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BODOG  F,  BECK,  M.D. 


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HONEY  AND   HEALTH 


ARISTAEUS,  INVENTOR  OF  HONEY 

(Trans   Floris   i5i5~I57o) 


HONEY  and  HEALTH 

A  NUTRIMENTAL,  MEDICINAL 
AND  HISTORICAL  COMMENTARY 


BY 

BODOG  F.  BECK,   M.D. 

Author  of  Bee  Venom  Therapy 


"My  son,  eat  thou  honey,  for  it  is  good." 

Solomon  (Proverbs  24:13) 


ROBERT   M.    McBRIDE  AND   COMPANY 

Publishers  New  York. 


(51 

if  fd  ,) 

HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


COPYRIGHT,    1938,    BY 

BODOG    F.    BECK 

IN   THE    UNITED    STATES   AND    GREAT    BRITAIN 


All  rights  reserved.  No  part  of  this  book  can  be  repro- 
duced in  any  form  without  permission  from  the  pub- 
lishers.   This    restriction    does    not    apply    to    reviewers 


PRINTED    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 
OF    AMERICA 


FIRST    EDITION  —  MARCH    1938 


PREFACE 


THE  principal  aim  and  object  of  this  volume  is  to  evaluate 
honey  and  appraise  its  true  worth,  particularly  as  an  impor- 
tant nutrimental  and  superior  medicinal  substance.  The  author's 
venture  in  preparing  and  publishing  this  review  during  moments 
snatched  from  the  hubbub  of  an  active  medical  practice  was  in- 
spired by  a  long  cherished  ambition  to  contribute  his  best  efforts 
to  the  reinstatement  of  honey  to  its  former  exalted  place.  The  ad- 
vantages and  efficacy  of  this  substance  should  be  appreciated. 

For  someone  who  knows  the  extraordinary  merits  of  honey,  it 
is  difficult  to  comprehend  the  reason  why  this  salutary  substance 
has  suffered  such  a  setback.  For  sixty  centuries,  throughout  his- 
toric ages  and  undoubtedly  even  in  prehistoric  times,  honey  was 
man's  only  "sweetener"  and  his  most  favored  food,  delicacy  and 
medicine.  But  Nature's  own  sweet  was  displaced  by  one  of  man's 
inferior,  nay,  objectionable  products.  Upon  the  intrusion  of  "re- 
fined" sugars,  honey  declined  in  use  and  now,  instead  of  being  an 
important  household  necessity,  it  has  become  an  article  of  luxury. 
Civilization  and  even  science  often  post  only  dim  lights  as  warn- 
ing signals  before  deep  chasms  5  on  the  other  hand,  they  neglect 
to  mark  with  road-signs  abandoned  paths  which  lead  to  a  better 
life. 

The  culpable  disregard  of  honey  is  a  grave  and  lamentable  error 
of  the  present  generation  and  a  sad  reflection  on  its  intelligence. 
It  is  almost  unbelievable  that  such  an  ideal  and  nourishing  food, 
with  its  delightful  bouquet,  is  almost  entirely  missing  from  our 
tables.  If  honey  were  ever  rehabilitated,  man  would  wonder  how 
he  could  ever  have  gotten  along  without  it. 


VI  PREFACE 


The  medicinal  merits  of  honey  are  fully  discussed  in  the  respec- 
tive chapters  of  this  book.  The  author  considers  it  an  especial  priv- 
ilege to  avail  himself  of  an  opportunity  at  least  to  try  to  promote 
the  physical,  and  indirectly,  the  moral  welfare  of  his  fellowmen. 
It  accords  a  sense  of  gratification  to  hope  that  the  advocated  meas- 
ures may  benefit  society. 

It  is  curious  that  the  numberless  books  on  dietetics  scarcely  men- 
tion or  only  superficially  treat  the  subject  of  honey.  This  applies 
to  lay  as  well  as  to  medical  literature.  While  the  ancient  classical 
writers  and  those  of  the  Middle  Ages  liberally  contributed  to  the 
practical  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  honey,  their  extravagant 
statements  today  sound  fantastic,  almost  absurd.  Their  faith  in  the 
substance  was  so  implicit  that  the  information  one  gains  from  their 
comments  has  the  aspect  of  legendary  lore  rather  than  of  facts. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  disregard  of  honey  in  current  literature  is 
diametrically  opposite.  It  is  astounding  how  meager  are  the  scien- 
tific data  available  today  concerning  honey.  Not  a  single  book  has 
been  published  of  late  years  which  creditably  and  thoroughly  dis- 
cusses its  nutrimental  and  medicinal  values.  This  actuality  was  an 
additional  incentive  for  editing  the  present  volume.  May  it  induce 
further  research  in  this  almost  virgin  field. 


B.  F.  B. 


New  York  City 
January,  1938 


CONTENTS 
PART  I— HONEY  AND  HEALTH 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    GENERAL  COMMENTS  ON  DIET    ...  3 

The  Object  of  Nutrition 16 

II.    NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  SUGARS.      .  18 

III.    HONEY 21 

The  Physical  and  Chemical  Aspects  of  Honey     .        .        .  2  2 

1.  Physical    Qualities 22 

2.  The  Chemistry  of  Honey 31 

IV.    REFINED  SUGAR 37 

V.    HONEY  vs.  SUGAR 4o 

VI.    THE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  HONEY    .  47 

1.  In   Infant    Feeding 49 

2.  For  Children 51 

5.    For  Athletes  and  Soldiers 59 

4.  In  Longevity 63 

Luigi    Cornaro 79 

VII.    THE  MEDICINAL  VALUE  OF  HONEY    .  83 

/.    hi  Ancietit  Therapeutics 83 

2.    As  Medicine  in  the  Middle  Ages 90 

5.  In  Modem  Therapeutics 92 

Honey  and  Diabetes 1 04 


Vll 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Heather  Honey in 

Eucalyptus  Honey 114. 

VIII.    HONEY  IN  SURGERY 116 

IX.    MEAD i22 

The  Medicinal  Value  of  Mead  and  other  Honey-drinks     .  132 

X.    WORDS  TO  THE  WISE 134 

Too  Much  Honey 140 

Poisonous  Honey 142 

Adulterated   Honey 145 

The  Price  of  Honey 147 

XI.    HONEY  IN  THE  HOME 149 

/.     In  Cooking,  Baking  and  Confectionery  .        .        .        .149 

2.  In  Beverages 152 

3.  The  Preserving  Quality  of  Honey 153 

4.  In  Cosmetics 155 


PART  II— THE  HISTORY  OF  HONEY 

XII.    PREHISTORIC  TIMES 159 

XIII.    HISTORIC  TIMES 162 

Egyft 163 

India 164 

China 165 

Greece 166 

The  Roman  Emfire 166 

Ancietit  Britain 167 


CONTENTS 


IX 


CHAPTER 


Germany 


France    

Corsica,  Holland  and  Spain 
Hungary         .... 

Austria 

The    Slavic    Countries 
The  American  Continent  . 

The    United    States    . 

American    Honey-lore 


XIV.    WANDERING  BEEKEEPERS  .      . 

XV.    HUNTING  FOR  WILD  HONEY 

XVI.    HONEY  IN  RELIGION      .      .      . 

In  the  Bible 


PAGE 
I7i 

173 
173 
174 
174 
175 
176 
178 
182 


192 

200 
204 


XVII.    IN  MYTHOLOGIES 209 


XVIII.    IN  TRADITIONS,  CUSTOMS  AND  SUPER- 
STITIONS   


/.  Birth 

2.  Marriage         .... 

5.  Death 

XIX.    THE  KALEVALA      .      . 

/.  The   Origin  of  Beer  . 

2.  The  Production  of  Steel     . 

5.  The  Reanimation  of  the  Dead 

4.  The  Saving  of  Cattle  . 

5.  The  Cure  of  Diseases  . 

6.  The  Creation  of  the  Dog  . 


220 
222 
224 
227 

236 
237 
239 
240 
242 

243 
244 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XX.    HONEY  IN  POETRY,  SYMBOLISM,  EX- 
PRESSIONS AND  NAMES 245 

Miscellaneous  Proverbs 24-8 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 25* 

Part  One 25J 

Part   Two 259 

INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 263 

INDEX  OF  PROPER  NAMES 266 

INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS     ....,..••  *7o 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATES 

ARISTAEUS,  INVENTOR  OF  HONEY         frontispiece 
Frans  Floris  151 S~IS7° 
PLATE  FACING   PAGE 

I.     FOSSIL  BEE  IN  AMBER 160 

PETRIFIED  BEE  IN  SANDSTONE 160 

II.     THE  TOMB  OF  ASASIF,  26TH  DYNASTY,  663- 

6lO    B.C l6l 

III.  THE   TOMB   OF   PA-BA-SA   AT   THEBES,    625- 

6lO    B.C •  .       .       164 

IV.  THE  TOMB  OF  REKH-MI-RE,  ABOUT  1450  b.c.     165 
V.     THE  SYMBOL  OF  MEDIEVAL  ENGLISH  INNS, 

MOTHER  LOUSE,  THE  ALE-WIFE      ...  172 

THE  BEEHIVE  INN  AT  GRANTHAM    ....  172 
VI.     EDWIN   FORBES:   SCENES   FROM   THE   CIVIL 

WAR 176 

VII.     THE  INTERIOR  OF  A  BEE-TREE 177 

MARKING  A  BEE-TREE  AS  HIS  PROPERTY  .     .  177 

VIII.     SATYRS  HUNTING  FOR  WILD  HONEY   ...  192 
By  Piero  di  Cosimoy  XV  Century 

IX.     THE  MISFORTUNES  OF  SILENUS 193 

By  Piero  di  Cosimo 

X.     THE    TOMB    OF    POPE    URBAN    VIII    IN    ST. 

PETER'S  CHURCH,  ROME 208 

XL     BARBERINI    EXULTET    ROLL,    VATICAN 

LIBRARY 209 

XII.    AMOR  AS  HONEY-THIEF 224 

By  Lucas  Cranach,  1 S3° 

VENUS  AND  CUPID 224 

By  Lucas  Cranach 


Xll  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATE  FACING   PAGE 

XIII.  THE  HONEY-THIEF 225 

By  Albrecht  Diirer,  151 4 

XIV.  THE  TOMB   OF   A   ROYAL   BUTLER.   ABOUT 

1450    B.C ....       24O 

XV.  THE  KALEVALA.  MEHILAINEN  (LITTLE  BEE) 
DEPARTS  TO  FETCH  HONEY-BALM  FOR 
THE  ANXIOUS  MOTHER 241 

FIGURES 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  SPANISH  CAVE  PICTURE.  (H.  Obermaier,  Fossil  Man  in 

Spain,  1924) 160 

2.  MEXICAN  VASE.  GATHERER  OF  WILD  HONEY. 

(Mrs.  Robert  W.  de  Forest  Collection) 177 

3.  THE  MAN  SAVED  BY  A  BEAR.  Schnurrdiburr  odcr  Die 

Bienen.  Neues,  Wilhelm  Busch  Album 195 

4.  THE   ROMAN   BEEHIVE.   Title  page  of  the  Roomische 

byen-korf,  by  Filips  van  Marnix,  1 581.  John  Rylands 
Library,   Manchester,   England 203 

5.  OLD  GREEK  GEM.  ZEUS  WITH  HIS  NURSES,  THE 

BEES.  Jo  Petri  Bellori;  Notae  in  Numismata  (Jacobo 
Gronovio;  Thesaurus  Graecarum  Antiquitatum.  Vol. 
VII.    1657) 209 

6.  ANCIENT  GREEK  COIN.   LAUREATE   HEAD  OF 

ZEUS;  REVERSE;  HIS  SYMBOLS,  THE  EAGLE 
AND  BEE   (Ibid.) 210 

7.  ANTIQUE  ROMAN  GEM.  AMOR  SAILING  ON  A 

HONEY-JAR   (Ibid.) 212 

8.  ROMAN  GEM.  AMOR   PROTECTING  THE   BEES 

(Ibid.) 212 

9.  HINDU  HONEY-JAR.  KAMA,  THE  HINDU  CUPID, 

RIDING   ON    A    BEE.    Creuzer,    Fr.    Symbolik    und 

Mythologie  der  Alten  Volker.  1836 213 

10.  ANTIQUE  CRETAN  GEM.  POLYDOS  FINDING 
GLAUCOS  IN  A  HONEY  VESSEL.  Fiirtwangler, 
Anticke  Gemmen.   Plate   XXII 235 


INTRODUCTION 


THROUGH  my  friendship  for  the  author,  it  has  been  my 
privilege  to  read  the  manuscript  of  this  book.  Thus  I  have 
been  given  an  opportunity  to  have  a  brief  word  with  others  who 
will  read  the  book  after  publication. 

First  I  wish  to  congratulate  the  readers  on  obtaining  such  a  vast 
store  of  information  on  the  merits  of  honey  and  the  wonders  of  its 
past  recognition.  In  the  rush  of  modern  affairs  we  are  prone  to 
overlook  old  beliefs  and  traditions  and  to  forget  that  they  ever 
existed.  While  today  we  do  not  concede  that  honey  cures  all  human 
ailments,  it  is  nevertheless  interesting  to  learn  that  earlier  people 
held  such  views.  The  lore  which  the  author  has  so  well  collected, 
not  only  on  bees  but  also  on  honey,  is,  however,  far  greater  than 
could  possibly  be  included  in  a  single  book.  With  such  an  array  of 
expressions  of  faith  in  honey,  we  are  perforce  brought  to  increase 
our  own  confidence  in  this  worthy  product. 

Honey  has  needed  just  such  a  book  as  this.  Modern  works  on 
honey  have  dealt  chiefly  with  its  chemistry  and  physics,  with  some 
attention  to  its  dietetic  value  and  more  to  its  use  in  cookery.  These 
are  rather  prosaic  aspects  of  an  interesting  and  delectable  article 
of  human  diet,  by  no  means  to  be  scorned,  but  on  the  other  hand 
not  to  be  pursued  to  the  exclusion  of  the  romantic  side.  It  is  not 
surprising  that  beekeepers  attribute  almost  supernatural  virtues 
to  a  substance  which  they  assist  the  bees  to  produce  but  there  is  no 
impropriety  on  the  part  of  others,  not  so  engaged,  if  they  question 
the  merits  claimed  by  enthusiasts.  Statements  which  this  book  con- 
tains should  give  pause  to  everyone  who  disdains  the  opinions  of 
those  without  scientific  attainments.  I  have  no  intention  to  belittle 


XIV  INTRODUCTION 

scientific  investigations  but  there  is,  on  the  other  hand,  something 
to  be  said  for  accumulated  experience. 

I  am  happy  to  commend  this  work  to  the  general  public,  to  the 
beekeepers  and,  last  but  not  least,  to  the  medical  profession.  I  sin- 
cerely hope  that  it  may  serve  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended. 

E.  F.  Phillips 

Cornell  University 
Ithaca,  New  York,  1938 


PART  I 

HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


CHAPTER    I 
GENERAL  COMMENTS  ON  DIET 


Some,  as  thou  saw'st,  by  violent  stroke  shall  die, 
By  fire,  flood,  famine;  by  intemperance  more 
In  meats  and  drinks,  which  on  the  Earth  shall  bring 
Diseases  dire,  of  which  a  monstrous  crew 
Before  thee  shall  appear,  that  thou  mayst  know 
What  misery  the  inabstinence  of  Eve 
Shall  bring  on  men. 

If  thou  well  observe 
The  rule  of  "Not  too  much,"  by  temperance  taught 
In  what  thou  eat'st  and  drink'st,  seeking  from  thence 
Due  nourishment,  not  gluttonous  delight, 
Till  many  years  over  thy  head  return; 
So  mayst  thou  live,  till,  like  ripe  fruit,  thou  drop 
Into  thy  mother's  lap,  or  be  with  ease 
Gathered,  not  harshly  plucked,  for  death  mature. 

Milton — Paradise  Lost:  Book  XI 

THE  author  is  fully  aware  of  the  fact  that  this  treatise  is  not 
"just  another  book"  on  foods  or  general  dietetics  and  that 
his  real  purpose  is  to  advocate  the  wider  use  of  only  one  special 
food  substance,  namely,  honey.  However,  to  explain  fully  certain 
principles  that  are  correlated  with  the  main  topic,  he  must  allude 
to  the  facts  and  precepts  discussed  in  the  present  chapter  which, 
therefore,  justifies  the  addition  of  an  apparently  irrelevant  issue. 
There  is  a  deep-rooted  yearning  throughout  animated  Nature 
for  well-being  and  the  preservation  of  life.  Health  always  was 
and  will  remain  our  most  cherished  possession.  Nobody  doubts 
this  axiom.  The  principal  human  efforts  are  yet  concentrated  on 


4  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

preserving  health  and  when  on  the  wane  or  lost,  on  regaining  it. 
It  is  evident  that  the  present  generation  is  extremely  conscious  of 
this  fact  and  fully  appreciates  the  value  of  health.  A  two-year 
survey,  conducted  by  the  University  of  Chicago,  the  American  As- 
sociation for  Adult  Education  and  the  United  Y.M.C.A. Schools, 
revealed  that  the  first  and  principal  interest  of  adults  is  health 
and  the  preservation  of  life.  Magazines  and  newspapers  of  wide 
circulation  have  their  regular  health-columns,  a  proof  that  Amer- 
icans are  no  exception  and  that  they  are  eminently  health-con- 
scious. Before  drinking  and  after  sneezing,  we  hear  the  convivial 
wish:  "To  your  health!" 

Among  all  educational  measures  for  disseminating  knowledge 
of  health-culture,  undoubtedly  dietetics  reign  supreme.  This  is 
only  natural  because  no  other  hygienic  factor  contributes  more  ef- 
fectively to  health  than  the  logical  selection  of  the  proper  quality 
and  quantity  of  food,  that  is,  what  and  how  much  we  should  eat. 
A  sound  knowledge  of  the  essential  principles  of  vital  nutrition 
must  be  acquired,  fully  understood  and— above  all— well  remem- 
bered. Of  course,  the  innumerable  scientific  and  unscientific  doc- 
trines and  many  suggestions,  disputes  and  contradictions  with 
regard  to  dietetics  make  it  difficult  to  select  the  right  path  to 

follow. 

The  first  and  one  of  the  more  important  points  to  be  considered 
is  what  to  eat.  If  we  wish  to  decide  this  question,  a  brief  excursion 
into  the  field  of  anthropology,  or,  relinquishing  our  pride,  to 
zoology,  is  indispensable. 

The  physical  history  of  man,  his  first  appearance  on  this  habit- 
able globe,  preceded  his  civic  or  general  history.  While  the  latter 
is  based  on  comparatively  authentic  facts,  the  former  is  veiled  in 
impenetrable  darkness.  There  must  have  been  a  time,  place  and 
manner  when  man  first  appeared  on  earth.  He  had  to  maintain  his 
existence  and  nourish  his  body.  Undoubtedly,  fruits,  nuts  and 
honey  were  the  first  foods  of  primitive  man.  Man's  first  environ- 
ment is  reminiscent  of  our  present  gardens,  with  their  fruits,  flow- 
ers and  beehives.  They  are  monuments  to  Nature  and  to  our  brief 
sojourn  in  Paradise,  offering  incomparably  more  inspiration  to 


GENERAL    COMMENTS    ON    DIET  5 

poetry  and  art  and  more  benefits  to  health  than  slaughter  houses. 

The  bees  of  fossil  ages,  imbedded  in  amber,  are  not  unlike  our 
existing  bees,  which  clearly  demonstrates  that  they  reached  their 
complete  evolution  in  preadamic  times  and  supplied  the  primates 
with  an  abundant  supply  of  sweets,  so  much  coveted  by  all  living 
creatures.  When  man  acquired  the  knowledge  of  agriculture  and 
learned  husbandry,  he  probably  added  to  his  fare  vegetables  and 
cereals  and  only  later,  after  he  had  invented  mechanical  imple- 
ments to  kill  animals  and  catch  fish,  he  turned  to  animal  diet.  Evi- 
dently primeval  man  was  at  first  a  vegetarian  and  in  process  of 
time — call  the  deviation  perversion  or  civilization — became  a  car- 
nivorous being. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  teach  animals  of  strictly  vegetarian  habits 
to  eat  meat.  Horses  easily  become  meat  eaters  (even  alcohol  drink- 
ers). Dr.  Philippi  of  St.  Jago,  Chile,  disclosed  the  acquired  habits 
of  his  two  saddle  horses  which  eagerly  snapped  up  and  consumed 
chickens  j  they  even  pulled  young  pigeons  from  their  nests  and 
devoured  them.  In  Norway  horses  are  said  to  dash  into  the  sea  to 
catch  and  eat  fish.  Rabbits  and  squirrels,  if  they  are  kept  fasting 
for  a  while,  will  greedily  eat  meat;  they  become  used  to  it  and 
will  gnaw  on  bones  like  dogs,  even  when  not  short  of  vegetable 
food.  So  it  is  not  surprising  that  Homo  sapiens  acquired  the  meat- 
eating  habit.  Regarding  drinks,  if  horses,  dogs,  cats  and  other 
quadrupeds,  even  birds,  become  addicted  to  alcoholic  beverages, 
why  not  man,  an  unusually  adaptable  creature? 

Food  and  physical  comfort  are  closely  connected  with  social 
and  moral  well-being,  and  they  have  played  an  important  part  in 
man's  progress.  Our  first  trouble  in  Paradise  commenced  with 
food.  "God  created  man  to  be  immortal  and  made  him  to  be  an 
image  of  His  own  Eternity."  . .  .  "And  the  Lord  God  commanded 
the  man,  saying,  of  every  tree  of  the  garden  thou  mayest  freely 
eat}  but  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  thou  shalt  not 
eat  of  itj  for  in  the  day  that  thou  eatest  thereof  thou  shalt  surely 
die."  Then  occurred  our  first  transgression  in  food,  a  bad  habit 
which  we  still  persistently  practice. 

Human  civilization  has  been  greatly  influenced  by  the  food 


HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


consumed.  Nutrition  is  not  only  a  problem  of  the  individual  but 
of  society.  We  must  distinguish  between  nutritive  and  stimulating 
substances.  Meat,  though  undoubtedly  of  valuable  protein  con- 
tent, an  important  compound  for  successful  tissue  building,  is  a 
highly  stimulating  food.  Wild  boar  was  the  favored  food  of  the 
romantic  Niebelungen  warriors,  who,  though  mythological  crea- 
tions, were  regarded  as  the  greatest  fighters  of  the  world.  Car- 
nivorous animals  in  general  are  fiercer  and  more  cruel  in  dispo- 
sition than  herbivorous  ones.  Meat-eating  without  doubt  has 
modified  man's  disposition  and  tendencies.  This  is  disputed  by 
some  scientists.  They  try  to  prove  their  objection  to  the  theory  by 
the  ferocious  nature  of  the  herbivorous  bull  and  by  the  gentle  dis- 
position of  the  carnivorous  Eskimo.  They  seem  to  have  overlooked 
the  fact  that  the  ferocity  of  the  bull  is  attributable  to  sex  (the  tran- 
quil cow  feeds  on  the  same  rations)  and  that  the  unfolding  of  a 
high-mettled  disposition  of  an  Eskimo  is  checked  by  the  arctic 
climate.  It  is  noteworthy  that  abstainers  from  meat  possess  greater 
endurance  than  those  who  indulge  in  meat.  The  "punch"  of  the 
latter  group  far  excels  their  endurance. 

Meat  is  a  rather  unclean  food  because  toxins  are  created  in  the 
tissues  of  animals  during  the  process  of  living  which  are  difficult 
to  eliminate  entirely  even  through  boiling  or  roasting.  Even  sav- 
ages avoid  eating  carnivorous  quadrupeds  and  birds.  The  ancient 
Greeks,  though  maritime  people,  abstained  from  fish  because  they 
are  cannibalistic  creatures.  Cereals,  vegetables,  nuts,  eggs  and 
dairy  products  contain  sufficient  protein  substances  and  easily  take 
the  place  of  meat.  The  regrettable  fact  is  that  meat  eaters  crave 
alcohol,  which  is  a  digestive  aid,  but  which  only  adds  to  the  exist- 
ing stimulation.  The  introduction  of  a  vegetable  diet  would  be  a 
radical  cure  for  intemperance. 

The  critical  and  important  question,  as  already  stated,  is  what 
to  eat!  The  human  body  is  an  intricate  machine  which  requires 
proper  fuel  not  only  to  generate  heat  and  energy  but  also  to  re- 
build worn-out  parts.  In  this  respect  our  body  excels,  by  far,  the 
most  complicated  engine — we  may  just  as  well  distinguish  it  as  a 
"living"  engine.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  average  man  knows  so 


GENERAL    COMMENTS    ON    DIET  7 

little  about  it.  Horace  Mann,  the  great  educator,  remarked  that 
he  knew  all  about  the  working  of  the  heavenly  bodies  but  nothing 
about  those  of  his  own  body.  Anatomical,  physiological  or  even 
chemical  erudition  is  not  an  absolute  concern  of  the  average  per- 
son ;  there  is  no  need  for  him  to  know  how  to  overhaul  the  "en- 
gine" and  to  repair  any  damaged  parts — Nature  and  the  physi- 
cians will  attend  to  that.  But  it  should  be  every  man's  duty  to 
know,  at  least,  how  to  supply  his  body  with  proper  fuel  and  to  ac- 
quire a  knowledge  of  food  values.  And  this  is  not  impossible. 
Primitive  man  is  extremely  proficient  in  this  respect  as  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  he  possesses  incomparably  greater  physical  perfec- 
tion than  civilized  man.  It  is  evident  that  modern  man  is  to  be 
blamed  for  all  shortcomings  in  supplying  the  "living  engine"  with 
the  proper  fuel.  This  is  a  great  pity,  in  fact,  a  catastrophe  because 
the  knowledge  and  application  of  the  significant  laws  of  nutrition 
serve  not  only  to  maintain  physical  life  but  to  establish  mental, 
spiritual  and  moral  distinction.  Proper  food  moulds  one's  person- 
ality and  that  of  one's  offspring. 

We  obtain  our  food  supply  from  the  animal,  vegetable  and 
mineral  kingdoms.  We  require  a  mixed  diet  consisting  of  pro- 
teins, carbohydrates  and  fats.  Meat,  eggs,  milk,  vegetables,  fruits, 
starches,  sugars  are  and  should  be  our  main  reliance.  Milk  is  an 
essential  food  with  its  main  components  of  protein,  fats,  sugar  and 
water.  Meat  is  another  important  food,  but,  as  explained,  it  is  by 
no  means  indispensable.  Fresh  fish  have  exceptional  nutrimental 
value.  Cereals,  e.g.,  rice,  oats,  wheat,  rye,  corn,  barley,  millet, 
etc.,  are  valuable  food  materials.  The  populations  of  China,  India, 
of  the  tropics  5  in  fact,  the  largest  proportion  of  the  human  race 
lives  on  cereals.  The  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  annually, 
per  capita,  consume  even  today  about  350  pounds  of  cereal  foods, 
approximately  a  pound  a  day.  Dr.  G.  Fordyce  (On  Digestion, 
1 791)  mentions  how  Benjamin  Franklin  personally  related  to 
him  that  he  lived  for  a  fortnight,  when  a  journeyman  printer,  on 
bread  and  water  at  the  rate  of  "ten  pennyworth  of  bread  per  week" 
and  had  found  himself  stout  and  hearty  on  this  diet.  It  did  not 
seem  to  shorten  his  life,  as  he  died  when  eighty-six.  Good  bread, 


HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


the  "staff  of  life,"  composed  of  protein,  starch  and  mineral  sub- 
stances, is  a  vital  food,  though  admittedly  a  monotonous  one,  es- 
pecially if  eaten  in  the  humble  way  Franklin  consumed  it.  St.  An- 
thony lived  on  a  few  ounces  of  bread  and  water  and  though  he 
never  washed  himself  or  changed  his  garments,  reached  the  age 
of  one  hundred  and  five.  Fruits,  nuts  and  vegetables,  containing 
starches,  fats,  sugars  and  plenty  of  palatable  organic  acids  and 
water,  keep  in  excellent  condition  the  strength  and  life  of  the 
■major  -portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  earth.  We  may  as  well 
omit  alcohol,  coffee  and  tea,  because  they  are  not  nutritive  sub- 
stances but  stimulants.  The  heat  of  coffee  and  tea  itself  is  a  stimu- 
lant. Tobacco  is  a  narcotic.  Alcohol  and  tobacco  indulged  in  at  the 
same  time  have  an  effect  similar  to  that  which  results  when  the 
accelerator  and  the  brake  of  a  motor  car  are  applied  simultane- 
ously. 

How  to  select  essential  food  materials?  There  is  no  hard  and 
fast  rule  for  sensible  eating  other  than  the  use  of  common  sense. 
Unerring  regularity  is  impractical.  The  strict  adherence  to  any 
sort  of  diet  always  has  a  bad  effect  on  the  human  system.  Nature 
has  provided  a  great  variety  of  nourishment  for  us  and  we  should 
select  with  discretion  what  best  agrees  with  our  constitution  and 
mode  of  living.  A  diversity  of  nutriment  is  paramount.  We  re- 
quire sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  manganese, 
copper,  chlorine,  iodine,  fluorine,  phosphorus  and  sulphur  for  our 
organism  and  we  cannot  obtain  all  these  minerals  from  a  diet 
which  is  not  sufficiently  diversified.  Empiricism  will  be  more  help- 
ful in  our  search  for  appropriate  food  than  scientific  analysis.  Ev- 
eryone must  study  his  special  personal  requirements. 

The  first  consideration  is  that  the  intake  of  food  and  the  output 
of  energy  must  be  balanced.  The  human  body  is  a  perfect  ma- 
chine, the  cells  are  able  to  regenerate  and,  to  all  appearances, 
should  go  on  forever.  The  waste  must  be  compensated  for  and  an 
equilibrium  established  between  loss  and  repair.  The  dissolution 
of  our  body  is  possibly  due  to  the  disrespect  or  ignorance  of  this 
seemingly  occult  law.  The  curse  of  our  civilization,  in  addition  to 
denaturized  food,  is  unbalanced  diet.  Food  faddists  with  their  ir- 


GENERAL    COMMENTS    ON    DIET  9 

rational  precepts  and  dietary  whims  contribute  their  share  by  ex- 
cluding desirable  foods.  Fortunately  most  diet  fashions  seldom 
last  longer  than  a  year  or  so. 

If  an  engine  carries  a  heavier  load  and  is  run  with  greater 
speed,  it  will  require  more  fuel  and  lubrication.  The  prime  con- 
siderations should  be  the  innate  quality  of  the  engine  and  the  pur- 
pose which  it  is  meant  to  serve.  Age  and  climate  must  be  consid- 
ered. The  body  requires  different  food  in  winter  than  in  summer  j 
the  same  contrast  which  exists  between  the  north  and  the  tropics. 
People  in  extremely  cold  climates  prefer  fat  which  is  a  heat  pro- 
ducing food  j  the  population  of  the  tropical  countries,  on  the  con- 
trary, prefer  fruits  and  leafy  vegetables.  In  cold  climates  the 
organism  will  be  more  capable  of  enduring  dietetic  errors. 

The  various  ages  of  life  are  important.  If  we  divide  the  periods 
of  life  into  three  principal  parts:  (i)  Period  of  Preparation,  from 
birth  to  about  twenty-one j  (2)  Active  Usefulness,  from  twenty- 
one  to  forty-five 5  and  (3)  Period  of  Decline,  we  can  easily  under- 
stand why  the  food  requirements  vary  considerably.  In  the  first 
period  of  life,  next  to  starches  and  sugars,  proteins  are  most  im- 
portant. In  the  second  "act",  the  catechism  of  metabolists,  that 
carbohydrates,  proteins  and  fats  should  be  in  a  4:13/2:1  ratio,  is 
more  applicable.  During  the  period  of  decline,  when  tissue  build- 
ing is  on  the  decrease,  the  body  requires  less  protein  to  repair  the 
wear  and  tear  but  more  calorigenic  carbohydrates  to  create  much 
needed  energy.  Of  course,  the  principle  that  one  man's  meat  is 
another  man's  poison  should  be  considered.  Constitution,  heredi- 
tary traits,  temperament,  habits  and  environment,  on  the  whole, 
must  be  taken  into  account.  The  main  precept  should  be,  however, 
to  be  mindful  of  the  stomach  (the  boiler  and  its  purpose)  and  not 
of  the  palate  and  the  tongue,  especially  when  they  are  not  under 
the  control  of  the  brain.  The  rule  of  common  sense  is  more  impor- 
tant even  than  that  of  science.  Too  much  science  only  adds  to  the 
confusion.  If  we  were  to  eat  entirely  according  to  science,  espe- 
cially in  our  science-mad  era,  we  should  soon  be  served  a  fair-sized 
pill,  containing  carbohydrates,  proteins,  fats,  vitamins,  enzymes, 
calcium,  iron  and  "sixteen"  other  minerals  in  proper  ratio,  previ- 


10  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

ously  irradiated,  of  course,  with  ultra-violet  rays,  which  would 
mean  the  end  of  the  good  old-fashioned  "square"  meal.  Too  bad 
that  philosophers  have  maimed  and  deprived  us  (we  also  did  our 
share)  of  the  power  of  instinct  and  have  indemnified  us  with  rea- 
son— because  instinct  in  selecting  food  could  be  of  considerable 
assistance.  As  it  is,  we  simply  have  to  envy  the  intelligence  (with 
apologies  to  Descartes)  exhibited  by  the  lower  creatures  in  their 
choice  of  food  and  .  .  .  drink. 

We  could  learn  a  lot  also  from  the  ancients  in  the  selection  of 
their  food.  Hesiod  remarks:  "The  uncultivated  fields  afforded 
fruits  to  the  Greeks  and  supplied  their  bountiful  repast."  Por- 
phyry, the  Platonic  philosopher  (third  century  B.C.),  a  man  of 
great  talent  and  learning,  related  that  "the  ancient  Greeks  lived 
entirely  on  the  fruits  of  the  earth."  The  diet  certainly  must  have 
agreed  with  them  and  aided  their  intellect  and  imagination,  en- 
abling them  to  create  the  greatest  classic  of  all  times,  their  mythol- 
ogy. Their  unusual  longevity  sounds  today  more  like  a  myth.  The 
ancient  Greek  and  Roman  legislators  introduced  strict  laws  for 
the  preservation  of  health  and  it  was  the  duty  of  officers  of  high 
rank  to  enforce  public  health  laws.  Simple,  natural  and  physio- 
logically rational  nourishment  is  more  fitted  to  promote  health 
than  unnatural,  stimulating  foods. 

Hygienic  measures  formerly  constituted  a  part  of  religion. 
Moses,  Mohammed,  Confucius  and  Buddha  prescribed  health 
laws.  When  countries  once  healthy  and  prosperous  disregarded 
these  tenets  and  changed  their  habits,  they  became  decadent.  The 
Holy  Land,  once  flowing  with  milk  and  honey  and  producing 
sufficient  grain  and  fruit  to  supply  a  great  population,  became  a 
land  of  doom,  a  deserted  land,  the  abode  of  lawless  Arabs  and 
Turks.  A  Sanebat  from  Egypt,  about  2500  B.C.,  described  Pales- 
tine: "There  were  figs  and  grapes;  its  wine  was  more  plentiful 
than  water;  abundant  was  its  honey,  many  were  its  oil-trees,  and 
all  fruits  were  upon  its  trees;  there,  too,  was  barley  and  spelt,  and 
cattle  of  all  kinds  without  end." 

Napoleon  remarked  that  an  army  marches  on  its  stomach.  We 
could  easily  apply  this  maxim  to  nations;  in  fact,  to  the  inhabitants 


GENERAL    COMMENTS    ON    DIET  II 

of  the  entire  globe.  Ideal  nutrition  would  entail  not  only  physical 
but  mental  and  moral  reform,  consequently  raising  sanitary  as 
well  as  social,  economic,  and  even  spiritual  standards.  If  we  were 
to  introduce,  for  instance,  a  five-year  trial  period  of  sensible  eating 
— a  procedure  very  much  in  vogue  today  in  other  matters  the 
world  over — or  even  nominate  a  food-czar,  many  problems  of 
sociology,  economy,  criminology  and  of  agriculture  would  become 
avaunt.  Through  economy  of  food  not  only  ill  health,  but  many 
a  depression  could  be  averted.  The  actual  and  current  fact,  men- 
tioned without  political  or  any  other  allusion,  that  sixty-five  mil- 
lion Germans  are  led  today  by  a  vegetarian  ought  to  arouse  the 
interest  of  food  experts  and  induce  them  to  use  telescopes  instead 
of  test-tubes.  The  indefatigable  German  Fuhrer  is  a  liberal  con- 
sumer of  honey,  in  which  he  indulges  daily  at  breakfast,  in  typical 
Bavarian  fashion,  with  milk,  oatmeal,  bread  and  cheese.  The  full 
appreciation  of  honey  by  the  Nazi  government  is  best  proven  by 
the  fact  that  its  exportation  is  strictly  prohibited. 

With  regard  to  the  quantity  of  food  to  be  consumed,  we  must 
obey  one  of  the  principal  commands  of  Nature  and  that  is  econ- 
omy. The  old  precept  that  we  eat  to  live  and  do  not  live  to  eat, 
must  be  remembered.  The  ancient  Egyptians  placed  miniature 
mummies,  and  the  Carmelite  monks,  human  skulls,  on  their  din- 
ing tables  to  remind  them  of  this  truism.  The  consumption  of 
tasty  and  wholesome  food,  in  moderation,  is  the  safest  and  most 
essential  approach  to  the  conservation  of  health,  prolongation  of 
usefulness,  enjoyment  of  the  senses  and  the  complacent  exercise 
of  intellect  to  appreciate  the  beauties  of  this  world.  Samuel  John- 
son well  expressed  this  sentiment:  "Health  is,  indeed,  so  necessary 
to  all  the  duties  as  well  as  pleasures  of  life,  that  the  crime  of  squan- 
dering it  is  equal  to  folly  j  and  he  that  for  a  short  gratification 
brings  weakness  and  diseases  upon  himself,  and  for  the  pleasure 
of  a  few  years  passed  in  the  tumults  of  diversion  and  clamors  of 
merriment  condemns  the  maturer  and  more  experienced  part  of 
his  life  to  the  chamber  and  the  couch,  may  be  justly  reproached, 
not  only  as  a  spendthrift  of  his  happiness,  but  as  a  robber  of  the 
public  j  as  a  wretch  that  has  voluntarily  disqualified  himself  for 


12  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

the  business  of  his  station,  and  refused  that  part  which  Providence 
assigns  him  in  the  general  task  of  human  nature."  Socrates,  who 
preached  and  also  practiced  moderation  in  food  consumption,  es- 
caped all  plagues  which  raged  in  Athens,  where  he  resided.  The 
glorified  Spartan  diet  produced  superior  physical  prowess. 

People  in  general  consume  more  food  than  is  physiologically 
necessary.  Eating  too  much,  to  eat  until  one  cannot  eat  any  longer, 
overstrains  the  digestive  powers  and  prevents  digestion.  There  is 
an  old  and  very  true  saying,  "stop  eating  while  you  still  have  some 
appetite."  An  excess  of  food  defeats  its  object;  besides,  it  is  detri- 
mental to  health.  Occasionally,  or  for  a  short  period  of  time,  it  is 
not  so  harmful  but  when  prolonged  it  will  lead  finally  to  the  de- 
struction of  the  organism.  But,  as  Cato  said,  "it  is  a  difficult  task 
to  argue  with  the  stomach,  which  has  no  ears."  Gluttony  is  the 
greatest  sin  which  an  individual  can  commit  against  himself.  Of 
course,  it  is  not  easy  to  change  established  habits  which  have  pre- 
vailed for  generations.  Let  us  apply  the  words  of  the  Earl  of 
Rosebery,  Prime  Minister  of  England  and  successor  to  Gladstone: 
"We  cannot  expect  a  nation  to  stride  into  perfection  at  once.  It  was 
only  by  slow  painful  efforts  that  a  nation  worked  out  its  redemp- 
tion from  darkness  and  ignorance."  In  fact,  it  would  be  an  error 
and  a  tax  on  the  system  to  change  suddenly.  Changes  must  be 
gradual.  Meanwhile,  the  rich  man  should  eat  when  he  has  a  good 
stomach  and  the  poor,  when  he  can  get  a  good  meal. 

Some  hae  meat  and  canna  eat, 

And  some  wad  eat  that  want  it, 

But  we  hae  meat,  and  we  can  eat; 

Sae  let  the  Lord  be  thank  it. — Robert  Burns 

The  confusion  and  lack  of  discipline  in  the  field  of  dietetics  is 
mainly  caused  by  the  rivalry  between  the  stomach  and  the  palate, 
especially  when  the  latter,  as  already  remarked,  is  beyond  the 
control  of  reason.  Taste  is  the  most  indiscreet  among  our  five 
senses.  Also,  it  is  unreliable.  The  same  food  or  substance  varies  in 


GENERAL    COMMENTS    ON    DIET  1 3 

taste  with  different  individuals.  An  identical  chemical  compound 
will  be  tasteless  to  some  persons}  to  others  it  will  be  bitter,  sour, 
sweet  or  salty.  Modern  cookery  is  chiefly  to  be  blamed  for  the  ex- 
cesses in  eating  because  it  tries  to  flatter  and  tickle  the  palate  and 
we  cannot  resist  the  temptations  and  the  charms  of  taste.  Culinary 
art  has  become  very  ingenious  and  persistent  in  provoking  and 
maintaining  unremitting  appetite  of  the  palate  without  taking  into 
consideration  the  requirements  and  even  the  capacity  of  the  stom- 
ach, which  has  to  bear  all  the  burden  by  receiving  many  times 
more  food  than  it  can  manage.  The  palate  has  no  responsibilities 
or  toil}  its  only  aspiration  is  to  be  pleased  and  satisfied.  And  how 
we  accommodate  that  selfish  desire  and  cater  to  its  caprices,  un- 
mindful of  the  penalties  which  we  have  to  endure  afterwards! 

The  cunning  strategy  of  modern  culinary  art  is  to  create,  by 
any  means,  false  appetite.  The  result  is:  most  impossible  and  harm- 
ful combinations.  Foods  which  by  themselves  are  salutary  become 
injurious  when  combined.  Meat,  eggs,  milk,  starches,  sweets  and 
acids  alone  are  digestible,  but  become  heavy  and  indigestible  when 
mixed.  Ice  cream  is  not  objectionable  but  when  eaten  after  a  meal 
it  will  convert  the  otherwise  digestible  food  to  a  state  of  decom- 
position. The  Hebrew  religion  forbids  eating  meat  and  dairy 
products  at  the  same  time.  Wrong  food  is  not  always  the  cause  of 
trouble}  a  wrong  mixture  of  good  food  is  just  as  harmful. 

The  hors  d'oeuvre  with  all  its  innumerable  salted,  dyed, 
smoked,  pickled  and  spiced  varieties  tends  to  irritate  the  stomach 
and  induce  it  to  oversecrete.  The  production  of  more  than  the 
normal  amount  of  gastric  juice  creates  a  craving  for  more  food  to 
get  rid  of  the  excess  irritating  juices.  Hot  soup  with  all  its  condi- 
ments produces  the  same  result.  The  gastric  juice  will  welcome 
the  inward-bound  conglomeration  as  an  affinity  which  will  absorb 
it  like  a  sponge.  If  the  food  is  insufficient  to  absorb  all  the  gastric 
juices  and  there  is  still  acidosis,  people  will  resort  to  bicarbonate 
of  soda  and  hundreds  of  other  digestive  powders  with  which  the 
medicine  chests  are  richly  stocked,  to  remain,  as  they  say,  on  the 
"alkaline  side."  Occasionally  victims  perspire  freely  and  feel  faint 


14  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

on  account  of  the  toxic  state  and  have  to  be  taken  to  the  air  to  ob- 
tain needed  oxygen,  which  will  assist  to  eliminate  the  surplus  acid 
through  increased  respiration. 

Stimulated  appetite  is  simply  a  forced  craving  for  food,  paral- 
lel to  administering  aphrodisiacs.  And  the  happy  possessor  of  the 
wonderful  organ  called  the  body,  loaned  to  him  by  Nature  for 
use  during  his  lifetime,  is  satisfied  and  believes  that  he  has  pleased 
his  belly,  his  false  (and  often  his  only)  god.  The  French  are  past 
masters  in  this  special  art  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  Montesquieu 
made  the  statement  that  dinner  killed  one-half  the  inhabitants  of 
Paris,  and  supper  the  other  half.  We  try  to  imitate  the  French, 
though  rather  poorly,  if  we  take  Dr.  Wiley's  word,  who  remarked 
that  there  is  "no  country  in  the  world  where  food  is  so  plentiful 
and  so  badly  cooked  as  right  here  in  the  United  States  of  America." 

