., on history of electric furnaces, 334.

Silesian zinc industry in 1913, 344.

Silicon and bismuth, cerium alloys with, 298.

Silicon and nickel, alloy of, for thermocouples, 304.

Silver, cold-rolled, softening of, 315.

Silver and cuprous oxide, 307.

Silver and manganese alloys, 302.

Sisley, G. E. , book by, 357-

Skelton, Herbert Ashlin, elected member, 16.

Skillman, V., on nomenclature of alloys, 304.

Skillman, V., on test-bars for non-ferrous alloys, 337.

Skinner, Walter R. , book by, 357.

Smith, E. F., book by, 357.

Smith, S. W., on Muntz metal, 149.

Smith, S. W., on solidification of metals from the liquid state, 116.

Index 435

Smith, Sir William, on nomenclature of alloys, 153.

Sodium, specific heat of, 318.

Solder, soft, fluxes for, 307.

Soldering fluxes for soft solder, 307.

Solidification of metals from the liquid state, 57.

South African mineral output, 344.

Specific heat of alloys, 317.

Specific heat of sodium, 318.

Speier, Leopold, elected member, 16.

Sperry, Erwin Starr, obituary notice of, 287.

Stansfield, A., book by, 357. ,

Statistics, 340.

Stead, J. E., on bronze, 227-

Stead, J. E. , on nomenclature of alloys, 52.

Stead, J. E., on solidification of metals from the liquid state. 111.

Stead, J. E. , vote of thanks by, 25.

Stead, J. E. , and H. G. A. Stedman. — Paper on " Muntz metal: the correlation of
composition, structure, heat treatment, mechanical properties, &c.," 119 ; Part I. —
introduction, 119; mechanical properties, 123; hardness tests, 123; Part II. —
microstructure of the alloys, 129 ; the property of brass in resisting oxidation on
heating in air, 132 ; summary of results, 134 ; Part III. — a simple method for
distinguishing a, /3, and 7, when associated in brass, by J. E. Stead, 135 ; Part IV.
— the development of brittleness in hand-drawn brass, 137 ; bibliography, 139.
Discussion: J. E. Stead, 140; Sir Henry J. Oram, 140; T. Turner, 140; A. K.
Huntington, 141 ; G. A. Boeddicker, 142; O. F. Hudson, 143 ; W. Rosenhain,
144; A. Philip, 146; J. E. Stead, 146. Communications: T. V. Hughes, 148;
S. W. Smith, 149 ; J. E. Stead, 149.

Stedman, H. G. A. — Paper on " Muntz metal." See Stead, J. E.

Stellite, properties of, 295.

Stewardson, George, elected member, 16.

Stewart, Alfred W. , 357.

Stieglitz, J. , book by, 357.

Stokesbury, C. H., on silver and cuprous oxide, 307-

Surface films produced in polishing, 318.

Swiss aluminium production, 345.

Tammann laboratory furnace, 335.

Tammann, G. , on molybdenum and cobalt alloys, 303.

Tararin, V., on bismuth and thallium alloys, 297.

Tassilly, E. , on nickel-plating aluminium, 291.

Taylor, Charles Gerald, elected member, 17.

Temperature, uniformity of, in furnaces, 337.

Test-bars for non-ferrous alloys, 337.

Testing, 326.

Thallium and bismuth alloys, 297-

Thallium, tin, zinc, and nickel, polymorphic changes of, 317.

Thermocouples, calibration tables for, 322.

Thermocouples, nickel-silicon alloy for, 304.

Thomson, Sir J. J., book by, 357.

Thorpe, Sir Edward, book by, 357.

Thtiringen, V., on palladium estimation, 325.

Tilden, Sir W, A. , book by, 357.

Timofeeff, G. , on recrystallization of hard zinc, 291.

Tin and aluminium, alloys of, 296.

436 Index

Tin, grey, 314.

Tin output in the Federated Malay States, 341.

Tin, zinc, and cadmium alloys, 308.

Tin, zinc, nickel, and thallium, polymorphic changes of, 317.

Tools, edge, alloy for, 295.

Treasurer's Report, 8.

Treiber, E., book by, 357.

Trench, C. S. J., book by, 354.