Most  people  do  not  wait  until  the  previous  meal  has  been  thor- 
oughly digested.  "Sometimes  to  feast  and  sometimes  to  fast" — is 
not  in  their  catechism.  But  there  is  a  good  remedy  in  modern  Ma- 
teria Medica  for  everything  (if  not,  the  radio  announcer  will  help 
you  out)  and  the  impatient  epicures  often  resort  to  the  extremely 
popular  use  of  drastic  purgatives  to  make  room  for  the  next,  anx- 
iously awaited  food  and  drink.  We  live  in  a  rapid  transit  age!  To 
all  this  we  may  add  the  destructive  effect  of  another  intemperate 
habit;  namely  the  overindulgence  in  intoxicants,  though,  to  be 
frank,  Drunkenness  is  not  half  as  disastrous  (in  physiological  re- 
spects) as  her  demure  sister,  Gluttony,  who  claims  incomparably 
more  victims.  The  concentration  of  foods,  e.g.,  essences,  like  beef 
broth  (consomme),  made  from  pounds  of  meat  and  marrow  bones, 
is  also  an  error.  The  system  receives  more  nourishment  than  it  is 
capable  of  using.  Such  principles  are  admissible  if  there  is  an  ur- 
gent need  of  aliments,  as  in  sickness,  when  the  digestive  organs 
are  weakened,  but  not  in  everyday  diet.  Most  of  the  so-called 
easily  digestible  foods  are  really  indigestible  because  they  are  ab- 
sorbed before  they  have  been  properly  prepared  for  assimilation. 
This  is  against  all  natural  laws.  Coarse  foods  have  great  advan- 
tages ;  they  require  mastication  which  means  use  of  the  teeth,  and 
salivation  which  helps  digestion.  Coarse  food  is  retained  longer 


GENERAL    COMMENTS    ON    DIET  1 5 

in  the  stomach  and  incites  it  to  activity — which  renders  food  more 
homogeneous  with  our  own  body  substances. 

Another  harmful  (though  occasionally  enjoyable)  conventional 
practice  of  civilized  races  is  to  eat  in  company.  A  multitude  of 
people  are  assembled,  each  one  with  individual  requirements  and 
tolerance,  and  served  the  same  food.  This  is  as  impractical  and  in- 
feasible  as  to  supply  one  size  of  shoes  to  a  large  number  of  people. 
But  we  are  more  congenial  at  banquet  tables  than  in  shoe  stores. 
If  not,  a  few  drinks  will  make  up  for  the  ill-fit.  (Shoe-stores  really 
ought  to  adopt  the  same  policy.  It  probably  would  expedite  sales, 
as  difficult  as  it  is  to  please  a  disgruntled  and  sober  customer.) 
Meals,  by  right,  ought  to  be  physiological  and  not  social  or  family 
affairs.  Tables  "dressed  up"  with  fancy  china,  silver  and  glass- 
ware, flowers  and  other  ornaments  distract  the  attention  from  the 
food.  Dyspeptics,  anemics,  diabetics,  young  and  old,  fat  and  lean 
people,  and  those  with  low  and  high  blood  pressures,  ought  to  eat 
in  respective  groups  which  would  save  much  discomfort,  the  lure 
of  temptation,  hospital  expenses,  doctors'  and  surgeons'  fees,  etc. 
While  small  children  eat  in  the  nursery  they  get  along  well  with 
their  diet  but  as  soon  as  they  join  the  family  table  trouble  com- 
mences. 

A  multitude  of  diseases,  physical  and  mental,  are  due  to  the 
improper  stoking  of  fuel.  The  "fire  box"  is  sometimes  in  a  fiery 
blaze  but  we  still  add  more  fuel,  not  even  natural  foods  but  too 
frequently  artful  explosives.  The  formed  gases  puff  out  (we  call 
it  belching,  eructation,  etc.)  through  all  openings,  which  is  really 
a  blow-out  of  safety  valves.  The  exquisite  engine  often  ejects  the 
objectionable  matter  (the  act  is  designated  in  human  language  as 
vomiting,  diarrhea,  voiding,  etc.)  but  the  precious  machine  will 
soon  be  filled  up  and  maltreated  again  with  other  noisome  stuff. 
The  forefront  part  of  the  "furnace",  which  is  less  reinforced  by 
Mother  Nature,  possibly  because  such  abuse  was  not  anticipated 
(especially  not  in  the  case  of  man),  bulges  out,  forming  a  corpo- 
ration or  paunch,  which  signifies  the  beginning  of  the  end,  but  the 
"handwriting  on  the  wall"  is  still  disregarded.  Pliny  suggested: 


1 6  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

"Simple  diet  is  best}  for  many  dishes  bring  many  diseases."  Will 
civilized  man  ever  wake  up  and  live? 

If  man  would  eat  frugally  and  adopt  the  rules  of  common  sense, 
there  would  be  few  sick  people  and  hardly  any  occasion  for  rem- 
edies, in  a  word,  everybody  would  be  his  own  physician — and  he 
would  never  have  had  a  better  one.  Physicians  would  then  be  re- 
duced to  treating  accidents  and  epidemic  diseases.  In  modern  Nazi 
Germany,  efforts  are  being  made  by  the  authorities  to  reinstate 
Nature-Cure.  With  regard  to  medicines,  there  is  lots  of  truth  in 
the  statement  of  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  "If  all  the  medicine 
in  the  world  were  sunk  into  the  sea  it  would  be  better  for  human- 
ity and  worse  for  the  fish."  There  is  an  old  saying:  "Many  medi- 
cines produce  few  cures."  King  Solomon,  on  the  other  hand,  must 
have  been  a  great  believer  in  medicines  when  he  made  the  com- 
plimentary statement:  "A  merry  heart  doeth  good  like  a  medi- 
cine." 

THE  OBJECT  OF  NUTRITION 

The  human  body,  besides  water,  consists  of  proteins,  carbohy- 
drates (starch  and  sugar),  fats  and  inorganic  substances,  e.g.,  salts, 
calcium,  phosphor,  iron,  iodine,  etc.  Each  has  its  special  function, 
and  when  utilized,  must  be  replaced.  Proteins,  carbohydrates,  fats, 
minerals,  vitamins  and  water  are  the  basic  elements  in  successful 
nutrition.  The  component  parts  of  our  food  become  transformed, 
through  the  highest  degree  of  purification,  into  vital  organs  and 
organic  fluids. 

Food  and  eating  have  three  cardinal  purposes: 

i.  To  satisfy  hunger.  Hunger  is  individual — depending  on  the 
physical  and  mental  output  of  energy,  size  of  the  body  and 
also  on  habit,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  small  people 
sometimes  eat  more. 

2.  To  rebuild  wasted  and  used-up  tissues,  i.e.,  to  replace  the  pro- 
teins, fats,  limesalts  and  water.  Proteins,  both  animal  and  vege- 
table, have  as  their  main  purpose  the  repair  and  formation  of 


GENERAL    COMMENTS    ON    DIET  17 

tissues.  We  also  require  phosphates,  calcium  and  magnesium 
salts  for  the  bones  and  body  fluids,  iron  for  blood-cells,  lecithin 
for  nerves,  vitamins,  etc. 

To  produce  heat  and  indirectly,  energy.  Motion,  strength  and 
thinking  require  energy.  The  body  also  emanates  a  consider- 
able amount  of  heat.  Carbohydrates  and  fats  are  most  impor- 
tant for  generating  and  replacing  heat  and  energy.  In  addi- 
tion, they  spare  proteins.  Starches  and  sugars  are  converted  in 
the  alimentary  canal,  under  the  influence  of  various  enzymes, 
into  simple  sugars  (monosaccharides).  After  absorption  into 
the  portal  circulation,  simple  sugars  are  carried  to  the  liver 
where  they  are  stored  as  glycogen.  Under  the  influence  of  spe- 
cific hormones,  the  glycogen  is  converted  to  dextrose,  which  is 
stored  in  the  tissues  and  gradually  liberated  into  the  blood  to 
be  oxidized  through  many  intermediate  steps  into  carbon  diox- 
ide and  water.  Insulin  plays  an  important  part  in  the  utiliza- 
tion of  carbohydrates  only  after  they  reach  the  blood  stream. 
This  complex  chemical  process  creates  our  heat  and  energy. 
In  all  the  functions,  the  extremely  active  element,  oxygen,  a 
component  of  air  and  water,  plays  an  essential,  nay,  vital  part. 


CHAPTER    II 
NATURAL  AND  ARTIFICIAL  SUGARS 


SUGARS  are  carbon  compounds  which,  when  consumed  by  the 
human  organism,  undergo  a  process  of  physiological  combus- 
tion and,  as  stated,  create  heat  and  energy.  Sweets  are  vitally  im- 
portant sources  of  dynamic  energy  and  in  this  respect  they  surpass 
all  other  foodstuffs.  They  are  the  ever-ready  generators  of  phys- 
ical and  mental  force.  Sweets  are  not  only  indispensable  as  a  source 
of  heat  and  energy  but  they  have  a  constructive  effect  because  they 
produce  fat  which  is  a  quasi-reserve  fuel. 

The  physiological  value  of  sugars  depends  mainly  on  their 
character  and  origin,  that  is,  whether  they  are  natural  or  artificial. 
Natural  sugars  are  sweets  which  prevail  in  Nature,  for  instance, 
in  honey,  fruits,  vegetables,  milk,  etc.  Artificial  sugars  are  pre- 
pared, as  a  rule,  from  natural  sugars  by  means  of  extraction  and 
concentration. 

Natural  sugars  are  directly  and  effectually  digested,  absorbed 
and  assimilated  and  become  oxidized  through  a  process  of  com- 
bustion. Artificial  sugars,  like  cane,  beet,  corn  and  maple,  must  be 
converted  before  ingestion.  The  main  drawbacks  of  the  artificial 
products  are  that  they  are  highly  concentrated  and  have  the  effect 
of  explosive  substances.  They  oxidize  violently  in  the  system  at 
the  slightest  contact  with  oxygen.  Oxygen,  though  it  constitutes 
only  one-fifth  of  the  air,  is  a  very  active  element.  Artificial  sugars 
interfere  with  oxidation  of  less  ignitible  nitrogenous  materials, 
such  as  proteins.  We  could  compare  the  effect  of  artificial  sugars 
on  the  system  with  that  of  highly  explosive  substances  added  to 
fuels  in  automobile  engines.  The  engine  would  soon  be  destroyed ; 
in  the  same  manner  as  our  liver,  kidneys  and  lungs  are  affected, 

18 


NATURAL    AND    ARTIFICIAL    SUGARS  1 9 

resulting  in  high  blood-pressure,  cellular  asphyxia,  diabetes,  ar- 
thritis and  innumerable  other  complications.  While  artificial  sugars 
during  their  process  of  oxidation  flare  up  in  the  system  like  straw 
fire,  they  create  a  rapid  but  brief  stimulation,  without  nutritive 
benefits.  If  these  sugars  are  taken  in  excess  they  will  pass  through 
the  kidneys  unchanged  and  remain  in  the  system  as  poisons,  pro- 
ducing instead  of  the  required  heat  and  energy,  decay  and  degen- 
eration. Artificial  sugars  are  especially  harmful  in  renal  diseases 
and  for  high-strung  individuals.  Many  nervous  states  can  be  at- 
tributed to  excessive  sugar  consumption.  Natural  sugars  transform 
in  the  system  into  beneficial  natural  acids  instead  of  into  harmful 
acids  which  are  created  by  the  sundry  juggled,  so-called  refined 
products. 

While  natural  aliments  are  rarely  harmful  under  normal  con- 
ditions, we  should  always  view  artificially  prepared  food  sub- 
stances with  a  certain  mistrust,  especially  when  consumed  in  large 
quantities  as  in  the  case  of  cane  or  other  artificial  sugars.  To  our 
detriment,  however,  we  do  not  seem  to  realize  the  dangerous 
habit  which  we  have  gradually  acquired.  If  someone  should  "try" 
to  introduce  today  artificial  eggs,  milk  or  fat  he  would  be  accorded 
a  very  cold  reception. 

Primitive  races  are  healthier  by  far  than  civilized  ones.  They 
live  on  simple  natural  nutriments  and  do  not  indulge  in  artificial 
foods  which,  as  a  rule,  are  stimulating.  They  consume  more  fruit 
sugars  and  vegetable  albumens.  Of  course,  our  swift  modern  life 
requires  rapid  metabolism  to  create  or  replace  the  much  needed 
physical  and  mental  energy  and  we  resort  to  stimulating  foods 
which  are  rarely  nourishing. 

Natural  sugars  are  not  only  stimulating  but  are  also  nutritive. 
On  the  West  Indian  plantations  the  negroes  during  the  harvest 
season  grow  fat  on  the  juices  of  the  sugar-cane.  The  children  suck 
the  cane  with  avidity  and  likewise  thrive  on  the  juice.  Domestic 
animals,  horses,  cattle  and  pigs,  even  dogs,  grow  fat  from  eating 
the  cane.  On  the  other  hand,  animals  fed  on  artificial  sugar  be- 
come feeble  and  sick.  With  regard  to  the  effect  of  sugar-cane  on 


20  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

teeth,  there  are  no  people  on  earth  who  have  finer  teeth  than  the 
negroes  of  Jamaica. 

Simple  or  natural  sugars,  like  dextrose  and  levulose,  which 
honey  contains,  are  monosaccharides,  i.e.,  they  have  only  one 
sugar  radicle  to  the  molecule.  Sucrose,  lactose  and  maltose  are 
disaccharides;  starch,  dextrin,  glycogen,  etc.,  are  polysaccharides. 
The  two  latter  groups  must  first  be  hydrolized.  All  carbohydrates 
must  be  changed,  first,  into  simple  sugars,  monosaccharides,  be- 
fore they  are  assimilated.  This  is  the  best  proof  of  the  value  of 
honey,  as  it  is  a  predigested  substance. 


CHAPTER    III 
HONEY 


HONEY,  a  most  assimilable  carbohydrate  compound,  is  a  sin- 
gularly acceptable,  practical  and  most  effective  aliment  to 
generate  heat,  create  and  replace  energy,  and  furthermore,  to 
form  certain  tissues.  Honey,  besides,  supplies  the  organism  with 
substances  for  the  formation  of  enzymes  and  other  biological  fer- 
ments to  promote  oxidation.  It  has  distinct  germicidal  properties 
and  in  this  respect  greatly  differs  from  milk  which  is  an  excep- 
tionally good  breeding-ground  for  bacteria.  Honey  is  a  most  valu- 
able food,  which  today  is  not  sufficiently  appreciated.  Its  frequent 
if  not  daily  use  is  vitally  important. 

The  universal  and  natural  craving  for  sweets  of  some  kind 
proves  best  that  there  is  a  true  need  for  them  in  the  human  system. 
Children,  who  expend  lots  of  energy,  have  a  real  "passion"  for 
sweets.  This  is  really  instinct.  Proteins  will  replace  and  build  tis- 
sues but  it  is  the  function  and  assignment  of  carbohydrates  to  cre- 
ate and  replace  heat  and  energy,  and  to  provide  what  we  call 
"pep". 

Honey,  which  contains  two  invert  sugars,  levulose  and  dextrose, 
has  many  advantages  as  a  food  substance.  While  cane-sugar  and 
starches,  as  already  intimated,  must  undergo  during  digestion  a 
process  of  inversion  which  changes  them  into  grape  and  fruit- 
sugars,  in  honey  this  is  already  accomplished  because  it  has  been 
predigested  by  the  bees,  inverted  and  concentrated.  This  saves  the 
stomach  additional  labor.  For  a  healthy  human  body,  which  is  ca- 
pable of  digesting  sugar,  the  actuality  that  honey  is  an  already 
predigested  sugar  has  less  importance,  but  in  a  case  of  weak  diges- 
tion, especially  in  those  who  lack  invertase  and  amylase  and  de- 


22  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

pend  on  monosaccharides,  it  is  a  different  matter  and  deserves  con- 
sideration. 

The  consummation  of  this  predigestive  act  is  accomplished  by 
the  enzymes  invertase,  amylase  and  catalase,  which  are  produced 
by  the  worker  bees  in  such  large  quantities  that  they  can  be  found 
in  every  part  of  their  bodies.  However,  there  is  plenty  of  it  left  in 
honey  for  our  benefit.  The  remarkable  convertive  power  of  these 
enzymes  can  be  proven  by  a  simple  experiment.  If  we  add  one  or 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  raw  honey  to  a  pint  of  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  sucrose,  the  mixture  will  soon  be  changed  into  invert  sugar. 
The  addition  of  boiled  honey,  in  which  the  enzymes  have  been 
destroyed,  will  not  accomplish  such  a  change. 

The  frequent  Biblical  references  to  milk  and  honey  demon- 
strate the  importance  of  these  two  oldest  aliments.  Neither,  how- 
ever, is  a  complete  food  nor  a  proper  nutriment  alone  for  a  long 
period  of  time.  They  are  effective  only  to  supplement  deficiencies 
of  other  food  substances. 

Milk  has  many  drawbacks.  As  mentioned,  it  is  an  excellent 
breeding  medium  for  bacteria.  The  inhabitants  of  the  East  quickly 
sour  the  milk  of  cows,  goats,  sheep,  mares  and  camels  and  prepare 
curds  and  cheese  from  it,  because  in  warm  climates  milk  cannot  be 
preserved  otherwise.  Honey,  on  the  other  hand,  requires  little  at- 
tention and  does  not  deteriorate  even  in  the  tropics.  Honey  has 
often  been  given  preference  over  milk.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
Van  Helmont  gave  milk  the  epithet,  "brute's  food"  and  suggested 
bread,  boiled  in  beer  and  honey,  as  a  substitute.  Liebig  also  rec- 
ommended a  substitute  for  milk.  Honey  has  many  advantages  as 
a  staple  article  of  diet  to  secure  optimum  nutrition. 

THE  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  ASPECTS  OF  HONEY 
PHYSICAL   QUALITIES 

Honey,  a  sweet,  thick,  viscid  fluid  of  agreeable  taste  and  aro- 
matic odor,  is  collected  by  the  honeybees  from  the  nectaries  of 
flowers,  swallowed,  assimilated  in  their  honey-stomachs  (crops), 


HONEY  23 

regurgitated,  stored  and  thoroughly  ripened  in  the  cells  of  the 
combs.  This  supplies  them,  their  young,  the  idle  drones. and  .  .  . 
mankind  with  nourishment.  It  is  also  a  precautionary  measure  so 
that  they  and  their  progeny  will  be  provided  with  food  during 
seasons  when  there  are  no  more  flowers  available.  What  the  bees 
extract  from  the  flowers  is  named  nectar,  a  sweet  juice  which  is 
stored  in  the  special  containers  of  the  flowers  called  nectaries.  This 
luscious  drink  lures  bees  and  other  insects  to  flowers  as  an  induce- 
ment to  perform  their  vocation,  the  pollination  of  trees  and  plants. 
Nectar  is  their  reward  for  these  services.  (Dr.  A.  W.  Bennett 
thought  that  the  perfume  of  flowers  is  generally  derived  from 
their  nectars.)  It  is  a  singular  combination,  a  friendly  cooperation 
between  the  most  admired  and  beloved  objects  on  earth,  flowers, 
and  the  most  detested  and  feared  creatures,  insects.* 

Taste,  color  shading,  flavor  and  density  of  honeys  greatly  dif- 
fer. There  are  various  methods  to  determine  the  gradings  of 
honey  colors.  The  color  depends  entirely  on  the  flowers  from 
which  the  honey  is  collected.  Honey  has  normally  a  whitish  color, 
tinged  with  yellow.  There  are,  however,  brown,  red,  green  and 
even  black  honeys.  Clover  and  fireweed  are  typical  white  honeys; 
golden-rod,  eucalyptus,  marigold,  magnolia  and  some  poplar  are 
amber  colored ;  thistle  is  green ;  buckwheat  and  heather  have  a 
dark  color.  In  Africa,  green  honey  is  found  in  red  combs;  in  Rus- 
sia and  Brazil  there  is  black,  and  in  Siberia,  snow-white  honey. 

The  density  (specific  gravity)  of  honey  varies.  The  standard 
weight  of  honey  is  about  12  pounds  to  a  gallon.  If  it  is  less,  the 
honey  is  considered  too  thin,  and  if  more,  the  reverse. 

There  are  as  many  kinds  of  honey  flavors  as  there  are  varieties 
of  trees  and  flowers.  Honey  is  the  quintessence  of  flowers  and  its 
savoriness  depends  on  the  fragrance  of  the  blooms,  just  as  the 
varieties  of  wine  depend  on  the  grapes  from  which  they  are  ob- 
tained. The  savoriness  of  meats  also  depends  upon  the  food  on 
which  animals  feed.  This  applies  even  to  human  beings!  The  can- 
nibals of  Australia  do  not  find  carnivorous  white  people  delectable 

*  The  name  flower  in  itself  reflects  on  honey.  It  is  derived  from  flow,  of 
course,  of  nectar  (flos  florum). 


24  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

because  their  flesh  produces  nausea,  which  the  flesh  of  the  vege- 
table-fed black  or  yellow  races  will  not  provoke.  The  rice-fed 
Chinese  are  considered  among  them  a  great  delicacy  and  Carl 
Lumholtz  describes  (Among  Cannibals)  how  ten  Chinamen  had 
been  consumed  and  relished  at  one  dinner.  Flesh-eating  influences 
not  only  the  taste  but  also  the  odor  of  the  organic  tissues  of  all 
creatures.  The  Chinese  dogs  bark  at  foreigners.  Carl  Crow,  in 
Four  Hundred  Million  Customers,  relates  that  on  many  occasions 
in  Shanghai  he  stepped  from  a  house-boat,  bathed,  shaved,  redo- 
lent of  the  odor  of  soap,  as  immaculate  as  a  male  can  be,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  every  dog  to  the  windward  of  him  had  registered  an 
anguished  protest.  The  dogs  seemed  to  act  as  though  he  were  a 
fox  or  had  the  uncured  pelt  of  a  skunk  in  his  pocket.  He  relates 
that  the  dogs  always  raise  a  terrible  hubbub  any  time  foreigners — 
even  charming  alien  ladies — pass,  but  never  bark  at  natives.  Some 
would  believe  that  the  dogs'  aversion  might  be  due  to  the  cloth- 
ing but  a  Chinese  may  pass  in  continental  attire  and  the  dogs  will 
ignore  him.  We  Occidentals  acquire  a  peculiar  and  irritating 
aroma  through  years  of  meat-eating  while  the  Chinese  are  either 
odorless  or  more  delicately  scented  because  of  their  diet  of  rice, 
barley,  cabbage  and  fish.  The  Chinese  are  rarely  uncomplimen- 
tary but  "confidentially"  they  will  intimate  that  we  have  a  rather 
offensive  and  nauseating  odor.  They  believe  we  badly  need  the 
frequent  traditional  bath  which  is,  however,  only  of  little  benefit. 
We,  as  a  rule,  do  not  eat  carnivorous  quadrupeds  and  birds ;  the 
meats  we  consume  are  basically  composed  of  plants  and  seeds.  The 
Hebrews  are  permitted  to  eat  the  meat  of  animals  that  "chew  the 
cud  and  divide  the  hoof  and  birds  which  are  not  scavengers." 

The  honey  of  Mount  Hymettus,  gathered  from  thyme,  the 
Hyblean  honey  of  Sicily,  the  Cretan  honey  of  Mount  Carina  and 
that  of  Cyprus  and  Cos  were  best  known  in  antiquity.  The  famous 
Hungarian  Acacia  honey  is  collected  from  the  redolent  acacia 
flowers  {Robinia  -pseudacacia),  out  of  which  also  one  of  the  sweet- 
est smelling  perfumes  is  manufactured.  White  clover,  linden, 
orange  blossom,  thyme,  buckwheat,  sage,  raspberry,  etc.,  produce 
delicious  honeys,  each  with  its  individual  flavor.  Persia,  Malta  and 


HONEY  25 

Florida  are  well  known  honey-producing  centers.  The  rosemary 
honey  of  Narbonne  and  that  of  Languedoc  are  popular  in  France, 
so  is  the  honey  of  Grasse,  where  many  acres  of  fragrant  jasmine 
blooms  are  planted,  their  essence  being  in  great  demand  by  the 
perfume  manufacturers.  The  honey  of  Narbonne  is  white,  granu- 
lar and  highly  aromatic.  It  is  often  imitated  by  the  addition  of  an 
infusion  made  from  rosemary  flowers.  Another  well-liked  prod- 
uct of  France,  the  honey  of  Gatinais,  is  usually  white  but  not  as 
odorous  and  granulates  less  easily  than  the  honey  of  Narbonne. 
Honeys  collected  from  the  flowers  of  sycamore  trees  and  goose- 
berry bushes,  though  of  sea-green  color,  are  unsurpassed  in  excel- 
lence. If  there  is  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  same  flowers,  the  honey 
will  be  uniform  and  of  a  definite  type,  otherwise  it  will  be  a  mix- 
ture of  nectars  and  the  flavor  will  depend  on  the  blooms  which 
predominate.  Honey-growers  often  mix  several  honeys  and  pro- 
duce a  blend  to  suit  individual  taste.  In  spite  of  the  divergencies 
in  honeys,  with  regard  to  their  color,  flavor  and  consistency,  their 
food  value  is  essentially  the  same.  About  two  hundred  and  fifty 
varieties  of  honey  are  produced  in  the  United  States  out  of  which 
only  twenty-five  are  distributed  commercially.  Clover  honey  pre- 
dominates among  these  (about  60%). 

Nectar  has  to  undergo  some  changes  before  it  is  converted  into 
honey.  The  nectar  is  mixed  by  the  bees  with  saliva  and  changed 
into  a  digestible  substance.  Honey  is  also  made  from  other  sub- 
stances besides  nectar,  e.g.,  from  honeydew.  This  extra-floral 
honey  is  collected  by  the  bees  from  the  foliage  of  certain  plants. 
Honeydew  is  not  solely  a  product  of  plant  secretion  because  it  is 
secreted,  or  rather  excreted  (it  is  a  waste  product),  by  certain  fam- 
ilies of  insects,  principally  plant-lice,  aphids.  This  dew,  a  gummy, 
glossy,  sweet  substance,  ejected  in  abundant  quantities  from  the 
end  of  their  abdomens  by  the  insects,  often  imparts  to  the  foliage 
the  appearance  of  having  been  coated  with  varnish.  At  certain 
times,  especially  on  hot  and  dry  days,  honeydew  drips  from  the 
leaves  like  rain.  The  ancients  thought  that  it  fell  from  heaven. 
They  called  it  the  saliva  of  the  stars  (saliva  siderum).  Charles 
Butler  remarked:  "The  greatest  plenty  of  purest  nectar  cometh 


26  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

from  above,  which  Almighty  God  miraculously  distils  out  of  the 
air."  Honeydew  is  more  easily  gathered  by  the  bees  than  nectar 
but  produces  a  honey  of  inferior  quality  on  account  of  the  impuri- 
ties it  contains,  since  it  is  exposed  to  air.  This  honey  is  not  much 
favored  because  it  has  an  unpleasant  taste  and  is  generally  used 
for  baking  purposes,  for  the  manufacture  of  lubricants  and  other 
industrial  supplies.  Honeydew  is  not  even  good  as  a  winter  food 
for  bees.  It  is  really  the  most  undesirable  among  all  honeys.* 
Coleridge  thought  differently  when  he  sang  in  Kubla  Khan: 

"He  on  honey-dew  hath  fed, 
And  drank  the  milk  of  Paradise." 

The  honeydew  exuded  by  certain  coniferous  trees  (fir  trees)  is  of 
better  quality.  The  famous  German  Waldhonig  of  the  Black  For- 
est is  such  a  product. 

Honey  is  made  also  by  other  species  of  bees  and  by  diverse  in- 
sects, e.g.,  by  some  ants  and  wasps,  but  when  we  speak  of  honey, 
we  mean  the  produce  of  the  honey-bee.  In  Ethiopia  there  are 
mosquito-like  honey-making  insects.  The  honey  which  they  pro- 
duce is  called  tazma,  and  is  considered  an  excellent  remedy  for 
throat  ailments.  The  honey-making  ants  in  South  America  are 
eaten  by  the  natives  who  rate  them  a  delicacy  on  account  of  their 
sweet  taste.  The  stingless  bees  (Trigona  and  Melipona),  aborig- 
ines of  the  Americas  and  Australia,  also  produce  honey  which  is 
rather  thin  but  of  agreeable  odor.  The  natives  prefer  it  to  the 
honey  of  the  white  man's  stinging  fly  and  also  attribute  a  greater 
remedial  value  to  it. 

The  season  of  the  year  has  considerable  influence  on  honey. 
There  is  spring,  summer  and  fall  honey ;  summer  honey,  made  on 
dry  days,  is  best.  Fall  honey  is  usually  darker  in  color.  Nectar  is 
amply  secreted  on  dry  and  warm  days.  Pliny  calls  summer  honey, 
"season  honey"  and  adds,  "Nature  has  revealed  in  this  substance 
most  remarkable  properties  to  mortals,  were  it  not  that  the  fraud- 
ulent propensities  of  man  are  apt  to  falsify  and  corrupt  every- 

*  The  ancients  called  it  tree-honey  in  contrast  with  bee-honey. 


HONEY  27 

thing."  PJiny  continues,  "If  the  honey  is  taken  at  the  rising  of  the 
Sirius,  and  if  the  ascent  of  Venus,  Jupiter  or  Mercury  should  hap- 
pen to  fall  on  the  same  day,  as  often  is  the  case,  the  sweetness  of 
the  substance  and  the  virtue  which  it  possesses  of  restoring  men 
to  life,  are  not  inferior  to  those  attributed  to  the  nectar  of  the 
gods."  (Book  XI.  14)  "Such  crop  must  be  gathered  at  full  moon 
and  is  richest  when  the  weather  is  fine."  (Ibid.) 

Honey  is  marketed  in  combs  or  in  liquid  form.  The  latter  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  combs,  as  a  rule,  by  centrifugal  force.  During 
highpowered  extraction  which  is  in  vogue  today,  undoubtedly 
some  volatile  bodies  are  lost.  This  may  account  for  the  somewhat 
superior  taste  of  comb  honey.  A  vacuum  method  of  extraction  may- 
be worthy  of  consideration.  In  former  years,  liquid  honey  was  ob- 
tained by  pressing  and  straining  the  honey  from  the  combs,  a 
method  not  nearly  as  successful,  because  strained  honey  contains 
a  considerable  sediment  of  wax,  pollen  and  other  foreign  sub- 
stances. Besides,  it  was  a  wasteful  performance  as  it  ruined  the 
combs  which  today,  with  the  aid  of  modern  extracting  methods, 
can  be  used  again,  saving  time,  labor  and  material  for  the  bees.  It 
is  now  a  question  whether  the  old-fashioned  method  of  straining 
was  not,  from  a  therapeutic  viewpoint,  more  beneficial,  consider- 
ing the  fact  that  the  residual  brood  pap  and  pollen  contain  pro- 
tein. To  this  we  may  also  add  the  presence  of  enzymes,  which  have 
an  important  digestive  value. 

Liquid  honey  is  almost  as  good  as  comb  honey  and  is  simpler 
to  handle.  Comb  honey  looks  attractive  only  if  the  wax  is  fresh 
and  white  and  not  yet  darkened  by  age.  White  honeycombs  are 
obtained  only  when  the  honey  flow  is  fast  and  the  cells  are  quickly 
filled.  Honey  producers  often  remove  combs  prematurely  for  the 
sake  of  a  better  appearance.  This  practice  is  a  drawback  because 
the  honey  is  too  liquid  and  not  yet  fully  ripened.  Fresh,  immature 
honey  sours  and  lacks  aroma.  Comb  honey  is,  on  the  average, 
50%  more  expensive  because,  as  mentioned,  valuable  wax  is 
wasted.  The  so-called  virgin  honey,  often  mentioned  by  ancient 
writers,  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  by  young  bees.  The  ex- 


28  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

pression  is  rarely  used  in  modern  terminology ;  young  bees  do  not 
produce  honey  of  any  sort  because  they  do  not  visit  the  fields. 

Honey,  like  other  sugars  in  solution,  undergoes  crystallization, 
commonly  called  granulation.  It  sometimes  becomes  as  hard  as 
candy.  This  occurs  usually  in  dry  climates  where  there  is  little 
atmospheric  humidity  and  honey  cannot  absorb  water. 

The  three  component  sugars  in  honey  must  be  in  natural  pro- 
portion to  prevent  granulation.  Water  content,  temperature  and 
motion  are  important  factors.  Tropical  honeys,  as  a  rule,  remain 
in  a  liquid  state.  Immobility  assists  granulation.  Dextrose  granu- 
lates rapidly  and  honeys  which  contain  an  excess  of  dextrose,  like 
alfalfa  honey,  will  quickly  form  crystals.  Levulose  is  very  hygro- 
scopic and  honeys  rich  in  levulose  are  not  prone  to  granulate.  Tu- 
pelo and  sage  honey  are  of  this  type.  Sucrose  (saccharose)  also 
hastens  crystallization  while  dextrin  retards  or  prevents  it.  The 
high  sucrose  and  low  dextrin  contents  of  honey  will  increase  the 
crystallization  speed ;  on  the  other  hand,  low  sucrose  and  high 
dextrin  contents  will  lower  it  or  crystallization  will  be  absent. 
Alin  Caillas  established  the  crystallization  speed  quotient,  as 
follows: 

8%   sucrose  and  0.12%   dextrin  contents,  granulation  speed 0.5. 

3%   sucrose  and         5%   dextrin  contents,  granulation  speed 7.0. 

3  %   sucrose  and       11%   dextrin  contents,  there  is  no  granulation  at  all. 

Granulated  honey  is  easily  made  liquid  in  a  tepid  water  bath. 
Honey  should  never  be  heated  above  1600  F.  or  for  too  long  a 
time  because  heating,  though  it  retards  granulation  and  prevents 
fermentation,  will  rob  honey  of  its  flavor,  taste,  minerals,  pro- 
teins, diastatic  ferments  and  vitamins.  Cooked  honey  quickly 
spoils,  although  if  hermetically  sealed,  it  remains  liquid  and  good 
for  years.  In  Europe  and  Canada  people  prefer  granulated  honey 
instead  of  the  liquid  because  they  know  that  it  is  pure  and  is  not 
spoiled  through  heating.  Granulation  of  honey  is  a  quasi  evidence 
of  purity.  Honey  dealers  sell  liquid  honey  because  the  customers 
demand  it. 


HONEY  29 

Honey  should  never  be  kept  or  stored  in  an  icebox  or  in  the 
cellar.  It  is  too  hygroscopic  and  it  will  absorb,  condense  and  re- 
tain moisture.  A  dry  and  not  too  warm  place  and  a  tightly  closed 
container  are  most  desirable.  Honey  does  not  spoil  easily  and  will 
keep  almost  indefinitely.  There  is  no  other  foodstuff  which  re- 
quires less  attention.  According  to  the  September  1913,  issue  of 
the  National  Geographic  Magazine,  T.  M.  Davis,  the  American 
explorer,  during  his  excavations  in  Egypt  (the  tomb  of  Queen 
Tyi's  parents)  was  startled  by  the  discovery  of  a  jar  of  honey, 
still  in  a  fairly  liquid  state,  with  its  characteristic  aroma  preserved 
after  3300  years.  Honey,  of  course,  will  deteriorate  with  age,  like 
all  organic  substances,  its  color  turning  deep  red,  even  black.  The 
Egyptian  report  could  be  rationally  explained  by  assuming  that 
the  jars  had  been  hermetically  sealed.  Our  honey  producers  should 
find  in  this  discovery  an  inducement  to  pack  their  honey  in  air- 
tight containers.  The  glazed  earthen  jars  of  the  Egyptians  should 
also  be  an  object  lesson  because  tin  and  new  glassware  are  not  free 
from  acids,  alkalies  and  mineral  sediments  which  influence  the  ac- 
tion of  enzymes.  Tin  containers  should  be  carefully  lacquered  and 
glass  should  be  sterilized.  Extractors,  pumps,  piping,  strainers  and 
tanks  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  steam. 

Many  housewives  think  that  honey  is  not  convenient  for  use 
because  it  is  messy  and  sticky.  It  must  be  conceded  that  granulated, 
powdered  and  lump  sugars  are  easier  to  handle  than  this  bottled 
sunshine.  A  dripless  syrup-pitcher,  the  so-called  drip-cut  dis- 
penser, however,  easily  solves  the  problem.  Placing  a  pitcher  or 
jar  in  warm  but  not  hot  water  for  ten  minutes  will  make  honey 
thin  and  free  of  stickiness  and  then  it  can  be  drizzled  over  salads, 
fruits  or  any  other  food  without  making  them  too  sweet.  Thin 
honey  will  penetrate  the  tissues  of  the  food  substances.  Mixing 
honey  with  hot  water  will  serve  the  selfsame  purpose  and  will 
also  reduce  the  sweetness  of  honey. 

To  recapitulate  the  physical  characteristics  of  honey  there  are 
four  distinct  features  which  contribute  to  the  evaluation  of  honey 
as  a  commodity.  These  four  attributes  are: 


30  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

i .  Taste 

2.  Color 

3.  Aroma,  and 

4.  Consistency 

With  regard  to  the  worth  of  these  qualities,  as  a  rule,  sixty 
points  are  given  to  taste,  twenty  points  to  color  and  ten  points  each 
for  aroma  and  consistency. 

Taste,  of  course,  is  a  preeminent  consideration,  depending  on 
the  palate.  It  is  entirely  individual.  Each  person  will  select  or 
prefer  a  different  honey.  The  same  discrimination  applies  to 
aroma  and  consistency.  With  respect  to  color,  certain  people,  with 
expressed  visual  senses,  prefer  white,  others  amber,  some  even 
darker  shaded  honeys.  The  American  buckwheat  and  the  European 
heather  honey  are  dark  colored  and  highly  flavored.  Heather 
honey  is  of  such  density  that  it  is  difficult  to  extract  it  with  cen- 
trifugal apparatus. 

Entirely  too  much  attention  is  paid  by  apiculturists  to  the  fine 
grading  of  honeys  according  to  color.  The  Department  of  Agri- 
culture designed  a  colorimeter,  honey  grader,  to  determine  ex- 
actly the  color  shadings.  This  has  really  less  value  than  is  attached 
to  it.  Undoubtedly,  dark  honeys  are  rich  in  mineral  contents,  com- 
pared to  light  ones,  but  the  practice  of  making  a  delicate  distinc- 
tion of  the  intermediate  colors  seems  to  be  insignificant  from  a 
nutrimental  or  medicinal  standpoint.  Dark  honeys  contain  more 
iron  and  it  seems  that  the  color  of  honey  is  dependent  on  the  med- 
icinal value  of  the  plants  from  which  they  are  extracted.  The 
Hebrews  prefer  dark  honey  for  baking  their  honey  cakes. 

We  may  compare  the  selection  of  light  and  dark  colored  honeys 
to  our  discrimination  between  blondes  and  brunettes.  Many  peo- 
ple (also  countries)  fancy  light  honey  and  they  also  "prefer 
blondes",  though  dark  honeys,  like  brunettes,  possess  higher  min- 
eral contents,  especially  iron,  and,  on  account  of  that,  more  power. 
Connoisseurs  will  select  dark  honeys  and  .  .  .  brunettes.  Not  only 
the  color  but  also  the  aroma  of  honey  is  closely  correlated  with  its 
chemical  composition. 


HONEY  31 

There  are  various  mechanical  devices  to  change  the  consistency, 
color  and  taste  of  honey.  These  procedures  do  not  detract  from 
the  nutritive  value  of  honey  and  their  sole  purpose  is  to  cater  to 
certain  tastes.  Honey-frost,  whip-honey,  etc.,  are  light  and  creamy 
and  are  favored  by  many. 

THE    CHEMISTRY    OF    HONEY 

Honey  belongs  to  the  carbohydrate  group  of  foods  (sugars  and 
starches),  and  is  mainly  a  watery  solution  of  two  invert  sugars, 
dextrose  (glucose  or  grape  sugar)  and  levulose  (fructose  or  fruit 
sugar),  in  nearly  equal  proportions.  The  terms  dextrose  and  levu- 
lose originated  from  the  use  of  the  two  prefixes,  dexter  (right) 
and  levis  (left),  because  the  former  turns  the  polarized  light  to 
the  right  and  the  latter,  to  the  left.  These  two  invert  sugars  we 
may  call  natural  or  simple  sugars  because  they  are  readily  ab- 
sorbed by  the  bloodstream  without  requiring  the  assistance  of  the 
salivary,  gastric  or  intestinal  secretions  to  accomplish  the  process 
of  inversion.  Cane  and  some  other  artificial  sugars  must  first  be 
inverted  into  simple  sugars  before  they  are  assimilated. 

In  addition  to  the  two  invert  sugars,  honey  contains  aromatic 
volatile  oils,  which  bestow  its  flavor,  mineral  elements  (sodium, 
potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  copper,  phosphorus,  etc.), 
some  protein,  various  enzymes,  vitamins  and  coloring  matter. 
With  regard  to  the  vitamin  content  of  honey,  there  are  consider- 
able disputes  about  the  subject  among  research  workers.  Hoyle, 
of  the  Lister  Institute  in  London,  Hawk,  Smith  and  Bergheim  al- 
lege that  honey  is  deficient  in  vitamins.  Dutcher  thinks  that  there 
is  a  small  vitamin  content  in  honey  but  the  amount  is  negligible. 
Faber  believes  that  there  is  "probably"  no  antiscorbutic  vitamin 
present  in  honey.  French  scientists,  such  as  A.  L.  Clement,  L. 
Iches,  Laborde  and  others,  however,  found  vitamins  in  honey, 
though  in  minute  quantities;  they  are  water-soluble  B  and  C  and 
fat-soluble  A  vitamins.  Alin  Caillas,  the  well-known  agricultural 
chemist  of  France,  remarks  (Les  tresors  d'une  goutte  de  miel, 
1924)  that  plants  contain  vitamins  and  that  honey,  produced  from 


32  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

fluids  which  circulate  in  their  organic  tissues  under  the  beneficial 
influence  of  the  sun,  must  contain  vitamins  though  we  are  unable 
to  determine  exactly  their  presence.  We  might  call  the  vitamins 
sparks  which  ignite  food  substances. 

The  main  chemical  components  of  honey  (in  percentages)  are: 

T  f  dextrose,  36.20 

Invert   sugars    73-31    -s  1       1 

&  /J  J       ^  levulose,  37.11 

Sucrose  (cane-sugar)  2.63 

Dextrin    2.89 

Nitrogen  substances  1.08 

Water 18.96 

Ash   0.24 

These  component  parts  vary  in  different  honeys.  Honey  is  solu- 
ble in  water,  is  of  distinctly  acid  reaction  and  becomes  vinous  by 
fermentation.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.40  to  1.45,  that  is,  it  is  heav- 
ier than  water.  While  a  gallon  of  water  weighs  8.3  pounds,  a  gal- 
lon of  honey  weighs  12  pounds.  It  is  a  rather  perplexing  problem 
to  decide  whether  honey  is  a  vegetable  or  animal  product.  Consid- 
ering, however,  the  fact  that  the  bees  make  honey  also  from  white 
sugar  (in  which  all  vegetable  components  are  destroyed)  we  ought 
to  place  honey  in  the  latter  group. 

Of  the  two  invert  sugars,  levulose  is  of  greater  importance. 
While  dextrose  is  half  as  sweet  as  cane-sugar,  levulose  is  twice  as 
sweet.  Levulose  is  an  ideal  sweet,  the  sweetest  of  all  sugars  in  Na- 
ture and  would  be  the  sugar  of  the  future  if  chemists  could  suc- 
ceed in  manufacturing  it  at  a  fair  selling  price.  Today  the  price  of 
chemically  pure  levulose  is  prohibitive  (several  dollars  a  pound) 
because  it  is  difficult  to  produce  in  large  quantities.  Some  chico- 
ries, dahlia  bulbs  and  the  Jerusalem  artichoke  (nothing  to  do  with 
the  Holy  City,  the  name  is  merely  corrupted  from  the  French 
plant  girasole)  are  rich  in  levulose  (12-15%).  Levulose  is  most 
soluble,  delightful  in  flavor  and  is  easily  assimilated.  It  is  the 
most  valuable  potential  energy  creator  for  the  human  system  be- 
cause it  is  an  excellent  glycogen  (animal  starch)  producer.  Gly- 


HONEY  33 

cogen  is  deposited  in  the  muscles  and  especially  in  the  liver,  where 
it  is  available  and  may  be  rechanged  into  dextrose  to  furnish  en- 
ergy by  oxidation.  Levulose  absorbs  slowly  and  does  not  cause  rise 
in  blood  sugar  (hyperglycemia)  which  is  the  reason  that  it  can  be 
used  by  diabetic  patients.  The  absorption  of  levulose  is  so  tardy 
that  it  often  reaches  the  large  intestines,  to  which  contingency 
some  of  the  laxative  effect  of  honey  may  be  attributed. 

Honey,  as  mentioned,  is  of  acid  reaction.  Various  authors  be- 
lieve that  the  bees  inject  or  spray  some  venom  (which  is  also  of 
acid  reaction)  into  each  comb.  This  is  supposed  to  impart  an  anti- 
fermentative,  antiseptic  and  conserving  quality  to  honey.  Many 
scientists  differ  on  this  point.  Dr.  Phillips,  Professor  of  Apicul- 
ture, Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  thinks  that  there  is  not  a  shred 
of  truth  in  the  statement  that  honey  contains  bee  venom.  He  adds 
that  "no  acid  is  necessary  to  preserve  honey,  for  it  is  such  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  sugars  that  fermentation  cannot  occur  if 
honey  is  fully  ripened."  According  to  Dr.  Phillips,  honey  contains 
yeasts  of  a  peculiar  sort,  commonly  called  nectar  yeasts  or  "sugar 
tolerant"  yeasts  which  are  able  to  grow  only  in  certain  concentra- 
tions of  sugar.  Honey  is  normally  just  above  the  limit  of  the  sugar 
content  under  which  these  yeasts  commence  to  sprout.  The  iden- 
tical process  takes  place  when  honey  granulates.  The  incoming 
nectar  is  thin,  therefore  the  excess  water  must  be  eliminated  to 
prevent  fermentation.  The  United  States  Pure  Food  Law  permits 
no  more  than  8%  of  sucrose  in  honey  but  most  honey  contains 
much  less  than  that  amount. 

Returning  to  the  subject  of  venom  in  honey,  it  is  difficult,  al- 
most impossible  to  comprehend  the  intricacies  of  the  complex  biol- 
ogy and  physiology  of  the  bees  and  more  so  of  their  bewildering 
chemistry.  Bee  venom  is  not  a  digestive  ferment  like  the  venom 
of  snakes.  It  must  have  some  other  purpose  than  that  of  punishing 
transgressors  or  even  of  curing  arthritics.  The  remarkable  and  age- 
old  curative  effect  of  honey  in  external  use  cannot  be  attributed 
alone  to  its  sugar  content  and  hygroscopic  power.  It  is  more  than 
a  conjecture  that  bee  venom  may  impart  some  advantages  to 
honey   (Alin  Caillas).   Needless  to  say,   a  minute  quantity   of 


34  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

venom  would  not  make  honey  harmful  as  a  food  because  our  di- 
gestive ferments  readily  destroy  even  large  quantities  of  bee 
venom.  If  it  were  not  for  that  fact,  the  author  would  surmise  that 
the  presence  of  venom  (though  admittedly  not  chemically  proven) 
might  confer  some  benefits  on  honey  when  taken  internally. 

The  acid  reaction  of  honey  may  also  be  due  to  minute  quanti- 
ties (i/io  of  i  per  cent)  of  lactic,  succinic,  citric  and  malic  acids. 
Malic  acid  has  a  rather  pleasant  taste.  It  is  found  in  some  apples 
(from  which  it  has  derived  its  name)  and  in  other  plants  and  sour 
fruits.  Currants  contain  an  especially  large  quantity  of  malic  acid. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  statement  that  honey  contains  formic  acid 
is  based  on  a  misconception,  or  rather,  it  is  an  error  of  chemistry. 
The  age-old  belief  that  bee  venom  contains  formic  acid  is  also  a 
fallacy.  It  is  remarkable  that  even  the  latest  medical  and  chemical 
works  have  failed  to  correct  this  misstatement.  Theodore  Merl,  in 
1 92 1,  through  carefully  conducted  chemical  experiments  proved 
that  bee  venom  does  not  contain  the  slightest  trace  of  formic  acid, 
because  the  most  sensitive  tests  were  negative.  Fiehe  and  Farn- 
steiner  conducted  numerous  experiments  which  also  proved,  be- 
yond any  doubt,  that  the  average  honey  does  not  contain  formic 
acid.  The  former  misconception  was  possibly  due  to  the  fact  that 
silver  nitrate  reagents  were  used  for  the  tests. 

Reverting  to  the  mineral  constituents  of  honey,  usually  called 
ash,  this  is  an  extremely  important  consideration.  Bones  contain  a 
considerable  amount  of  calcium,  and  muscles,  about  3  to  4%  of 
mineral  substances.  During  osmotic  and  oxidative  processes  many 
mineral  elements  are  utilized  which  must  be  replaced  and  for  this 
purpose  honey  is  very  useful. 

Honey  derives  its  greatest  mineral  content  from  plants;  the 
ultimate  mineral  source  of  plants  is,  again,  the  soil  in  which  they 
grow.  In  a  word,  the  inorganic  substances  which  honey  contains 
are  indirectly  dependent  on  the  soil,  which  is  the  reason  the  min- 
eral constituents  of  honey  greatly  vary.  A  good  fertilizer  of  the 
soil  will  also  improve  honey.  It  is  an  old  English  saying:  "Where 
there  is  the  best  honey,  there  is  also  the  best  wool." 

Bees  require  mineral  substances  for  their  maintenance.  Dried 


HONEY  35 

bees  contain  almost  5%  ash.  This  explains  the  popularity  of 
burned  bees  in  ancient  medicine.  Of  course,  bees  do  not  obtain  all 
minerals  from  plants ;  hard  water  will  also  contribute  its  share. 
Bees  fed  on  sugar-syrup  lack  minerals. 

The  mineral  content  of  honey  is  not  high ;  it  is  about  one-fourth 
that  of  meat  and  a  little  less  than  that  of  milk.  It  seems,  however, 
that  the  quality  of  the  minerals  makes  honey  valuable  for  dietetic 
use.  Dark  colored  honey  contains  more  minerals,  mainly  iron, 
copper  and  manganese  which  makes  it  especially  fit  for  medicinal 
purposes.  People  who  prefer  light  honey  to  dark  make  a  great 
error.  Heather  honey  is  the  richest  in  ash.  Dark  honey  has  a  higher 
specific  gravity  j  one  "drop"  of  it  will  travel  faster  and  also  goes 
"further"  in  the  organism. 

The  comparative  analyses  of  ten  samples  of  light  and  dark 
honeys  in  ash  content,  according  to  Schuette,  in  milligrams  per 
kilogram,  is  the  following: 


Silica 

Iron 

Copper  Manganese 

Light  honeys 

.065 

2.4 

.29             .06 

Dark  honeys 

•173 

9-4 

.56             .32 

The  consumption  of  dark  honeys,  which  have  a  higher  manga- 
nese content,  possibly  contribute  to  intensifying  glorified  mater- 
nal love.  The  experiments  of  Dr.  Elmer  V.  McCollum  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University  prove  that  lack  of  manganese  will  cause 
mother  rats  and  guinea  pigs  to  refuse  to  cuddle  or  nurse  their 
young.  When  these  animals  were  fed  an  infinitesimal  bit  of  man- 
ganese chloride  the  mother  instinct  was  immediately  awakened. 

The  following  figures  give  the  mineral  constituents  of  thirty- 
four  100  gram  samples  of  average  honeys  in  milligrams.  (Elser 
and  Sundberg) : 

Phosphoric  acid 56.93 

Iron   1.80 

Manganese  .48 

Chlorine  16.37 


36  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Calcium   15.86 

Silicates    8.91 

Magnesium    5.48 

Potassium  1 49. 40 

Sodium  23.37 

In  establishing  the  relative  difference  of  the  sweetness  of  honey 
and  other  sugars,  a  tabulation  of  the  comparative  sweetness  of 
various  types  of  sugars,  expressed  in  units,  will  be  useful : 

Levulose  173 

Invert  sugars 123 

Cane-sugar    1 00 

Glucose  74 

Maltose     32 

Galactose 23 

Lactose    16 

The  hygroscopic  quality  of  honey,  as  mentioned,  is  mainly  due 
to  levulose  and  to  the  colloidal  substances  which  honey  contains. 
Honey  far  excels  molasses,  commercial  glucose  and  malt  syrup  in 
moisture-retaining  power.  Levulose  is  most  hygroscopic  among 
all  sugars. 


CHAPTER    IV 
REFINED  SUGAR 


EXPERIMENTS  conducted  in  feeding  animals  with  refined 
sugar  to  determine  its  effect  on  them  have  so  far  not  been 
sufficient  or  thorough  enough  to  clearly  and  conclusively  estab- 
lish its  worth.  One  fact  has  been  proven,  that  animals  live  longer 
without,  food  whatsoever  than  when  fed  on  refined  sugar.  The 
effect  of  refined  sugar  on  human  beings  is  entirely  empirical. 
It  is  possible  and  probable  that  it  does  more  harm  than  we  know 
or  suspect.  Considering  the  vital  importance  of  the  subject,  science 
has  done  comparatively  less  research  on  foodstuffs,  and  on  cor- 
recting our  depraved  and  vicious  habits  in  nutrition  (and  habit  is 
second  nature)  than  in  any  other  field ;  to  discuss  this  point,  how- 
ever, is  much  beyond  our  scope. 

We  must  distinguish  between  sugar-cane  products  in  general 
and  refined  sugars.  The  juice  of  the  sugar-cane  is  a  valuable  and 
wholesome  nutrimental  substance.  Sugar-cane  syrup  is  an  excel- 
lent sweetener  without  objectionable  qualities.  Whoever  has  eaten 
Chinese  candy  will  understand  the  meaning  of  this  statement. 
The  so-called  Chinese  candy  is  an  ideal  product  and  is  used  to 
sweeten  coffee,  tea  and  other  beverages.  It  is  bright,  transparent 
and  of  exquisite  taste,  similar  to  our  rock-candy.  The  name, 
candy  according  to  some  philologists,  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
Candida:  bright,  pure.  Refining  sugar  in  loafs  was  never  prac- 
ticed in  the  East. 

The  history  of  sugar  is  rather  interesting.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  refined  sugar  was  introduced  for  popular  use  comparatively 
late,  we  find  traces  of  its  existence  as  far  back  as  several  centu- 
ries b.c.  Theophrastus,  Pliny,  Strabo  and  Seneca  mention  sugar 

37 


38  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

and  sugar-cane.  Theophrastus  (320  b.c.)  called  sugar  "honey 
extracted  from  reeds"  which  looked  like  salt.  It  was  very  prob- 
ably inspissated  cane- juice.  Aristotle  was  the  first  to  give  a  de- 
tailed description  of  the  substance.  Sugar  was  then  a  great  rarity 
and  used  exclusively  for  medicinal  purposes.  Many  ancient  au- 
thors referred  to  sugar  as  honey.  Varro  (68  b.c.)  thought  there 
were  three  kinds  of  honeys,  one  collected  by  the  bees  from  flow- 
ers, another  type  formed  on  the  leaves  as  dew  and  the  third, 
obtained  from  the  "Indian  reed." 

Nearchus,  Admiral  of  the  fleet  of  Alexander  the  Great,  re- 
turning to  Greece  from  the  discovery  of  the  Indian  Ocean  (324 
b.c),  brought  back  with  him  "sugar-candy"  and  a  marvelous 
"honey-bearing  reed"  which  was  used  by  the  natives  of  India. 
Candy  making  has  been  practiced  in  China  since  remotest  an- 
tiquity; their  confections  were  exported  in  large  quantities  to 
India,  but  the  source  and  how  they  were  made  was  a  well-guarded 
secret  for  thousands  of  years.  The  actual  knowledge  of  the  origin 
of  sugar-cane  was  first  revealed  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  by  the  celebrated  traveler,  Marco  Polo. 

The  plant  was  soon  taken  to  Arabia,  Nubia,  Egypt,  Ethiopia, 
where  it  was  extensively  cultivated.  Some  sugar-cane  was  found 
in  Sicily,  Crete,  Rhodes  and  Cyprus  at  an  early  period,  possibly 
brought  there  from  India  by  the  Saracens. 

The  Spaniards  conveyed  sugar-cane  from  the  East  only  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  successfully  planted  it  in  Madeira  and  the 
Canary  Islands.  From  there,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  it  was  taken 
to  St.  Domingo  and  to  other  West  Indian  islands  and  to  South 
America.  Though  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  home  of  sugar- 
cane was  China,  some  explorers  record  having  found  sugar-cane 
in  Brazil  before  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  had  a  chance  to 
plant  it  there.  Father  Hennepin,  who  was  the  first  European  to 
explore  the  lower  Mississippi  regions,  reported  that  he  found 
sugar-cane  even  there. 

Sugar-cane  was  imported  in  the  seventeenth  century  from 
Arabia  to  the  European  Continent  where  it  gradually  gained 
ground.  Sugar-cane  syrup  was  a  great  luxury;  the  privilege  of 


REFINED    SUGAR  39 

royalty  and  the  highest  nobility,  and  used  even  by  them  only  on 
special  occasions.  They  also  found  several  medicinal  uses  for  it. 
Honey  was  still  the  dominant  sweet,  and  not  until  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  did  sugar  gradually  supersede  it.  Within  the 
last  two  generations,  through  the  efforts  of  a  technically  perfected 
industry,  sugar  has  become  one  of  the  cheapest  of  food  substances, 
so  low  in  price  that  even  the  poorest  families  can  afford  to  buy  it. 


CHAPTER    V 


HONEY  vs.  SUGAR 


HONEY  contains  about  1600  calories  (calorie  is  the  amount 
of  heat  which  is  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one 
gram  of  water  by  one  degree  Celsius)  to  the  pound  and  is  at  the 
head,  in  this  respect,  of  all  other  natural  foods,  far  exceeding 
meat,  eggs,  milk,  grains  and  vegetables.  The  date  is  the  only 
edible  substance  which  surpasses  honey  in  calories. 

The  caloric  value  of  honey  nearly  equals  that  of  cane-sugar 
(1800  cal.)  but  in  every  other  respect  it  is  far  superior.  If  honey 
contained  no  water  its  caloric  value  would  be  practically  the  same 
as  that  of  cane-sugar.  A  tablespoonful  of  honey  weighs  about  an 
ounce  and  provides  the  body  with  100  calories.  Honey  does  not 
contain  any  harmful  chemicals  and  is  entirely  utilized  by  the 
digestive  tract.  Not  more  than  one  two-hundredth  part  is  wasted. 
Commercial  or  white  sugar,  made  from  sugar-cane,  beets,  corn, 
etc.,  is  submitted  to  several  complicated  boiling  procedures  during 
the  process  of  manufacture.  The  organic  acids,  protein,  nitrogen 
elements,  fats,  enzymes  and  vitamins  are  extracted  or  destroyed  5 
on  the  other  hand,  hydrochloric,  phosphoric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
lime  and  other  foreign  substances  are  added.  While  honey  is 
Nature's  own  sweet,  untouched  by  human  art,  sugar  is  a  concen- 
trated, denatured  and  polluted  substitute,  a  produce,  as  a  rule,  of 
sugar-cane,  robbed  by  superheating  of  most  of  its  natural  and 
valuable  constituents.  Honey  and  other  simple  or  natural  sugars, 
like  that  in  dates,  figs,  raisins,  etc.,  are  live  physiological  sugars 
which  contain  the  germs  of  life,  while  industrial  sugars  are  anti- 
physiological,  dead  or,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  murdered  sweets.  Brown 
sugar  contains  some  minerals,  but  white  sugar  is  entirely  demin- 

40 


HONEY   VS.    SUGAR  41 

eralized  because  it  will  not  crystallize  if  any  minerals  remain.  The 
first  step  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  is  to  neutralize  the  free 
acids  of  the  cane- juice.  Cane- juice  is  quite  dark  in  color  because 
of  its  mineral  constituents.  To  remove  the  sugar  from  the  cane- 
juice  it  is  treated  with  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  or  heated 
with  bisulphide  of  lime.  The  process  in  industrial  language  is 
called  "defecation".  The  lime  neutralizes  all  acids  and  prevents 
the  cane-sugar  from  changing  into  an  uncrystallizable  invert 
sugar. 

Clarence  W.  Leib,  in  Eat,  Drink,  and  be  Healthy,  remarks  that 
sugar  undermines  the  nation's  health  and  that  the  best  sugars  are 
simple  sugars,  liberally  supplied  by  nature  in  honey,  fruits  and 
vegetables.  They  require  little  digestive  effort  for  assimilation. 
White  sugar  depresses  the  appetite,  irritates  the  stomach,  pro- 
duces heart-burn,  acid  fermentation,  gastric  catarrh,  indigestion, 
exhausts  the  pancreatic  activity  and  thus  leads  to  diabetes.  The 
ravages  of  artificial  sugar  increase  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
its  refinement.  Refined  sugar  is  not  only  irritating  to  the  intestinal 
tract  but  to  the  skin.  Grocers  and  people  who  handle  sugar  often 
suffer  from  skin  eruptions. 

No  better  authority  can  be  quoted  than  Dr.  Banting,  the  dis- 
coverer of  insulin,  with  regard  to  the  causes  of  diabetes.  "In  the 
United  States  the  incidence  of  diabetes  has  increased  proportion- 
ately with  the  per  capita  consumption  of  cane-sugar.  One  cannot 
help  but  conclude  that  in  the  heating  and  recrystallization  of  the 
natural  sugar-cane  something  is  altered  which  leaves  the  refined 
product  a  dangerous  foodstuff"  (Edinb.  Med.  J.  36,  Jan.  18, 
1929.) 

Dr.  Banting  comments  on  the  incidence  of  diabetes  among  the 
many  wealthy  Spaniards  in  Panama,  who  eat  large  quantities  of 
cane-sugar  and  even  cook  their  food  in  sugar  syrup.  Diabetes 
among  this  class  is  surprisingly  high.  The  effect  of  the  ingestion 
of  cane-sugar  is  even  more  startling  in  India  where  there  is  no 
diabetes  among  the  poor  but  among  the  wealthy  classes  over  fifty 
years  of  age,  who  indulge  in  sugar,  about  40%  are  diabetics. 

That  sugar  is  an  important  contributory  factor  in  producing 


42  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

diabetes  was  best  proven  during  the  World  War  when  the  disease 
was  not  as  prevalent  in  the  United  States.  This  can  only  be 
rationally  interpreted  as  due  to  the  lessened  consumption  of  white 
sugar  during  that  period  of  time,  long  enough  to  justify  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  statistical  data.  The  subsidence  of  diabetes  in 
belligerent  foreign  countries  was  even  more  manifest.  During 
prohibition  the  sugar  consumption  in  the  United  States  increased 
over  30%,  and  diabetes  in  the  same  proportion.  The  parallel 
advance  was  disrupted  only  when  insulin  was  discovered.  Accord- 
ing to  Stefansson  the  Eskimos  had  neither  constipation,  stomach 
or  dental  troubles  while  on  an  exclusive  meat  diet  but  since  the 
use  of  devitalized  sugars  and  starches  these  diseases  have  become 
prevalent. 

If  the  Food  Section  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture would  not  respect  the  "big  interests"  so  much,  but  would 
faithfully  and  meticulously  discharge  its  obligation  toward  food 
control,  sanitation  and  the  protection  of  health,  it  certainly  would 
prohibit  the  manufacture  of  refined  sugar  and  of  white  flour,  both 
of  which  are  low-grade,  denatured,  dealkalinized  fuels,  robbed 
of  all  vital  elements.  Laboratory  experiments  have  also  proved 
that  animals  live  longer  without  food  than  when  fed  on  refined 
sugar  and  white  flour.  The  nutritive  part  and  vital  force  of  grain 
is  gluten,  which  is  in  the  bran,  and  therefore  should  not  be  re- 
moved. Of  course,  the  millers  know  that  degerminated  products 
are  less  perishable.  The  patriarchal  device  of  "braying"  the  grain 
(brayed,  bread),  is  today  only  a  matter  of  history ;  the  ancients 
ate  the  vitamins,  we  write  and  read  about  them.  The  flour  from 
which  some  white  breads  are  baked  is  not  only  devitalized  and 
devitaminized  but,  to  look  better,  it  is  bleached  and  artificially 
matured  by  chemicals,  e.g.,  potassium  bromide,  chlorine,  nitrogen 
trioxide,  benzoyl  peroxide,  etc. 

Dr.  E.  V.  McCollum,  Professor  of  Chemical  Hygiene,  School 
of  Hygiene  and  Public  Health  at  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore,  addressing  the  Northern  Ohio  Dental  Association's 
seventieth  anniversary  convention  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  said  that 
the  American  people  ought  to  be  ashamed  in  permitting  two 


HONEY    VS.    SUGAR  43 

atrocities  to  be  put  over  on  them.  He  referred  in  particular  to 
white  flour  and  refined  sugar.  McCollum  said  that  he  sometimes 
wondered  which  of  the  two  evils  is  greater. 

Recently  one  of  the  milling  companies  advertised  a  "wheat 
germ  product"  one  dollar  a  pound,  as  an  addition  to  diets,  to 
replace  vitamins  B,  G  and  E  and  valuable  mineral  salts  which 
are  taken  out  from  the  wheat  during  the  process  of  manufacturing 
white  flour.  First  these  vital  elements  are  removed,  then,  realiz- 
ing the  faux  pas,  they  are  sold  separately.  In  the  good  old  days 
only  the  chaff  was  separated  from  the  wheat  but  in  a  scientific  era 
all  things  must  be  changed. 

Sugar  is  just  as  habit-forming  as  narcotics.  Sugar  contains  calo- 
ries which  artificially  create  temporary  energy  but  it  is  not  a  food 
because  it  is  without  nutritive  value  and  not  only  does  not 
benefit  the  tissues  of  the  organism  but  harms  them.  The  use, 
misuse  and  abuse  of  refined  sugars  (in  the  shape  of  candy  or  in 
any  other  form)  is  a  modern  nutritional  disaster.  We  employ 
these  sugars  not  with  the  purpose  of  obtaining  strength  but  simply 
for  gratification  of  an  unhygienic  and  illogical  craving  for  sweets. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  races  head  the  list  of  sugar  habitues.  Napoleon 
craved  and  incessantly  munched  chocolates  and  it  is  no  wonder 
that  he  had  to  get  up  nightly  and  thrust  a  finger  into  his  throat  to 
relieve  himself  of  excessive  gastric  juice.  As  we  know,  he  died 
from  a  perforation  of  the  stomach. 

The  writer  is  firmly  convinced  that  if  the  youth  of  the  country 
would  eat  good  old-fashioned  rye-bread,  the  kind  which  mother 
used  to  bake,  and  not  highly  praised  (of  course,  only  in  advertise- 
ments) proprietary  breads,  and  would  consume  natural  fruit  sug- 
ars, like  honey,  dates,  figs,  raisins,  grapes  and  other  sweet  fruits, 
instead  of  cheap  candy,  their  physical  defects  would  not  be  so 
manifest,  as  exposed  by  the  staggering  revelations  of  191 7.  In 
spite  of  the  lowered  physical  standards  that  had  to  be  instituted 
then,  less  than  half  of  the  young  men  were  found  fit  for  military 
duty.  So  let  us  be  better  prepared  for  the  next  war.  Sir  William 
Osier's  remark  that  any  disease  which  Nature  can  not  cure  will 
remain  uncured  pertains  also,  by  proper  application,  to  all  de- 


44  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

natured  foods.  It  is  too  bad  that  the  term  "denatured"  is  almost 
exclusively  used  today  only  for  the  designation  of  a  certain  type 
of  alcohol.  If  exploitation  can  triumph  over  Nature,  it  is  time — 
at  least — to  be  aware  of  it. 

Dr.  Harvey  W.  Wiley,  former  chief  chemist  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Foods,  Sanita- 
tion and  Health,  in  a  letter  to  the  American  Honey  Institute, 
wrote  thus  about  the  "honey  matter":  "Unfortunately,  the 
amount  of  honey  that  is  now  produced  in  the  United  States,  or 
that  may  or  can  be  produced  therein,  is  entirely  insufficient  to 
supply  the  wants  of  even  a  small  percentage  of  our  people.  If  we 
stress  the  honey  matter  too  prominently  we  may  do  injury,  not 
to  the  bees  nor  the  keepers,  nor  the  honey  merchants,  but  to  those 
who  prefer  honey  to  other  sweets.  I  am  one  of  that  kind.  I  get 
every  year  about  sixty  pounds.  If  we  urge  everybody  to  use  honey 
instead  of  sugar,  we  will  have  the  same  condition  that  now  exists 
with  codliver  oil,  calf's  liver  and  agar.*  A  few  years  ago  agar 
was  quite  cheap.  I  with  others  have  been  urging  people  to  use  agar 
to  avoid  constipation.  It  now  costs  over  $3.00  a  pound.  In  the 
same  way  the  craze  for  liver  to  cure  anemia  has  greatly  advanced 
the  cost  of  that  commodity.  I  am  a  great  believer  in  honey,  both 
on  account  of  its  flavor  and  because  I  think  it  is  far  more  whole- 
some than  refined  white  sugar.  I  use  it  every  morning  in  my 
coffee,  of  which  I  drink  one  cup  a  day." 

Dr.  Wiley  also  declared  saccharin  a  harmful  substance.  When 
the  ketchup  manufacturers  and  canners  wished  to  add  saccharin  to 
their  products,  he  protested.  During  a  hearing,  the  late  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  at  that  time  President  of  the  United  States,  was 
amazed  to  hear  that  saccharin  was  objectionable.  "You  are  telling 
me,  Dr.  Wiley,  that  saccharin  is  injurious  to  health?"  Roosevelt 
asked.  "Yes,  Mr.  President,  I  do  tell  you  that,"  answered  Wiley. 
The  President  remarked:  "Well,  Dr.  Rixey  (at  the  time  White 

*The  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  appropriated  for  1937  a  million 
and  a  half  dollars  for  cooperative  advertising  of  alkaline-forming  citrous  fruits. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  the  price  of  oranges,  lemons,  and  grapefruit  has  increased 
46%  over  the  1935  level. 


HONEY    VS.    SUGAR  45 

House  physician)  makes  me  take  it  every  day."  Wiley  was  em- 
barrassed and  explained:  "Probably  he  thinks  that  you  are  threat- 
ened with  diabetes  and  considered  it  better  for  you  than  sugar." 
The  manufacture  of  saccharin  has  been  forbidden  in  Germany  and 
Italy. 

What  effect  refined  sugars  have  on  the  alarmingly  increasing 
prevalence  of  arthritis  is  another  important  question  to  solve.  The 
fact  alone  that  arthritics,  who  suffer  from  delayed  sugar  removal, 
are  legatees  to  all  the  scourges  of  this  malady,  while  diabetics 
who  cannot  digest  glucose  and  eliminate  it  from  their  systems  are 
almost  entirely  free  from  symptoms  of  arthritis,  deserves  con- 
sideration. The  main  complaint  of  diabetics  is  lack  of  energy,  a 
complication  with  which  the  arthritics,  who  are  perfectly  well 
otherwise,  are  not  concerned.  This  prevailing  contrast  between  the 
two  groups  could  be  rationally  attributed  to  some  unknown  con- 
ditionality  superinduced  by  two  divergent  functions  of  the  re- 
spective organisms. 

Dr.  Serge  Voronoff  was  evidently  not  a  believer  in  sugar  when 
he  made  the  statement  that  the  human  race  could  easily  extend 
its  period  of  life  to  120  years  by  eliminating  from  its  diet  sugar, 
white  flour  and  salt. 

England  was  one  of  the  first  nations  to  assail  the  mischiefs  and 
ravages  of  refined  sugar  and  to  raise  her  voice  against  its  use  by 
calling  attention  to  its  harmful  effects.  According  to  records,  the 
art  of  refining  sugar  was  first  practiced  in  England  in  1544.  John 
Gardiner  and  Sir  William  Chester  were  the  proprietors  of  the 
first  two  "sugar-houses"  in  England.  The  introduction  of  sugar 
immediately  raised  the  question  of  its  desirability,  and  a  great 
part  of  the  population  feared  that  it  might  have  bad  effects.  Sir 
Thomas  Mildmay,  in  1596,  petitioned  Queen  Elizabeth  for  the 
exclusive  right  to  refine  sugar  because  he  believed  that  frauds 
were  practiced  in  the  process  of  refining. 

Theophilus  Garencieres,  a  physician  (1647),  was  tne  first  to 
attack  sugar  in  its  infancy.  He  thought  sugar  created  Tabes 
Anglica  and  also  caused  consumption  of  the  lungs  because  the 
heating  quality  of  sugar  was  "not  a  little"  injurious  to  the  lungs. 


4-6  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Thomas  Willis,  the  celebrated  English  physician,  was  next  to 
attack  it  in  1674.  He  thought  that  sugar  largely  contributed  to 
the  immense  increase  of  scurvy.  He  argued:  "For  it  plainly  ap- 
pears by  the  chemical  analysis  of  sugar  that  this  concrete  consists 
of  an  acrid  and  corrosive  salt,  tempered  with  a  portion  of  sul- 
phur." He  referred  to  eminent  authors  who  attributed  the  cause 
and  frequency  of  consumption  of  the  lungs  in  England  to  the 
immoderate  use  of  sugar.  Scurvy  made  great  ravages  in  England 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  so  did  consumption  of  the  lungs  and 
scrofula.  Angelus  Sala  also  attributed  many  ailments  to  the  abuse 
of  sugarj  among  them,  loss  of  appetite,  blackness  and  loosening 
of  the  teeth,  offensive  breath,  colic,  lax  bowels,  also  bilious,  scor- 
butic and  hysterical  complaints.  It  was  observed  that  sugar  pro- 
duced worms  in  children.  It  seems  that  Garencieres  and  Willis 
were  the  founders  of  the  wide-spread  cult,  known  in  England  as 
A  ntisaccharites. 

Charles  Butler,  in  Feminin?  Monarch?,  16^2,  comparing  honey 
with  sugar,  remarks:  "In  respect  of  the  marvellous  efHcacy  which 
fine  and  pure  honey  hath  in  preserving  health,  that  gross  and 
earthy  stuff  is  no  whit  comparable  to  this  celestial  nectar." 

It  is  the  prodigy  of  knowledge  not  only  to  discriminate  between 
similarities  of  things  different  but  also  between  divergencies  of 
things  resembling  one  another  (Medical  trickology). 


CHAPTER    VI 
THE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  HONEY 


TICKNER  EDWARDES  wrote  thus  about  honey:  "Honey 
is  good  for  old  and  young.  If  mothers  were  wise  they  would 
never  give  their  children  any  other  sweet  food.  Pure  ripe  honey 
is  sugar  with  the  most  difficult  and  most  important  part  of  diges- 
tion already  accomplished  by  the  bees.  Moreover,  it  is  a  safe  and 
very  gentle  laxative.  And  probably,  before  each  comb-cell  is 
sealed  up,  the  bee  injects  a  drop  of  acid  from  her  sting.  Anyway, 
honey  has  a  distinct  antiseptic  property.  That  is  why  it  is  so  good 
for  sore  throats  or  chafed  skins.  If  only  doctors  could  be  induced 
to  seek  curative  power  in  ancient  homely  things,  as  they  do  with 
the  latest  poisons  from  Germany!  That  applies  also  to  the  treat- 
ment of  obesity.  Fat  people,  who  are  ordered  to  give  up  sugar, 
ought  to  use  honey  instead.  In  my  time  I  have  persuaded  many 
a  one  to  try  it,  and  the  result  has  always  been  the  same — a  steady 
reduction  in  weight  and  better  health  all  around.  Then  again, 
dyspeptic  folks  would  find  most  of  their  troubles  vanish  if  they 
substituted  the  already  half-digested  honey  wherever  ordinary 
sugar  forms  part  of  their  diet.  And  did  you  ever  try  honey  to 
sweeten  tea  or  coffee?  Of  course,  it  must  be  pure,  and  without  any 
strongly-marked  flavour ;  but  no  one  would  ever  return  to  sugar 
if  once  good  honey  had  been  tried  in  this  way,  or  in  any  kind  of 
cookery  where  sugar  is  used.  In  extracting  honey  it  gets  into  most 
places,  the  hair  not  excepted.  At  any  rate,  honey  as  a  hair-restorer 
was  one  of  the  most  famous  nostrums  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
may  return  to  popular  favour  even  now  .  .  ." 

Good  honey  is  an  ideal  food,  nutritious  and  easily  digested. 
Professor  Klemperer  of  Berlin  claimed  that  a  tablespoonful  of 

47 


48  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

honey  is  equivalent  in  nutritive  value  to  the  largest-sized  hen  egg. 
According  to  Professor  von  Bunge,  98%  of  the  lime,  iron,  salt 
and  grape  sugar,  of  which  honey  contains  77%,  are  directly  ab- 
sorbed by  the  blood.  Honey  is  six  times  richer  in  fuel  value  than 
milk  and,  in  addition,  it  contains  more  inorganic  substances.  The 
flavor  of  honey  has  also  a  dietetic  value  as  it  induces  the  free  flow 
of  saliva  which  in  itself  promotes  digestion.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  the  Germans  called  honey  Urnahrung  (aboriginal  food). 
There  is  also  a  breath  of  romance  in  each  drop  of  honey. 

The  nutritive  value  of  honey  was  well  proven  by  a  recent  ex- 
periment (March  1935)  of  Dr.  Mykola  H.  Haydak,  of  the 
Agricultural  Department  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  who 
for  a  four-month  period  lived  exclusively  on  honey  and  milk. 
Dr.  Haydak  wished  to  prove  that  solids  are  not  necessary  to  sus- 
tain life  and  that  this  combination  was  a  perfect  diet.  During  the 
third  month  he  developed  scurvy  which,  however,  was  easily 
cured  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  orange  juice.  He  was  pro- 
nounced, by  the  examining  physicians  of  the  University,  to  be  in 
perfect  health.  At  the  beginning  of  the  diet  Haydak  lost  several 
pounds  but  he  soon  regained  the  deficiency  and  his  weight  re- 
mained constant  thereafter. 

Honey  is  best  suited  for  the  young  and  the  old.  Before  puberty 
and  during  the  years  of  decline  the  ductless  glands,  especially  the 
thyroid  gland,  do  not  function  adequately  and  meat  is  not  indi- 
cated. The  toxic  products  formed  in  the  organism  by  the  decom- 
position of  meat  cannot  be  destroyed.  People  when  their  endo- 
crines  are  undeveloped  or  in  a  state  of  retrogression  will  not 
tolerate  meat  but  crave  sweets.  Pronounced  meat  eaters  and  con- 
sumers of  alcohol  have  little  desire  for  sweets ;  on  the  other  hand, 
children,  the  aged,  the  weak  and  invalid,  especially  women,  crave 
them. 

The  Biblical  designation,  "a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey," 
should  be  suggestive  enough  to  combine  honey  with  dairy  prod- 
ucts. Honey  cream,  honey  butter,  honey  cream  cheese  are  whole- 
some combinations.  To  please  the  palate  they  could  be  flavored 
with  chocolate,  vanilla  or  malt. 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  49 

Honey  is  widely  used  today  as  a  food  among  primitive  races. 
They  mix  it  with  milk,  curds,  cheese  and  especially  with  cereals 
and  bread.  The  Anyanja  tribe  (Central  Africa)  make  from  maize 
flour,  bananas  and  honey  the  so-called  mkatey  which  is  practically 
their  sole  food. 

Honey  is  also  used  extensively,  internally  and  externally  in 
veterinary  practice.  A  lean  horse  fed  on  honey  and  bran  will  rap- 
idly put  on  flesh.  Homer  relates  in  the  lliacl  that  Diomedes  fed 
his  horses  honeyed  barley. 

Luther  C.  Headley,  of  Madison,  New  Jersey,  has  experimented 
for  years  on  feeding  cows  an  admixture  of  honey,  and  has  found 
that  their  milk  and  by-products  are  more  nourishing.  Leghorn 
pullets,  fed  on  mash  to  which  some  of  this  milk  had  been  added, 
lay  gigantic  eggs  which  almost  burst  out  of  the  ordinary  box  and 
ran  in  weight  more  than  thirty-three  ounces  to  a  dozen  as  com- 
pared with  eggs  weighing  twenty-four  ounces  to  a  dozen  laid  by 
pullets  of  the  identical  strain  not  fed  the  same  mixture.  Honey 
has  a  marked  effect  on  the  muscles  and  bones  of  growing  cattle. 
Members  of  the  State  Agricultural  Association  of  New  Jersey, 
who  visited  the  Headley  farm,  expressed  amazement  at  the  size 
of  a  six-month  old  calf  fed  since  birth  on  honey. 

The  owner  of  a  large  turkey  farm  in  Connecticut,  which  is 
famous  for  the  size  and  tenderness  of  its  turkeys,  feeds  the  birds 
on  mash  mixed  with  honey. 

i.     IN  INFANT  FEEDING 

"Sleep  with  the  mouth  at  a  honey  bottle." 

Bedouin  proverb 

In  infant  feeding,  after  milk,  honey  ought  to  be  considered 
first  in  importance.  The  Papyrus  Ebers  (The  Leipzig  Mss.),  1600 
b.c,  mentions  that  infants  were  fed  on  honey.  Galen  considered 
nothing  better  for  teething  infants  than  honey  and  butter  5  the 
combination  was  supposed  to  help  ulcers  of  the  mouth.  Galen's 
direction  was  "to  rub  the  gums  with  honey,  for  it  conduceth  wonder- 


50  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

fully  to  the  growth,  the  conservation  and  the  whiteness  of  teeth." 
Among  many  modern  authors,  Dr.  Paul  Luttinger,  Pediatrist 
of  the  Bronx  Hospital,  New  York  City,  recorded  419  feeding 
cases  of  infants  where  honey  was  used  with  success  and  where  the 
use  of  sugar  would  have  been  prejudicial.  Luttinger  found  so 
many  decided  advantages  in  honey  for  infant  feeding  that  he  dis- 
carded other  sugars.  He  used  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls  in  eight 
ounces  of  feeding  mixture,  substituting  honey  for  orange  juice 
and  cod  liver  oil.  Honey  is  certainly  more  palatable  than  cod  liver 
oil  and  is  just  as  good,  if  not  better;  it  is  tasty,  nourishing,  and 
is  easily  and  quickly  digested  because  there  is  no  resistance  and 
delay  in  its  absorption.  Infants  fed  on  honey  rarely  show  flatu- 
lence. The  facility  of  absorption  prevents  fermentation.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  honey  to  eight  ounces  of  barley-water  is  an  excellent 
remedy  for  summer  diarrhea.  In  marasmus,  rickets,  scurvy,  in 
fact,  in  every  case  of  malnutrition,  honey  is  a  sine  qua  non  because 
it  contains  not  only  proteins  but  mineral  salts  and  vitamins  which 
are  missing  in  sugar.  The  mineral  content  of  honey  is  higher  than 
that  of  human  or  cow's  milk  which  contain  only  exceedingly  small 
quantities.  Honey  has  a  great  antituberculotic  reputation  in  infant 
feeding  among  European  peasants.  The  sedative,  hypnotic  and 
diuretic  effects  of  honey  are  well-known. 

Dr.  M.  W.  O'Gorman,  Chief  of  the  Division  of  Hygiene, 
Department  of  Public  Affairs  of  Jersey  City,  New  Jersey,  used 
honey  for  25  years  as  a  valuable  addition  to  milk  modification  for 
infant  feeding  and  in  the  growing  child's  dietary.  The  fact  that 
many  of  the  infants  admitted  to  his  institution  had  been  suffer- 
ing from  malnutrition,  some  even  with  little  chance  to  survive, 
makes  his  statement  more  impressive.  His  charges  received  at  first 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  honey  every  24  hours  and  the  amount 
was  gradually  increased  to  two  teaspoonfuls,  according  to  size  and 
bowel  movements.  In  case  of  constipation  the  amount  of  honey 
was  increased.  Honey  has  a  decided  laxative  effect  on  infants. 
This  effect,  however,  is  lost  if  the  honey  is  boiled. 

There  are  innumerable  other  reports  praising  the  value  of 
honey  in  modified  feeding  of  infants.  Dr.  H.  W.  Wiley  in  the 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  5 1 

May  1926  issue  of  Good  Housekeeping  also  recommends  honey 
as  a  sweetener  in  infant  feeding.  Condensed  milk  and  other  pro- 
prietary milk  products  contain  a  large  amount  of  cane-sugar  be- 
cause it  is  sweeter  than  the  appropriate  milk  sugar.  It  is  a  proven 
fact  that  infants  brought  up  on  condensed  milk  are  less  resistant 
to  infections  than  those  fed  on  mother's  or  cow's  milk.  Dr.  R.  G. 
Flood  thinks  that  honey  is  a  very  valuable  sugar  in  the  treatment 
of  constipated  bottle-fed  infants  due  to  the  laxative  effect  of  the 
levulose  faction  which  is  slowly  absorbed  and  eventually^reaches 
the  large  intestines.  Constipated  infants  benefited  in  his  hands  a 
great  deal  through  the  use  of  honey  as  a  substitute. 

Titian's  painting,  representing  infant  Jesus  holding  a  bee  in 
His  hand,  may  well  symbolize  the  value  of  honey  for  infants. 

2.     FOR   CHILDREN 

The  old  Gaelic  honey  was  reputed  to  have  served  better  for 
children  than  any  other  tonic.  The  Scotch  believed  that  honey- 
suckle, a  favorite  of  the  bees,  contained  some  kind  of  a  "life- 
substance."  The  nomad  Arabs,  the  Bedouins,  feed  their  youths 
even  today  on  buttermilk  and  honey.  Important  antituberculotic 
and  antiscrofulotic  effects  were  attributed  to  honey  by  the  peasants 
of  many  countries,  also  in  children's  dietary.  Honey  and  cream  or 
butter  for  adolescents  was  considered  a  safe -guard  against  tubercu- 
losis. A  glass  of  barley  water  with  a  tablespoonful  of  honey  is  a 
popular  health-drink  for  juveniles  on  account  of  its  mild  laxative 
effect.  On  the  European  continent  and  in  all  Slavic  countries 
honey  is  still  the  preferential  sweet  for  children.  The  peoples  of 
the  Orient  are  experts  in  preparing  honey-confectionery,  called 
sweetmeats. 

Many  clinical  experiments  have  been  conducted  in  institutions, 
not  unlike  in  infant  feeding,  to  test  the  nutritive  and  tonic  effects 
of  honey  on  children.  The  Frauenfelder  Home,  in  the  Canton  of 
St.  Gallen,  Switzerland,  is  famous  for  its  honey  and  milk  cures. 
Weak  and  sickly  children  are  brought  there  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  to  recuperate  and  gain  health.  If  any  medical  man  wishes 


52  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

to  be  convinced  of  the  nutritive  value  of  honey,  he  should  visit 
this  institution.  Dr.  P.  E.  Weesen,  of  the  Frauenfelder  sani- 
tarium, experimented  in  feeding  patients  in  three  groups:  the  first 
group  received  normal  food;  the  second  group,  normal  food  with 
honey j  and  the  third  group,  normal  food  with  tonics  and  medica- 
ments. The  group  fed  with  honey  far  excelled  the  other  two 
groups,  both  in  looks  and  in  strength.  Facta  loquntur! 

Dr.  Paula  Emrich  also  conducted  parallel  feeding  observations 
with  ioo  children.  At  the  start  the  group  which  was  assigned  to 
be  given  honey,  received  a  teaspoonful  of  honey  in  a  cup  of  warm 
milk.  The  honey  was  gradually  increased  to  as  much  as  two 
tablespoonfuls  daily.  Those  who  manifested  digestive  disturb- 
ances were  exempted.  To  be  objective  and  also  to  avoid  errors  the 
selected  groups  of  children  were,  as  much  as  possible,  of  similar 
types  as  regard  to  age,  size,  constitution,  living  conditions  of  their 
families,  hemoglobin  content  of  blood,  etc.  The  children  of  the 
separated  groups  were  often  sisters  and  brothers,  some  of  them 
were  even  twins.  The  comparative  results  and  the  statistics  proved 
that  the  children  who  received  honey,  but  were  otherwise  on  the 
same  diet,  after  six  weeks  gained  less  in  weight  but  more  in  the 
hemoglobin  content  of  their  blood  (12%). 

That  the  mineral  elements,  such  as  copper,  iron  and  manga- 
nese, which  honey  contains,  have  important  blood-building  func- 
tions has  been  proven  by  Dr.  Rolleder's  experiments  (on  58 
children)  in  an  Austrian  orphanage.  During  the  school  year  he 
gave  half  the  number  of  boys  one  tablespoonful  of  honey  in  the 
morning  and  the  same  amount  in  the  afternoon;  the  other  half 
were  not  given  any.  The  result  was  that  the  children  who  received 
honey  showed  an  increase  in  hemoglobin  (83/2%);  the  others 
showed  a  corresponding  loss.  It  has  been  demonstrated  by  experi- 
ments that  animals  will  form  decidedly  less  hemoglobin  in  their 
blood  when  fed  on  sugar  than  during  a  similar  period  of  fasting. 