Tubing, flat perforated copper, production of, 291.

Tungsten, ductile, method of making, 295.

Tungsten filament, emission of electrons from, 312.

Tungsten filaments, method of making, 294.

Turbine blade alloys, 308.

Turner, T. , on Muntz metal, 140.

Turner, T., on nomenclature of alloys, 54.

Turner, T., on vanadium in brass, 166.

Tyschnoff, Wsewolod, elected member, 17.

United States metal production in 1913, 345.

Vacuum electric furnace, 339. li

Vanadium, effect of, on the constitution of brass, 151. i

Varley, John William, elected member, 17. j

Victoria mineral output in 1912, 345. \

Viscosity and density of fused metals, 319. ' J

Vogel, R., on cerium alloys with silicon and bismuth, 298. j

Volume changes in amalgams, 319. \

{

W. i

Waddell, J., book by, 358.
Walters, William Llewellyn, elected member, 17.

Warburton, Frederick William, elected member, 17. \

Watts, Sir Philip, elected member, 17. ' i

Webb, Herbert Arthur, elected member, 17. |

Weber, O., on brass, 298. I

Weed, W. H., book by, 358. !

Weingartner, E. , book by, 352. i

Werner, M., on polymorphic changes of thallium, tin, zinc, and nickel, 317.
West Australian mineral production in 1912, 346. *

Wheaton, T. C, on fine-meshed brass gauze as a substitute for platinum in electro-
analysis, 324. I
White, A. H. , book by, 358. '■
White metals, with tin basis, electrolytic analysis of, 323. I
Whyte, S. , and C. H. Desch. — Paper on " The micro-chemistry of corrosion. Part II. —
The a-alloys of copper and zinc," 235; introduction, 235 ; record of experiments,
237 ; microscopical observations, 239 ; the relation between natural and electrically i
stimulated corrosion, 241; discussion of results, 243. Discussion: G. D. Ben- ,
gough, 24(i; J. Dewrance, 248 ; W. E. Oakden, 248; W. Rosenhain, 248; C. H.
Desch, 249. '
Wigand, A., on grey tin, ol4.

Index 437

Wilkes, Joseph, elected member, 17.

Woollven, Rolfe Armstrong, elected member, 17.

World's production of copper, 346.

W^orld's production of zinc, 349.

Wunder, M. , on palladium estimation, 325.

Wiirschmidt, J., on volume changes in amalgams, 319.

X-RAYS, passage of, through metals, 316.

Zinc alloy, malleable, 301.

Zinc and cadmium, alloys of, hardness an 1 conductivity of, 314.

Zinc, cadmium, and bismuth, alloys, 21.7.

Zinc, cadmium, and tin alloys, 308.

Zinc and copper, corrosion of the a-alloys of, 235.

Zinc, electro-metallurgy of, 320.

Zinc, hard, recrystallization of, 291.

Zinc industry, Silesian, 344.

Zinc, nickel, thallium, and tin, polymorphic changes of, 317.

Zinc syndicates, prolongation of, 343.

Zinc vapour, condensation of, 290.

Zinc, ^vorld's production of, 349.

Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson &» Co.
at Paul's Work, Edinburgh

Form A.

{Membership Application.')

INSTITUTE OF METALS.

Founded 1908.

Incorporated 1910.

To the Secretary,

I, the undersigned , being

of the required age and desirous of becoming a Member of

the Institute of Metals, agree that I will be governed by the regulations
of the Association as they are now formed, or as they may be hereafter
altered, and that I will advance the interests of the Association as far as
may be in my power; and we, the undersigned, from our personal know-
ledge, do hereby recommend him for election.

Name in full

Address

Business or Profession

QuaHfications

Signature

Dated this day of.

., 191

Signatures
of three
Members.

The Council, having considered the above recom-
mendation, present Mr to be Balloted for

as a Member of the Institute of Metals.

To be filled up
by the
Council.

Caxton House,

Westminster,. S.W.,

Chairman.

Dated this day of. 191

[For Qualifications of Members, see Section 1, other side.]

(// would be a convenience if the Candidate's Card were sent with this form.)

XI.

EXTRACTS FROM THE RULES.

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