Beyond  any  doubt,  a  great  error  in  the  present  feeding  methods 
for  children  is  to  permit  them  to  consume  sugar-candy  instead 
of  natural  sweets.  Dr.  Seale  Harris  {New  Orleans  Med.  &  Surg. 
Joum.  81,  Sept.  1928)  remarks:  "The  sugar-fed  child  often  be- 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  53 

comes  rachitic,  is  prone  to  acquire  colitis  and  other  infections.  If 
he  survives  infancy  he  becomes  the  pale,  weak,  undernourished 
child,  or  the  fat  flabby  indolent  and  self-indulgent  adolescent. 
Sugar-saturated  and  vitamin-starving  America  presents  a  prob- 
lem. .  .  .  An  ounce  of  prevention  in  an  infant  is  worth  more  than 
the  proverbial  pound  of  cure  in  an  adult.  Sugar-fed  children  will 
not  enjoy  milk,  eggs,  fruit  and  vegetables  to  provide  them  with 
protein,  fats,  minerals  and  vitamins,  which  are  needed  for  their 
growth." 

Dr.  Harris  thinks  that  the  sugar-saturated  American  children 
are  confirmed  sugar  habitues.  They  cover  their  breakfast  cereals 
with  sugar,  spread  sugar-syrup  over  their  pancakes,  cheap  jams 
over  the  muffins  and  often  even  sweeten  their  milk.  They  are 
served  sweet  desserts  (the  sweeter  the  better)  for  lunch  and  din- 
ner. Between  meals  they  devour  candy  and  ice  cream,  and  indulge 
in  all  kinds  of  sweet  "soft"  drinks.  Candies  contain  40  to  60% 
of  some  sort  of  processed  sugars.  As  a  result,  these  children  suffer 
from  flatulence,  hyperacidity  and  headaches  and  become  irritable, 
restless,  capricious  and  undernourished.  They  are  physically  un- 
derweight or  overweight  and  mentally  precocious  or  retarded  5  are 
easily  fatigued  and  unmanageable,  suffer  from  one  cold  after 
another.  Physicians,  instead  of  conducting  the  fashionable  search 
for  some  non-existent  endocrine  deficiency,  should  rather  be 
guided  by  the  fruity  breath  of  acetone  of  these  children,  which  in 
itself  usually  reveals  the  difficult  (?)  diagnosis.  The  French 
Dr.  Le  Goff  contends  that  about  80,000  children  die  in  France 
from  the  direct  effect  of  industrial  sugar.  Dr.  Le  Goff  would  not 
permit  in  his  practice  the  minutest  quantity  of  sugar  in  the  food 
and  drink  of  infants  and  children.  The  results  are  astounding 
because  almost  all  the  new-born  grow  up  to  robust  childhood. 
Many  pediatrists  recognize  the  existence  of  a  so-called  "sugar- 
fever." 

Dr.  W.  E.  Deeks  also  has  found  that  sugar-eating  children  are 
badly  nourished,  pasty-looking,  irritable,  restless,  particularly  at 
night,  and  frequently  suffer  from  incontinence  of  urine  during 
sleep  j  they  have  decayed  teeth,  are  constipated  at  times,  alternat- 


54  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

ing  with  diarrhea}  they  are  subject  to  rheumatism,  chorea,  recur- 
ring bronchitis  and  sore  throat.  In  early  infancy  they  are  prone 
to  gastro-intestinal  disturbances  and  eczema.  Sugar  eaters  have,  as 
a  rule,  a  very  red  and  irritated  tongue,  rapidly  recurring  hunger 
with  a  ravenous  appetite  which  is,  however,  easily  and  quickly 
satisfied}  a  tendency  to  heartburn  and  ineffectual  belching. 

Digestive  disturbances  in  children  predominate  in  the  wealthier 
classes.  When  these  children  grow  up  they  become  accustomed  to 
sweets  and  as  adults  will  persevere  in  their  slow  suicidal  efforts. 
The  sweet-toothed  child  becomes  a  toothless  adult.  Most  oral 
infections,  bleeding  gums,  decayed  teeth  and  pyorrhea  are  pro- 
duced by  carbohydrate  fermentation,  or  by  some  additional  harm- 
ful substances  which  candies  contain.  Sugar  fermentation,  through 
the  formation  of  lactic  acid  and  the  consequent  decalcification,  is 
the  main  cause  of  tooth  decay.  The  resisting  power  of  teeth  to 
withstand  decalcifying  agents  varies  considerably. 

Refined  sugars  possess  a  decided  affinity  for  lime  and  they 
deprive  the  teeth  and  bones  of  this  important  mineral  substance ; 
in  consequence  the  teeth  decay  and  the  bones  become  weak.  Can- 
dies lack  minerals,  which  fact  is  a  drawback  because  adolescent 
children  require  a  great  amount  of  minerals  for  their  teeth.  An 
excessive  consumption  of  candy  produces  anemia  which,  in  itself, 
is  a  contributory  cause  of  dental  caries.  While  refined  sugars,  of 
which  candy  is  made,  do  not  contain  even  a  trace  of  calcium  or 
iron,  the  ash  of  100  gm.  of  honey  contains  6.7%  of  calcium  and 
1.2%  of  iron  (Von  Bunge).  Efforts  to  replace  organic  minerals 
with  inorganic  ones  have  always  proved  a  failure.  Natural  or 
simple  sugars  like  that  found  in  honey,  dates,  figs,  raisins  and 
other  fruits  will  not  cause  oral  defects.  This  is  proven  by  the  teeth 
of  Arabs,  Turks  and  the  African  negroes.  Half  an  apple,  half  a 
banana,  one  orange,  one  fig,  or  two  dates  contain  the  equivalent 
of  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar.  But  civilized  man  grows  his 
sweet  tooth  first  and  only  later  his  .  .  .  wisdom  tooth. 

The  truth  of  the  many  accusations  that  sweet  drinks  and  foods, 
especially  candies,  are  the  main  source  of  tooth-decay  was  conclu- 
sively established  by  the  recent  Dental  Research  Expedition  of 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  $5 

Columbia  University  which  was  sent  to  the  remote  areas  of  the 
Bering  Sea.  Dr.  L.  M.  Waugh,  leader  of  the  party,  states  that 
the  Eskimos  have  perfect  teeth  so  long  as  they  abstain  from 
"civilized"  diet.  "We  found  natives,"  Dr.  Waugh  reports,  "with 
practically  perfect  teeth,  lacking  in  decay,  so  long  as  they  lived  in 
their  natural  state  untouched  by  the  white  man  and  ate  their 
native  diet  which  lacks  sugar  in  its  refined  form.  When  the  natives 
are  subjected  to  the  white  man's  diet  their  teeth  decay."  Dr. 
Waugh  recommends  that  natural  sugar  be  substituted  for  refined 
sugar  and  for  sweets  which  contain  it. 

Food  excesses,  as  a  rule,  imply  fares  of  which  we  are  fond. 
Sugar  products  are  pleasing  and  palatable  besides  being  abundant 
and  cheap.  The  temptations  are  great  and  it  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  self-control  to  resist  the  craving.  We  cannot  expect, 
however,  such  virtue  in  children;  only  proper  education  will  en- 
lighten them.  Children  have  to  be  taught  to  resort  to  natural 
sugars  and  not  to  indulge  in  devitalized,  vitamin-free  substances. 
Universal  ailments  of  children  such  as  dyspepsia,  eructation,  ap- 
pendicitis, gall  bladder,  liver  and  pancreatic  infections,  furuncu- 
losis,  eczema,  general  debility  and  many  other  physical  and  mental 
complaints,  due  mainly  to  excessive  use  of  sugar,  could  be  elimi- 
nated. It  is  a  great  public  health  and  educational  problem.  To 
supply  the  proper  food  for  children  should  be  our  foremost  duty. 
It  is  like  laying  a  corner-stone  for  a  better  generation.  Those  who 
have  reached  or  passed  middle-age  today  have  already  made  so 
many  errors  in  diet,  and  their  inveterate  habits  are  so  firmly  estab- 
lished, that  they  are  almost  hopeless.  To  spare  pregnant  and  nurs- 
ing mothers  from  an  unbalanced  and  deficient  diet  should  be  our 
next  aim.  We  pay  attention  to  the  feeding  of  thoroughbreds;  so 
why  not  to  that  of  our  own  race? 

Craving  for  sweets  is  a  source  also  of  other  transgressions  be- 
cause often  harmful  substances  are  added  to  sweet  foods  and 
beverages.  In  an  Alabama  school,  for  instance,  it  was  established 
that  60%  of  the  children  indulged  in  cola  drinks  which  contain, 
besides  sugar,  harmful  caffein  substances. 

American  children  are  the  greatest  candy-eaters  in  the  world. 


$6  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

All  one  has  to  do  is  to  observe  the  traffic  around  the  candy  coun- 
ters in  schools  or  in  the  neighborhood  candy  stores.  One  seldom 
sees  children  without  the  inevitable  lollypops  or  their  near  or  far 
relatives.  Candies  decrease  the  appetites  of  children  and  irritate 
the  delicate  linings  of  their  stomachs,  this  irritation  in  itself  inter- 
fering with  the  absorption  of  food.  Parents  should  know  that 
starches,  such  as  bread  and  cereals,  manufacture  sugar  in  the 
organism.  Fruits  and  certain  vegetables,  of  course,  contain  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  natural  sugars.  Candies  will  establish  an  ex- 
cess in  sugar  consumption  with  all  its  dire  consequences.  The  irony 
of  the  situation  is  that  in  many  schools  we  find  the  candy  counter 
in  one  wing  of  the  building  and  the  dental  clinic  in  another. 

Statistics  based  on  examination  of  a  large  proportion  of  over 
twenty  million  school  children  in  America  show  that  15  to  25  per 
cent  have  diseased  tonsils  or  adenoids  j  50  to  75  per  cent  have  de- 
fective teeth;  and  15  to  25  per  cent  suffer  from  malnutrition 
(Leete,  Mother  and  Child,  2,  358,  1921).  Terman  {The  Hygiene 
of  the  School  Child,  19 14)  also  found  that  fourteen  million  school 
children  in  the  United  States  were  handicapped  by  some  kind  of 
physical  defect.  Medical  examinations  during  drafting  of  our 
young  men  for  the  World  War  revealed  similar  results. 

Teeth  have  a  great  importance  in  their  relationship  to  other 
organs  of  the  body.  The  value  of  good  teeth  as  a  dependable  indi- 
cator of  health  was  known  during  the  days  of  slave-trading  when 
two  dollars  were  deducted  from  the  agreed  price  of  a  slave  for 
each  decayed  tooth  (Finke,  Medical  Geography,  I.  p.  449). 
Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  once  remarked  that  longevity  de- 
pends not  so  much  on  the  importance  that  children  should  be 
born  to  long-lived  parents  but  to  parents  with  good  teeth.  The 
Biblical  edict  that  the  sins  of  the  fathers  shall  be  visited  on  their 
children  also  refers  to  teeth. 

The  "sugar  capacity"  of  children  greatly  varies.  Dr.  Ch.  G. 
Kerley,  the  noted  pediatrist,  observed  in  many  children  serious 
maladies  which  could  be  traced  to  the  indiscriminate  use  of  candy. 
Among  the  diseases  he  found  persistent  head-colds,  otitis,  enlarged 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  57 

tonsils,  recurrent  bronchitis,  bronchial  asthma,  vomiting,  rheu- 
matism, chorea,  eczema  and  urticaria.  Kerley  found  in  78  cases: 

Recurrent  vomiting 8 

Eczema  13 

Asthmatic  bronchitis 7 

Asthma   4 

Frequent  colds,  coryza,  tonsilitis 17 

Chorea  11 

Rheumatism    4 

Rheumatism  and  endocarditis 6 

Urticaria   1 

Recurrent  bronchitis  6 

Several  cases  were  conjoined  with  one  or  more  of  the  other 
ailments.  Of  the  group,  for  instance,  there  were  combinations  of: 

Eczema,  urticaria  and  rheumatism ; 

Eczema,  urticaria  and  bronchial  asthma ; 

Eczema  and  chorea ; 

Eczema  and  bronchitis  j 

Rheumatism  and  asthmatic  bronchitis. 

Most  of  Dr.  Kerley's  patients  improved  without  medication  by 
simply  depriving  them  of  candy.  Some  of  the  "sugar  susceptibles" 
were  so  sensitive  to  "candy  poisoning"  that  a  small  piece  of  candy 
was  sufficient  to  produce  an  outbreak.  "It  would  seem,"  remarks 
Kerley,  "that  to  some  individuals  cane-sugar  is  sufficiently  toxic 
to  produce  a  perversion  of  functions  with  symptoms  of  its  own  .  .  . 
and  in  others  to  produce  enough  change  to  invite  or  allow  bacterial 
invasion,  as  in  acute  articular  rheumatism  and  endocarditis." 

Candy  and  sweet  cakes  will  produce  in  children  malaise,  drowsi- 
ness, languor,  epigastric  heaviness  and  bilious,  green-colored  vom- 
iting. Dr.  E.  H.  Bartley  reported  the  case  of  a  girl  who  vomited 
two  hours  after  every  meal  for  a  year.  After  inquiry  the  doctor 


58  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

found  that  the  child  had  been  living  almost  entirely  on  cake 
because  her  appetite  ( ? )  did  not  crave  anything  else.  The  vomit- 
ing promptly  ceased  by  withholding  the  cake.  Three  weeks  later, 
after  eating  cake,  the  child  suffered  a  relapse. 

Dr.  Bartley  reported  autopsies  on  two  children  who  died  from 
excessive  indulgence  in  candy.  The  result  of  the  autopsies  showed 
an  acute  and  intense  inflammation  of  the  gastric  mucosa ;  the 
candy  was  not  even  entirely  dissolved  and  was  mixed  with  the 
abundant  mucus  of  the  stomachs.  Some  of  the  gastric  contents 
were  ejected  by  vomiting  that  preceded  death.  The  coroner's 
findings  were  acute  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  duodenum, 
caused  by  excessive  eating  of  candy.  Chemical  analysis  failed  to 
reveal  any  foreign  toxic  substances.  Candy  alone  in  large  quanti- 
ties is  a  sufficient  irritant.  An  excessive  amount  of  cane-sugar 
inhibits  the  secretion  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Dr.  R.  Blosser,  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  reported  the  case  of  a  child 
8  years  old  who  suffered  an  attack  which  was  termed  delirium 
tremens,  attributed  to  excessive  use  of  brown  sugar.  The  father,  a 
grocer,  allowed  him  free  access  to  the  sugar-barrel,  from  which 
the  boy  indulged  between  meals.  The  violent  attack  lasted  for 
four  days  and  the  child  had  to  be  "held  in  bed."  After  the  boy 
had  been  forbidden  to  eat  any  more  sugar,  the  delirium  did  not 
recur.  Another  proof  that  sugar  contains  deleterious  substances. 

The  gastric  catarrh  of  children  caused  by  indulgence  in  candy 
has,  undoubtedly,  a  remote  effect  on  the  nose,  throat  and  lungs, 
diffusing  the  catarrhal  condition.  In  young  girls  menstrual  dis- 
turbances and  leucorrhea  may  also  supervene.  The  most  harmful 
effect  of  candy-orgies  is  that  the  victims  lose  their  appetite  and  as 
a  result  exclude  highly  essential  nutriments. 

Our  schools  should  show  concern  and  teach  more  dietetics  in- 
stead of  so  much  theoretical  science.  It  is  difficult  to  depend  on 
parents,  considering  how  most  of  them  .  .  .  feed.  With  the  aid  of 
a  little  more  solicitude  on  the  part  of  teachers,  children  could 
carry  the  knowledge  of  proper  diet  to  their  homes  and  educate 
their  parents. 

The  harm  caused  by  the  excess  consumption  of  candy  is  not 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  59 

due  solely  to  its  sugar  content.  Cheap  candies,  to  preserve  and 
lend  color  and  flavor,  are  admixed  with  sulphates  (the  hat  clean- 
ers also  use  them),  lead,  arsenic,  benzoate  of  soda,  anilin  and  other 
coal-tar  dyes  which  are  decidedly  toxic.  We  Americans  are  past- 
masters  in  preserving  and  adulterating  food  materials.  Years  ago 
several  foreign  countries  forbade  the  importation  of  California 
dried  fruits  because  they  had  been  sulphured.  The  imputation 
that  we  are  a  nation  of  100,000,000  guinea  pigs  (why  disregard 
the  other  30  million  worthy  fellow-citizens? )  must  have  had  some 
justification  and  the  epithet  adduced  by  substantial  evidence. 

There  is  a  little  story  about  a  Christmas  party  which  a  chari- 
table lady  gave  to  the  working  girls  of  a  provincial  town.  Among 
the  divertisements  of  the  evening,  each  girl  received  as  a  gift  a 
box  of  chocolates.  When  the  jollity  ended  and  the  crowd  dis- 
persed, a  group  of  girls  who  were  ready  to  depart  did  not  take 
the  boxes  of  candy.  The  hostess  reminded  them  of  their  apparent 
oversight  but  the  girls  answered  in  unison:  "No,  thank  you,  we 
know  this  candy ;  we  make  it." 

3.     FOR  ATHLETES  AND  SOLDIERS 

For  physical  and  mental  fatigue  and  over-work  there  is  no 
more  excellent  stimulant  in  the  medical  armamentarium  than 
honey.  A  glassful  of  hot  water  with  several  tablespoonfuls  of 
honey  is  a  quickly  acting  energy-builder,  far  superior  to  alcohol 
because  it  is  without  depressive  action,  or  better,  reaction.  Strenu- 
ous exercise  consumes  lots  of  sugar  from  the  blood-stream  which 
must  be  replaced.  The  popular  German  honey-tea,  which  is  plain 
hot  water  with  honey,  is  considered  by  the  Germans  a  pleasing, 
wholesome  and  strengthening  beverage. 

The  Greek  athletes  ate  honey  before  they  entered  the  arena  for 
the  Olympic  games.  Homer  described  in  the  Iliad  (IX.  631)  how 
the  tired  heroes  recuperated  in  Nestor's  tent  by  consuming  honey. 
The  Roman  soldiers,  on  festive  occasions  or  upon  returning  from 
war  and  celebrating  the  glory  of  victory,  drank  honey  and  wine 
(mulsum)  to  prolong  their  life.  According  to  the  Old  Testament 


60  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

(2  Sam.  17:  29),  honey  and  sour  milk  was  the  food  for  the  tired 
warriors.  When  Christ  was  resurrected  and  asked  for  food,  He 
was  given  honey.  This  seems  to  be  a  testimonial  to  its  refreshing 
and  resuscitating  power.  (Obtulerunt  ei  partem  piscis  assi  et 
javum  mellis.  Luke  24:  42.) 

The  Masai  warriors,  according  to  Seyffert-Dresden,  received 
for  many  days  no  other  food  but  honey.  In  the  old  German  army, 
each  soldier  carried  a  tube  of  it  in  his  knapsack.  The  Alpine  climb- 
ers never  omit  the  eating  of  honey,  the  principal  course  of  a 
Swiss  breakfast.  To  long  distance  swimmers,  at  frequent  intervals 
sponges  saturated  with  honey  are  thrown  to  restore  their  strength. 
Ethel  Hertel,  who  won  the  world's  championship  for  women 
swimmers  in  the  Third  Wrigley  Marathon  Race,  held  at  Toronto, 
ate  honey  before  and  during  the  race.  She  consulted  a  number  of 
athletes  (runners,  wrestlers,  boxers  and  oarsmen)  and  discovered 
that  they  all  fared  on  honey  before  their  contests.  Hockey  players 
and  basket-ball  teams  are  served  honey  three  to  four  times  weekly 
during  their  training  period.  The  consumption  of  liberal  doses  of 
honey  creates  heat,  wards  off  fatigue  and  aids  recuperative  power. 
The  ice-cold  waters  of  the  English  Channel  and  of  Lake  Ontario 
consume  a  great  amount  of  body  heat  which  must  be  replaced.  No 
Channel  swimmers  have  ever  succeeded  in  finishing  the  course 
except  those  who  possessed  abundant  adipose  tissues,  in  addition 
to  the  heavy  greasy  coating  with  which  they  are  always  anointed. 
Helene  Madison,  the  sensational  seventeen-year-old  girl  swim- 
mer who,  in  1930,  broke  twelve  world  and  twenty-six  American 
records  in  eight  months,  used  honey  as  her  major  sweet  on  the 
advice  of  her  trainer  (Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  193 1). 

During  exercise,  lactic  and  carbonic  acids  are  formed  in  the 
tissues  which  must  be  oxidized.  Lactic  acid  is  one  of  the  principal 
causes  of  exhaustion.  The  acids  are  neutralized  by  the  alkalies  of 
the  blood.  Low  alkali  reserve  means  fatigue.  Alkaline  foods  are 
important.  Beans  are  one  of  the  richest  alkaline  foods  and  soy- 
bean flour  tops  them  all.  The  soy-bean  is  a  perfect  food  and  a 
harmless  stimulant. 

Recently  Professor  Dennig  of  the  Robert  Koch  Hospital  in 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  6 1 

Berlin  suggested  the  use  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  for  the  Reich  Army 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  soldiers.  Experiments  and  control 
tests  proved  that  through  administration  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
the  effect  of  which  lasts  for  several  days,  runners  were  able  to 
dash  at  full  tilt  for  42  minutes  instead  of  20,  as  formerly,  and  a 
bicycle  racer  was  able  to  maintain  a  sprint  for  1 6  minutes,  instead 
of  11.  The  administration  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  followed  by  the 
consumption  of  honey  ought  to  be  a  helpful  combination  for 
athletes.  During  athletic  training  less  acid  forms  in  the  muscles 
and  the  alkali  reserve  is  increased. 

The  blood-sugar  content  of  many  participants  in  marathon  races 
has  been  carefully  studied  by  biochemists.  Prolonged  exercise  will 
lead  to  depletion  of  liver  glycogen  and  cause  marked  depression 
of  blood-sugar  levels.  Runners  who  became  exhausted  and  gave 
up  previous  races  showed  a  definite  sugar  deficiency  in  their  blood. 
After  having  been  fed  with  honey  before  and  during  subsequent 
races  they  completed  the  course.  These  tests  are  further  proof  that 
honey  produces  considerable  endurance. 

W.  L.  Finlay,  Director  of  Athletics  of  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  of  Toronto  in  a  letter  (Nov.  12,  1926)  remarks: 
"For  almost  three  years  the  members  of  Central  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
Walkers'  Club,  the  premier  club  of  its  kind  in  Canada,  have  been 
using  honey  as  a  staple  article  of  diet.  Following  extensive  medical 
research  work  on  diet  and  athletes'  endurance,  in  which  was  in- 
volved estimations  of  blood  sugar  before  and  after  competitive 
walks,  these  members  aforementioned  were  advised  to  incorporate 
in  their  bill  of  fare  a  large  quantity  of  natural  sugars,  and  the 
article  deemed  most  suitable  by  medical  opinion  was  honey.  This 
type  of  athletic  activity  in  which  these  men  are  engaged  demands 
great  stamina  and  endurance,  and  the  food  problem  with  us  is  one 
that  demands  close  attention. 

"Honey  has  the  following  advantages  over  other  sugars: 

1.  It  is  non-irritating  to  the  delicate  membranes  of  the  digestive 
apparatus. 

2.  It  is  assimilated  rapidly  and  easily. 


62  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

3.  It  quickly  furnishes  the  demand  for  energy. 

4.  It  enables  the  athlete  to  recuperate  rapidly  from  severe  exer- 
tion, and  the  men  using  it  show  less  evidence  of  fatigue,  ac- 
cording to  standardized  medical  tests. 

5.  As  far  as  our  research  work  has  demonstrated,  the  use  of  honey 
spares  the  kidneys,  lessening  tissue  destruction. 

6.  It  has  a  natural  and  gentle  laxative  effect. 

7.  It  is  easily  obtained  and  it  is  inexpensive. 

"The  group  of  athletes  already  mentioned  have  been  very  suc- 
cessful in  the  past  and  are  now  in  the  throes  of  intensive  training 
for  the  largest  walking  race  in  the  world." 

H.  W.  Haggard,  Professor  of  Physiology  at  Yale  University, 
considers  honey  one  of  the  most  assimilable  carbohydrates.  He 
also  emphasizes  that  "the  taking  of  readily  assimilable  carbohy- 
drates is  stimulating  and  helps  to  relieve  fatigue." 

There  is  no  other  more  severe,  nay,  crucial  test  to  appreciate 
the  physical  and  chemical  fitness  of  the  human'  system  than  the 
enormous  strain  to  which  it  is  exposed  during  deep-sea  diving, 
especially  at  great  depths  and  during  long  submersions.  In  such 
an  artificial  atmosphere  the  metabolic  machine  must  function  to 
perfection,  because  the  minutest  deficiency  will  frustrate  the  truly 
superhuman  efforts.  The  faculty  of  honey  to  attend  to  the  vital 
oxidative  requirements  of  deep-sea  divers  is  remarkable.  Captain 
John  D.  Craig,  33  years  old,  who,  on  the  salvage  ship  Ophir,  is 
now  ready  to  penetrate  the  hull  of  the  sunken  Lusitania  buried 
on  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic,  describes  in  The  American  Maga- 
zine (April,  1937)  the  physical  fitness  which  is  exacted  for  the 
task:  "All  of  us  are  in  the  pink  of  condition.  We  have  trained 
for  months,  working  off  every  ounce  of  fat.  Those  of  us  who  do 
the  diving,  like  myself,  have  given  up  tobacco,  alcohol  and  mixed 
foods.  That  is  most  important.  For  weeks  we  shall  have  nothing 
for  breakfast  but  a  glass  of  orange  juice  and  a  found  and  one-half 
of  honey  in  the  comb  which  we  chew  thoroughly,  spitting  out  the 
wax.  The  honey  provides  a  carbon  background  for  the  oxygen  to 
burn  upon  and  prevents  its  burning  our  tissues.  When  we  come 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  63 

up  from  the  seas  we  are  given  nothing  to  eat  except  a  half-tumbler 
of  strained  honey,  lemon  juice  and  rain  water.  We  carry  crocks  of 
rain  water  in  the  ship's  refrigerators  because  it  is  not  only  pure 
but  contains  a  high  degree  of  oxygen.  When  we  emerge  from  the 
water  our  body  temperatures  have  fallen  from  98  degrees,  nor- 
mal, to  85,  although  we  do  not  feel  cold.  The  rain-water-honey 
mixture  warms  us  up,  and  then,  after  a  massage,  we  go  to  bed. 
After  a  brief  rest  we  eat,  but  we  must  stick  to  one  thing  at  a  meal 
— proteins  or  carbohydrates,  not  both.  We  immediately  feel  it  if 
we  take  the  combination  and  we  suffer  nausea  or  weakness.  Our 
physical  discipline  is  most  severe." 

4.     IN  LONGEVITY 

"Father  Time,  though  he  tarries  for  none,  often  lays  his  hands 
lightly  on  those  who  have  used  him  well." 

Charles  Dickens 

To  prolong  life  has  been  at  all  times  the  chief  desire  and  prin- 
cipal object  of  mankind.  Man  always  has  done  his  utmost  to  reach 
old  age.  The  expediency  and  value  of  this  tendency  is,  however, 
somewhat  disputed.  Philosophers,  economists  and  students  of 
eugenics  are  not  in  accord  about  its  practicability.  There  is  even  an 
old  charge  against  medicine  and  hygiene  that  by  preserving  life 
they  often  tend  to  weaken  the  human  race.  Unhealthy  people  give 
birth  to  weak  offspring.  Haeckel  called  it  "medical  selection," 
and  thought  that  humanity  degenerates  because  of  the  influence  of 
medical  science.  Others  oppose  longevity  from  the  psychological 
standpoint.  Edmund  Goldsmid  (Introduction  to  Cohausen's  Her- 
mippus  Redivivus)  thought  that  it  is  not  the  length  of  the  day 
which  makes  us  love  the  summer  but  its  brightness,  the  beauty  of 
flowers  and  the  singing  of  birds.  "Ask  the  man  whose  sun  of 
ambition  has  passed  its  zenith,  who  has  gathered  the  flowers  of 
love  and  friendship  and  found  that  they  sometimes  wither  and  die 
while  he  yet  held  them  in  his  grasp,  for  whom  voices  he  loved 
best  have  ceased  to  resound;  ask  such  a  man  whether  life  is  a 


64  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

blessing  as  the  ignorants  imagine  it  .  .  .  and  you  will  receive  for 
reply  the  words  so  old  and  yet  so  true:  Vanitas,  omnia  vanitas." 

Yet  innumerable  attempts  have  been  made — before  and  after 
Ponce  de  Leon — to  discover  the  secret  of  eternal  youth  and  the 
deferment  of  old  age.  The  Elixir  Vitae  was  a  problem  of  all 
times  and  still  is  today.  If  we  scan  ancient  records  we  find  an 
infinite  list  of  tricks,  schemes,  suggestions,  dietetic  regimens  and 
substances  from  the  mineral,  plant  and  animal  worlds  employed 
to  preserve  and  regain  youth  or  to  stave  off  old  age.  Long  life  has 
been  considered,  in  all  ages,  a  blessing  from  Heaven.  To  cling  to 
life  is  an  inherent  longing  not  only  of  man  but  of  all  living  crea- 
tures. 

Life,  a  physico-chemical  phenomenon,  has  certain  laws  which 
must  be  understood.  Accordingly,  man,  the  last  object  of  creation 
and  likewise  the  most  perfect,  should  be  competent  to  comprehend 
and  respect  the  rules  which  were  enacted  to  make  the  "living 
engine"  more  durable  and  to  extend  the  limit  of  its  usefulness, 
respectively,  its  existence.  If  the  organs  do  not  function  normally 
life  is  more  a  curse  than  a  gratification.  To  understand  the  normal 
functioning  of  the  body  requires  knowledge  and  experience.  To 
enforce  the  laws  of  health  is  man's  responsibility  to  Nature,  be- 
cause he  is  supposed  to  be  the  acknowledged  (by  himself,  at  least) 
masterpiece  of  creation. 

It  is  disappointing  that  this  is  not  the  case.  Animals  far  excel 
man  in  obedience  to  moral  and  hygienic  laws.  So-called  civiliza- 
tion has  made  us  forget  the  experience  which  primitive  man  and 
our  ancient  or  even  medieval  ancestors  acquired.  Our  present-day 
civilization,  often  enough,  prefers  material  possessions  to  the  en- 
joyment of  health  and  life  and  when  man  loses  his  gains,  the  sole 
object  of  his  existence,  in  despair  he  destroys  life,  an  act  which 
other  creatures  never  do. 

The  art  of  prolonging  life,  of  course,  does  not  entirely  depend 
on  our  will  and  intelligence.  Part  of  our  existence,  as  a  matter  of 
fact  an  essential  portion  of  it,  is  beyond  our  control.  For  our  con- 
genital traits,  for  our  conduct  during  infancy  and  childhood,  and 
for  our  early  environment  we  are  not  responsible}  they  are  mere 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  6$ 

accidents  which  we  may  call  luck  or  misfortune.  Our  intelligence 
regarding  the  physical  and  moral  comportment  of  life,  which  we 
subsequently  acquire  through  education  or  by  our  own  efforts,  can 
guide  us  only  afterwards. 

Spiritual  and  moral  principles  in  the  management  of  life,  in  its 
enjoyment  and  extension  to  the  farthest  possible  limits,  are  just  as 
essential  as  physiological  laws.  To  discuss  the  value,  benefits  and 
the  necessity  of  the  first  two  mentioned  requirements  is  much 
beyond  the  scope  of  our  purpose.  With  regard  to  the  rules  which 
we  must  know  and  obey  to  secure  physical  and  mental  health,  to 
preserve  life  and  delay  its  termination,  they  are  only  the  Laws  of 
Nature.  Science,  in  spite  of  all  its  wonderful  achievements,  is  not 
as  dependable,  due  to  our  limited  faculties.  It  is  difficult  to  intrude 
into  the  sancta  sanctorum  of  Nature.  Haller  exclaimed: 

"No  mortal  being,  howe'er  keen  his  eye, 
Can  into  Nature's  deepest  secrets  pry." 

What  was  considered  a  verity  yesterday,  is  a  fallacy  today.  Our 
present-day  science  will  suffer  even  more  reversals  than  that  of 
the  days  of  old;  it  has  grown  too  materialistic,  and  our  near  and 
far  scientists  are  frequently  nothing  more  than  the  employed  but 
well-disguised  agents  of  certain  interests.  Nature,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  always  absolute,  constant,  sincere,  trustworthy  and  de- 
pendable. Obey  the  laws  of  Nature,  because  if  you  violate  them 
you  betray  yourself  and  pare  down  your  life.  The  further  you 
deviate  from  them,  the  shorter  will  be  your  existence. 

One  of  the  cardinal  laws  of  Nature  is  economy.  Applying  this 
law  to  the  nourishment  of  our  body,  which  is  one  of  the  principal 
and  vital  functions  for  maintenance  of  life,  we  must  study  the 
proper  requirements  of  the  complex  physico-chemical  engine  and 
practice  economy  according  to  Nature.  Enough  or  sufficient  de- 
notes a  supply  equal  to  the  demand,  not  too  little,  not  too  much. 
To  choke  the  engine  is  just  as  disastrous  as  no  fuel  at  all.  Primi- 
tive man  observed  this  rule  of  Nature,  consumed  simple  food  and 
lived  longer,  but  civilized  man  plunged  into  luxury  and  corrup- 


66  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

tion  and  confused  the  appetite  of  the  palate  with  that  of  the 
stomach  j  the  result  is  shorter  life  with  innumerable  "engine 
troubles"  which  finally  lead  to  destruction.  These  are  complica- 
tions unknown  to  the  "children"  of  Nature.  Meticulous  care  of 
the  stomach  by  selecting  proper  fuel,  both  with  regard  to  quality 
and  quantity,  is  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  for  pre- 
serving health;  without  it  the  attainment  to  a  great  age  is 
impossible. 

There  are  many  instances  in  history  which  confirm  the  belief 
that  a  liberal  consumption  of  honey  is  conducive  to  prolongation 
of  life.  Anacreon,  who  died  at  the  age  of  115,  attributed  his  long 
life  to  the  daily  use  of  honey.  Pythagoras,  who  lived  exclusively 
on  honey  and  bread,  was  convinced  that  it  was  due  to  this  routine 
that  he  reached  the  age  of  ninety,  otherwise  he  would  surely  have 
died  forty  years  earlier.  His  followers,  the  Pythagoreans,  lived 
on  the  same  diet.  "Bread  and  honey  was  the  Pythagorean's  meat." 
Apollonius,  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  lived  to  the  age  of  130  (died 
in  95  a.d.).  Bread  and  honey  is  mentioned  in  the  Septuagint,  the 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament:  "I  have  eaten  my  bread 
with  honey."  Occasionally  this  combination  serves  also  as  a  regal 
food.  In  the  nursery  rhyme,  Sing  a  Song  of  Sixpence,  from 
Mother  Goose: 

"The  King  was  in  the  counting  house,  counting  out  his  money, 
The  Queen  was  in  the  pantry,  eating  bread  and  honey." 

Pliny  mentioned  (Book  II,  Ch.  14)  that  the  Pythagoreans 
believed  that  the  absence  of  blindness  and  of  eye  troubles  in  gen- 
eral was  attributable  to  the  daily  consumption  of  honey.  Antichus, 
the  physician,  and  Telephus,  the  grammarian,  lived  on  Attic 
honey  and  bread,  to  which  their  old  age  was  ascribed.  Epaminon- 
das,  the  statesman  and  general,  is  said  to  have  rarely  eaten  any- 
thing else  but  bread  and  honey.  Hippocrates  prescribed  honey  to 
those  who  "wished"  to  live  long;  he  himself  reached  the  age  of 
109  years.  When  one  of  Augustus  Caesar's  guests,  Pollio  Ru- 
milius,  100  years  old,  was  asked  by  the  Emperor  how  he  preserved 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  6j 

the  natural  vigor  of  his  body  and  mind,  he  answered:  Intus  mulso, 
foris  oleo  (Honey  within,  and  oil  without).  This  old  gentleman 
was  very  fond  of  dipping  his  bread  into  honied  wine.  Pliny,  and 
also  Lycus,  often  refer  to  the  long  lives  of  the  Cyrneans  (inhabit- 
ants of  Sardinia)  who  "continually"  ate  honey,  of  which  there 
was  an  abundance  on  the  island. 

Democritus  was  convinced  that  even  the  odor  and  emanation 
of  honey  helped  to  prolong  life.  Athenaeus  described  (II,  177) 
how  Democritus  (470  b.c.)  in  his  old  age,  when  he  wished  to 
hasten  his  approaching  end,  decided  to  abstain  from  all  food  and 
to  starve  himself  to  death.  The  female  members  of  his  family, 
who  were  eager  to  celebrate  the  impending  rituals  of  Thesmo- 
phoria,  a  three-day  autumn  feast  attended  only  by  women,  im- 
plored him  to  survive  the  festivals  at  least.  To  this  he  agreed  5  and 
— though  he  did  not  eat — he  ordered  a  jar  of  warm  honey  and  by 
inhaling  its  aroma  kept  himself  alive  during  the  holidays,  soon 
after  which  he  died  at  the  age  of  109.  This  was  the  same  Democ- 
ritus, commonly  called  the  "laughing  philosopher,"  who  laughed 
at  the  follies  of  men  even  in  his  dreams,  and  who,  not  to  be  dis- 
turbed in  his  deep  philosophical  reflections,  blinded  himself  be- 
cause he  was  not  able  to  look  at  a  woman  without  a  craving  to 
possess  her.  They  say  that  Diophanes,  when  he  was  1 10  years  old, 
also  tried  to  prolong  his  life  by  inhaling  the  balmy  odor  of  honey. 

It  was  a  wide-spread  belief  among  the  ancients  that  inhalations, 
not  only  of  honey,  but  of  all  sweet  emanations,  benefit  life  and 
retard  old  age.  This  principle  was  extolled  by  Galen  and  later  by 
Roger  Bacon,  Hufeland  and  others.  Healthy,  vigorous  young 
people — also  animals — were  supposed  to  comfort  and  revive  old 
men  by  emanating  health-giving  vapors.  This  influence  had  also  a 
distinctly  opposite  effect,  namely  that  the  contact  debilitated 
youth.  The  faith  prevailed  for  thousands  of  years  and  still  exists 
today.  Borelli  and  others  quoted  names  of  dying  persons  who 
recovered  by  prolonged  blowing  of  the  breath  of  healthy  friends 
into  their  mouths.  Cornaro  attributed  his  old  age  to  youthful 
environment.  When  he  became  old  and  was  at  the  point  of  death, 
he  gathered  eleven  of  his  grandchildren  round  him  to  renew  his 


68  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

vital  forces.  To  quote  him:  "I  often  sing  myself  with  them,  for 
my  voice  is  now  clearer  and  stronger  than  it  ever  was  in  my 
youth  j  and  I  am  a  stranger  to  those  peevish  and  morose  humors 
which  fall  so  often  to  the  lot  of  old  age."  Marriages  between 
persons  of  widely  differing  ages  seem  to  confirm  the  theory. 
Huf eland  comments  thus  upon  the  subject:  "We  cannot  refuse 
our  approval  of  the  method  if  it  be  remembered  how  the  exhala- 
tions from  newly  opened  animals  stimulate  paralyzed  limbs,  and 
how  the  application  of  living  animals  also  soothes  a  violent  pain." 
This  probably  led  to  the  first  blood  transfusion  which  was  per- 
formed on  animals.  In  the  seventeenth  century  (1666)  it  was 
already  accomplished  on  human  beings.  Blood  transfusion  was 
prohibited  in  England  by  the  Parliament  and  in  Italy  by  the  Pope. 

We  all  know  the  story  of  King  David,  when  he  became  old  and 
stricken  in  years.  The  Bible  tells  us  (Kings  1 :  1)  that  they  cov- 
ered him  with  clothes  but  "he  gat  no  heat."  "Wherefore  his 
servants  said  unto  him,  Let  there  be  sought  for  my  Lord  the  King 
a  young  virgin:  .  .  .  and  let  her  lie  in  thy  bosom  that  my  Lord 
the  King  may  get  heat."  And  they  sent  for  the  beautiful  Abishag, 
the  Shunammite  virgin,  who  slept  by  the  king  and  served  and 
left — as  a  virgin.  Boerhaave,  the  famous  Dutch  physician  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  recommended  an  old  burgomaster  of  Amster- 
dam to  lie  between  two  young  girls,  assuring  him  that  he  would 
thus  recover  strength  and  spirits. 

Hermippus,  a  teacher  of  a  girls'  school,  lived  to  the  age  of  155 
and,  according  to  his  own  statement,  was  kept  young  by  the  breath 
of  young  girls.  Quoting  from  Hermippus:  "When  Thisbe,  in  the 
blooming  flower  of  her  age,  decked  by  the  Graces,  taught  by  the 
Muses,  converses  with  old  Hermippus,  her  youth  reanimates  his 
age,  and  the  clear  flame  with  which  her  young  heart  glows  lends 
its  heat  to  that  of  the  old  man.  Each  time  that  the  lovely  virgin 
breathes,  the  sweet  vapour  which  escapes  from  her  breath  is  full 
of  vivifying  spirits  which  swim  in  her  purple  veins.  And  even  as 
spirits  attract  spirits,  so  these  same  vapours  mingle  themselves 
on  the  instant  with  the  blood  of  old  Hermippus.  From  thence, 
passing  through  his  body,  they  fill  that  same  blood,  so  that  we 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF     HONEY  69 

may  say,  almost  without  metaphor,  that  the  spirit  of  Thisbe  brings 
life  to  this  old  man." 

Rudolph  I,  one  of  the  greatest  admirers  of  women,  also  be- 
lieved that  "the  breath  of  a  beautiful  young  girl  is  the  best 
medicine  in  the  world."  When  the  king  was  66  years  old  he  mar- 
ried the  glorious  Agnes  of  Burgundy.  During  the  wedding  cere- 
monies the  Bishop  of  Speyer  assisted  the  bride  from  her  carriage. 
The  prelate  was  so  struck  by  her  dazzling  beauty  that  he  could 
not  abstain  from  kissing  the  bride.  His  Majesty  forbade  the 
Bishop,  after  that,  to  visit  the  court,  advising  him  to  remain  at 
home  and  kiss — instead  of  Agnes — the  Agnus  Dei  (the  Lamb  of 
God).  Even  old  Socrates  reported  that  his  shoulder,  where  a 
beautiful  young  girl  had  touched  him,  itched  for  five  days.  (St. 
Hieronymus  suggested  that  the  strength  of  the  Devil  was  in  his 
loins.  Diaboli  virtus  in  lumbis.) 

The  French  Count  de  Montlosier,  a  man  who  was  reputed  for 
his  great  originality  and  force  of  character,  kept  thirty  cows  in 
each  wing  of  his  house  which  communicated  with  its  interior.  The 
rooms  were  filled  with  the  "sweet  breath"  of  the  animals  and  the 
Count  attributed  his  physical  power  and  old  age  to  this  contin- 
gency. When  he  had  passed  80,  his  hearing  and  eyesight  were 
perfect,  he  could  read  any  type  without  glasses  and  retained  his 
thirty-two  teeth  without  decay. 

To  retrace  our  lost  steps  to  "real"  honey,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  beekeepers  who,  as  a  rule,  consume  (and  also  inhale)  great 
quantities  of  honey  and  only  rarely  indulge  in  sugar,  reach  a  ripe 
old  age.  This  belief  is  very  prevalent.  The  list  of  famous  apiari- 
ans who  passed  eighty  and  even  ninety  years  of  age  is  almost 
endless.  Frangois  Huber,  Dzierzon,  Langstroth,  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller, 
A.  I.  Root,  Charles  Dadant,  Thomas  W.  Cowan,  for  fifty  years 
Editor  of  the  British  Bee  Journal,  are  typical  examples.  John 
Anderson,  lecturer  on  beekeeping  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
remarked:  "There  is  nothing  in  the  world  that  could  beat  honey 
as  an  aid  to  defy  old  age.  Keep  bees  and  eat  honey  if  you  want  to 
live  long.  Beekeepers  live  longer  than  anybody  else."  Many  old 
life-elixirs  of  great  reputation  contained  honey.  Parcelsus  Bom- 


70  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

bastus  ab  Hohenheim,  who  traveled  over  half  the  world  and 
collected  wonder-working  medicines  from  all  quarters,  was  a  great 
believer  in  the  health-giving  power  of  honey. 

Father  Sebastian  Kneipp,  of  "dew-walking"  fame,  mentioned 
that  he  knew  a  man,  well  over  eighty,  who  prepared  daily  a  drink 
at  his  dinner  table,  consisting  of  a  tablespoonful  of  good  ripe 
honey  in  a  glassful  of  boiling  water.  "In  my  advanced  age" — the 
man  used  to  say — "I  am  thankful  for  my  health  and  strength, 
which  I  attribute  to  this  drink."  Father  Kneipp  was  one  of  the 
greatest  propagandists  of  honey.  He  thought  honey  "a  dissolv- 
ing, purifying,  nourishing  and  strengthening  substance,"  and 
freely  dispensed  it  to  patients  who  made  pilgrimages  to  his  sani- 
tarium from  all  over  the  world.  Bernarr  Macfadden's  honey- 
grape  fruit  juice-water  mixture,  of  which  people  drink  several 
quarts  daily  without  any  other  nourishment,  is  well  known. 

On  account  of  the  author's  known  interest  in  honey,  he  is 
deluged  with  letters  from  all  quarters  praising  the  salubrious  ef- 
fects of  the  substance.  R.  D.  Horton,  of  Blossburg,  Pa.,  wrote 
recently  (in  his  own  good  handwriting)  as  follows:  "Although 
ninety-one  years  old  I  cannot  see  any  reason  why  I  should  not  add 
some  more  years  to  my  life  if  I  continue  the  daily  use  of  ripe 
honey  (extracted)  of  which  I  have  consumed  for  the  last  eleven 
years  three  pounds  per  week  and  a  little  more  for  supper  (in 
combs).  I  cured  myself  from  a  heart  disease  when  eighty  years 
old,  of  which  I  suffered  for  five  years.  I  am  not  a  doctor  or  a 
chemist  but  a  farmer  and  have  kept  bees  for  the  last  57  years 
which  was  my  hobby  since  boyhood.  Some  people  call  me  a  doctor 
because  I  helped  and  cured  so  many  heart  diseases,  stomach  ulcers 
and  coughs  with  honey.  I  give  bloated  babies  a  spoonful  of  heated 
honey  in  warm  milk,  which  does  the  trick." 

During  his  nearly  half  a  century  long  medical  practice  the 
author  has  met  many  surprisingly  energetic  folk  of  advanced  age 
with  remarkably  healthy  complexions.  In  taking  their  histories, 
the  report  of  a  liberal  daily  dose  of  honey  was  seldom  missing. 
About  two  years  ago,  a  patient  of  his,  a  former  Mayor  of  Kansas 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  7 1 

City,  eighty  years  old,  stepped  into  the  office  without  an  overcoat. 
The  thermometer  registered  140  below  zero,  besides,  a  blustering 
north  wind  was  howling.  When  the  patient  was  scolded  for  his 
recklessness,  and  at  the  same  time  was  reminded  of  his  age,  he 
nonchalantly  explained,  "All  my  life  I  have  been  taking  a  goodly 
portion  of  honey  for  breakfast  and  I  am  not  afraid  of  catching 
cold."  Similar  reports  are  not  few  and  far  between.  A  publisher 
consulted  the  writer  last  summer  and  he  was  impressed  by  the 
patient's  ruddy  cheeks,  youthful  expression  and  sparkling  eyes. 
He  did  not  look  a  day  older  than  fifty.  When  asked  about  his  age, 
the  reply  was,  seventy-four.  Further  information  about  his  mode 
of  living  revealed  the  same  account,  "a  goodly  portion  of  honey 
every  morning  for  breakfast." 

It  is  a  professional  pleasure  to  chat  with  octogenarians,  non- 
agenarians and  centenarians  and  gather  their  secrets  of  physio- 
logical and  mental  longevity.  They  all  seem  to  have  had  simple 
rules,  consisting  of  regularity  and  moderation  and  a  decided 
repudiation  of  most  modern  scientific  principles.  Metabolism  did 
not  seem  to  interest  them.  One  "baby"  in  fact  referred  to  meta- 
bolic diet  as  diabolic  diet;  and  the  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the 
eating. 

It  is  true  that  the  span  of  life  has  been  increased  in  the  last 
half  century  or  so,  mainly  as  the  result  of  the  reduction  in  child 
mortality.  People,  however,  do  not  reach  such  an  advanced  age  as 
in  bygone  days.  No  other  factor  could  better  explain  the  reason 
for  the  comparatively  few  veterans  of  the  passing  centuries  than 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  food  and  drink  consumed. 

From  the  history  of  the  Jews,  we  learn  that  Moses,  who  during 
his  life  was  exposed  to  ordeals  and  fatigue,  lived  to  the  age  of 
1 10;  Abraham  attained  to  the  age  of  175;  his  son,  the  peaceable 
Isaac,  to  180;  Jacob,  who  possessed  more  cunning,  lived  only  to 
147;  Ishmael,  the  warrior,  to  137;  the  ever-active  Joshua  to  no; 
Sarah  to  127;  and  Joseph,  much  afflicted  in  his  youth,  to  no. 
Josephus,  the  historian,  commented  on  the  advanced  ages  of 
ancient  Jews:  "Their  food  was  fitted  for  the  prolongation  of  life; 


72  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

and,  besides,  God  afforded  them  a  longer  life  on  account  of  their 
virtue."  The  secrets  of  food  seem  to  have  been  lost  and  the  culti- 
vation of  virtues  forgotten. 

The  Essenes  (Essenos  in  Greek  means  king  bee,  the  epithet  of 
Zeus),  a  tribe  among  the  Hebrews  whose  occupation  was  bee- 
keeping, enjoyed  health  and  life  much  longer  than  other  people. 
Many  of  them  passed  the  hundred-year  mark.  Josephus  thought 
that  it  was  due  to  their  "slender"  diet.  Honey  surely  was  not 
missing  from  their  bill  of  fare. 

Pliny  mentions  in  his  Natural  History  the  traditional  manner 
in  which  the  inhabitants  in  the  Po  district  placed  their  bee  hives 
on  floats  and  drifted  along  the  river  to  supply  their  bees  with  new 
pastures.  Apiculture  must  have  been  far  advanced  to  furnish  the 
great  demand  for  honey.  This  was  nearly  twenty  centuries  ago,  at 
the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  People  in  the  olden  days  did  not 
have  sugar  and,  as  they  required  and  desired  sweets,  it  is  logical  to 
surmise  that  they  must  have  indulged  in  the  sweetest  of  all,  honey. 
Historical  records  amply  confirm  the  supposition. 

In  the  seventh  book  of  Pliny's  work  we  find  the  following 
passage: 

"The  year  of  our  Lord  seventy-six,  falling  into  the  time  of 
Vespasian,  is  memorable:  in  which  we  shall  find,  as  it  were,  a 
kalendar  of  long-lived  men;  for  that  year  there  was  a  taxing 
(now  a  taxing  is  the  most  authentical  and  truest  informer  touch- 
ing the  ages  of  men),  and  in  that  part  of  Italy  which  lieth  between 
the  Apennine  mountains  and  the  river  Po,  there  were  found  124 
persons  that  either  equalled  or  exceeded  a  hundred  years  of  age, 
namely, 

Fifty-four of  100  years  eac 

Fifty-seven 1 10 

Two 125 

Four 130 

Four 135  or  137 

Three 140 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  73 

Besides  these,  Parma,  in  particular,  afforded  five,  whereof 

Three  were 120  years  each 

Two 130 

One  in  Bruxelles 125 

One  in  Placentia 131 

One  in  Faventia 132 

A  certain  town,  then  called  the  Velleiatium,  situated  in  the  hills 
about  Placentia,  afforded  ten,  whereof 

Six  were 1 10  years  each 

Four 120 

One  in  Rimino,  whose  name  was 

Marcus  Aponius 150." 

Pliny  quotes  from  Alexander  Cornelius  that  an  Illyrian,  named 
Daudon,  lived  for  500  years.  According  to  Lucian,  Tiresias  lived 
for  six  centuries.  Epimenides  of  Crete  had  seen  three  centuries 
succeed  each  other.  Onomocritus,  the  Athenian,  reports  that  cer- 
tain men  in  Greece  and  their  families  enjoyed  perpetual  youth. 

Pliny  has  written  more  about  the  nutritional  and  medicinal 
value  of  honey  than  any  other  ancient  author.  In  his  day,  honey 
was  an  important  food  and  a  component  of  most  popular  drinks. 
Pliny's  frequent  eulogy  of  honey  and  the  above  statistics  must 
have  some  correlation. 

Honey  was  an  important  food,  medicine  and  a  principal  com- 
modity, and  mead  the  universal  drink  also  among  the  ancient 
Britons.  The  bardic  name  of  Great  Britain  was,  "the  honey 
isle  of  bell"  There  is  not  a  shadow  of  a  doubt  but  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles  freely  indulged  in  honey.  Pliny  re- 
ported that  these  "Islanders"  consumed  a  great  quantity  of  honey- 
brew.  Tickner  Edwardes  remarks,  "among  the  Anglo-Saxons  the 
beehives  supplied  the  whole  nation,  from  the  King  down  to  the 
poorest  serf,  not  only  with  an  important  part  of  their  food  but 
with  drink  and  light  as  well."  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  old 
Britons  reached  a  ripe  old  age.  Plutarch  remarked,  "the  ancient 
Britons  only  begin  to  grow  old  at  120  years."  The  following 
documentary  evidences  may  be  of  interest: 


74  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Thomas  Cam,  according  to  the  parish  register  of  the  church  of 
St.  Leonard,  Shoreditch,  died  on  January  28,  1588,  aged  207 
years.  He  was  born  under  the  reign  of  Richard  II  (1381  a.d.) 
and  lived  through  the  reigns  of  twelve  kings  and  queens  of 
England. 

Thomas  Parr,  a  native  of  Shropshire,  died  on  the  16th  day  of 
November,  1635,  at  the  age  of  152.  There  is  a  story  about  Parr 
that  he  was  asked  by  his  sovereign  Charles  I.  what  he  had  done 
in  his  long  life  that  other  people  could  not  accomplish.  He 
answered  that  the  Church  had  ordered  him,  when  he  was  102, 
to  do  penance.  Thomas  Parr  at  that  age  fell  in  love  with 
Catherine  Milton  and  had  a  child  by  her.  Later,  at  the  age 
of  120,  he  married  a  widow.  Shortly  before  his  death  Parr  was 
invited  to  London  by  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  where  he  was  intro- 
duced to  his  monarch  and  royally  feasted.  The  rich  food  he 
indulged  in,  did  not  agree  with  him  and  he  died  soon  after- 
ward. An  autopsy  was  performed  which  revealed  a  congestion 
(plethora)  of  his  viscera,  otherwise  the  doctor  who  made  the 
postmortem  found  his  internal  organs  in  perfect  condition  and 
believed  that  Parr  could  have  lived  for  many  more  years  if  it 
had  not  been  for  his  visit  to  London.  Parr's  maxim  was,  to 
keep  one's  head  cool  by  temperance  and  the  feet  warm  by  exer- 
cise j  to  go  to  bed  early  and  to  rise  early ;  and  if  one  were 
inclined  to  become  fat,  he  should  keep  his  eyes  open  and  his 
mouth  shut.  Parr's  grandfather,  a  native  of  Bedfordshire,  died 
in  his  100th  year.  At  the  age  of  85,  he  had  a  complete  set  of 
new  teeth  and  his  snowy  hair  became  darker  (Philosophical 
Transactions,  Vol.  XXIII).  It  was  recorded  of  Parr  that  he  was 
very  fond  of  metheglin  (honey  wine). 

Henry  Jenkins,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  lived  to  the  age  of  169 
years  and  died  on  the  8th  day  of  December,  1670,  as  a  result 
of  a  chill.  It  is  said  about  Fisherman  Jenkins  that  shortly  be- 
fore his  death  he  was  still  swimming  like  a  fish.  He  left  one  son 
102  and  another  100  years  old. 

Catherine,  the  Countess  of  Desmond,  died  in  Ireland  in  161 2  and 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  75 

saw  her  148th  year.  She  renewed  her  teeth  thrice  during  her 

life,  according  to  Lord  Bacon. 
Thomas  Damme  died  in  1648  at  the  age  of  154. 
James  Bowels,  aged  152,  lived  in  Killingworth  and  died  on  the 

15th  day  of  August,  1656. 
Mr.  Eccleston,  a  native  of  Ireland,  lived  to  the  age  of  143,  died 

in  the  year  1691. 
Peter  Torton  died  in  1724  at  the  age  of  185. 
John  Ronsey,  Esq.,  of  the  island  of  Distrey,  Scotland,  died  in 

1738,  aged  137.  He  had  a  son  one  hundred  years  old,  who 

inherited  his  estate. 
Margaret  Patten,  a  Scotch  woman,  died  in  1739  at  the  age  of  137. 
Colonel  Thomas  WinsJoe,  a  native  of  Ireland,  aged  146,  died  on 

the  22nd  day  of  August,  1766. 
Francis  Consist,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  aged  150,  died  January, 

1768. 
William  Ellis,  of  Liverpool,  died  on  the  16th  day  of  August, 

1780,  at  the  age  of  130. 
Kentigern,  the  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  called  also  St.  Monagh,  lived 

to  the  age  of  185,  which  is  certified  on  his  monument,  erected 

in  1781. 
Margaret  Foster,  aged  136,  and  her  daughter,  aged  104,  natives 

of  Cumberland,  were  both  alive  in  the  year  1771. 
John  Mount,  a  native  of  Scotland,  who  saw  his  136th  year,  died 

on  the  27th  day  of  February,  1776. 
William  Evans,  of  Carnarvon,  aged  145,  still  existed  in  1782. 
Dumiter  Radaloy,  aged  140,  who  lived  in  Harmenstead,  died  on 

the  1 6th  day  of  January,  1782. 
Sir  Owen  of  Scotland  died  at  the  age  of  124;  he  left  a  natural 

son,  born  to  him  when  he  was  98.  Sir  Owen  lived  on  milk, 

honey,  vegetables,  water  and  wine,  and  during  the  last  year  of 

his  life  he  walked  74  miles  in  6  days. 
Peter  Garden,  a  Scotchman,  died  at  the  age  of  131.  He  was  a  tall 

and  lean  person  and  kept  the  appearance  of  the  freshness  of 

youth  until  his  very  end. 


j6  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

John  Taylor,  a  Scotch  miner,  lived  to  1325  always  smoked  and 

kept  his  teeth  sound  until  his  death. 
James  Sands,  an  Englishman  of  the  sixteenth  century,  died  when 

140;  his  wife,  at  the  age  of  120. 
Lawrence  Hutland,  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  reached  the  age  of 

170. 

Almost  all  these  people  came  from  a  low  station  of  life,  except 
the  Countess  of  Desmond.  Their  diets  were,  without  exception, 
moderate,  and  in  some  instances,  abstemious.  Sir  William  Temple 
(the  author  of  Health  and  hong  Life),  who  also  reached  an  old 
age,  remarked,  with  respect  to  moderation  in  alcoholic  drinks, 
"The  first  glass  I  drink  for  myself;  the  second  for  my  friends; 
the  third  for  good  humor;  and  the  fourth  for  my  enemies."  Sir 
William  thought  that  "health  and  long  life  are  usually  the  bless- 
ings of  the  poor."  With  regard  to  the  influence  of  sex  functions 
on  longevity,  it  is  remarkable  that  most  men  who  reached  an 
extreme  age  were  "much"  married  and  at  a  very  late  period  of 
their  lives.  De  Longueville,  who  lived  to  the  age  of  no,  had  ten 
wives  and  married  again  when  99.  He  had  a  son  when  he  was 
10 1  years  old.  Great  corporeal  strength,  acquired  by  labor  or 
athletics,  does  not  favor  longevity.  Few  people  with  great  physi- 
cal prowess  arrive  at  a  great  age. 

Piast,  the  beekeeper,  who  was  elected  King  of  Poland  in  824 
a.d.  and  whose  family  ruled  Poland  for  several  centuries  with 
the  greatest  glory,  lived  to  the  age  of  120.  That  he  indulged  in 
honey  and  mead  is  proven  by  the  contemporary  legends. 

These  are  all  authentic  records.  If  we  also  accept  the  reports 
about  abnormally  advanced  ages  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  like  that 
of  Methuselah,  the  grandfather  of  Noah  (Genesis  5:27),  who  is 
believed  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  969  years,  we  must  admit 
that  during  bygone  generations  longevity  far  exceeded  that  of  the 
present  times.  They  say  that  at  the  time  of  the  patriarchs  the 
years  were  shorter  than  they  are  at  present,  according  to  some 
historians,  one-fourth  of  our  calculation.  Each  season  was  sup- 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  77 

posed  to  have  represented  a  year.  Even  so  Methuselah  would 
have  lived  242  years.  We  call  our  modern  patriarchs  old  at  90. 

St.  Patrick  died  in  491  a.d.  at  the  age  of  122.  St.  David  lived 
to  the  age  of  146,  St.  Simon  was  martyred  at  the  age  of  107. 
St.  Narcissus  died  at  the  age  of  165  and  St.  Anthony  at  105,  and 
Paul,  the  Hermit,  at  the  age  of  113.  Several  monks  of  Mt.  Athos 
reached  the  age  of  150.  Albuna,  the  first  Bishop  of  Ethiopia,  lived 
beyond  the  century  and  a  half  mark.  Attila,  who  reigned  over  the 
Huns  in  the  fifth  century,  was  supposed  to  have  died  during 
his  wedding  festivities  (not  the  first  either)  at  the  age  of  124 
years.  The  Chaldean,  Egyptian,  Chinese,  Greek  and  Roman  writ- 
ers often  mention  very  advanced  ages.  Asclepiades,  the  Persian 
physician,  died  at  the  age  of  150,  Galen  at  140,  Sophocles  at  the 
age  of  130.  Hirpanus,  according  to  Pliny,  lived  155  years  and 
5  days.  (Some  historians  are  convinced  that  he  referred  to  Her- 
mippus.) 

Among  the  Slavic  races,  we  also  find  parallel  instances.  Old 
records  mention  that  Peter  Czartan,  a  peasant,  died  in  1724  in 
Belgrade  when  he  was  185  years  old  and  was  still  engaged  in 
begging,  a  few  days  before  his  death.  He  left  behind  a  son  155 
years  old,  and  another  97  years  old.  A  Russian  of  Polozk,  hale 
and  hearty  in  1796,  was  supposed  to  have  married  the  third  time 
when  93  years  old,  and  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  163.  He  had 
138  descendants}  at  the  time  of  his  death  his  youngest  son  was 
62.  John  Rovin,  of  the  town  of  Temesvar,  formerly  in  Hungary, 
reached,  according  to  records,  the  age  of  1 72  and  his  wife,  Sarah 
Rovin,  the  age  of  164.  They  were  married  for  148  years  and  they 
had  a  116-year-old  son.  Hungary  was  a  well-known  Eldorado  of 
beekeeping  and  honey  always  was  and  still  is  in  great  favor. 
Humboldt  assures  us  that  he  became  personally  acquainted  there 
with  a  peasant,  aged  143,  whose  wife  was  117. 

We  find  many  similar  reports  among  African  and  Asiatic  tribes. 
A  peasant  of  Bengal,  named  Numas  de  Cugna,  is  alleged  to  have 
reached  the  age  of  370  years.  He  died  in  1566.  Cugna  grew  four 
new  sets  of  teeth  and  the  color  of  his  hair  frequently  changed 
from  gray  to  black  and  the  reverse.  Roger  Bacon  refers  to  Papa- 


78  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

lius,  of  German  origin,  a  prisoner  of  the  Saracens,  who  lived  to 
500  years.  M.  Solarville,  in  1870,  computed  that  there  were 
62,503  people  in  Europe  above  the  age  of  100. 

All  this  plainly  demonstrates  that  science,  civilization  and  our 
present  regimen  of  food  not  only  do  not  contribute  to  longevity 
but  the  reverse.  Culture  and  art,  in  general,  seem  to  have  cur- 
tailed life.  There  must  be  some  confusion  between  the  discovery 
and  the  application  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  Nature. 

Most  authors  who  pointed  the  way  to  longevity,  failed  to  at- 
tain to  the  aim  of  long  life.  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  who  wrote  the 
famous  treatise,  History  of  Life  and  Death,  died  at  sixty-five. 
Medical  men,  especially  those  who  have  written  a  great  deal  on 
the  subject,  died  far  below  the  average  of  standard  life.  Hippo- 
crates, who  lived  to  the  age  of  109,  was  one  of  the  few  exceptions 
but  he  was  also  a  student  of  Nature  and  had  spent  his  life  in  the 
country,  calling  on  patients,  very  probably,  on  foot. 

The  golden  rule  of  longevity  seems  to  be  moderation  and 
simple,  natural  food.  Every  animal,  but  man,  keeps  to  one  dish. 
Pythagoras,  who  was  a  great  philosopher  and  also  a  physician, 
laid  down  the  principle  that  simple  food  is  the  best  means  to 
sustain  life.  He  went  even  further  when  he  made  the  statement 
that  there  is  no  disorder  to  which  human  nature  is  incident  that 
could  not  be  cured  by  such  simple  things  as  the  Almighty  Creator 
has  provided.  Honey  was  for  Pythagoras  No.  1  on  the  list.  His 
disciples  all  reached  an  advanced  age.  Benjamin  Franklin  also 
emphasized  that  "against  diseases  known,  the  strongest  fence  is 
the  defensive  virtue,  abstinence."  Hufeland  believed  that  it  is 
within  man's  power  to  extend  his  existence  to  at  least  two  hundred 
years.  Buffon  was  a  little  more  conservative;  he  thought  the  natu- 
ral length  of  human  life  should  be  one  hundred  years. 

Simple  life  and  nature  cures  had  many  enthusiastic  advocates 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  A  book,  edited  by  a  Lover  of  Mankind, 
Nature,  the  Best  Physician  or  Every  Man,  His  Own  Doctor 
(printed  at  Shakespeare's  Head,  17  Paternoster  Row,  1745),  sug- 
gests remedies  for  all  ailments  consisting  of  products  collected 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  79 

from  Nature's  fields  and  gardens.  Honey  was  a  component  of 
many  of  his  remedies. 

Thuanis,  in  the  Third  Book  of  his  Historia  Sui  Temporis  de- 
scribes an  incident  which  occurred  in  1 540.  There  was  a  "Cause" 
tried  before  the  Parliament  of  Dijon.  Thuanis'  father  was  the 
presiding  judge.  Among  the  witnesses  examined  was  Peter 
L'Marr,  aged  40,  who  was  so  infirm  that  he  was  scarcely  able  to 
deliver  his  evidence.  When  asked  by  the  President  the  nature  of 
his  illness,  he  answered  that  a  great  part  of  his  life  had  been 
spent  in  tampering  with  medicines  which  reduced  him  to  the  mis- 
erable state  in  which  he  appeared.  Thuanis  explains  that  the 
processes  of  Equity  were  "rather"  slow  those  days  in  France  and 
the  same  "Cause"  was  submitted  again  for  decision  before  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris  in  15 90.  Thuanis  was  appointed  advocate  for  the 
plaintiff.  One  of  the  witnesses  was  Jean  L'Marr,  aged  90.  When 
the  evidence  was  read  of  the  first  trial  (50  years  before)  the  name 
of  Peter  L'Marr  came  up  and  Jean  was  asked  whether  he 
was  related  to  the  other  L'Marr  he  answered,  "Yes,  I  am  the 
twin  brother  of  Peter  who  died  about  49  years  ago,  a  short  time 
after  he  gave  testimony  at  the  first  trial."  Thuanis,  himself  much 
advanced  in  age,  remembered  that  trial  which  occurred  during 
his  student  days.  Curious  to  know  how  Jean  had  preserved  his 
health  so  well,  he  asked  him  about  his  mode  of  living.  The  answer 
was,  "I  live  regularly  and  frugally  and  when  I  am  ill  I  never  con- 
sult the  Faculty  but  take  only  remedies  which  Nature's  gardens 
provide  (honey  among  them),  with  the  consequence  that  I  soon 
recover  without  being  obliged  to  swallow  'nauseous  loads  of  phys- 
ics'." Jean  L'Marr  lived  for  many  years  afterwards  and  died 
after  a  short  illness. 


LUIGI   CORNARO 


Speaking  of  abstinence,  we  cannot  fail  to  mention  the  life 
of  Luigi  Cornaro  (1464  to  1566),  a  wealthy  Venetian  noble- 
man, the  most  famous  valetudinarian  and  the  immortal  proto- 


80  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

type  of  abstemious  living.  His  experience  is  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  the  efficacy  of  temperance  toward  procuring  long  life. 
Up  to  his  thirty-fifth  year  Cornaro  had  led  a  life  of  dissipation,  so 
much  so  that  he  was  deprived  of  all  honors  and  privileges  to 
which  he  was  entitled  on  account  of  noble  birth.  A  descendant 
of  a  family  of  many  Doges  (Duce)  of  Venice  and  of  ancestors 
who  rivaled  with  kings,  he  was  not  even  permitted  to  occupy  a 
State  position.  His  health  was  so  far  gone  under  the  weight  of 
infirmities  that  physicians  assured  him  that  he  could  not  live 
longer  than  two  months  and  that  all  medicines  were  useless.  One 
physician,  however,  suggested  the  observance  of  a  most  meager 
diet  as  the  only  hope.  Cornaro  followed  the  advice  and  rapidly 
improved.  He  became  active  and  happy  and  healthier  than  he 
ever  had  been  before,  and  he  also  regained  the  respect  and  affec- 
tion of  his  fellow-citizens  in  spite  of  all  disadvantages  of  his  early 
life.  They  soon  conferred  upon  him  the  epithet,  "The  Temper- 
ate." Later  he  married  and  had  a  daughter.  The  fact  alone  that 
he  had  a  female  descendant  proved  that  constitutionally  he  was 
stronger  than  his  wife  because  Nature,  infallibly,  favors  the 
weaker  sex. 

Cornaro's  diet  consisted  of  bread,  light  broth,  eggs,  veal,  mut- 
ton, fowl,  birds,  such  as  partridge  or  thrush,  and  occasionally 
fish.  The  only  sweet  he  indulged  in  was  honey.  He  lived  on  this 
diet  during  all  his  remaining  years ;  consuming  daily  not  more 
than  twelve  ounces  of  solid  food  and  thirteen  ounces  of  liquid. 
The  quantity  and  variety  fully  satisfied  him.  When  seventy  years 
old,  he  suffered  an  accident  and  was  seriously  injured.  His  horses 
bolted,  upset  the  carriage  and  dragged  him  along  the  road.  Physi- 
cians gave  up  hope  for  his  life.  They  suggested  blood-letting  and 
a  strong  physic  but  he  refused  both.  Cornaro,  in  spite  of  all, 
quickly  recovered  without  complication. 

When  eighty  years  old,  his  friends  prevailed  on  him  to  make 
a  slight  addition  to  his  meals.  On  their  persuasion  he  increased  the 
solid  food  to  fourteen  ounces  and  drinks  to  sixteen.  Ten  days  later 
he  became  uneasy,  dejected  and  choleric,  a  burden,  as  he  re- 


THE    NUTRITIVE    VALUE    OF    HONEY  8 1 

marked,  to  himself  and  others.  He  resumed  his  former  regimen 
and  immediately  felt  better. 

Cornaro  wrote  his  autobiography,  The  Temperate  Life,  in  four 
discourses  with  the  intent  of  glorifying  "divine  sobriety."  To 
quote  him:  "Divine  Sobriety,  pleasing  to  God,  the  friend  of 
Nature,  the  daughter  of  reason,  the  sister  of  virtue,  the  companion 
of  temperate  living, .  .  .  the  loving  mother  of  human  life,  the  true 
medicine  both  of  the  soul  and  of  the  body;  how  much  should  men 
praise  and  thank  thee  for  thy  courteous  gifts!  for  thou  givest  them 
the  means  of  preserving  life  in  health,  that  blessing  than  which 
it  did  not  please  God  we  should  have  a  greater  in  this  world — life 
and  existence,  so  naturally  prized,  so  willingly  guarded  by  every 
living  creature!"  The  respective  parts  were  published  in  the  83rd, 
86th,  91st,  and  95th  years  of  his  life.  These  treatises,  which  ought 
to  be  important  contributions  to  medical  literature,  gave  inspira- 
tion to  many  in  the  pursuit  of  a  temperate  life. 

The  life  of  Cornaro  is  remarkable  in  every  respect.  He  had  a 
happy  disposition  considering  his  advanced  age.  "I  never  knew 
the  world  was  so  beautiful  until  I  reached  old  age,"  he  used  to 
say.  Cornaro  was  devoid  of  peevishness  and  morosity,  altogether 
too  often  the  lot  of  old  age.  After  meals  he  felt  he  had  to  sing 
and  often  commented  on  the  good  quality  of  his  voice  j  after  sing- 
ing he  wrote  eight  hours  daily,  for  the  benefit  of  humanity.  When 
eighty-three  he  climbed  steep  hills  and  walked  a  great  deal. 
Hunting  was  his  favorite  sport.  Cornaro's  memory,  intellect  and 
senses  were  unaffected.  He  died  peacefully  in  his  one  hundred 
and  third  year  as  one  who  falls  asleep,  all  but  pen  in  hand. 

Cornaro's  favorite  sayings  were: 

To  eat  nothing  but  what  is  necessary  to  sustain  life. 

The  food  from  which  one  abstains  is  more  beneficial  than  that  which  is 

eaten. 
A  man  cannot  be  a  perfect  physician  to  anyone,  except  to  himself. 
As  you  grow  older,  eat  less. 
An  old  man  who  lives  regularly  and  temperately,  even  though  he  is  of 

poor  constitution,  is  more  likely  to  live  than  a  young  man  in  perfect 

health  if  addicted  to  disorderly  habits. 


I* 


82  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

His  aphorisms  on  longevity  were  often  repeated  by  Francis  Bacon, 
Sir  William  Temple  and  others  who  have  written  on  life  and 
death. 

Cornaro's  portrait  by  Tintoretto  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence 
(No.  83),  and  his  beautiful  palace  in  Padua,  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  buildings  in  Italy,  with  its  magnificent  loggia,  are 
often  pointed  out  and  remain  monuments  to  Divine  Sobriety  and 
Longevity.  He  was  a  friend  of  reason  and  an  enemy  of  gluttony, 
intemperance  and  sensuality. 


Horace  Fletcher,  the  advocator  of  famous  "fletcherizing",  sug- 
gested eating  when  hungry  and  swallowing  only  well-chewed 
food.  Mahatma  Gandhi  lives  on  goat's  milk  and  simple  sugars, 
such  as  honey  and  dates.  He  firmly  believes  that  by  regulating 
what  enters  the  stomach  we  control  what  enters  the  brain. 


CHAPTER    VII 
THE  MEDICINAL  VALUE  OF  HONEY 

/.     IN  ANCIENT  THERAPEUTICS 

TO  SUBDIVIDE  the  dietetic  and  medicinal  values  of  honey 
is  rather  a  difficult  task.  Wholesome  food  preserves  health 
and  likewise  prevents  or  aids  the  cure  of  a  disease.  The  advantages 
attributed  to  honey  as  an  aliment  apply  as  well  to  its  medicinal 
properties.  The  rapid  assimilation  of  invert  sugars  which  honey 
contains  makes  it,  for  instance,  a  desirable  source  of  quick  energy, 
a  practical  food  and,  at  the  same  time,  an  effective  heart  stimulant. 

The  use  of  honey  as  an  internal  and  external  remedial  agent 
must  be  much  older  than  the  history  of  medicine  itself j  it  is, 
beyond  doubt,  the  oldest  panacea.  While  primeval  man  had  to 
search  first  and  probe  the  curative  effects  of  the  various  organic 
and  inorganic  substances,  honey,  the  greatest  delicacy  of  Nature 
within  his  easy  reach,  surely  could  not  have  escaped  his  attention 
very  long  and  he  must  soon  have  become  convinced  of  its  supreme 
curative  value. 

In  the  most  ancient  scripts  we  already  find  references  to  honey 
as  a  glorified  food,  an  ingredient  of  favored  drinks,  a  popular 
medicine  and  the  principal  component  of  liniments  and  plasters. 
The  oldest  mythologies  praised  the  invigorating  and  health-giving 
qualities  of  honey.  Many  allusions  were  made  to  its  magic  healing 
power. 

The  Bible  (both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments),  the  Talmud, 
the  Koran,  the  sacred  books  of  India,  China,  Persia  and  Egypt,  all 
speak  of  honey  in  laudatory  terms,  as  a  food,  beverage  and 
medicine. 

Honey  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Solomon  in  his 
Proverbs  (24:13)  advises:  "My  son,  eat  thou  honey,  for  it  is 

83 


84  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

good."  The  Jews  advocated  honey  as  a  producer  of  wit  and  intel- 
lect} it  was  supposed  to  make  one  "mentally  keen."  Moses,  when 
exposed  in  the  fields,  sucked  honey  from  a  pebble  (Exod.  R.  23:8). 
The  resuscitating  and  invigorating  effects  of  honey  are  disclosed 
in  the  Bible.  Jonathan,  the  son  of  Saul,  had  his  eyes  enlightened 
with  the  aid  of  honey,  after  which  he  had  a  better  understanding 
of  the  people  than  his  father  had.  While  Jonathan  was  passing 
through  the  woods  during  the  war  against  the  Philistines,  he 
found  honey  dripping  on  the  ground}  he  plunged  his  spear  into 
it,  and  ate  enough  to  restore  his  lost  strength.  He  was,  however, 
sentenced  to  death  because  he  ate  honey  on  a  day  of  abstinence. 

Honey  was  referred  to  in  most  ancient  writings  as  a  gift  of  God. 
St.  Ambrose  said:  "The  fruit  of  the  Bees  is  desired  of  all,  and 
is  equally  sweet  to  Kings  and  Beggars  and  it  is  not  only  pleasing 
but  profitable  and  healthful,  it  sweetens  their  mouthes,  cures  their 
wounds  and  convaies  remedies  to  inward  Ulcers." 

The  Koran,  the  Code  of  Islam,  recommended  honey  as  a 
wholesome  food  and  excellent  medicine.  In  the  XVIth  Chapter 
of  the  Koran,  entitled  The  Bee,  we  find:  "There  proceedeth  from 
their  bellies  a  liquor  of  various  colour,  wherein  is  medicine  for 
men."  The  "various  colour"  refers  to  the  diversified  colors  of 
honeys.  Mohammed  pronounced:  "Honey  is  a  remedy  for  all  dis- 
eases." The  Prophet  ordered  the  eating  of  honey  not  only  because 
it  was  an  exquisite  food  and  an  important  healing  substance  but 
because  it  brought  one  good  luck.  The  followers  of  Islam  looked 
upon  honey  as  a  talisman.  The  Mohammedans,  to  whom  alco- 
holic fermented  drinks  were  prohibited,  drank  their  water  with 
honey,  which  habit  still  prevails  among  the  African  Mohamme- 
dan negroes.  Ismael  Abulfeda,  the  thirteenth  century  historian, 
relates  how  Mohammed,  on  the  day  after  his  wedding  to  Safiya 
Hoya,  a  Jewess  of  Aaron's  tribe,  celebrated  the  occasion  with 
a  luxurious  meal.  Among  the  main  delicacies,  he  mentions  honey, 
dates  and  cream.  When  Mohammed  reached  the  seventh  heaven 
he  found  Christ,  Who  ordered  Archangel  Gabriel  to  offer  Mo- 
hammed a  cup  filled  with  honey.  The  Mohammedan  conception 
of  Paradise  was  "rivers  flowing  with  honey." 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  85 

According  to  a  Mohammedan  legend,  young  Abraham  (Abu- 
ram),  who  lived  about  2000  b.c.  spent  fifteen  months  in  a  cave. 
On  Allah's  order,  he  obtained  water  from  his  thumb,  milk  from 
his  index  finger,  honey  from  the  middle  one,  date  juice  from 
the  fourth,  and  butter  from  his  little  finger. 

There  is  a  story  that  a  man  once  went  to  Mohammed  and  told 
him  that  his  brother  was  afflicted  with  violent  pains  in  his  belly 
and  with  diarrhea,  upon  which  the  prophet  bade  him  give  his 
brother  honey.  He  heeded  the  prophet's  advice,  but  soon  returned 
and  reported  to  Mohammed  that  the  medicine  had  not  done  his 
brother  any  good.  Mohammed  exclaimed:  "Go  and  give  him 
more  honey,  for  God  speaks  true,  and  thy  brother's  belly  lies." 
The  dose  being  repeated,  the  man,  by  God's  mercy  and  the  salu- 
tary effect  of  honey,  was  cured.  The  Koran  repeatedly  mentions 
the  technical  skill  of  the  bees  in  producing  sweet  honey  from 
the  bitter  juices  of  plants.  Mohammed  maintained  that  medi- 
cines administered  by  physicians  are  bitter  but  those  given  by 
God  are  as  sweet  as  honey.  (The  moderns  believe  that  the  more 
bitter  the  medicine  the  better  the  doctor.)  An  Arabic  writer 
(Ibn  Magih)  quotes  the  words  of  the  Prophet:  "Honey  is  a 
medicine  for  the  body  and  the  Koran  is  medicine  for  the  soul; 
benefit  yourselves  by  the  use  of  the  Koran  and  of  honey."  The 
Arabs,  before  they  ate  honey,  exclaimed:  "Bism  Allah"  (in  the 
name  of  Allah)  or  "Allah  Akbar"  (Allah  the  greatest).  The  Ara- 
bic name  01  the  bee  is  nahlat,  which  means  a  gift — of  course — of 
Allah,  and  han  means  honey.  Apparently  it  was  the  root  of 
the  German  "honig"  and  English  "honey."  Arabia  was  the  last 
stepping  stone  before  honey  invaded  Europe  from  the  East. 

Honey  must  have  been  abundant  in  ancient  Egypt.  The  He- 
brews referred  to  it  as  "a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey." 
The  Egyptian  papyri  are  full  of  praise  about  the  curative  prop- 
erties of  honey.  The  Papyrus  Ebers  especially  praised  its  medic- 
inal value.  According  to  this  most  ancient  source  of  knowledge, 
honey  was  not  only  a  staple  commodity  but  a  popular  medicine, 
extensively  used  internally,  and  also  externally  in  surgical  dress- 
ings for  burns,  ulcers  and  preeminently  for  weakness  and  in- 


86  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

flammation  of  the  eyes.  Laxative  and  worm  remedies  of  ancient 
Egypt  without  exception  contained  honey.  Milk  and  honey  was 
their  choice  for  infant  feeding.  There  were  only  a  few  medicines 
in  ancient  Egypt  which  did  not  contain  honey.  The  bee,  its  pro- 
ducer, occupies  a  prominent  place  in  all  hieroglyphic  writings. 
Most  prescriptions  of  the  papyri  were  taken  to  Greece  and  the 
Greeks  introduced  them  to  Europe  where  they  are  still  used 
today. 

In  ancient  China  honey  was  used  only  as  a  component  of  diets 
and  as  a  medicine.  The  Chinese  never  utilized  honey  as  a  sweet- 
ening substance.  China  is  the  native  land  of  the  sugar  cane,  and 
for  this  reason  bees  were  rarely  cultivated.  Even  today  in  the 
interior  of  China,  honey  can  be  obtained  only  in  the  old-style 
medicine  shops. 

In  India,  Persia,  Arabia,  Assyria,  Greece  and  in  the  Roman 
Empire,  honey  was  much  in  demand  as  a  remedial  agent  for  in- 
ternal and  external  use.  On  the  entire  European  Continent  it  was 
in  popular  use,  especially  among  the  Slavic  and  Nordic  races.  In 
the  Eddas  we  find  that  the  life  of  Liafsburg,  the  mother  of  Saint 
Lindgar,  was  saved  with  a  spoonful  of  honey. 

If  we  review  the  therapeutic  field  in  which  honey  was  used  by 
the  ancients,  we  find  that  its  main  employment  was  as  a  helpful 
remedy  for  gastric  and  intestinal  disorders,  especially  as  a  pleasant 
laxative.  Respiratory  troubles  were  next  in  order.  The  sedative 
and  soporific  power  of  honey  is  often  emphasized.  The  diuretic 
effect  of  honey  was  well  known  and  it  was  a  favored  remedy  for  all 
kinds  of  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  for  gravel  and  stones.  The 
antiseptic  property  of  honey  made  it  a  desirable  gargle,  expec- 
torant and  a  valuable  adjunct  in  mouth  hygiene.  In  inflammation 
of  the  eyes  and  eyelids  honey  was  extensively  used.  Attic  honey 
had  a  special  reputation  as  a  curative  substance  for  eye  disorders. 
The  Egyptians  carried  its  fame  with  them  to  their  country.  In 
one  of  the  Egyptian  papyri  it  is  mentioned  that  a  man  begged 
that  they  fetch  him  some  honey  from  Attica  which  he  needed  for 
his  eyes.  In  surgical  dressings  and  skin  diseases  it  was  a  remedy  of 
first  choice.  The  smallpox  patients  were  anointed  with  honey.  It 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  87 

was  also  employed  as  a  vehicle  for  nauseous  or  bitter  medicines. 
Lucretius  referred  to  it  2000  years  ago: 

"Physician-like,  who  when  a  bitter  draught 
Of  wormwood  is  disgusted  by  a  child 
To  cheat  his  taste,  he  brims  the  nauseous  cup 
With  the  sweet  lure  of  honey." 

Hippocrates  was  a  great  believer  in  honey.  He  considered  it 
a  very  good  expectorant.  According  to  Hippocrates,  the  physical 
virtues  of  honey  were:  "It  causes  heat,  cleans  sores  and  ulcers, 
softens  hard  ulcers  of  the  lips,  heals  carbuncles  and  running 
sores."  (Hippocrates  alleged  that  if  the  seeds  of  cucumbers  and 
other  plants  are  first  soaked  in  honey  and  then  planted,  "the  fruit 
that  groweth  of  them  will  taste  sweeter.")  He  recommended 
honey  for  difficulty  in  breathing  because  "it  causes  spitting." 
Hippocrates  believed  that  honey  "with  other  things"  is  nourish- 
ing and  induces  a  good  complexion  but  eaten  alone  it  attenuates 
rather  than  refreshes  because  it  provokes  urine  and  purges  too 
much.  According  to  the  legend  (Samuel  Purchas,  A  Theatre  of 
Politicall  Flying  Insects,  1657,  p.  I^3)j  a  swarm  of  bees  lived  for 
a  long  time  in  the  sepulcher  of  Hippocrates,  the  prince  of  physi- 
cians, and  produced  honey  there.  Nurses  carried  children  to  the 
grave  and  anointed  their  lips  with  this  magic  honey  which  easily 
cured  them.  Dioscorides,  the  Greek  physician  (first  century  a.d.), 
whose  Materia  Medica  is  one  of  the  oldest  sources  of  medical 
knowledge,  often  mentions  honey  as  an  excellent  medicine.  He 
also  praises  the  medicinal  value  of  wax,  propolis  and  honey-wine. 

Cornelius  Celsus  remarked  in  De  Medicina  (first  half  of  the 
first  century  a.d.)  that  a  physician  must  heal  in  a  safe,  quick 
and  pleasing  manner  (tuto,  a  to  et  jucunde),  and  all  this  could 
be  best  accomplished  with  honey. 

Galen  recommended  the  mixing  of  four  parts  of  honey  with 
one  part  of  gall  of  the  sea-tortoise  which,  when  dropped  into 
the  eyes,  would  improve  the  sight.  To  quote  Marcellus:  "The 
honey  pure  and  neat  wherein  the  Bees  are  dead,  let  that  drop 


HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


into  the  eyes;  or  honey  mixt  with  the  ashes  of  the  heads  of  Bees, 
makes  the  eyes  very  clear."  Pliny  also  credited  honey  in  which 
bees  have  died  with  the  faculty  of  relieving  dullness  of  sight  and 
hearing.  In  antiquity,  honey  had  a  great  reputation  in  producing 
clearer  vision,  which  may  be  the  reason  for  its  reputation  of  en- 
dowing the  power  of  divination,  improving  thus  not  only  the 
physical  but  also  the  spiritual  sight.  Some  historians  believe  that 
when  Jeroboam  sent  his  wife  with  a  cruse  of  honey  to  the  prophet 
Ahijah  it  was  meant  as  a  remedy  for  the  prophet's  blindness. 

Honey  and  dead  bees  were  used  by  Galen  for  growing  hair. 
"Take  Bees  dead  in  combs,  and  when  they  are  through  dry 
make  them  into  powder,  mingle  them  with  the  honey  in  which 
they  died  and  anoint  the  parts  of  the  Head  that  are  bald  and 
thin-haired,  and  you  shall  see  them  grow  again."  The  Syriac  Book 
of  Medicines  recommends  a  handful  of  bees  roasted  in  oil  as  a 
remedy  to  turn  gray  hair  black.  This  ancient  book  of  medical 
knowledge  contains  three  hundred  recipes  in  which  honey  is  an 
important  ingredient  (over  fifty  of  them  contain  wax). 

Celsus  recommended  raw  honey  as  a  laxative  and  boiled  honey 
as  a  cure  for  diarrhea.  The  reason,  he  thought,  was  because  "the 
acrimony  is  taken  away  by  boyling  which  wont  to  move  the  belly 
and  to  diminish  the  virtue  of  the  food"  (Libr.  3  C.  3).  Galen 
recommended  boiled  and  only  seldom  raw  honey  but  forbids  long 
or  too  intensive  heating  because  this  would  make  honey  bitter. 
The  Hindu  physicians  assumed  that  fresh  honey  was  a  laxative 
and  honey  which  was  over  a  year  old,  an  astringent.  Pliny  burned 
the  bees,  mixed  their  ashes  with  honey  and  used  the  substance 
for  all  kinds  of  ailments:  "Powdered  bees  with  milk,  wine  or 
honey  will  surely  cure  dropsy,  dissolve  gravel  and  stones,  will 
open  all  passages  of  urine  and  cure  the  stopping  of  the  bladder. 
Bees  pounded  with  honey  cure  griping  of  the  belly."  Muffet 
also  had  faith  in  honey  with  dead  bees.  "Honey  wherein  is  found 
dead  Bees  is  a  very  wholesome  medicine,  serving  for  all  diseases." 
Aelian  reported  that  honey  from  Pontus  cured  epilepsy. 

Porphyry  thought  that  honey  had  four  excellent  qualities:  first, 
it  is  a  nourishing  food;  second,  a  good  cleanser;  third,  it  has  heal- 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  89 

ing  power  j  and  fourth,  it  is  pleasant  on  account  of  its  sweetness. 
According  to  Aristoxenus  (320  B.C.),  anyone  who  eats  honey, 
spring  onions  and  bread  for  his  daily  breakfast  will  be  free  from 
all  diseases  throughout  his  lifetime.  The  ancient  Hindus  had 
great  faith  in  the  medicinal  virtues  and  magic  properties  of 
honey,  especially  of  aged  honey.  They  used  it  mainly  for  coughs, 
pulmonary  troubles,  gastric  and  bilious  disorders.  The  famous 
Arab  physicians,  such  as  El  Madjoussy  and  El  Basry,  all  spoke  in 
laudatory  terms  of  the  curative  power  of  honey  and  liberally 
used  it  in  their  professions  for  a  variety  of  ailments.  Arab  physi- 
cians were  reputed  to  cure  tuberculosis  with  an  extract  made  from 
the  petals  of  roses  and  honey.  The  efficacy  of  this  medicine  was 
recognized  for  many  centuries.  Rosed  honey  is  yet  an  official 
remedy  in  most  modern  pharmacopoeias.  Paul  of  Aegina,  Aetius, 
Oribasius  were  other  honey  enthusiasts. 

The  Koran  recommended  honey  not  only  as  a  wholesome  food, 
but  as  a  useful  diuretic,  a  laxative,  an  excellent  remedy  for  vari- 
ous distempers,  particularly  those  occasioned  by  phlegm,  and 
also  as  a  substance  greatly  assisting  labor  pains. 

Norman  Douglas  decribes  in  his  Paneros  the  love-philters  of 
antiquity  and  the  value  of  honey  in  the  preparations  of  amative 
elixirs.  Besides  honey,  according  to  Douglas,  the  wings  of  bees 
have  been  used. 

Honey  was  an  important  ingredient  of  all  ancient  satyriaca 
{ad  cohum  irritantia  tentaginem  facientia).  The  ancients  had  im- 
plicit faith  in  the  power  of  honey  to  increase  strength  and  virility. 
(The  French  consider  not  only  honey  but  also  the  sting  of  the 
bee  a  powerful  aphrodisiac.)  The  Hindu  novices  for  priesthood 
had  to  abstain  from  meat,  women,  perfumes  and  .  .  .  honey. 

The  ancients  believed  that  people  who  fared  freely  on  honey 
became  more  congenial  and  affectionate.  They  considered  honey 
a  cure  for  a  sour  disposition  and  bitter  feelings.  Pliny  said:  "All 
acrimony  of  the  mind  is  pacified  with  sweet  liquers,  the  spirits 
are  made  peaceable,  the  passages  made  softer  and  fitter  for 
transpiration}  and  they  are  also  good  physick  for  manners." 
Pythagoras  thought  that  body  and  soul  function  in  harmony  and 


90  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

that  no  food  could  be  considered  beneficial  to  one  without  being 
subservient  to  the  other.  He  believed,  for  instance,  that  music 
was  food  for  the  soul  and  likewise  conducive  to  good  health. 
David  played  the  harp  before  King  Saul  to  cure  his  melancholy. 

2.     AS  MEDICINE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

The  population  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  great  faith  in  honey. 
This  is  best  illustrated  by  the  statement  of  Charles  Butler  in  the 
History  of  Bees,  1623:  "Hoonni  cleareth  all  the  obstructions  of 
the  body,  lossenth  the  belly,  purgeth  the  foulness  of  the  body 
and  provoketh  urine.  It  cutteth  and  casteth  up  Flegmatic  matter 
and  therefore  sharpneth  the  stomachs  of  them,  which  by  reason 
thereof  have  little  appetite ;  it  purgeth  those  things  which  hurt 
the  clearness  of  the  eyes  and  nourisheth  very  much.  It  breedeth 
good  blood  it  sturreth  up  and  preserveth  natural  heat  and  pro- 
longeth  old  age  5  physicians  do  temper  therewith  such  medicines 
as  they  mean  keep  long;  yea  the  bodys  of  the  dead,  being  en- 
balmed  with  Hoonni,  have  been  thereby  preserved  from  putre- 
faction. It  is  drunk  against  the  biting  of  a  Serpent  or  mad  Dog 
and  it  is  good  for  them,  which  have  eaten  mushrooms  or  drunk 
Poppy;  against  which  evil  Rosed-hoonni  is  taken  warm.  It  is 
also  good  for  falling  sickness  and  better  than  wine  because  it  can- 
not arise  to  the  head  as  wine  doeth.  Hoonni  is  most  fit  for  old 
men,  women  and  children,  for  such  as  rheumatic  and  flegmatic 
and  generally  for  all  that  are  of  cold  temperature.  To  young  men 
and  that  of  a  hot  constitution  is  not  so  good  because  it  easily 
turned  into  kholer." 

The  climax  of  Butler's  statement  is  "Hoonni  is  altered  by  dis- 
tillation into  a  water  which  Raimundus  Lullius  (that  excellent 
Kymist)  called  the  Quintessence  of  Hoonni.  This  quintessence 
dissolveth  gold  and  makes  it  potable;  likewise  any  sort  of  precious 
stone  that  is  put  therein.  It  is  of  such  virtue  that  if  any  be  dying 
and  drink  two  or  three  drams  thereof,  presently  he  will  revive. 
If  you  wash  any  wound  therewith,  it  will  heal  quickly.  It  is  good 
also  against  cough,  catarrh  and  pains  of  the  melt  and  against 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  9 1 

many  other  diseases.  It  helpeth  also  falling  sickness  and  pre- 
serveth  the  body  from  putrefaction.  Of  so  marvellous  efficacy 
is  this  water."  Butler  thought  that  honey  "comforts  and  strength- 
ens the  stomach  in  the  wise." 

Samuel  Purchas,  pastor  of  Sutton,  Essex  (1657),  claimed  that 
it  would  require  "a  good  day's  work"  to  enumerate  the  worth  and 
benefits  of  honey.  Don  Juan  Manuel,  from  the  royal  house  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  the  13th  century  Spanish  writer  of  stories,  in 
his  El  Conde  Lucanor  still  uses  the  old  Spanish  word  melezina 
(mel=honey)  instead  of  medicina  (medicine). 

Hieronymus  Bock,  in  Teutsche  Sfeiszkammer,  Strassburg, 
1539,  made  the  same  comments  about  honey  as  Charles  Butler 
and  both  seem  to  quote  the  writings  of  Dioscorides  (Libr.  II), 
who  believed  that  honey  was  best  for  weak  and  old  people  and 
for  those  of  cold  temperament.  In  young  and  "hot"  people  honey 
turns  into  gall.  Old  people  obtain  from  honey  good  food  and 
new  blood.  Dioscorides  advocated  the  inhaling  of  honey  for 
coughs,  and  its  internal  use  as  a  good  diuretic.  Honey,  he  thought, 
was  good  for  those  who  were  poisoned  by  opium  and  mushrooms 
or  were  bitten  by  snakes  and  mad  dogs.  Dioscorides  recommended 
that  honey  should  be  rubbed  into  the  hair  to  kill  lice  and  nits. 

Jos.  Roach,  in  Parnassus  medicinalis,  Ulm,  1663,  eulogized 
honey  in  verses.  For  instance, 

"Der  Honig  treibt  den  Ham 

Und  ist  zur  Lunge  gut, 

Von  Husten,  Faulung  auch 

Es  stark  bewahren  tut." 

(Honey  drives  the  urine,  is  good  to  the  lungs  and  a 

strong  protector  against  cough  and  decay.) 

An  old  English  chronicle  remarks:  "Honey  is  still  our  chief 
sweetness,  favorite  salve  and  indispensable  medicine." 

(The  German  women  for  centuries  had  great  faith  in  a  pop- 
ular remedy  called  Salvemet,  made  from  honey  and  crushed  bees. 
This  was  taken  on  St.  Catherine's  day  and  was  supposed  to  have 


92  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

a  beautifying  and  strengthening  effect,  besides  regulating  the 
menstrual  flow.) 

We  find  evidence  in  the  folklore  of  almost  all  nations  of 
the  faith  the  rural  population  had  in  the  curative,  even  magic 
power  of  honey.  Youthful  America  is  no  exception.  In  the  Journal 
of  American  Folklore  (II  Vol.)  there  is  an  illustrative  tale  told 
by  an  old  woman.  The  story  is  about  Mark  Flaherty  who  was 
riding  home  once  after  sunset  when  he  heard  a  voice  behind  him. 
Turning  around,  he  could  see  no  one.  Arriving  home  he  heard 
the  same  mysterious  voice  but  was  unable  to  trace  its  source.  After 
retiring  he  could  not  sleep  and  had  a  feeling  that  somebody  was 
sitting  on  his  chest.  Next  morning  he  noticed  that  his  hair  had 
turned  gray  overnight.  Towards  evening  he  distinctly  heard  the 
same  voice  again  and  noticed  that  a  man  was  crawling  in  his 
direction.  Trying  to  nab  the  figure  it  vanished.  Flaherty  there- 
after was  afraid  to  go  out  in  the  dark,  became  ill  and  emaciated. 

A  beggar  called  on  him  one  day  and  when  he  learned  of  his 
predicament  advised  him  to  get  some  honey  and  rub  his  entire 
body  with  it.  The  bees  suck  the  strength  of  flowers  which  they 
mix  with  their  own  honey  and  that  would  cure  him,  turn  his  hair 
dark  again  and  his  cheeks  rosy.  Flaherty  followed  the  suggestion 
and  he  fully  recovered.  He  never  heard  the  weird  voice  again. 

3.     IN  MODERN   THERAPEUTICS 

Honey  plays  an  insignificant  part  in  our  modern  Materia 
Medica,  though  strained,  clarified,  borated  and  rose  honey  are 
listed  in  many  pharmacopoeias.  The  mel  depuratum  (clarified 
honey)  is  rather  an  inadequate  substance  because  it  is  subjected 
to  heating  and  is  filtered  through  cloth  which  also  robs  it  of  some 
mineral  elements. 

In  lay,  let  us  call  it  unscientific  medicine,  especially  in  the  rural 
districts,  however,  honey  is  today  a  more  popular  nostrum  than 
the  medical  profession  would  surmise.  Physicians,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, grin  broadly  at  the  mere  mention  of  the  medicinal  and 
food  merits  of  honey.  Of  course,  the  name  honey  sounds  rather 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  93 

homely,  almost  dilettant.  How  much  more  knowledge  and  intel- 
ligence the  term,  cinchophen,  for  example,  reveals.  This  sub- 
stance was  widely  advertised  and  the  medical  fraternity,  con- 
formably, employed  it.  It  soon  became  so  popular  that  the  general 
public  began  to  use  it  indiscriminately.  After  it  had  caused 
irreparable  harm  and  many  patients  had  died  from  its  effect,  the 
sale  without  a  prescription  was  prohibited.  This  is  only  one  in- 
stance. On  the  other  hand,  people  will  ignore  good  things  which 
are  within  their  reach. 

Something  should  be  done  to  induce  the  medical  profession 
to  look  more  carefully  into  the  remedial  and  dietetic  value  of 
honey.  On  the  European  continent,  where  physicians  are  paid 
for  keeping  patients  in  good  health,  honey  is  freely  used.  It  is 
time  that  American  physicians  should  do  likewise  and  obviate  the 
possibility  of  a  rather  embarrassing  accusation  that  instead  of  pre- 
venting disease,  they  prevent  health.  It  is  the  physician's  duty 
to  help  and  to  educate  the  public. 

In  antiquity  and  all  through  the  Middle  Ages,  honey  was  an 
important  medicine.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  last  century,  it  still 
held  the  place  of  honor  in  the  service  of  Aesculapius.  Only  with 
the  advent  of  the  millions  of  patented  and  well-advertised  do- 
mestic and  imported  whatnots  was  honey  almost  banished  as  a 
curative  substance,  the  same  fate  which  it  suffered  as  a  sweeten- 
ing matter  upon  the  introduction  of  refined  sugar.  Thanks  to  the 
simple  country-folk  and  to  the  primitive  races,  honey  is  yet  in  its 
glory  as  a  dispenser  of  health  and  as  a  valued  remedy.  Honey 
cures  were  popular  in  many  European  countries  for  the  tired 
feeling  caused  by  the  so-called  spring  fever. 

The  consideration  alone  that  a  snake  is  pictured  coiled  around 
the  stick  of  Aesculapius,  eager  to  feast  from  a  cup  of  honey,  ought 
to  be  sufficient  exhortation  to  medical  men  to  be  more  interested  in 
this  substance.  (Aesculapius,  the  god  of  Medicine,  who  not  only 
healed  the  sick  but  restored  the  dead  to  life,  held  the  snake 
sacred.  The  snake  was  the  emblem  of  health  and  recovery.  The 
snakes  were  fed  on  honey  or  honey  cakes.  Whoever  entered  the 
cave   of   Trophonius   had   to   throw  honey   cake   to   the  snakes 


94  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

(Pausanias  IX.  39:5).  Honey  was  also  the  favorite  food  of  the 
fabled  serpent,  the  guardian  of  the  Acropolis  (Herodot.  VIII. 
41).  The  snake  of  Aesculapius  in  Cos  was  given  honey  and  honey 
cake  (Herondas  IV.  90 j  Virgil  Aeneid  IV.  484). 

Among  the  Asiatic  races,  including  the  Chinese  and  the  Hindu, 
and  among  the  Egyptians,  Arabs  and  the  African  tribes,  honey 
is  still  considered  an  excellent  protective  food  and  a  sovereign 
internal  and  external  remedy.  Amongst  the  Wa-Sania  tribes, 
British  East  Africa,  a  mother's  only  nutriment  for  several  days 
after  the  birth  of  a  child  is  honey  with  hot  water.  A  boy,  after  he 
has  been  circumcised  (usually  at  the  age  of  3  or  4)  is  permitted 
only  to  consume  honey  and  water  for  a  week.  Among  the  Nandis 
some  honey  is  placed  on  the  tongue  of  a  child  before  circumcision. 
Honey  is  often  combined  by  them  with  the  bark  and  leaves  of 
certain  trees  and  plants.  Among  the  rural  population  of  the  old 
countries,  especially  among  the  Greeks,  Italians,  Hungarians  and 
all  the  Slavic  races,  honey  is  a  popular  home  remedy.  Their  laxa- 
tive medicines,  likewise  those  for  coughs,  bronchitis,  tuberculosis 
and  other  pulmonary  ailments,  contain  honey.  For  respiratory 
troubles  honey  is  often  mixed  with  anis,  pepper,  horseradish, 
ginger,  mustard  and  garlic.  A  glassful  of  warm  milk  with  a  table- 
spoonful  of  honey  is  used  for  bronchitis  and  debilitated  con- 
ditions. Goat's  milk  or  buttermilk  and  honey  is  a  favored  and 
popular  remedy  for  tuberculosis.  Goat's  milk  is  most  nutritious 
and  very  digestible.  It  is  nearest  to  human  milk.  There  are  more 
vitamins,  minerals,  fats  and  proteins  in  goat's  milk  than  in  any 
other  milk.  In  the  East,  Far  East,  Africa  and  in  most  European 
countries  goat's  milk  is  extremely  popular.  Recently  there  have 
been  considerable  efforts  made  in  the  United  States  to  popularize 
goat  raising. 

The  diuretic  effect  of  honey  which  was  well  known  in  antiquity, 
is  still  employed  in  kidney  and  bladder  involvements.  In  pyelitis 
(inflammation  of  the  renal  pelvis)  honey  increases  the  amount  of 
urine  and  exerts  a  decided  antiseptic  effect.  The  patients  quickly 
improve;  the  urine  clears  and  loses  its  putrid  odor.  The  laxative 
effect  of  honey  in  these  cases  is  also  of  advantage.  One  of  the 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  95 

author's  correspondents  (J.  L.  McD.,  of  Marion,  Indiana),  wrote 
thus  about  the  subject:  "A  bee-keeping  friend  of  mine  suffered 
from  tuberculosis  of  the  kidney  and  was  given  up  by  two  doctors 
fifteen  years  ago.  He  got  to  eating  honey  and  plenty  of  it  and 
he  is  today  as  peppy  as  a  youngster."  Honey  is  an  important  in- 
gredient of  worm-cures.  The  African  tribes  also  mix  their  tobacco 
and  their  aphrodisiac  remedies  with  honey. 

Among  the  so-called  "civilized"  communities  we  find  some 
people  who  favor  honey,  especially  for  throat  and  bronchial  ail- 
ments. During  many  years'  professional  contact  with  opera  sing- 
ers, the  writer  has  found  that  they  frequently  resorted  to  honey 
for  the  treatment  of  their  throat  affections.  They  consider  it  an 
excellent  demulcent  and  expectorant.  Three  parts  of  honey  and 
one  part  of  compound  tincture  of  benzoin  is  popular  among  sing- 
ers j  so  is  an  occasional  gulp  from  a  mixture  of  two  ounces  of 
honey,  one  ounce  of  lemon  juice  and  an  ounce  of  pure  glycerin. 
Honey  (125  gm.)  and  alum  (25  gm.)  added  to  one  quart  of 
water  is  a  useful  gargle.  The  mixture  of  honey  and  alum  is 
highly  valued  for  sore  throat  and  ulcerations  of  the  gums  and 
mouth.  Hot  milk  and  honey  make  an  excellent  remedy  for  husky 
throats. 

Another  correspondent  of  the  author  (M.  S.  of  Kansas  City, 
Mo.)  has  written  about  the  curative  value  of  honey  in  pul- 
monary affection,  as  follows:  "In  1925,  I  became  ill  and  con- 
sulted several  doctors,  all  of  whom  gave  the  verdict  of  active 
tuberculosis.  After  seven  months,  two  doctors  gave  me  up,  and 
said  that  my  only  chance  was  to  go  West,  which  I  could  not  afford 
to  do.  At  a  later  date,  they  frankly  informed  me  that  I  had  only 
three  months  to  live  and  insisted  on  sending  me  to  Colorado.  I 
was  then  living  in  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  and  had  previously 
been  engaged  in  cement  and  paving  work.  I  managed  to  land  a 
job  in  Nemaha  County,  Kansas,  about  140  miles  west  of  Kansas 
City.  My  work  was  to  establish  an  apiary  of  one  hundred  colonies 
for  a  commercial  orchard.  I  was  to  'batch'  in  a  room  in  the  apple 
house,  which  had  a  cement  floor.  Often  it  took  all  my  strength 
to  carry  a  gallon  bucket  of  water  from  the  well,  one  hundred  feet 


$6  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

away.  In  studying  bees,  I  had  learned  the  value  of  honey  in 
driving  out  and  destroying  all  germs  in  the  human  body.  I  used 
honey  regularly  and  I  worked  to  the  limit  of  my  strength.  Three 
years  later,  the  same  doctors  examined  me  and  found  only  a  few 
spots  on  my  lungs.  They  absolutely  refused  to  believe  that  I  was 
the  same  person.  Today,  I  take  my  place  as  an  average  man.  I 
take  care  of  two  hundred  fifty  colonies  of  bees  and  a  farm  of 
twenty-five  acres  of  land.  The  only  help  I  have  is  about  one 
month  during  the  honey  harvest.  I  don't  know  whether  the  honey 
cured  me,  or  it  was  the  fact  that  I  was  too  lazy  to  crawl  into  my 
coffin,  but  I  believe  the  honey  and  possibly  the  raw  diet  were 
the  major  factors  of  my  recovery." 

J.  J.  H.,  of  Brownsville,  Florida,  reports  that  when  his  grand- 
mother was  a  young  girl  she  was  given  up  by  her  physicians  as 
a  hopeless  consumptive.  Someone  prescribed  a  diet  of  honey  and 
goat's  milk,  with  the  result  that  she  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty- 
eight  and  was  free  from  illness  during  the  rest  of  her  lifetime. 

M.  D.  A.,  of  Old  Forge,  New  York,  is  certainly  a  great  ad- 
mirer of  honey.  He  writes:  "Having  kept  bees  and  eaten  honey 
for  over  thirty  years,  I  can  tell  about  my  own  experience  and 
give  also  observations  of  other  people  who  use  honey  exclusively 
for  sweetening.  I  never  have  known  a  beekeeper  who  had  any 
kind  of  kidney  trouble.  They  all  have  a  clear  complexion,  good 
eyesight  and  no  lameness.  Among  my  friends  who  eat  honey 
and  keep  bees,  there  is  no  cancer  or  paralysis.  My  best  remedy 
for  a  bee  sting  is  to  cover  it  with  honey,  even  a  deep  burn  will  not 
scar  if  treated  the  same  way.  I  have  seen  sour  milk,  whole  wheat 
cracked  for  cereal,  honey  and  butter  do  wonders  in  diet.  I  cured 
the  cough  of  a  great  number  of  my  friends,  where  other  reme- 
dies failed,  with  this  prescription: 

4  tablespoonfuls  of  honey 
1   teaspoonful  of  sulphur 

5  drops  of  pure  turpentine 

Mix  it,  take  half-teaspoonful  two  or  three  hours  apart." 
The  soporific  effect  of  honey  is  par  excellence.  The  French 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  97 

Voirnot  advocated  it  for  insomnia.  Dr.  Lorand  (of  Carlsbad) 
also  recommends  honey  as  a  good  hypnotic  and  reconstructive. 
D.  Dumoulin,  when  eighty  years  old,  commented,  "Chaque  soir, 
avant  de  me  mettre  au  lit,  je  prends  une  cuiller  a  cafe  de  miel, 
soit  pur,  soit  dans  du  lait  chaud,  et  je  dors  comme  a  vingt  ans." 
(Every  night,  before  I  go  to  bed  I  take  a  teaspoonful  of  honey, 
sometimes  pure,  other  times  in  hot  milk  and  I  sleep  like  when 
twenty  years  old.)  A  tumblerful  of  hot  water  with  one  or  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  ripe  honey  and  the  juice  of  half  a  lemon  has 
been  the  author's  favorite  potion  for  nervous  insomnia.  This  sim- 
ple and  inexpensive  home  remedy  has  been  greatly  appreciated  by 
his  patients  and  most  of  them  have  assured  him  that  it  is  more 

helpful  than    (an  infinite  number  of  patented  drugs 

could  equitably  replace  these  dots). 

In  digestive  disturbances  honey  is  of  great  value.  Honey  does 
not  ferment  in  the  stomach  because,  being  an  inverted  sugar,  it  is 
easily  absorbed  and  there  is  no  danger  of  a  bacterial  invasion. 
The  flavor  of  honey  excites  the  appetite  and  helps  digestion.  The 
frofoma  of  the  ancients,  made  of  honey,  was  a  popular  appe- 
tizer. For  anemics,  dyspeptics,  convalescents  and  the  aged,  honey 
is  an  excellent  reconstructive  and  tonic.  In  malnutrition,  no  food 
or  drug  can  equal  it.  The  laxative  value  of  honey,  on  account  of 
its  lubricating  effect,  is  well  known.  Its  fatty  acid  content  stim- 
ulates peristalsis.  In  gastric  catarrh,  hyperacidity,  gastric  and  duo- 
denal ulcers  and  gall  bladder  diseases  honey  is  recommended  by 
several  eminent  gastroenterologists. 

Dr.  Schacht,  of  Wiesbaden,  claims  to  have  cured  many  hope- 
less cases  of  gastric  and  intestinal  ulcers  with  honey  and  without 
operations.  It  is  rather  unusual  that  a  physician  of  standing  has 
the  courage  and  conviction  to  praise  honey.  The  beekeepers  and 
their  friends  know  that  honey  will  cure  gastric  and  intestinal 
ulcerations,  this  distressing,  prevalent  and  most  dangerous  mal- 
ady, a  precursor  of  cancer.  But  the  news  has  not  yet  reached  99% 
of  the  medical  profession.  The  remaining  few  physicians  who 
know  it,  are  afraid  to  suggest  such  an  unscientific  and  plebeian 
remedy,  for  fear  of  being  laughed  at  by  their  colleagues  and 


98  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

scientifically  inclined  patients.  You  may  read  in  almost  every 
issue  of  apicultural  papers  the  reports  of  correspondents  regard- 
ing their  experience  with  honey  for  gastric  ulcers,  after  going 
through  the  medical  mill  for  years  without  improvement,  with- 
out even  hope  of  ever  getting  cured.  Then  incidentally  they  meet 
a  beekeeper  or  one  of  his  converts  and  if  they  have  courage  and 
common  sense  (there  are  few)  to  heed  the  advice,  they  get  well. 
It  is  disheartening  for  a  physician  to  read  such  reports.  For  in- 
stance, a  correspondent  (A.  L.  T.  of  Omaha,  Nebr.),  writes  in 
Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture ,  February,  1931),  "I  have  been  a  suf- 
ferer from  ulcerated  stomach  for  several  years,  part  time  in  the 
hospital,  part  time  in  bed  and  nearly  all  the  time  in  much  pain. 
I  noticed  from  the  middle  of  September  I  was  much  better  and 
gave  no  thought  to  the  reason  but  kept  up  eating  honey  because 
I  relished  it.  I  had  no  attack  since  and  it  held  good.  .  .  ."  It  would 
fill  a  volume  to  assemble  similar  testimonials,  praising  particu- 
larly the  curative  value  of  honey  in  gastric  and  intestinal  dis- 
orders, including  ulcers.  Father  Kneipp,  a  great  admirer  of  honey, 
remarked:  "Smaller  ulcers  in  the  stomach  are  quickly  contracted, 
broken  and  healed  by  it." 

Honey  is  a  rapidly  acting  source  of  muscular  energy  and  has 
great  value  as  a  restorative.  The  protoplasm  craves  sugar  as 
does  an  individual.  Muscles  in  action  consume  three  and  a  half 
times  as  much  glycogen  as  when  at  rest.  A  normal  heart,  accord- 
ing to  Starling,  uses  glycogen  at  the  rate  of  four  milligrams  per 
gram  of  heart  per  hour.  The  invigorating  effect  of  honey  was 
discussed  under  the  heading,  "Honey  for  Athletes  and  Soldiers." 
It  is  not  surprising  that  many  well-known  physicians  recommend 
honey  for  an  ailing  heart.  Dr.  Lorand  in  Old  Age  Deferred y  and 
in  Life  Shortening  Habits  and  Rejuvenation,  expresses  his  faith 
in  honey  as  a  sine  qua  non  in  arteriosclerosis  and  weak  heart. 
Dr.  G.  N.  W.  Thomas,  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  an  article  in 
the  Lancet  remarks  that  "in  heart  weakness  I  have  found  honey  to 
have  a  marked  effect  in  reviving  the  heart  action  and  keeping  pa- 
tients alive.  I  had  further  evidence  of  this  in  a  recent  case  of  pneu- 
monia. The  patient  consumed  two  pounds  of  honey  during  the 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  99 

illness ;  there  was  an  early  crisis  with  no  subsequent  rise  of  tem- 
perature and  an  exceptionally  good  pulse.  I  suggest  that  honey 
should  be  given  for  general  physical  repair  and,  above  all,  for 
heart  failure."  Sir  Arbuthnot  Lane  also  emphasized  the  value 
of  honey  as  a  heart  and  muscle  stimulant,  and  as  an  excellent 
source  of  energy.  There  is  no  better  food,  he  thought,  to  meet 
muscular  fatigue  and  exhaustion. 

Carbohydrate  and  especially  sugar  metabolism  has  great  im- 
portance. Energy  is  primarily  the  result  of  carbohydrate  assimi- 
lation. Hyperglycemic  individuals  are,  as  a  rule,  more  energetic 
and  less  prone  to  fatigue ;  subglycemic  people  tire  easily  and  are 
apathetic.  Certain  nervous  types,  though  glycophile  subjects,  ex- 
haust their  sugar  reserve  fast  and  wear  out  just  as  quickly.  Lack 
of  energy  is  not  always  due  to  laziness. 

In  typhoid  fever  and  pneumonia,  where  the  digestive  functions 
are  badly  crippled,  honey  is  most  beneficial.  Why  embarrass 
enfeebled  digestions  with  foods  which  require  chemical  changes 
before  their  assimilation  when  we  can  administer  a  serviceable 
and  pleasant  food  which  is  predigested?  For  the  treatment  of 
typhoid  fever,  honey  diluted  in  water  is  the  author's  preferential 
food.  It  is  an  ideal  substance,  in  this  special  instance,  on  account  of 
its  demulcent  effect  on  the  inflamed  intestines,  its  rapid  assimila- 
tion and  its  capability  to  supply  food  and  energy  without  causing 
fermentation,  which  is  so  much  feared  in  typhoid  fever.  Honey,  a 
concentrated  and  predigested  food,  is  absorbed  orally  100%  and 
per  rectum  96%.  For  rectal  feeding  honey  is  exceptionally  well 
adapted.  Galen's  honey  and  oil  enema  was  highly  valued  in  an- 
tiquity. While  sugar  favors  worms,  honey  was  considered  as  one 
of  the  best  vermifuge  remedies  by  all  ancients  and  it  is  widely 
used  for  this  purpose,  even  today,  by  primitive  races. 

Medical  textbooks  pay  only  little  attention  to  the  real  worth 
and  merit  of  honey.  The  results  which  some  physicians  have  de- 
rived from  the  use  of  honey,  as  a  rule,  have  been  incidental. 
Dr.  C.  H.  English,  Medical  Director  of  the  Lincoln  National 
Life  Insurance  Co.,  vividly  describes  his  own  experience  (Glean- 
ings in  Bee  Culture,  55:1927).  About  forty-one  years  ago  the 


100  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

doctor  practiced  medicine  among  rural  folk.  He  acquired  two 
colonies  of  bees  which  soon  increased  and  it  was  not  long  until 
he  had  more  honey  on  hand  than  he  and  his  family  could  use. 
Not  wishing  to  sell  honey,  it  occurred  to  him  to  distribute  his 
surplus  stock  among  patients.  There  were  a  sufficient  number  of 
cases  which  offered  an  excellent  field  to  try  out  the  nutrimental, 
medicinal  and  tonic  effects  of  honey.  In  respiratory  troubles,  the 
doctor  found  that  honey  acted  not  only  as  a  good  expectorant 
but  as  a  valuable  heart  tonic.  In  pneumonia,  near  the  crisis,  when 
honey  was  freely  given,  it  had  a  marked  effect.  The  benefits  were 
so  evident  that  the  administration  of  honey  became  a  routine 
practice  with  him.  He  found  no  other  food  or  heart  stimulant 
which  had  a  more  lasting  effect.  This  practice  he  kept  up  for 
fifteen  years  with  the  most  gratifying  results.  Occasionally  in 
severe  cases,  when  he  ran  short  of  honey,  he  noticed  the  differ- 
ence and  when  he  succeeded  again  in  procuring  some  the  improve- 
ment was  quite  manifest.  Dr.  English  also  used  honey  success- 
fully in  infant  feeding. 

The  blood  reconstructive  power  of  honey  can  be  surmised  from 
a  recent  report  from  Germany.  According  to  this  information 
Edmund  Eckardt  (thirty-five  years  old)  a  champion  blood  donor, 
whose  only  visible  means  of  support  is  to  supply  blood  for  trans- 
fusions, just  celebrated  his  jubilee.  He  has  saved  fifty  lives  in 
the  last  three  years.  When  interviewed  as  to  how  he  makes  good 
his  losses  he  described  his  diet.  During  daily  breakfast  he  con- 
sumes honey  j  for  luncheon  he  has  fish  and  vegetables  and  drinks 
orange  juice  with  his  dinner.  His  main  reliance  is  on  honey  and 
oranges,  of  which  he  eats  thirty  a  day.  An  expert  of  the  Blood 
Transfusion  Betterment  Association  of  New  York,  when  inter- 
viewed on  the  subject,  suggested  that  Eckhardt's  faith  in  oranges 
is  unjustified  because  what  a  blood  donor  needs  is  iron,  and 
Eckardt  in  fact,  "does  not  mention  that  any  part  of  his  diet  con- 
tains iron."  Another  occasion  where  "dethroned"  honey  was 
utterly  disregarded!  Count  Luckner,  of  World  War  fame,  is 
an  extremely  moderate  eater.  He  is  about  sixty-five  years  old 
and  looks  no  more  than  forty.  Luckner  bends  a  silver  half-dollar 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  IOI 

with  two  fingers  and  tears  a  Manhattan  telephone  directory  into 
small  pieces  with  greatest  ease.  The  Count  relates  that  his  first 
food  in  the  morning  is  a  "goodly  portion  of  honey." 

Many  people,  especially  beekeepers,  and  a  few  physicians  (this 
writer  among  them)  claim  that  honey  taken  internally  prevents 
and  often  cures  arthritic  and  rheumatoid  ailments.  The  peasants 
of  Hungary  even  put  a  honey  poultice  over  the  big  toe  in  gout 
and  they  say  the  pain  disappears  in  half  an  hour.  Such  assertions 
have,  of  course,  all  the  earmarks  of  unscientific  broach.  Still  there 
are  many  who  insist  that  honey  has  benefited  them  more  than  all 
the  "scientific"  vaccines.  Vitamin  C  deficiency  would  explain  an 
impaired  circulation  and  recent  researches  (James  F.  Reinhart, 
Studies  relating  to  Vitamin  C  deficiency  in  rheumatic  fever  and 
rheumatoid  arthritis,  Annals  of  Internal  Medicine,  December, 
1935),  clearly  prove  that  lack  of  vitamin  C  favors  the  develop- 
ment of  infectious  arthritis.  Dr.  Heermann  of  Kassel,  Germany, 
suggests  {Fortschritte  der  Medizin,  Vol.  54,  1936)  the  use  of 
honey  for  rheumatism,  atrophy  of  muscles,  nervous  conditions, 
tuberculotic  glands,  etc.,  both  internally  and  externally.  He  em- 
ployed honey  with  success  for  thirty-five  years.  Dr.  Heermann 
thinks  it  is  unnecessary  to  extract  the  venom  of  the  bees  to  treat 
these  conditions.  Honey  itself  contains  some  venom  because  the 
bees  use  their  stings  not  only  for  defense  but  also  for  the  preser- 
vation of  honey. 

Many  beekeepers  are  of  the  opinion  that,  besides  the  admitted 
and  generally  recognized  curative  effects  of  the  stings  in  rheu- 
matic ailments,  honey  also  contributes  its  benefits  in  preventing 
and  curing  these  diseases.  As  an  illustration,  I  quote  a  letter 
from  J.  L.  McD.,  of  Marion,  Indiana:  "I  began  beekeeping  be- 
cause I  had  rheumatism,  and  it  has  disappeared,  but  I  consider 
it  due  more  to  the  fact  that  I  ate  honey  than  to  bee  stings.  Nearly 
four  years  ago,  I  had  rheumatism  in  my  knees.  I  finally  went  to 

Dr.  K ,  of  Marion,  Indiana,  for  advice.  He  put  me  on  a 

citrous  fruit  diet,  allowing  only  honey.  In  a  week,  he  allowed 
breakfast  food  sweetened  with  honey.  It  did  the  work,  and  I 
liked  honey  so  well  that  I  bought  a  few  hives  of  bees  to  supply 


102  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

my  family,  and  now — nearly  four  years  later — I  want  everyone 
to  know  honey  and  to  like  it,  as  Nature's  own  health-sweet,  full 
of  pep  and  vitamins  that  God  gave  us,  pure  as  snow.  My  grow- 
ing son  is  developing  into  a  healthy,  sturdy  ten-year  old  since 
the  use  of  honey,  egg  and  milk  drinks.  My  rheumatism  never 
returned." 

Honey,  taken  by  itself  and  not  mixed  with  other  foods,  was 
considered  by  the  ancients  an  excellent  remedy  for  obesity.  Bee- 
keepers today,  who  know  it  from  their  own  experience,  will  con- 
firm this  allegation.  The  regimen,  at  a  glance,  sounds  rather 
unscientific  to  a  modern  physician}  nevertheless  it  has  a  deeper 
biochemical  meaning  than  it  appears  to  have.  Fats  and  sugars  are 
both  carbon-containing  and  energy-providing  foods  which  burn 
up  by  contact  with  oxygen  and  create  energy.  Sugars  which  con- 
tain more  carbon  elements  and  are  more  inflammable  produce 
energy  more  quickly.  Fats  which  contain  less  carbon  and  oxygen 
than  sugars,  are  utilized  slower  because  their  purpose  is  only  to 
supply  reserve  energy ;  they  require  more  oxygen  and  more 
draught  to  set  them  afire  and  are  not  meant  for  immediate  use. 
If  there  is  not  enough  sugar  to  keep  the  fires  burning,  the  sys- 
tem will  resort  to  its  reserve  fat.  Accordingly  when  sugars,  espe- 
cially honey,  are  ingested  into  the  system  they  will  cause  a  rapid 
combustion  and  the  fats  will  burn  with  the  aid  of  the  draught 
produced  by  their  "fire."  If  an  organism  is  slow  to  burn  up  fat 
(as  in  obesity),  it  will  be  assisted  by  the  rapidity  of  sugar  meta- 
bolism. The  process  could  be  compared  to  setting  slowly  inflam- 
mable coal  ablaze  with  the  aid  of  straw,  kindling  wood  or  even 
oil.  Of  course,  there  is  sufficient  oxygen  in  carbohydrates  to  assist 
in  the  combustion  of  carbon  elements  even  without  an  outside 
source  of  oxygen. 

Acknowledging  some  more  medical  information  received  from 
the  laity,  the  writer's  attention  has  been  repeatedly  called  to  the 
beneficial  effect  of  honey  on  hay  fever  victims.  There  are  many 
reports  that  the  consumption  of  honey  collected  by  bees  from 
goldenrod  and  fireweed  will  cure  hay  fever  superinduced  by  the 
selfsame  pollen.  Now  comes  Dr.  George  D.  McGrew,  of  the 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  103 

Army  Medical  Corps  of  the  William  Beaumont  General  Hos- 
pital in  El  Paso,  Texas,  with  a  statement  in  an  article  published 
in  the  Military  Surgeon  that  during  the  1936  hay-fever  season 
thirty-three  hay-fever  sufferers  obtained  partial  or  complete  re- 
lief through  the  consumption  of  honey,  produced  in  their  vicinity. 
The  brood  cells  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  bee-bread 
(pollen)  stored  by  the  bees  for  their  young  and  when  this  is 
orally  administered  it  will  produce  a  gradual  immunity  against 
the  allergic  symptoms  caused  by  the  same  pollen.  Dr.  McGrew 
found  particular  relief  for  patients  when  they  chewed  the  honey 
with  the  wax  of  the  brood-cells.  The  hospital  staff  also  made  an 
alcoholic  extract  from  pollen  and  administered  it  in  from  one 
to  ten  drop  doses,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  patients. 

Old  beekeepers  will  tell  you  that  a  glassful  of  hot  water  with 
a  tablespoonful  of  honey  and  some  lemon  juice  will  cure  influ- 
enza and  also  help  the  pocketbook.  (We  physicians  should  not 
begrudge  the  medical  propensity  of  farmers.  They  seem  to  agree 
with  Bernard  Shaw's  remark  that  every  profession  is  a  conspiracy 
against  the  laity,  so  they  retaliate.  And  the  time-honored  prin- 
ciple, experience  versus  theory,  upon  which  Napoleon  so  often 
commented,  should  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  Hun- 
garians have  liberally  consumed  paprika  for  a  thousand  years 
and  are  convinced  that  it  has  contributed  in  a  great  measure  to 
their  health  and  temperament.  After  Professor  Szent-Gyorgyi, 
the  discoverer  of  Vitamin  C,  had  tried  unsuccessfully  in  Chicago 
to  produce  this  vitamin  from  tons  of  liver,  he  returned  very  much 
disappointed  to  Hungary,  where  he  accidentally  found  that  red 
pepper  is  a  rich  source  of  Vitamin  C.) 

Honey  would  have  a  wider  and  better  use  in  modern  medicine 
if  comprehensive  microchemical  and  physiological  studies  would 
be  instituted  to  determine  the  types  of  honey  which  are  best  suited 
to  particular  cases.  The  properties  and  tendencies  of  honeys  vary 
according  to  the  chemical  characteristics  of  the  nectar  and  pollen 
of  plants  from  which  they  were  collected.  Dr.  C.  A.  Browne, 
Principal  Chemist  in  charge  of  research,  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
and  Soils,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  admits  that  the  gross 


104  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

composition  of  honeys  of  various  types  have  been  accurately  de- 
termined but  that  comparatively  little  has  been  done  and  much 
more  remains  to  be  done  toward  ascertaining  the  nature  and  quan- 
tities of  less  common  substances  that  occur  in  honey.  Nitrogenous 
compounds  (proteins),  though  honey  contains  these  in  small 
amounts,  still  play  a  very  important  role  in  the  utilization  of 
honey.  The  same  applies  to  amino  acids,  various  colloidal  sub- 
stances, to  the  mineral  constituents  and  enzymes  which  honey 
contains.  We  have  comparatively  little  definite  knowledge  about 
the  so-called  dextrins.  The  mineral  content  of  honey  considerably 
affects  the  degree  of  its  acidity  (pH).  Dr.  Browne  thinks  that 
more  knowledge  on  the  subject  would  be  of  great  value  in  ear- 
marking the  various  types  of  honey,  which  would  serve  as  a 
guide  in  choosing  the  most  suitable  types  for  particular  use. 

HONEY  AND  DIABETES 

Diabetes  is  a  fundamental  disorder  of  metabolism,  primarily 
that  of  carbohydrates.  It  is  due  to  a  deficiency  of  the  pancreas, 
a  gland  connected  with  the  alimentary  canal  which,  under  the 
circumstances,  does  not  produce  sufficient  insulin.  It  is  a  weak- 
ness or  exhaustion  of  the  gland.  In  diabetes  the  ingested  carbo- 
hydrates, sugars  and  starches  cannot  be  utilized,  but  are  elim- 
inated in  the  urine.  Part  of  the  food  turns  into  sugar  and  the 
glutton  has  to  return  to  Nature  his  illegitimate  gains.  The  vic- 
tim must  famish  in  the  midst  of  plenty.  It  is  really  a  revenge  of 
Nature.  Lean  people  rarely  acquire  diabetes.  In  obese  subjects 
the  excess  sugar  and  starch  which  they  consume  does  not  suffi- 
ciently oxidize,  but  forms  fat  which  is  already  a  disintegration 
of  the  organism. 

A  word  should  be  said  regarding  the  cause  of  diabetes.  Most 
medical  textbooks  carefully  avoid  even  mentioning  the  subject. 
Others  acknowledge  that  the  cause  of  diabetes  is  unknown.  The 
author's  personal  comprehension  is  that  the  abuse  of  artificial 
sugar  and  salt  are  mainly  to  be  blamed  for  it  by  producing  an 
inflammation  or  sclerosis  of  the  pancreas.  The  influence  of  white 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  105 

sugar  already  has  been  discussed.  With  regard  to  salt,  he  would 
set  forth  that  animal  diabetes  is  confined  to  horses,  cattle  and 
dogs.  Salt  is  given  to  horses  (occasionally  also  sugar)  and  to  cattle, 
mixed  in  their  fodder,  and  dogs  obtain  it  in  our  waste  food. 

R.  Arima  of  Tokyo,  Japan,  Director  of  the  Arima  Institute, 
experimented  on  himself.  He  had  never  had  any  diabetic  ail- 
ment. In  1934,  at  the  age  of  fifty-three  he  purposely  consumed 
an  excess  of  salt  with  the  result  that  he  suffered  from  excessive 
urine  secretion,  followed  by  diabetes.  He  repeated  the  experi- 
ment twice  with  the  same  result.  He  thought  that  diabetes  could 
be  easily  cured  by  the  limited  use  of,  or  total  abstinence  from 
salt.  Arima  quotes  a  noted  authority  who  made  the  statement 
that  civilized  man  is  "pickled"  in  salt.  In  his  opinion  even  harden- 
ing of  the  arteries  and  premature  senility  is  caused  by  salt.  A 
friend  of  the  late  John  D.  Rockefeller  related  to  this  author  that 
during  a  dinner  the  old  gentleman  warned  him  never  to  use  salt 
because  the  substance  is  injurious  to  health.  As  Mr.  Rockefeller 
almost  reached  the  class  of  centenarians  his  admonition  is  worthy 
of  consideration. 

Vegetarians  and  herbivorous  animals  crave  salt  because  they 
require  it.  Fruits,  vegetables  and  plants,  in  general,  contain  ample 
other  minerals  but  are  insufficient  in  sodium  chloride.  Meat  eat- 
ers can  get  along  without  salt.  Many  teachers  of  nutrition  are 
against  the  use  of  salt.  They  claim  that  an  excess  of  it  will  pro- 
duce rigidity  and  inactivity.  The  brain,  heart,  arteries,  muscles, 
salivary  glands,  eyes  and  sex  organs  lose  their  elasticity,  become 
indurated  and  finally  ossified.  Lime,  which  commercial  sugars 
contain,  has  a  similar  effect.  When  the  biological  chemists  will 
use  more  commonsense  than  microscopes  they  will  also  establish 
the  fact  that  refined  sugars  contribute  more  to  the  prevalence 
of  arthritis  than  has  so  far  been  surmised. 

It  is  much  beyond  the  scope  of  this  review  to  enumerate  the 
ill  effects  of  diabetes.  One  of  the  cardinal  troubles  is  lack  of 
glycogen  (animal  starch)  which  is  normally  deposited  in  the 
muscles,  of  course,  the  heart,  the  blood  and  mainly  in  the  liver 
(the  savings  bank  of  glucose),  where  it  is  stored  and  later  utilized 


106  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

as  the  most  important  energy-producing  substance  of  the  organ- 
ism. Normal  blood  contains  about  0.10%  glucose. 

If  a  diabetic  organism  is  unable  to  oxidize  glucose,  it  will  have 
vital  effect  also  on  other  processes  of  metabolism,  mainly  on  the 
metabolism  of  fat.  The  burning  of  carbohydrates,  especially  glu- 
cose, is  indispensable  for  the  burning  of  fat.  Fats  burn  in  the 
flame  of  carbohydrates.  Imperfect  oxidation  of  fats  produces  the 
formation  of  unoxidized  fatty  acids,  commonly  called  acetone 
bodies,  which  will  disturb  the  acid-base  equilibrium  of  the  sys- 
tem and  finally  will  deplete  the  entire  alkali  reserve  of  the  body. 

The  importance  of  sugar  metabolism  on  the  spinal  column  and 
brain  is  evident.  The  blood  of  the  veins  which  leaves  the  brain 
contains  less  sugar  and  more  acids  than  the  blood  of  the  arteries 
which  centers  upon  it.  Sugar  assimilation  has  an  important  func- 
tion in  the  chemical  activities  of  brain  cells.  The  successful  thera- 
peutic application  of  insulin  in  various  mental  disorders  clearly 
demonstrates  this.  The  lack  of  sugar  assimilation  of  a  diabetic, 
the  accompanying  depression,  comatose  states,  even  fatal  ending, 
prove  the  vital  importance  of  sugar  metabolism  on  the  activities 
of  the  brain  cells. 

The  administration  of  insulin,  a  pancreatic  hormon,  corrects 
the  pathological  condition  in  diabetes  and  converts  the  carbohy- 
drates into  glycogen,  which  a  diabetic  constitution  is  unable  to 
perform.  Insulin  is  an  adjunct  in  the  treatment  of  diabetes  but 
by  no  means  a  cure.  The  use  of  insulin  is  a  burdensome  procedure. 
The  patient  must  inject  insulin  about  half  an  hour  before  each 
meal  to  effectuate  this  function.  Its  dosage  must  first  be  deter- 
mined because  the  units  of  insulin  must  correspond  with  the  sub- 
sequent meal,  with  the  patient's  sugar  tolerance,  etc.  The  patient's 
individual  response  and  also  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  must 
be  rigorously  controlled  and  frequently  modified.  It  is  a  tedious 
performance  involving  considerable  time  and  expense,  besides 
anxiety,  and  a  careful  application  of  complex  chemistry  and 
mathematics. 

Any  substance  which  could  be  utilized  in  mild  diabetic  cases 
to  convert  carbohydrates,  by  oral  administration,  into  glycogen 


THE  MEDICINAL  VALUE  OF  HONEY  107 

would  be  invaluable  and  far  exceed  in  usefulness  the  dominant 
but  otherwise  beneficial  insulin.  The  relinquishment  of  the  cum- 
bersome self -administered  hypodermic  injections  alone  would  be 
of  inestimable  service. 

Whether  diabetics  could  utilize  honey  by  converting  it  into 
glycogen  to  supply  a  much-needed  source  of  energy  for  their  de- 
pleted systems  is  an  issue  worth  a  thorough  and  unbiased  investi- 
gation. There  are  many  indications  that  there  is  more  than  a  pos- 
sibility of  using  honey  for  these  sufferers. 

Honey  and  refined  sugars  greatly  differ  not  only  in  chemical 
characteristics  but  also  in  physiological  effects.  The  circumstance 
alone  that  honey  contains  invert  sugars  and  saves  the  debilitated 
alimentary  organs  the  additional  labor  of  inverting  commercial 
sugars,  is  an  important  factor  and  of  considerable  advantage. 

In  relationship  to  diabetes  there  are  also  other  distinctly  hetero- 
genous features  in  sugar  and  honey.  If  insulin  were  administered 
to  a  diabetic  patient  before  a  meal  and  the  insulin  units  were  in 
excess  of  the  consequently  consumed  carbohydrates,  or  there  was 
no  food  given  at  all,  a  severe,  often  disastrous  insulin-shock 
would  supervene.  The  reason  for  this  occurrence  is  that  the  in- 
sulin will  digest  and  consume  the  already  scanty  sugar  reserve  of 
the  organism  and  an  undersupply  of  blood-sugar  (subglycemia) 
is  just  as  dangerous  as  an  oversupply  (hyperglycemia).  The  only 
way  to  correct  such  a  contingency  is  to  administer  a  sufficient 
amount  of  glucose  to  compensate  the  action  of  excess  insulin. 

Cases  have  been  reported  where  a  liberal  amount  of  honey  was 
administered  to  avert  an  insulin  shock  due  to  subglycemia,  but 
it  was  of  no  benefit;  on  the  other  hand,  a  subsequent  adminis- 
tration of  glucose  rapidly  neutralized  the  harmful  effects  of  in- 
sulin. The  slow  absorption  of  levulose  and  the  delay  of  trans- 
forming it  in  the  system  into  glucose  would  account  for  the 
inefficiency.  This  plainly  proves  that  a  fundamental  chemical  and 
physiological  contrast  exists  between  ordinary  sugar  and  honey. 
There  is  much  the  same  disparity  between  glucose  and  levulose, 
the  latter  an  important  component  of  honey.  The  symptoms  of 
subglycemia  which  follow  the  complete  removal  of  the  liver  in 


108  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

animals  are  promptly  dispelled  by  the  administration  of  glucose, 
while  levulose  is  ineffective.  It  is  noteworthy  that  levulose  is 
rarely,  if  ever,  found  in  the  blood. 

Diabetic  patients  who  have  had  to  endure  for  endless  years  the 
self-inflicted  injections  of  insulin  are  often  exposed  to  insulin- 
shock,  which  is  really  subglycemic  reaction.  Sometimes  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  an  adequate  reason  for  this  dangerous  and  occa- 
sionally fatal  occurrence.  There  are  many  causes  which  may 
produce  such  a  state  and  diabetics  ought  to  be  well  instructed  in 
their  appreciation.  This  is  a  difficult  task  for  a  layman,  often 
enough  even  for  an  intelligent  physician.  The  most  common 
causes  which  are  responsible  for  such  a  state  are,  as  a  rule,  errors 
in  administering  the  proper  amount  of  insulin,  usually  too  large 
a  dose;  a  delay  in  eating  an  appropriate  meal;  that  is,  a  poor  ad- 
justment of  diet  or  loss  of  part  of  the  food  by  vomiting,  diarrhea 
or  gastric  obstruction;  violent  exercise  in  combination  with  insulin, 
etc.  Diabetics  often  use  the  same  site  for  injections.  This  delays 
or  prevents  absorption  and  requires  an  increase  of  insulin,  which 
additional  dose,  if  injected  into  a  new  site,  will  absorb  rapidly, 
lower  the  blood-sugar  level  and  produce  a  shock. 

Many  instances  have  been  reported  where  honey  was  well 
tolerated  by  diabetics  and  supplied  them  with  required  energy. 
In  1933,  after  the  author  had  published  a  questionnaire  to  bee- 
keepers through  the  courtesy  of  apicultural  journals,  to  obtain 
information  about  the  effects  of  bee  stings,  especially  about  their 
remedial  value  in  rheumatic  and  arthritic  conditions,  many  cor- 
respondents volunteered  illuminating  reports  about  the  medicinal 
value  of  honey.  Some  of  these  communications  state  that  honey 
has  been  used  by  them  in  hopeless  diabetic  conditions  with  the 
best  success  and  resulted  in  cures.  Some  reports  are  very  instruc- 
tive. Mr.  G.  J.,  of  Kaukauna,  Wisconsin,  writes,  "I  am  a  railroad 
engineer  by  trade,  but  I  became  a  diabetes  victim  and  I  had  to  re- 
sign my  job  because  I  fell  away  to  nothing.  The  doctors  gave  me 
up  and  proclaimed  that  there  was  no  hope  for  me.  Then  I  made 
up  my  mind  to  take  up  a  diet  that  I  asked  for  but  the  doctors 
refused  and  here  it  is: 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  109 

Spinach,  raw  or  cooked,  mostly  raw. 

Lettuce,  sweetened  with  honey  and  lime  juice. 

Raw  carrots,  washed,  brushed  and  grated,  sweetened 

with  honey  to  taste. 
Raw  cabbage  salad  with  lime  juice  and  honey. 
Ripe  tomatoes,  raw  or  canned,  sweetened  with  honey. 
Whole  wheat  bread. 

"Began  this  diet  in  1922  and  at  the  end  of  1923  the  doctors 
could  not  find  a  trace  of  sugar,  though  several  of  them  have 
tested  me  to  satisfy  their  curiosity.  I  am  now  past  6$,  eat  any- 
thing on  the  table,  and  will  do  as  much  work  as  any  man  of  my 
age,  if  not  more,  after  going  through  two  railroad  wrecks  and 
being  picked  up  twice  for  dead.  Whisky  was  not  the  cause  of 
the  wrecks,  for  I  do  not  touch  the  cursed  stuff." 

Mr.  L.  M.  D.  of  Edmeston,  New  York,  writes  that  he  not 
only  cured  many  cases  of  rheumatism  with  bee  stings  but  also 
supplies  a  list  of  people  who  were  victims  of  diabetes.  After 
they  indulged  in  honey  they  recovered.  "Mr.  and  Mrs.  F.  D. 
both  suffered  from  diabetes,  doctoring  with  various  physicians 
for  a  long  time  without  improving.  Finally  they  went  on  a  diet 
consisting  of  large  amounts  of  honey  and  plenty  of  fruit,  and 
today  both  are  alright." 

Such  disclosures  (call  them  intrusions),  even  though  they  origi- 
nate from  the  laity,  ought  to  arouse  the  attention  of  the  vener- 
able medical  fraternity. 

To  justify  the  supposition  that  honey  can  be  given  to  diabetics, 
there  are  also  statements  from  members  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion. Dr.  F.  C.  Ameiss  advocated  tupelo  honey  for  diabetics,  as 
having  a  minimum  percentage  of  dextrose  and  a  maximum  of 
levulose.  (Tupelo  is  a  tree  of  the  dogwood  family.)  Dr.  Desi- 
derius  de  Beszedits,  of  Coyuca  de  Catalan,  Guerrero,  Mexico, 
in  an  article  in  the  Medical  World,  October,  1934,  "Treat- 
ment of  Diabetes,"  wrote  the  following:  "Just  one  more  thing 
to  conclude:  the  employing  of  honey-diet  in  the  treatment  of 
diabetes  may  look  antiscientific,  antimedical,   even   rather  silly 


110  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

to  the  theoretical  minded,  uninitiated  or  to  a  superficial  observer. 
Just  at  this  writing,  my  bee  flocks  (a  cross  between  the  lazy  native 
Indian  wasp-like  bee  and  the  large,  ever-busy  Hungarian — also 
called  Italian — bee,  I  imported  from  Europe)  are  busy  gather- 
ing honey  from  a  plant  now  in  bloom  here,  called  retama  or 
tecoma  mollis,  retania  or  tronadora.  We  make  tincture  and  fluid 
extract  of  this  plant  (leaves  and  roots),  and  I  give  it  to  diabetic 
patients  in  drop  doses  in  manzanilla  tea  when  I  cannot  obtain  the 
leaves  for  the  tea  that  I  use  in  preference.  The  tea,  the  tincture 
and  the  fluid  extract  of  this  plant  have  a  decidedly  and  markedly 
antiglycosuric  and  eupeptic  quality  and  its  antipolyuric  effect  is 
notably  rapid.  Now  we  all  know  that  the  bee  sucks  the  quintes- 
sence of  the  flower  juice,  adds  something  of  her  own  to  it  (saliva 
or  some  other  substance)  and  so  manufactures  it  into  honey.  Each 
country  has  a  large  number  of  provenly  medicinal  plants,  and 
the  bees  gather  their  honey  from  such  flowers.  Making  our  deduc- 
tions, it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why,  on  this  basis,  honey 
fits  into  the  curative  diet  for  diabetes.  Most  likely  it  is  just  the 
proper  food  for  the  depleted  hungry  glands."  (The  belief  that 
the  curative  properties  of  certain  plants  are  transmitted  by  the 
bees  from  the  blooms  into  the  honey  they  produce,  is  rather  wide- 
spread. Menelik,  the  great  King  of  the  Ethiopians,  according  to 
Dr.  Theodorows  {Lancet,  1897)  grew  Coso  trees  under  which 
he  placed  the  hives.  The  Coso  honey  which  the  bees  gathered 
from  the  blooms  was  considered  an  excellent  worm  remedy.  A 
tablespoonful  of  the  honey  in  water  was  supposed  to  be  sufficient 
to  produce  results.  The  natives  of  India  drop  lotus  honey  into  the 
eyes  to  cure  cataracts.  The  belief  in  the  anti-tuberculotic  effect 
of  Eucalyptus  honey  is  world-wide.) 

Dr.  A.  Y.  Davidov  of  Russia  has  found  honey  a  good  substi- 
tute for  sugar  and  other  sweet  foodstuffs  in  diabetes.  Dr.  Davidov 
believes  that  honey  prevents  acetonemia  and  diminishes  the 
amount  of  sugar  in  the  urine  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  honey  con- 
tains 75%  sugar.  One  of  his  patients  used  one  pound  of  honey 
in  ten  days  without  an  increase  of  the  sugar  rate  in  the  urine. 
When  the  use  of  honey  was  stopped  for  a  while  the  sugar  per- 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  III 

centage  in  the  urine  rose  and  the  patient  was  again  given  four 
teaspoonfuls  of  honey  daily,  after  which  the  sugar  rate  again 
dropped.  Dr.  Davidov  reported  six  more  instances  where  honey 
had  a  beneficial  effect  in  diabetes. 

Dr.  L.  R.  Emerick  of  Eaton,  Ohio,  a  specialist  in  diabetes, 
used  honey  in  the  diet  of  more  than  250  diabetic  patients  with 
success.  The  fame  of  the  late  Dr.  R.  J.  Goss  of  Middlebury,  Ver- 
mont, was  proclaimed  throughout  the  State  for  helping  diabetics 
on  a  honey  diet.  A  neighbor  of  his  related  that  he  has  seen  many 
patients  arrive  for  treatments  weak  and  emaciated  but  they  soon 
gained  in  weight,  looked  splendid  and  were  able  to  walk  for 
miles. 

(The  author  would  earnestly  caution  diabetics  not  to  use  honey 
without  the  advice  and  strict  control  of  their  physicians.) 

Professor  A.  Szent-Gyorgyi,  the  discoverer  of  Vitamin  C,  pub- 
lished interesting  results  which  he  obtained  by  peroral  adminis- 
tration of  succinic  acid  in  the  treatment  of  acidosis  of  diabetics 
{Orvosi  Hetilap.  Budapest,  No.  24,  June  12,  1937).  These,  if 
confirmed,  may  explain  the  beneficial  effects  of  various  acids, 
among  others  lactic,  succinic,  citric,  malic  acid,  etc.,  which  honey 
contains.  The  formation  of  dangerous  acetone  in  diabetes  is  pos- 
sibly corrected  through  the  aid  of  these  acids. 

HEATHER   HONEY 

Magic  healing  power  was  attributed  to  heather,  this  modest 
little  wild  flower  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  so  dear  to  the  heart 
of  all  Scotsmen.  The  legendary  lore  and  lay  connected  with  this 
favorite  mountain  bloom,  the  emblem  of  solitude,  was  shared 
by  the  honey  which  the  bees  extracted  from  it.  Heather  desig- 
nates a  flower  of  the  heath  (in  German,  heide)  and  its  connection 
with  the  word  heathen,  pagan  (in  German,  heide  also  means 
pagan)  reflects  a  quaint  superstition.  Both  in  Scotland  and  in 
Germany  a  belief  existed  that  the  heather  grew  from  the  blood 
of  a  heathen.  In  Scotland,  on  Halloween,  the  witches  are  sup- 
posed to  ride  on  heather  brooms. 


112  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

The  heather  flower  is  purplish,  suggesting  the  color  of  blood. 
White  heather  is  extremely  rare  and  it  is  supposed  to  bring  good 
luck,  not  unlike  a  four-leaf  clover.  Queen  Victoria  mentioned  in 
a  letter  that  when  she  was  a  young  bride  and  was  driving  fast 
to  Balmoral  Castle,  her  coachman  suddenly  jumped  off  the  car- 
riage to  pick  a  white  heather  for  which  "he  had  an  extraordinary 
eye  to  find,"  and  remarked  that  "a  Highlander  would  never  pass 
one  without  picking  it,  because  it  is  considered  to  bring  one  good 
fortune." 

The  nectar  which  heather  blooms  contain  is  rich  in  minerals. 
The  Picts  had  the  secret  of  making  excellent  ale  from  the  "tender 
tops  of  the  twigs."  Heather  ale  was  called  heather-crop,  mean- 
ing the  top  of  the  plant.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  refers  to  heather 
ale  in  A  Galloway  Legend: 

From  the  bonny  bells  of  heather 

They  brewed  a  drink  lang-syne, 
Was  sweeter  far  than  honey, 

Was  stronger  far  than  wine. 
They  brewed  it  and  they  drank  it, 

And  lay  in  blessed  swound 
For  days  and  days  together 

In  their  dwellings  underground. 

Leyden  also  refers  to  it  in  The  Heather: 

For  once  thy  mantling  juice  was  seen  to  laugh 
In  pearly  cups,  which  monarchs  loved  to  quaff; 

Heather  ale  was  much  used  among  the  Picts ;  but  when  that 
nation  was  extirpated  by  the  Scots  the  secret  of  making  it  perished 
with  them. 

We  know  the  legend  relating  how  anxious  were  the  Scots  to 
learn  the  secret  of  the  strength -giving  heather  ale.  When  the 
last  two  living  members  of  the  Picts,  father  and  son,  were 
brought  before  Kenneth  the  Conqueror,  he  offered  them  their 
life  on  condition  that  they  reveal  the  method  of  heath-liquor 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  113 

making.  After  they  refused  Kenneth  ordered  the  son  to  be  killed. 
The  father  was  still  obdurate  but  his  life  was  spared  and  he  was 
imprisoned.  He  lived  much  beyond  the  limits  of  mortal  exist- 
ence but  became  blind  and  bed-ridden.  Once  he  overheard  some 
young  men  boasting  of  their  strength.  He  felt  their  wrists,  re- 
marking that  they  were  not  feeble  but  their  vigor  could  not  be 
compared  to  men  who  drank  heather  ale.  He  asked  for  an  iron 
bar  and  broke  it  with  his  hands.  It  was  an  old  Scotch  saying  that 
mead-drinkers  have  as  much  strength  as  meat-eaters. 

The  medicinal  properties  of  heather  had  a  wide  repute  in 
antiquity.  Parkinson  in  his  Theatrum  Botanicum,  1640  a.d., 
remarks:  "It  hath  a  digesting  quality,  resolving  the  malignity  of 
humors,  by  transpiration  or  sweating ;  which  a  decoction  of  the 
flowers  being  drunke,  doth  perform,  and  thereby  giveth  much 
ease  to  the  paines  within  the  body,  and  expelleth  the  worms 
therein  also;  the  leaves  and  flowers  made  into  a  decoction  is  good 
against  the  stings  or  bitings  of  serpents  and  other  venomous  crea- 
tures ;  and  the  same  being  drunke  warm,  for  thirty  days  to- 
gether, morning  and  evening,  doth  absolutely  breake  the  stone 
and  drive  it  forth;  the  same,  also,  or  the  destilled  water  of  the 
whole  plant,  being  drunke  easeth  the  chollicke;  the  said  water 
or  the  juyce  of  the  herbe  dropped  into  the  eyes  helpeth  the  weak- 
nesse  of  the  sight." 

A  decoction  of  heather  "with  faire  water  to  be  drunken  warm 
both  morning  and  evening  in  the  quantity  of  five  ounces  three 
hours  before  meat,  against  the  stone  in  the  bladder;  but  at  last 
the  patient  must  enter  into  a  bath  made  of  the  decoction  and 
whiles  he  is  in  the  said  bath,  he  must  sit  upon  some  of  the  heather 
that  made  the  foresaid  bath.  By  the  use  of  bath,  dyet  and  de- 
coction hee  has  knowne  many  to  be  holpen,  so  that  the  stone  has 
come  from  them  in  very  small  pieces."  Dioscorides'  highly- 
praised  Erica  plant  was  undoubtedly  heather. 

The  same  curative  power  which  was  imputed  to  the  plant  was 
also  attributed  to  heather  honey.  Rev.  Hugh  Macmillan  re- 
marked that  "Mount  Hybla  itself  could  not  boast  of  more  luscious 
honey  than  the  liquid  amber  which  the  bees  gathered  from  the 


114  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

heather-bells."  The  Scotch  thought  that  heather  honey  had  a 
"grousey"  taste. 

Heather  honey  has  world-wide  repute  as  a  specific  remedy  for 
many  ailments.  It  is  in  great  demand  in  foreign  countries  and  is 
sold  at  a  premium.  Dr.  Barton,  during  his  stay  in  Edinburgh, 
noticed  the  distinct  soporific  effect  of  heath-honey.  It  is  often 
so  thick  that  it  can  not  be  readily  separated  from  the  combs  by 
centrifugal  force  unless  kept  in  a  warm  place  for  several  days 
before  extracting. 

Pure  heather  (ling)  honey  does  not  granulate  unless  10  per 
cent  of  pollen  grains  of  other  plants  are  present.  (But  5  per  cent 
of  charlock  might  start  granulation.)  It  is  of  a  jelly  consistency 
with  a  multitude  of  tiny  air  bubbles  which  give  a  characteristic 
sparkle.  If  the  honey  is  heated  these  bubbles  rise  to  the  surface 
and  their  absence  at  once  reduces  the  merit  of  the  honey.  In 
common  parlance,  pure  heather  honey  does  not  imply  absolute 
purity.  If  there  is  20  per  cent  of  other  pollen  present,  it  would 
still  be  reckoned  good  heather  honey ;  and  even  if  it  had  up- 
wards of  40  per  cent  of  foreign  pollen  grains,  that  honey  might, 
by  flavor,  aroma  and  consistency,  pass  anywhere  as  good  heather 
honey.  Bell  heather  (Erica)  does  granulate,  and  it  is  to  be  classed 
with  other  dark  honeys ;  for  it  has  not  the  characteristic  color, 
sparkle,  consistency,  astringency,  flavor,  and  pollen  of  the  gen- 
uine heather  honey  (John  Beveridge,  President  of  the  Scottish 
Beekeepers'  Association). 

EUCALYPTUS  HONEY 

The  cultivation  of  Eucalyptus  trees  in  malaria-infested  regions 
proved  to  be  instrumental  in  eradicating  this  dreadful  disease. 
In  certain  parts  of  Australia,  malaria  entirely  disappeared  after 
these  fast  growing  fever-trees  had  been  planted.  Important  medic- 
inal values  were  always  attributed  to  the  sap  of  these  trees.  Their 
blooms  are  rich  in  pollen  and  nectar. 

The  Trappist  monastery  of  Tre  Fontane,  near  Rome,  was 
built  by  the  monks  on  soil  which  was  infested  with  malaria.  (The 


THE    MEDICINAL    VALUE    OF    HONEY  11$ 

name  originated  from  the  legend  which  relates  that  when  St. 
Paul  was  decapitated  there  by  a  powerful  blow,  his  head  rolled 
along  with  great  force  and  from  three  places,  where  it  touched 
the  ground,  wells  issued.)  After  the  monks  had  planted  forests 
of  Eucalyptus  trees,  the  region  became  habitable.  The  Trappist 
monks  conduct  extensive  apiaries  there  with  two  honey  harvests, 
in  May  and  in  October.  Some  hives  produce  yearly  as  much  as 
120  pounds  of  honey  (H.  Reepen).  On  account  of  the  consider- 
able demand,  Eucalyptus  honey  is  high-priced  and  it  affords  a 
fair  income  to  the  priests. 

Eucalyptus  honey  is  dark  in  color,  with  a  rather  unpleasant 
taste  and  a  strong  aromatic  odor.  Australia  supplies  the  largest 
part  of  the  demand.  In  Germany  they  pay  three  to  four  marks 
a  pound  for  such  imported  honeys.  Dr.  Ullersberger  of  Strass- 
burg  thought  that  genuine  Eucalyptus  honey  is  an  unparalleled 
substance ;  it  is  strengthening,  blood-forming,  blood-purifying, 
nourishing,  and  besides,  produces  appetite.  He  advised  adding,  on 
account  of  its  reconstructive  power,  one  to  three  tablespoonfuls 
to  any  diet.     ' 

The  Trappist  Liqueur  de  Tre  Fontane  is  also  popular.  The 
monks  prepare  the  extract,  with  the  aid  of  the  most  modern  dis- 
tilling apparatus,  from  the  leaves  of  the  Eucalyptus  trees. 


CHAPTER    VIII 
HONEY  IN  SURGERY 


HONEY  has  a  distinct  bactericidal  power  which  is  mainly 
due  to  its  hygroscopic  property.  All  living  organisms  re- 
quire a  certain  amount  of  moisture  to  maintain  their  lives.  When 
bacteria  come  in  contact  with  honey  they  are  deprived  of  the  vital 
moisture  and  perish.  The  acid  reaction  of  honey  also  renders  it  an 
unfavorable  medium  for  the  bacteria  to  grow  in.  Most  micro- 
organisms which  affect  the  human  body  are  destroyed  in  honey. 

Honey  applied  to  ulcerated  surfaces  has  a  unique  function.  Soon 
after  its  application  a  profuse  and  intense  centrifugal  flow  of 
lymph  is  noticeable  and  the  entire  torpid  surface  of  the  wound 
becomes  soaked  in  fluid.  This  leucocytic  lymph  collection  which 
honey  produces  has  not  only  a  bactericidal  power  but  the  rinsing 
function  of  the  free-flowing  liquid  will  greatly  contribute  to  the 
cleansing  of  the  wounds  and  will  stimulate  and  promote  granula- 
tion and  healing.  The  ancient  Greeks  often  refer  to  "epomphalia", 
a  navel  ointment  made  from  honey  for  the  newborn.  Old  mead, 
which  is  almost  as  extinct  today  as  the  dodo,  was  also  used  as  an 
antiseptic  lotion. 

The  external  application  of  honey  has  an  age-old  history.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  used  it  as  a  surgical  dressing.  The  Papyrus 
Ebers  recommended  that  wounds  be  covered  for  four  days  with 
linen  dipped  in  honey  and  incense.  They  believed  that  cataracts 
yielded  to  treatments  with  honey.  Honey  dropped  into  the  eyes 
was  supposed  to  have  cured  inflammations  and  other  ailments  of 
the  eyelids.  To  quote  the  amusing  report  of  Vigerius:  "I  have 
cured  a  Horse  stone  blind  with  Honey  and  Salt  and  a  little  crock 
of  a  pot  mixed.  In  less  than  three  daies,  it  hath  eaten  off  a  tough 

116 


HONEY    IN    SURGERY  117 

filme,  and  the  Horse  never  complained  after."  In  the  July,  1937 
issue  of  the  American  Bee  Journal  (page  350)  "A  Subscriber" 
from  New  York  State  writes  as  follows:  "I  had  a  horse  going- 
blind  with  a  white  film  over  his  eye  which  seemed  to  hurt.  His 
eye  was  shut  and  watered.  I  dipped  white  honey  into  his  eye  with 
a  feather  for  several  nights.  In  a  day  or  so  the  film  was  gone  and 
the  eye  looked  bright  and  good." 

The  Chinese  and  Hindus  cover  the  entire  bodies  of  their  small- 
pox patients  with  honey  to  hasten  the  termination  of  the  disease 
and  also  to  prevent  the  formation  of  scars.  Galen  thought  that 
"Hony  warmes  and  cleares  Wounds  and  Ulcers,  attenuates  and 
discusseth  excrescencies  in  any  part  of  the  body."  The  Talmud 
recommended  honey  for  ulcerated  wounds,  especially  for  exten- 
sive sores  of  animals.  Ceromel,  made  with  one  part  of  wax  and 
four  parts  of  honey,  is  popular  in  the  tropics  for  ulcers  because  it 
never  becomes  rancid. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  honey  was  extensively  used  in  the 
form  of  ointments  and  plasters  for  boils,  wounds,  burns  and  ulcers, 
plain  or  mixed  with  other  ingredients.  Charles  Butler  thought 
that  honey  "will  knit  together  hollow  and  crooked  ulcers  and 
likewise  close  other  disjoyned  flesh."  He  highly  praised  the 
Unguentum  Aegyftiacum  which  was  made  by  boiling  honey, 
vinegar  and  wintergreen.  This  plaster,  according  to  Butler,  would 
"open,  clean,  dry  and  digest  all  inflammations  and  resist  putre- 
faction." Rectal  suppositories  contained  honey  and  wax.  Galen's 
honey  and  oil  enema  was  popular  for  centuries. 

Richard  Remnant  {The  History  of  Bees,  London,  1637)  had 
implicit  faith  in  "admirable  baths  made  of  honey  which  are  excel- 
lent for  Aches  and  strong  Itches."  A  friend  of  his  had  "a  foul  itch 
that  he  was  like  a  Leper."  He  cured  him  in  the  following  manner: 
He  used  an  empty  Wine  cask,  called  a  Pipe,  and  "took  out  one 
head"  and  made  a  liquor  of  water  and  honey,  making  it  pretty 
strong  with  honey  and  "heated  it  as  hot  as  he  could  endure  to 
stand  in  it,"  and  poured  it  into  the  Pipe  and  "caused  him  to  stand 
in  it  up  to  his  neck  a  pretty  while."  This  he  did  "three  days,  one 
after  another,  and  he  recovered  as  clear  as  ever."  He  had  a  like 


I  I  8  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

experience  with  "divers  Aches."  "If  it  be  renewed  every  day  with 
a  little  honey,  it  will  be  better." 

The  rural  populations  of  the  European  continent,  especially 
that  of  the  Slavic  countries,  used  honey  for  all  kinds  of  wounds 
and  inflammations.  "Honey  ointment",  consisting  of  equal  por- 
tions of  honey  and  white  flour,  well  mixed  with  a  little  water,  had 
a  wide  usage.  A  good  ointment  should  be  more  solidified  than  too 
liquid.  Honey  and  burnt  alum  was  another  popular  combination. 
In  croupous  diphtheria  it  was  the  accepted  method  of  mothers  to 
grip  with  their  fingers  a  chunk  of  honey  and  vigorously  rub,  as 
far  as  they  could  reach,  the  throat  and  air  passages  of  the  patients. 
A  honey  poultice  was  also  applied  around  the  neck.  Several  drops 
of  warm  honey  in  the  ear  was  considered  an  excellent  remedy  for 
pain,  inflammation  and  ringing  of  the  ear.  Galen  remarked: 
"Hony  infused  warme  by  itself  wonderfully  helps  exulcerated 
ears,  especially  if  they  cast  forth  ill  flavours,  as  also  their  singings 
and  inflammations."  Marcellus  Empyricus  suggested:  "Honey, 
Butter  and  Oyle  of  Roses,  of  each  a  like  quantity,  warme,  helps 
the  paine  of  the  ears,  dulness  of  the  sight  and  the  white  spots  in 
the  eyes." 

The  writer  learned  through  personal  communication  that  honey 
is  still  used  for  trachoma  in  the  form  of  eyedrops.  A  Canadian 
mother  related  to  him  that  two  of  her  daughters  contracted  sore 
eyes  while  attending  school,  where  there  was  an  epidemic  at  the 
time.  They  were  cured  in  two  or  three  days  by  dropping  honey 
into  their  eyes.  It  took  two  and  three  weeks  for  the  other  children 
in  the  school  to  get  rid  of  the  same  trouble.  Cataracts  of  the  eyes 
were  reported  to  have  been  cured  by  the  same  method,  drop- 
ping honey  into  the  eyes  three  times  daily. 

Our  good  friend,  the  famous  globe-trotter  Dr.  W.  E.  Aughin- 
baugh,  described  an  operation  he  witnessed  in  Panama,  during  the 
construction  of  the  canal.  A  native  Indian  surgeon  of  considerable 
repute  performed  a  disarticulation  of  the  hip  joint.  He  smoked 
cigarettes  incessantly  during  the  operation,  laid  them  down  occa- 
sionally, picking  them  up  again  with  his  bloody  fingers.  After  the 
stump  was  sutured,  the  surgeon  took  from  a  large  pail  several 


HONEY    IN    SURGERY  119 

handfuls  of  honey,  which  he  smeared  over  the  wound,  covering  it 
subsequently  with  gauze.  He  assured  Dr.  Aughinbaugh  that  he 
had  never  had  an  infection  when  he  applied  a  layer  of  honey  over 
the  wound.  Dr.  Aughinbaugh  has  seen  the  natives  of  the  Amazon 
region  "suture"  extensive  injuries  by  letting  beetles  unite  the 
margins  of  wounds  with  their  robust  mandibles.  After  the  heads 
of  the  insects  were  severed,  the  mandibles  remained  closed  and 
the  wounds  were  covered  with  honey  mixed  with  liquid  wax.  The 
results  were  excellent. 

It  is  singular  that,  though  honey  was  used  for  thousands  of 
years  for  treatment  of  wounds  and  skin  troubles,  our  modern 
medical  literature  ignores  the  subject.  Lately,  it  seems,  honey  is 
gradually  regaining  its  age-old  repute  and  lost  popularity.  Dr. 
Zaiss,  of  Heidelberg,  considers  honey  in  the  treatment  of  wounds 
superior  to  all  other  ointments.  He  has  treated  several  thousand 
cases  of  severe  infections  with  honey  and  could  not  report  a  single 
failure.  Dr.  Zaiss  prefers  honey  even  to  tincture  of  iodine.  He 
dresses  the  wounds  with  strips  of  gauze  dipped  in  honey,  and 
finds  the  wounds  perfectly  clean  in  24  hours.  The  sloughs,  even 
deep  ones,  usually  adhere  to  the  dressing  material.  Dr.  Zaiss  states 
that  the  application  causes,  at  first,  a  transient  smarting  but  the 
pain  is  soon  relieved  and  a  cooling  sensation  supervenes.  The 
healing  is  remarkably  rapid.  He  suggests  a  daily  change  of 
dressing. 

The  Germans  were  always  firm  believers  in  the  curative  power 
of  honey,  both  internally  and  externally,  as  a  surgical  dressing.  It 
is  interesting  that  honey  is  now  combined  in  Germany  with  an- 
other old  popular  remedy  5  namely,  cod-liver  oil.  Pliny  highly 
praised  cod-liver  oil  as  a  wound  dressing  (Hist.  Nat.  31:27). 
The  Eskimos,  Laplanders  and  the  natives  of  Greenland  use  cod- 
liver  oil  even  these  days  for  the  dressing  of  wounds.  German 
surgeons,  Zaiss,  Sack,  Lucke,  Buchheister,  Lohr,  Gundel,  Blatt- 
ner  and  others,  published  recently  in  the  medical  journals  miracu- 
lous results  which  they  obtained  through  the  use  of  a  honey-cod- 
liver  oil  ointment  called  Desitin-Honey  salve.  Infected  wounds, 
ulcerations,   burns,   fistulas,   boils,   carbuncles,    felons,   etc.,   are 


120  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

reported  to  heal  in  the  shortest  time.  The  ointment  is  supposed  to 
check  inflammation,  stimulate  granulation  and  remove  deep 
necrotic  tissues.  Subjectively  the  ointment  is  very  well  tolerated 
because  it  alleviates  pain  and  eases  tension.  The  change  of  dress- 
ings is  not  painful  because  in  twenty-four  hours  the  wound  is 
soaked  in  a  rich  exudate  of  lymph  which  prevents  adherence  of 
the  dressing  material  to  the  wound  and  is  easily  removed.  The 
odor  of  the  ointment  is  rather  pleasant,  without  a  corrigent.  It  is 
difficult  to  say  whether  the  honey  or  the  cod-liver  oil  is  the  more 
helpful  ingredient  but  it  seems  that  it  is  a  fortunate  combination. 
The  surgeons  advise  that,  though  its  function  is  not  scientifically 
proven  and  therefore  justified,  these  facts  should  not  interfere 
with  its  use.  In  skin  diseases,  even  in  psoriasis,  the  results  obtained 
were  excellent.  For  frostbites  on  ears,  fingers  and  toes  there  is 
nothing  which  will  take  out  sooner  the  frost  and  swelling  than 
when  these  parts  are  wrapped  in  honey.  Verrucae  (warts)  were 
reported  to  have  been  removed  by  the  overnight  application  of  a 
honey  poultice. 

Recently  Dr.  Charles  Brunnich,  a  surgeon  of  Switzerland, 
joined  the  ranks  of  those  who  advocate  honey  for  surgical  dress- 
ings, especially  for  contused  and  badly  slashed  septic  wounds.  He 
quotes  the  case  of  a  man  whose  finger  was  smashed  in  a  grinding 
machine.  The  bone  of  the  terminal  phalanx  of  the  finger  was 
broken  and  hung  on  a  skin  flap.  After  wrapping  the  extremity  in 
honey  the  finger  grew  on  and  rapidly  healed.  Another  man  had, 
in  succession,  two  large  carbuncles  on  the  back.  While  the  first 
carbuncle  was  operated  on  by  a  surgeon  and  left  a  deep  ugly  scar, 
the  second  was  treated  only  with  honey.  The  cores  rapidly  elimi- 
nated and  the  wound  left  only  an  insignificant  scar. 

In  the  "Alfenl'dndische  Bienenzeitung"  (February,  1935)  we 
find  the  following  report  from  a  man:  "In  the  winter  of  1933  I 
heated  a  boiler  of  about  thirty-five  gallons  of  water.  When  I 
opened  the  cover,  it  flew  with  great  force  against  the  ceiling.  The 
vapor  and  hot  water  poured  forth  over  my  unprotected  head, 
over  my  hands  and  feet.  Some  minutes  afterward  I  had  violent 
pains  and  I  believe  I  would  have  gone  mad  if  my  wife  and  my 


HONEY    IN    SURGERY  121 

daughter  had  not  helped  me  immediately.  They  took  large  pieces 
of  linen,  daubed  them  thickly  with  honey  and  put  them  on  my 
head,  neck,  hands  and  feet.  Almost  instantly  the  pain  ceased.  I 
slept  well  all  night  and  did  not  lose  a  single  hair  on  my  head. 
When  the  physician  came  he  shook  his  head  and  said:  'How  can 
such  a  thing  be  possible?'" 


CHAPTER    IX 
MEAD 


".  .  .  Valhall's  blushing  maids  round-proffer 
the  Mead-Horns,  rich  with  foam  of  gold,  .  .  ." 

Frithiof's  Saga 

HONEY  and  water,  called  hydromel,  is  one  of  the  oldest 
drinks  known.  It  was  later  called  mead,  meth,  or 
metheglin. 

There  are  three  distinct  kinds  of  mead,  the  simple,  the  com- 
pound and  the  vinous.  Simple  mead  is  made  of  water  and  honey 
which  does  not  undergo  fermentation.  It  is  made  by  boiling  about 
three  parts  of  water  to  one  part  of  honey ;  the  honey  may  be 
increased  or  diminished  according  to  taste.  The  boiling  is  done 
over  a  slow  fire  until  one  third  has  evaporated,  then  the  remainder 
is  skimmed  and  put  into  a  cask,  until  the  cask  is  full.  In  three  or 
four  days  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  Simple  mead  is  a  favorite  drink  of 
the  Mohammedans  who  are  forbidden  alcoholic  beverages. 

Compound  mead  is  made  in  the  following  manner:  While  the 
simple  mead  is  boiling,  some  raisins,  cut  in  two,  are  cooked  sepa- 
rately, allowing  one-half  pound  of  raisins  to  six  pounds  of  honey. 
During  the  time  while  the  boiling  mead  is  diminishing,  the  lique- 
fied raisins  are  added  through  a  coarse  linen  filter  and  the  mixture 
is  boiled  together  for  a  short  time;  a  toasted  crust  of  bread,  steeped 
in  beer,  is  then  put  into  it  and  after  the  scum,  which  forms  afresh, 
has  been  removed  the  liquid  is  soon  taken  off  the  fire  and  allowed 
to  settle.  After  it  has  been  poured  into  a  barrel  (new  barrels  must 
be  rinsed  with  brandy),  an  ounce  of  salt  of  tartar,  dissolved  in  a 
glass  of  brandy  is  added.  Kept  in  a  warm  room  or  exposed  to  the 
sun,  with  the  barrel  open,  it  will  commence  to  ferment.  Some 


MEAD  123 

pieces  of  lemon  peel,  a  few  drops  of  essence  of  cinnamon  and  some 
syrup  of  gooseberries,  cherries,  strawberries  and  aromatic  flowers 
may  be  mixed  with  the  concoction  to  suit  individual  taste.  The 
froth  must  always  be  replaced  with  some  of  the  remaining  stock 
and  the  barrel  kept  continually  filled.  Compound  mead  ferments 
a  considerable  time,  usually  about  two  months.  After  the  fermen- 
tation has  ceased,  the  bung-hole  is  closed.  The  longer  the  mead 
is  aged  the  better  and  more  potent  will  it  be.  After  several  years 
in  a  cask  it  may  be  put,  with  the  addition  of  a  lump  of  sugar,  into 
bottles  which  then  must  be  well  corked. 

For  the  preparation  of  Vinous  mead  there  are  more  diversified 
instructions,  rules  and  procedures  than  for  all  other  alcoholic 
liquors  combined.  Every  nation,  every  class  and  age  has  had  a 
different  method  of  mead-making.  The  component  parts,  the 
technic  and  innumerable  other  considerations,  had  to  be  carefully 
bethought  to  produce  an  excellent  mead.  One  Greek  mead  con- 
tained thirty-six  ingredients  and  was  called  "true  nectar."  The 
ancients  depended  even  on  the  constellations  of  stars  to  select  the 
best  time  for  preparing  this  favorite  drink.  The  fermentation 
period  of  mead  was  of  such  vital  importance  with  some  races  that 
during  that  time  sexual  abstinence  had  to  be  observed,  otherwise 
it  was  believed  the  mead  would  spoil.  The  number  of  ingredients 
which  were  selected  is  simply  amazing.  Thyme,  ginger,  nutmeg, 
cinnamon,  cloves,  pepper,  sesame  flour,  sweet  marjoram,  rose- 
mary, even  whites  of  eggs,  were  added.  In  later  centuries  whisky, 
brandy  and  gin  were  used  to  strengthen  and  flavor  it.  Even  the 
water  was  of  consequence.  Pliny,  for  instance,  advised  (Libr. 
XIV.  ch.  20)  in  making  hydromel  the  use  of  rain  water  which  had 
to  be  at  least  five  years  old.*  The  thalassiomel  of  the  Greeks  was 
prepared  with  sea-water. 

The  pervading  principle  in  the  innumerable  orthodox  proced- 
ures of  mead  making  was  to  determine  first  the  correct  proportion 
of  honey,  water  and  other  ingredients ;  the  period  of  time  and  the 
slowness  of  boiling ;  the  vessel  (copper,  glass  or  earthenware); 
the  proper  scumming  of  the  froth;  the  time  and  manner  of  fer- 

*  Tickner  Edwardes,  even  today,  makes  his  mead  with  rain  water. 


124  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

mentation  and  stirring ;  and  finally  how  long  to  let  it  stand  until 
it  had  aged  enough  and  was  fit  to  drink  (Saxon  quality). 

Dr.  Bevan's  recipe  for  making  mead  was  a  typical  modus 
operandi:  "Dissolve  an  ounce  of  cream  of  tartar  in  five  gallons  of 
boiling  water,  pour  the  solution  off  clear  upon  twenty  pounds  of 
fine  honey,  boil  them  together,  and  remove  the  scum  as  it  rises. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  boiling  add  an  ounce  of  fine  hops;  about 
ten  minutes  afterwards  put  the  liquor  into  a  tub  to  cool.  When 
reduced  to  a  temperature  of  700  or  80°  Fahrenheit,  according  to 
the  season,  add  a  slice  of  toasted  bread  smeared  over  with  a  little 
yeast,  the  less  the  better  because  yeast  invariably  spoils  the  -flavor 
of  wines.  If  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  extractive  matter  among  the 
ingredients  employed,  yeast  should  not  be  introduced;  nor  if  it  is 
fermented  in  wooden  vessels.  The  liquors  should  now  stand  in  a 
warm  room,  and  be  stirred  occasionally.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to 
carry  a  bead  it  should  be  tunned  and  the  cask  filled  up  from  time 
to  time  from  the  reserve,  till  the  fermentation  has  subsided.  It 
should  now  be  bunged  down,  leaving  open  a  small  peghole;  in  a 
few  days  this  may  also  be  closed  and  in  about  twelve  months  the 
wine  will  be  fit  to  bottle." 

The  invert  sugars,  dextrose  and  levulose,  which  honeys  con- 
tain, readily  produce  alcohol  by  fermentation.  Saccharose  (su- 
crose), the  main  component  of  cane-sugar,  must  first  be  inverted 
before  it  ferments. 

The  celestial  nectar,  the  drink  of  the  gods,  was  really  fermented 
hydromel,  that  is,  honey-wine,  which  was  only  later  called  mead 
or  meth.  Mead  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible  and  in  the  sacred 
books  of  India.  Abraham  a  Santa  Clara  called  the  bees  (Judas 
IV.  14)  the  "little  mead-brewers."  The  wide-spread  popularity 
of  mead  is  best  proven  by  the  philologists.  In  Scythia  it  was  called 
medos;  in  Greece,  methu;  in  India,  madhu;  in  England,  mead; 
in  Old  Irish,  mid;  in  German,  meth;  in  the  Slavic  countries, 
medu;  in  Lithuanian,  medus;  etc. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  grape  wine  and  malt  liquors, 
mead  was  a  universal  drink  the  world  over.  It  was  prized  in  the 
remote  past  as  good  wine,  beer,  whisky  and  cordials  are  today. 


MEAD  125 

Mead  preceded  in  Greece  the  wine-era  by  many  long  centuries. 
Aristotle  remarks:  "When  the  honey  is  squeezed  out  of  the  combs 
an  agreeable  strong  drink,  like  wine,  is  produced."  Beer  drinking 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  was  considered  a  barbaric  custom. 
Apollonius  Rhodius  (235  b.c.)  related  that  the  Argonauts  kept 
vast  stores  of  food  and  mead  which  the  cup-bearers  drew  forth  in 
beakers  and  described  how  the  heroes  grasped  the  full  goblet  in 
both  hands  and  relished  it,  pouring  also  a  cup  of  mead  upon  the 
seas  before  lifting  their  anchors.  The  Nordic  races  highly  valued 
mead  and  it  was  the  drink  of  their  heroes.  The  Niebelungen 
heroes  drank  meth  out  of  golden  goblets  and  ox-horns.  The  high 
halls  of  Valhalla  flowed  with  mead  and  the  dead  warriors  freely 
drank  from  the  inexhaustible  supply.  The  intrepid  Goth,  Beowulf, 
was  offered  mead  by  the  bracelet-covered  queen  at  the  court  of 
Hrothgar  who  made  the  hall  the  greatest  mead-house  ever 
known.  Mead  was  the  "nectar"  of  all  Scandinavian  countries.  It 
was  their  national  drink.  On  an  ancient  Runic  calendar,  found  in 
Scandinavia,  consisting  of  pictorial  symbols,  two  of  the  twelve 
months  of  the  year  bear  witness  to  the  popularity  of  mead.  Janu- 
ary first,  the  day  of  Yuletide  festivities,  was  represented  by  two 
crossed  ornamental  meadhorns  (these  embellished  horns  look 
very  much  like  those  from  which  visitors  in  Upsala  (Sweden) 
drink  mead  today  (for  a  good  price)  at  the  "Barrow  of  Odin"), 
and  the  month  of  September,  by  a  beehive  and  a  swarm  of  bees, 
a  reminder  to  collect  the  honey  which  is  so  necessary  for  brewing 
mead.  In  the  Eddas,  mead  is  often  mentioned.  Speaking  of  heroes: 
"Blue  mead  was  their  liquor,  and  it  proved  their  poison ;  they 
marched  to  Cattraeth  filled  with  mead  and  drunk."  In  the  early 
Christian  era  mead  still  was  a  favorite  drink.  In  the  "Legends  of 
the  Holy  Rood"  mead  is  also  mentioned.  Chaucer  alludes  to 
"meth"  as  a  common  drink  {Knight's  Tale;  Miller's  Tale). 
Shakespeare  alludes  to  metheglin  when  he  suggests  something 
sweet  (Love's  Labour's  Lost;  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor). 
It  seems  rather  remarkable  how  mead,  the  first  fermented 
drink  known,  was  ousted  by  the  fermented  produce  of  grapes, 
namely,  wine.  It  suffered  the  same  fate  as  honey  as  a  food  and 


126  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

sweetening  substance.  Wine  prepared  from  grapes  came  into 
vogue  comparatively  late.  Grapes  came  from  China  to  Greece  and 
Sicily;  the  Phoenicians  carried  them  to  the  South  of  France,  and 
the  Romans  to  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  The  first  grape  vines  were 
planted  on  the  Rhine  in  Ludwigsau  by  King  Ludwig,  "The  Ger- 
man," in  842  a.d.  But  it  required  many  centuries  before  mead 
was  entirely  "dethroned." 

Among  primitive  races,  especially  the  African  tribes,  mead  has 
remained,  up  to  this  day,  the  popular  drink.  The  East-African 
nomadic  races  not  only  eat  the  wild  honey  but  they  dilute  it  with 
water  and  let  it  ferment  into  wine  or  beer  called  tetsch,  which  is 
their  favorite  drink.  The  African  soothsayers  and  prophets  intoxi- 
cate themselves  with  this  honey-wine.  During  ceremonials  and 
magical  practices  it  is  liberally  used.  They  drink  it  from  horns, 
like  the  Niebelungen  used  to  do,  and  also  distil  it  for  brandy. 

In  Africa  honey  is  found  in  huge  quantities;  in  some  places  the 
bees  are  so  numerous,  as  Seyffert-Dresden  describes  it,  that  they 
even  obstruct  the  passage  of  travelers  and  the  air  is  filled  with 
the  odor  of  honey  and  the  continuous  buzzing  of  bees.  The  Afri- 
can races,  without  exception,  are  fond  of  honey.  They  mix  it  with 
flour,  cereals,  butter,  milk  and  bake  pastries  with  it;  they  even 
knead  their  tobacco  with  honey,  making  dry  cubes  for  chewing- 
tobacco  which  they  call  Latuka. 

The  Boros  and  the  American  Indians  of  the  Western  Amazon 
forests  are  also  fond  of  honey.  They  use  it  for  food  and  prepare 
their  beverages  from  it,  which  they  drink  in  excess  during  festive 
occasions.  The  wild  honey  is  collected  from  the  cavities  of  dead 
trees  or  from  the  hollow  tree-trunks  which  the  natives  set  up  in 
the  thatch  of  their  houses  for  the  new  swarms  to  nest  in. 

In  India,  honey  is  an  important  article  in  the  preparation  of 
foods  and  drinks,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of  alcoholic 
liquors.  The  Himalayan  mead  has  an  unusual  potency;  one  cup  is 
sufficiently  intoxicating.  In  ancient  Babylon,  date  and  honey-wine, 
called  sikaru,  was  a  powerful  alcoholic  drink.  The  misshu  of  the 
Koreans  is  a  brandy  with  a  high  percentage  of  alcohol.  It  is  a 
distilled  honey-wine.  Some  Persians  have  a  tube  gently  inserted 


MEAD  127 

between  their  teeth  while  still  asleep,  and  have  a  mixture  of  warm 
milk,  whisky  and  honey  poured  into  their  mouths  so  that  the  taste 
of  "nectar"  should  be  their  first  conscious  sensation  each  day 
{Patrick  Balfour ,  Grand  Tour). 

According  to  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  history,  the  beehive  supplied 
the  whole  population,  from  the  king  down  to  the  poorest  subject, 
with  food,  drink  and  light.  Mead  was  served  at  the  royal  tables, 
in  monasteries  and  in  the  houses  of  the  poor.  During  royal  festivi- 
ties, mead  was  served  in  horns.  English  history  mentions  how 
Ethelstan,  the  subordinate  King  of  Kent  (Xth  Century),  ex- 
pressed his  delight,  when  visiting  his  relative,  that  there  was  "no 
deficiency  of  mead."  The  affluent  supply  of  mead  in  medieval 
Germany  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  when  hostile  tribes  tried  to 
burn  the  town  of  Meissen,  on  the  Upper-Elbe,  in  the  year  10 15, 
its  population,  owing  to  shortage  of  water,  extinguished  the  flames 
with  their  reserve  stock  of  mead. 

J.  Magnus,  in  the  Historia  Sueonum  (The  History  of  Swedes), 
describes  how  Hunding,  the  23rd  King  of  Sweadland,  upon  a 
false  report  of  the  death  of  his  brother-in-law,  Hading,  King  of 
Denmark,  invited  all  his  nobility  to  a  sumptuous  feast  and  pro- 
vided a  large  vessel  of  mead.  After  they  had  become  drunk,  as  a 
token  of  friendship  for  his  supposedly  dead  friend,  Hunding 
plunged  into  the  vessel  and  willingly  drowned  himself.  The 
Swedes  considered  him  immortal  and  superior  in  courage  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman  heroes. 

Many  varieties  of  honey-brew  were  used  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Frequently  the  crushed  combs  were  steeped  in  water, 
strained,  and  then  put  into  earthen  vessels  until  the  liquid  fer- 
mented and  became  mead.  It  was  preferably  kept  in  wooden  bar- 
rels, and  the  longer  it  aged  the  more  it  gained  in  flavor  and 
strength.  This  was  the  most  common  procedure.  The  stronger  and 
"more  generous"  kind  of  mead  was  called  metheglin.  In  its  prepa- 
ration spices,  like  thyme,  sweet  marjoram,  rosemary,  ginger,  cin- 
namon, bay  leaves,  cloves  and  pepper  were  used  in  liberal  propor- 
tions. Sometimes  sweet  apples,  pears  and  quinces  were  added.  In 
some  parts  of  Wales,  the  refuse-combs  were  brewed  with  malt  or 


130  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

the  variety  of  ingredients  which  were  added  for  its  improvement, 
or  rather,  for  its  degradation.  The  finest  mead  can  be  brewed  from 
pure  honey  and  water  alone.  Any  addition  of  spices  or  other  ma- 
terial serves  to  destroy  its  unique  flavor. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  certain  bee- 
masters  were  renowned  in  their  day  for  mead  brewing.  One  of  the 
best  mead-brewers  claimed  that  his  potion  was  absolutely  indis- 
tinguishable, even  by  the  most  competent  judges,  from  old 
Canary  Sack  (sack,  a  kind  of  wine,  was  a  popular  drink  in  Shake- 
speare's days).  This  authority  gave  careful  directions  for  the 
manufacture  of  mead.  If  kept  for  a  number  of  years,  such  mead, 
when  poured  into  a  glass,  frothed  like  champagne,  stilling  soon, 
leaving  the  glass  lined  with  sparkling  air  bubbles.  It  was  of  a  pale 
golden  color  and  had  a  bouquet  like  old  cider,  but  its  delicate 
taste  was  hardly  comparable  with  any  other  known  liquor.  Dryden 
suggested  diluting  stronger  wines  with  mead : 

T'  allay  the  strength  and  hardness  of  the  wine, 
Let  with  old  Bacchus,  new  Metheglin  join. 

In  the  courts  of  the  Princes  of  Wales,  the  Mead-Maker  was 
the  eleventh  dignitary,  preceding  even  the  court  physician.  He 
received  his  land  and  horses  freej  the  Queen  supplied  him  with 
linen  and  the  King,  with  woolen  clothing.  A  certain  amount  of 
mead  was  his  allotted  share.  In  the  principality  of  Wales,  "the 
spacious  halls  of  the  Princes  resounded,  accompanied  by  the  lyre, 
with  the  praises  of  mead."  Mead-hall  and  mead-bench  are  often 
mentioned  in  songs  of  the  Druid  bards.  There  were  three  things 
in  Court  which  had  to  be  communicated  to  the  king  before  they 
were  made  known  to  any  other  person : 

"1st,     Every  sentence  of  the  judge; 
2nd,  Every  new  song;  and 
3rd,    Every  cask  of  mead." 

Innumerable  drinks  were  prepared  from  honey  and  wine.  The 
famous  old  athole  brose  consisted  of  equal  parts  of  honey  and 


MEAD  131 

cream,  to  which  mature  Scotch  whisky  was  added.  (This  was  sup- 
posed to  cure  all  ills — even  without  faith.)  Boswell,  in  The  Life 
of  Johnson,  mentioned  a  drink,  "a  curious  liquor  peculiar  to  his 
country,"  which  the  Cornish  fishermen  drank.  They  called  it 
^mahogany.  It  consisted  of  two  parts  of  gin  and  one  part  of  treacle, 
well  beaten  together.  Johnson  begged  Mr.  Eliot  to  have  some 
made,  which  was  done  with  proper  skill.  Johnson  thought  it  a 
very  good  beverage,  a  counterpart  of  what  was  called  athol  por- 
ridge in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  a  mixture  of  whisky  and 
honey,  but  he  considered  the  latter  a  better  liquor  than  that  of  the 
folks  of  Cornish,  because  "both  of  its  component  parts  were  bet- 
ter." (It  is  not  surprising  that  Johnson  suffered  from  bad  gout.) 
Johnson  remarked  that  "mahogany  must  be  a  modern  name,  for 
it  is  not  long  since  the  wood  called  mahogany  was  known  in  this 
country."  Johnson  also  had  the  bees  in  mind  when  he  remarked 
that  "Tom  Birch  is  as  brisk  as  a  bee  in  conversation." 

Edwardes  quotes  the  old  bee-master:  "But  of  all  the  good 
things  given  us  by  the  wise  physician  of  the  hive,  there  is  nothing 
so  good  as  well-brewed  metheglin.  This  is  just  as  I  have  made  it 
for  forty  years,  and  as  my  father  made  it  long  before  that.  Be- 
tween us  we  have  been  brewing  mead  for  more  than  a  century.  It 
is  almost  a  lost  art  now;  but  here  in  Sussex  there  are  still  a  few 
antiquated  folks  who  make  it,  and  some  even  remember  the  old 
'methers,'  the  ancient  cups,  it  used  to  be  quaffed  from.  As  an 
everyday  drink  for  working-men,  wholesome,  nourishing  and 
cheering,  there  is  nothing  like  it  in  or  out  of  the  Empire."  Joseph 
Warder,  a  physician,  (1726)  dedicating  a  book  about  bees  to  his 
ruler,  Queen  Anne,  refers  to  mead  as  a  "liquor  no  ways  inferior  to 
the  best  of  Wines  coming  either  from  France  or  Spain,"  and  sug- 
gests a  toast  to  her  Majesty's  health  "not  with  the  expensive  wine 
of  our  enemies  but  with  a  glass  such  as  our  Bees  can  procure  us." 
Rev.  Thorley  also  thought  mead  "not  inferior  to  the  'Best'  of 
foreign  Wines."  Honey-beer  was  very  popular  with  the  ancient 
Gauls.  They  had  two  kinds,  zythus  prepared  with  pure  honey  for 
the  rich,  and  corma,  made  from  the  combs  after  the  honey  had 


132  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

been  extracted,  for  consumption  by  the  poor.  The  Russian  miod  is 
an  old-fashioned  honey-drink,  of  the  same  strength  as  beer. 

The  French  being  ardent  wine  growers,  despised  mead.  It  was 
never  sold  under  that  name.  Nonetheless,  much  mead  was  sold  in 
France  under  fictitious  names  like  Rota,  Madeira,  Malmsey,  etc. 
The  Bavarian  meth  was  the  precursor  of  the  beer  industry  of 
Munich.  The  use  of  hops  in  beer-making  originated  in  Russia. 

THE  MEDICINAL  VALUE  OF  MEAD  AND  OF  OTHER 
HONEY-DRINKS 

HYDROMEL,  i.e.,  honey  and  water,  made  under  the  special  di- 
rection of  Pliny  and  Galen,  was  for  centuries  not  only  a  popular 
drink  but  a  salutary  medicine.  Pliny  was  a  firm  believer  in  hy- 
dromel;  he  thought  that  "it  is  an  extremely  wholesome  beverage 
for  invalids  who  take  nothing  but  light  diet;  it  invigorates  the 
body,  is  soothing  to  the  mouth  and  stomach,  and  by  its  refreshing 
properties  allays  feverish  heats.  It  is  well  suited  for  persons  of 
chilly  temperament  or  of  a  weak  and  pusillanimous  constitution, 
.  .  .  diminishing  also  the  asperities  of  the  mind."  According  to 
Pliny,  anger,  sadness  and  all  other  afflictions  of  the  mind  can 
be  modified  by  diet.  OXYMEL,  made  of  honey,  vinegar,  sea  salt 
and  rain-water,  was  in  great  vogue  in  olden  times,  when  it  was 
considered  an  infallible  cure  for  sciatica,  gout,  and  rheumatic  ail- 
ments. It  was  also  used  to  "gargarize  with  in  Squinancy."  There 
were  many  other  preparations  made  with  honey.  RHODOMEL  was 
a  mixture  of  roses  and  honey;  OMPHACOMEL  was  made  from 
fermented  grape- juice  and  honey;  and  OENOMEL  from  unfer- 
mented  grape-juice  and  honey.  This  last  combination  was  used 
for  gout  and  "nerves."  Clysma  of  honey  and  water  was  con- 
sidered a  remedy  of  merit  for  cleansing  the  bowels.  The  ancient 
Greek  condkum  was  honey  mixed  with  wine  and  pepper.  It  was  a 
popular  medicine  for  all  kinds  of  digestive  ailments.  Most  ancients 
attributed  to  honey-drinks  a  soporiferous  effect. 

Butler  thought  that  the  virtues  of  mead  were  about  the  same 
as  those  of  honey.  He  advocated  old  mead  as  "a  wine  most 


MEAD  133 

agreeable  to  the  stomach,  as  it  restores  appetite,  opens  the  pas- 
sages for  the  Spirit  and  breath,  and  softens  the  bellies."  He  also 
thought  that  "it  was  good  for  those  who  have  coughs,  quartan 
ague  and  cachexia  and  that  it  helps  to  guard  against  diseases  of  the 
brain  {Epilepsie  or  falling  evil)  for  which  wine  is  pernicious." 
The  attainment  of  old  age  he  attributed  to  its  use. 

For  many  centuries  mead  was  considered  a  veritable  elixir  vitae. 
Its  principal  medicinal  value  was  in  kidney  ailments,  as  an  excel- 
lent diuretic  without  disastrous  effect  on  the  kidneys.  As  for  gout 
and  rheumatism,  mead  ranked  not  only  as  a  curative  but  also  as  a 
preventive  medicine.  It  was  widely  used  as  a  good  digestive  and 
laxative. 

VINEGAR  is  another  profitable  by-product  of  honey  and  it  far 
excels  in  quality  all  similar  products,  not  excepting  wine  vinegar. 
Inferior  types  of  honey  can  be  well  utilized  for  this  purpose.  Any 
liquid  containing  sugar  can  be  used  for  making  vinegar.  Five  parts 
of  water  to  one  part  of  honey  exposed  to  acidous  fermentation 
will  produce  vinegar.  It  should  be  boiled  for  about  10  minutes  in 
a  jug  or  glass  container  (never  metal).  Some  minerals  and  a  little 
yeast  can  be  added  to  hasten  the  process.  Left  in  a  barrel,  in  a 
warm  room,  the  bung-hole  closed  with  cheesecloth,  the  fermenta- 
tion will  be  complete  in  several  weeks. 

Honey-vinegar,  pure  or  mixed  with  honey  (oxymel),  also  had 
wide  employment  in  ancient  therapeutics  both  as  a  medicine  and  as 
an  external  application. 


CHAPTER    X 


WORDS  TO  THE  WISE 


TODAY  honey  does  not  have  the  significancy  which  it  enjoyed 
for  thousands  of  years.  It  was  forced  into  the  background 
upon  the  intrusion  of  refined  sugar  in  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  This  is  a  regrettable  error.  It  would  greatly  benefit 
humanity  if  honey  could  be  restored  to  the  rank  which  it  occupied 
in  antiquity  and  physicians,  above  all,  should  help  the  good  cause. 
The  modern  housewife  uses  "honey"  only  ...  as  a  word,  when 
she  is  anxious  to  have  a  new  fur  coat,  an  automobile  or  jewelry. 

Honey  is  physiological  sugar  and  not  a  counterfeit.  Through 
the  prodigious  genius  of  Nature,  through  a  wonderful  cycle,  the 
energy  of  the  sun  is  preserved  in  the  nectar  and  pollen  of  flowers, 
and  is  liberated  when  honey  is  eaten.  The  influence  of  ultraviolet 
rays  on  sugar,  imparting  inhibitive  power  against  the  growth  of 
various  bacteria,  yeasts  and  molds,  is  also  conveyed  to  honey, 
which  may  be  one  of  the  reasons  that  it  has  such  distinct  anti- 
septic and  antifermentative  qualities.  Pollen,  which  honey  con- 
tains, even  though  by  accidental  admixture,  is  the  procreative 
germ,  the  endocrine  of  plant-life,  and  is  transmitted  into  the 
human  body  when  honey  is  consumed.  The  newest  discoveries  in 
biochemistry  emphasize  that  quantity  is  not  essential  to  produce 
effects.  Honey  is  reasonable  in  price,  is  more  nutritious  than  many 
other  foods,  for  instance,  butter,  and  keeps  almost  indefinitely. 

Honey  ought  to  have  more  attention  in  feeding  not  only  the 
healthy  but  invalids  and  infants.  Honey  behooves  the  well  and 
the  ill:  it  is  a  good,  practical  and  delicious  food,  the  source  of  the 
oldest  and  most  salubrious  drinks  and  an  excellent  remedial  agent. 
Honey  conserves  health  and  also  restores  health.  It  is  more  than 
a  plain  sweet.  There  are  treasures  buried  in  honey,  yet  undiscov- 

134 


WORDS    TO    THE    WISE  135 

ered  by  science.  The  ancients  compared  it  with  molten  gold.  Many 
diseases,  which  never  follow  the  consumption  of  honey,  could 
be  avoided  by  using  honey  instead  of  resorting  to  the  indiscrim- 
inate, though  admittedly  more  comfortable,  substitution  of  sugar. 
When  will  people  wean  themselves,  for  instance,  from  the  cor- 
rupt habit  of  "sugaring"  their  coffee,  tea  and  other  beverages?  By 
right  every  family  and  restaurant  table  should  be  provided  with  a 
handy  drif-cut  pitcherful  of  honey  to  sweeten  coffee,  tea,  grape- 
fruit, berries,  salads,  pancakes,  etc.,  and  to  make  it  possible  for 
anyone  to  take  occasionally  a  glassful  of  hot  water-honey  mixture 
to  promote  a  free  flow  of  bile  and  induce  gastric  and  intestinal  ac- 
tivity. 

There  are,  of  course,  a  few  people  with  whom  honey  does  not 
agree.  They  will  experience  a  griping  soon  after  its  consump- 
tion. This  is  due  to  the  high  hygroscopic  property  of  the  sub- 
stance, which  readily  absorbs  gastric  and  intestinal  fluids.  The 
thirst  which  one  feels  after  consuming  honey  is  due  to  this  cir- 
cumstance, or  rather  advantage,  because  if  the  craving  for  water 
is  gratified  the  system  benefits  by  it.  Diluting  honey  with  water 
or  mixing  it  with  other  foods  will,  at  times,  prevent  such  griping. 

The  thirst  produced  by  the  consumption  of  honey  with  the  urge 
to  drink  more  water  is  extremely  important.  The  average  per- 
son does  not  drink  sufficient  water.  The  human  system  requires 
daily  about  two  and  one-half  quarts  of  liquid.  Water,  besides 
being  a  regulator  of  body  temperature,  is  an  important  vehicle 
for  removing  waste  products.  Seventy  per  cent  of  the  body  weight 
consists  of  water  and  any  loss  must  be  replaced. 

Certain  individuals  have  an  idiosyncrasy  for  honey.  They  can- 
not eat  even  the  smallest  amount.  This  is  often  an  allergic  con- 
dition, that  is,  they  are  honey-sensitized,  like  people  who  suffer 
from  hay  fever  or  asthma  are  sensitized  to  certain  pollens  which 
produce  these  conditions.  Some  people  can  eat  extracted  honey 
but  not  comb-honey  and  can  not  approach  bee-materials,  such  as 
frames,  combs,  etc.,  without  provoking  an  asthmatic  attack.  There 
are  people  who  are  sensitive  to  honey  from  one  State  and  can 
eat  honey  from  another  State  without  trouble.  Certain  people  can 


I36  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

not  tolerate  buckwheat  or  sage  honey  but  any  other  type  agrees 
with  them.  In  general,  sensitivity  toward  honey  is  very  rare  and  is 
least  common  among  all  food  allergies.  It  is  best  for  these  few 
victims  to  leave  honey  alone. 

Sugar  consumption  has  increased  in  the  United  States  during 
the  last  half  century  by  500%.  While  100  years  ago  the  daily 
per  capita  industrial  sugar  consumption  represented  45  calories, 
today  it  has  increased  to  5  50  calories,  that  is,  about  twelve  times. 
As  the  daily  requirement  of  an  average  individual  is  approxi- 
mately 2500  calories,  commercial  sugar  supplies  one-fifth  of  the 
total.  This  amount  is  far  beyond  the  mark,  because  it  encroaches 
on  the  scope  of  calories  to  be  supplied  by  starches,  fats,  animal 
and  vegetable  proteins  and,  last  but  not  least,  by  more  beneficial 
simple  sugars.  It  is  not  surprising  that  obesity  is  on  the  increase. 
Uncle  Sam  will  soon  lose  his  lanky  figure  and  acquire  the  paunch 
of  John  Bull.  The  daily  candy  expenditure  of  the  United  States 
is  well  over  a  million  dollars. 

Alfred  W.  McCann  thought  that  America  had  become  a  nation 
of  "sugar-hogs."  In  18  30  the  annual  per  capita  consumption  was 
7^2  pounds j  in  1870 — 23  pounds y  in  191 8 — 89  pounds  and  in 
1926 — 120  pounds.  During  prohibition  years  sugar  consumption 
greatly  increased,  not  only  because  there  was  a  demand  for  a  sub- 
stitute "pick  up,"  but  also  because  most  breweries  converted  their 
facilities  into  candy  and  chocolate  factories,  and  manufactured 
soft  drinks.  Since  the  repeal  of  the  Prohibition  Act  the  yearly 
sugar  consumption  has  decreased  twelve  pounds  per  capita.  To- 
day it  is  about  one  hundred  and  eight  pounds.  Each  man,  woman 
or  child  in  the  United  States  consumes  about  one-third  of  a 
pound  j  that  is,  about  a  teacupful  of  sugar  a  day.  According  to  the 
1 91 9  statistics  this  amount  was  distributed  as  follows: 

80%  home  consumption 

10%  by  confectioners 

6%  by  bakeries 

3%  in  soft  drinks 

1%  in  tobacco  and  chewing  gum 


WORDS    TO    THE    WISE  137 

The  United  States  is  the  "sweetest"  country  in  the  world.  (If 
this  has  two  meanings,  both  are  correct ! )  While  the  entire  world 
consumes  forty  billion  pounds  of  sugar  yearly,  the  consumption  in 
the  United  States  alone  is  ten  billion  pounds.  The  regrettable  part 
is  that  most  of  it  is  imported.  All  the  sweetening  could  be  sup- 
plied by  domestic  honeys  and  there  would  be  no  need  of  one 
hundred  and  eight  pounds  of  sugar  per  capita,  because  honey 
satiates  more  quickly  than  sugar.  The  person  who  will  succeed 
in  inventing  a  process  of  putting  honey  in  cube  or  powder  form 
will  prove  to  be  the  greatest  benefactor  of  humanity.  The  hygro- 
scopic, that  is,  the  water  absorbing  quality  of  honey  will,  how- 
ever, place  an  almost  unsurmountable  obstacle  in  his  way.  (Dr. 
Bevan  mentions  in  The  Honey  Bee  that  the  Jews  of  Moldavia 
and  the  Ukraine  prepare  from  honey  a  sort  of  sugar,  which  is 
solid  and  as  white  as  snow.  They  expose  honey  in  a  vessel,  which 
is  a  bad  conductor  of  calories,  to  frost  for  three  weeks,  in  a  place 
where  neither  sun  nor  snow  can  reach  it.  By  this  process  the 
honey,  without  being  congealed,  becomes  clear  and  hard  like 
candy.  They  send  it  to  the  distilleries  at  Danzig.) 

Sweets,  coffee  and  tea  remain,  so  far,  our  best  stimulants.  They 
are  less  harmful  than  alcohol,  especially  if  this  is  taken  in  excess. 
In  1 91 8,  during  the  World  War  the  sugar  rations  of  the  A.  E.  F. 
were  increased  100%  and  coffee,  50%,  to  supply  the  soldiers 
with  much-needed  energy.  In  ancient  times,  warriors  used  honey 
for  this  purpose.  Honey,  of  course,  will  bestow  more  benefit  dur- 
ing the  winter  months. 

It  is  singular  that  the  population  of  the  United  States,  con- 
sidering the  excellent  nutritive,  tonic  and  protective  value  of 
honey,  has  not  as  yet  become  honey-conscious.  There  is  no  other 
country  in  the  world  where  the  public  is  more  interested  in  health 
and,  of  course,  in  diet  problems  than  in  America.  Innumerable 
books  are  published  on  the  subject  and  there  is  an  endless  list 
of  health  magazines.  The  daily  papers  have  their  columns  on 
physical  culture  and  diet;  there  are  free  lectures;  and  colleges, 
schools,  commercial  and  industrial  organizations,  federal,  state 
and  community  health  officials  vie  in  giving  health  suggestions. 


I38  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Officials  of  circulating  libraries  will  tell  you  that  more  books 
are  read  on  health  than  on  any  other  topic.  The  books  plainly 
show  the  wear  and  tear. 

A  remarkable  fact  in  modern  literature,  as  already  mentioned, 
is  that  honey  is  so  sadly  neglected,  though  it  is  the  end-purpose 
of  apiculture.  In  textbooks,  honey  is  treated  more  from  a  technical 
viewpoint,  namely,  how  to  produce  as  much  honey  as  possible.  The 
same  comment  applies  to  foreign  literature.  The  writer  has  found 
the  lengthy  chapter  on  honey  in  the  ABC  and  XYZ  of  Bee  Cul- 
ture, edited  by  E.  R.  Root,  the  most  exhaustive  and  important 
treatise  on  the  subject. 

Though  there  is  an  old  proverb  that  "good  wine  needs  no 
bush,"  *  yet  the  American  Honey  Institute  uses  its  best  efforts  to 
popularize  the  sale  and  a  more  widespread  use  of  honey.  The 
lack  of  interest  and  the  apparent  opposition  of  the  medical  pro- 
fession, of  course,  entails  a  tremendous  handicap.  Several  years 
ago  a  pamphlet  appeared,  written  by  E.  R.  Root,  the  Editor  of 
Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  entitled  Honey  as  Food,  but  indorse- 
ment by  the  Committee  on  Foods  of  the  American  Medical  Asso- 
ciation was  refused  because  they  considered  it  "an  offense  to 
honest  advertising."  The  booklet  was  a  compilation  of  actual  and 
valuable  statements  about  honey  by  eminent  physicians,  many  of 
them  university  professors,  chiefs  of  health,  food,  nutrition  de- 
partments and  hospitals j  excerpts  from  outstanding  medical  jour- 
nals, etc.,  but  the  learned  Board  considered  it  a  "hodgepodge  of 
misinformation  concerning  'alleged'  (the  quotation  marks  are 
the  author's)  values  of  honey."  {Journ.  Am.  Med.  Assn.,  June 

23,  1934)- 

Among  the  "misinformers"  whose  statements  were  quoted  in 

the  pamphlet,  we  find  the  following  names: 

Dr.  E.  P.  Joslin,  Professor  of  Medicine,  Harvard  Medical 
School 

*  The  proverb  has  a  Central  European  origin.  It  was  an  old  practice  to  hang 
out  a  bush  or  a  tree  branch  before  an  inn  where  fresh  wine  was  sold.  The  custom 
still  prevails  in  Vienna.  Shakespeare  uses  the  phrase  in  the  epilogue  of  As  You 
Like  It:  "Good  wine  needs  no  bush;  a  good  play  needs  no  epilogue." 


WORDS    TO    THE    WISE  .     1 39 

Dr.  F.  G.  Banting,  the  discoverer  of  insulin 

Dr.  B.  P.  Hawk,  Professor  of  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
Philadelphia 

Dr.  C.  H.  English,  Medical  Director  of  the  Lincoln  National 
Life  Ins.  Co. 

Dr.   G.  N.  W.  Thomas,  of  Edinburgh  (Lancet,  207:  1924) 

Dr.  W.  G.  Sackett,  Bacteriologist,  Colorado  Experiment  Sta- 
tion 

Dr.  H.  E.  Barnard,  Food  Chemist  of  the  American  Honey 
Institute 

Dr.  J.  H.  Kellogg,  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium 

Dr.  Arnold  Lorand,  internationally  known  physician  and 
author 

Dr.  Paul  Luttinger,  Pediatrist 

Dr.  Clarence  W.  Leib,  author  of  Eat,  Drink  and  be  Healthy 

Sir  Henry  Baldwin,  King  George  Fifth's  dentist 

Dr.  Leonard  Williams,  London,  author  of  The  Science  and 
Art  of  Living  and  others. 

The  erudite  Committee,  however,  accepted  and  approved  one 
suggestion  of  the  pamphlet  about  the  usefulness  of  honey  as  an 
antifreeze  in  automobile  radiators,*  as  "probably  the  most  en- 
lightening paragraph  of  the  entire  leaflet."  Needless  to  say  the 
Council  exceeded  its  authority  in  regard  to  automobiles,  inas- 
much as  they  have  no  dictatorial  rights  as  yet  in  such  matters. 
The  flippant  and  ill-disposed  argument  certainly  did  not  benefit 
the  cause  of  honey.  (Luckily  the  pamphlet  omitted  to  mention 
another  novel  use  of  honey,  that  of  filling  golf  balls,  otherwise, 
very  likely,  the  golf  balls  would  have  obtained  commendation 
and  honey,  another  stroke.) 


Of  course,  the  acceptance  of  honey  by  the  medical  profession 
as  a  protective  and  curative  substance  and  their  indorsement  would 

*  E.  R.  Root  thinks  it  sacrilegious  to  use  honey  for  any  such  purpose  when 
wood  alcohol  is  available. 


140  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

create  pandemonium  not  only  in  medical  circles  but  among  phar- 
maceutical chemists,  wholesale  and  retail  druggists,  radio  an- 
nouncers, even  undertakers,  not  to  mention  the  sugar  refining 
companies,  the  candy  manufacturers  and  retailers,  soda  counters, 
etc.  It  would  be  a  veritable  economic  catastrophe.  The  sale  of 
laxative  remedies  (it  would  be  interesting  to  know  their  number), 
digestive  and  headache  powders,  bicarbonate  of  soda,  enema  bags, 
and  rectal  suppositories  might  entirely  stop.  To  these  we  may  add 
sedatives,  various  cough  remedies,  expectorants,  throat  lozenges, 
gargles,  etc.  The  external  use  of  honey  would  make  a  dent  in 
the  sale  of  antiseptics  and  have  influence  even  on  the  cosmetic 
counters. 

The  wide  use  of  honey  would  also  cripple  surgical  practice  be- 
cause hemorrhoid,  gastric  ulcer,  gall  bladder,  appendicitis,  tonsil 
and  many  other  operations  would  greatly  decline  or  entirely  dis- 
appear, not  considering  the  moral  effect  which  the  recollection 
of  former  unnecessary  operations  would  cast  on  discredited 
surgery. 

TOO  MUCH  HONEY 

The  maxim,  "too  much  of  a  good  thing,"  applies  also  to  honey. 
In  Prov.  XXV.  16,  we  find:  "It  is  not  good  to  eat  much  honey — 
as  for  men  to  search  for  their  own  glory,  is  not  glory."  In  Prov. 
XXV.  27,  there  is  another  suggestion:  "Hast  thou  found  honey? 
Eat  so  much  as  is  sufficient  for  thee,  lest  thou  be  filled  therewith 
and  vomit  it."  It  is  an  old  Latin  saying,  Qui  mel  multum  comedit> 
non  est  ei  bonum.  (He  who  eats  much  honey  does  himself  no 
good.)  The  Crusaders  who  followed  Edward  I  to  Palestine  died 
in  large  numbers  from  excessive  heat  and  from  eating  too  much 
honey  and  fruit. 

Galen  advised  mixing  honey  with  other  food,  called  "sweet- 
meat," which  would  not  only  nourish  but  also  impart  a  good 
color.  An  anonymous  writer  in  the  Planudian  Appendix  suggested 
that  honey  should  not  be  eaten  alone,  and  that  "too  much  honey 


WORDS    TO    THE    WISE  I4I 

is  gall."  Taken  by  itself,  without  other  food,  honey  would  make 
one  lean  rather  than  fat. 

People  who  have  glutted  themselves  with  honey  will  turn 
against  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  overindulgence  in  any  food  may 
produce  a  permanent  aversion.  Medical  science  calls  this  an 
allergic  state  and  often  presumes  that  such  victims  have  been 
sensitized  to  the  substance.  In  medical  literature  there  are  in- 
numerable reports  of  such  cases.  Hutchinson  and  Duke  describe 
abdominal  allergy  due  to  honey.  A  man  twenty-seven  years  old 
consumed  a  large  quantity  of  honey  and  afterwards  the  slightest 
bit  produced  severe  abdominal  pains.  Rolleston  mentions  a  case 
of  migraine  after  the  least  consumption  of  honey,  due  to  previous 
indiscretions.  Cane-sugar,  barley,  oatmeal,  butter,  milk,  eggs,  in 
fact  any  food  substance  may  cause  similar  reactions.  As  already 
stated,  sensitivity  toward  honey  is  least  common  among  all  food 
allergies. 

There  are  many  mysterious  circumstances  which  may  influ- 
ence a  like  or  dislike  of  honey.  Dr.  G.  H.  Stover  reported  a  case 
in  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Bulletin  (November,  1898)  which 
has  immunological  as  well  as  neurological  interest: 

"A  woman  thirty-five  years  old,  single,  consulted  me  for  a 
rather  unusual  swelling  on  her  right  cheek,  following  a  bee-sting 
injury  received  several  days  before.  Her  face  was  considerably 
swollen  and  she  felt  some  unpleasant  constitutional  symptoms. 
Five  days  later,  she  had  fully  recovered,  when  she  made  the  very 
interesting  statement  that  she  never  before  had  been  able  to  eat 
honey,  even  the  smell  of  it  nauseated  her,  but  after  she  was  stung, 
developed  a  craving  for  it  and  ate  it  with  complete  satisfaction." 
Stover  finishes  his  report:  "Will  some  of  the  immunization  ex- 
perimenters throw  a  light  on  this  occurrence?" 

The  author  of  the  present  volume  can  corroborate  Dr.  Stover's 
observation.  During  his  extensive  experience  in  administering  bee 
stings  to  arthritics  and  rheumatics  he  has  been  frequently  sur- 
prised by  the  voluntary  reports  of  patients  that  they  had  devel- 
oped an  expressed  longing  for  honey  which  did  not  exist  pre- 
viously. This  actuality  could  be  ascribed  to  the  effect  of  bee 


142  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

venom,  which,  by  increasing  considerably  the  blood  circulation, 
induces  a  consequent  craving  for  an  energy-producing  substance. 


POISONOUS  HONEY 

Poisonous  honey  is  often  mentioned  in  ancient  literature.  Xeno- 
phon,  in  the  Anabasis,  describes  the  "Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thou- 
sand." When  the  army  was  returning  from  Asia  to  Greece,  while 
passing  through  Trebizond  the  soldiers  discovered  that  the  woods 
were  rilled  with  honeycombs  which  they  eagerly  consumed.  As 
a  result,  they  all  went  "off  their  heads,"  suffered  from  vomiting 
and  diarrhea,  and  most  of  them  were  unable  to  stand  on  their 
legs.  Some  dropped  to  the  ground,  hundreds  of  them  lay  pros- 
trate, apparently  dead,  others  appeared  to  be  violently  drunk  or 
in  a  fit  of  madness  but  all  recovered  after  three  or  four  days 
and  acted  like  convalescents  after  a  severe  sickness. 

The  toxicity  of  the  honey  was  attributed  to  poisonous  plants. 
Rhododendron  and  azalea  are  plentiful  in  that  section.  Androme- 
dotoxin,  a  poisonous  glucoside,  will  produce  symptoms  similar  to 
those  from  which  the  army  suffered.  Archangelsky  discovered 
two  new  bodies  in  the  rhododendron  plant,  rhododendrin  and 
ericolin,  both  belonging  to  the  camphor  group,  which  have  a  strong 
toxic  effect. 

Similar  observations  were  made  in  the  Caucausus,  near  Batum, 
where  rhododendron  and  azalea  also  grow.  Honey  growers  in 
that  section  do  not  use  honey  in  the  spring  when  these  plants  are 
in  bloom.  Ssanjuk,  on  the  other  hand,  doubts  the  toxic  effect 
of  these  plants  and  asserts  that  the  poisonings  are  due  to  the  fact 
that  when  honey  is  collected  in  the  woods  from  hollow  trees 
many  bees  are  crushed  and  the  effect  is  due  to  the  venom  of  the 
bees,  which  the  honey  contains.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  noticed 
that  such  honeys  were  sometimes  poisonous,  other  times  not.  The 
writer  has  to  contradict  this  latter  allegation  because  bee  venom, 
even  in  large  quantities,  is  readily  destroyed  by  the  saliva  and 
gastric  ferments. 

There  are  also  other  plants  which  yield  noxious  substances. 


WORDS    TO    THE    WISE  143 

Honey  collected  from  goat's  bane  is  harmful.  H.  M.  Fraser 
wrote  that  such  honey  never  thickens,  is  dark  red,  has  a  strange 
smell,  is  heavier  than  other  honeys,  and  often  causes  sneezing. 
Those  who  eat  it  become  bathed  in  perspiration,  throw  themselves 
on  the  ground  and  are  relieved  only  by  repeated  doses  of  a  mix- 
ture of  old  mead,  rue  and  salted  fish,  which  produces  vomiting. 
On  the  Island  of  Sardinia  honeys  collected  by  the  bees  from 
certain  plants  will  produce  a  painful,  spasmodic  laugh  (sardonic 
laugh).  On  the  Isle  of  Corsica,  honey  gathered  from  the  ever- 
green yew  is  bitter  and  not  fit  to  eat,  a  fact  which  Virgil  mentions. 
Martial  also  alludes  to  the  poor  quality  of  certain  Corsican  plants. 
"You  ask  for  lively  epigrams  and  propose  lifeless  subjects.  What 
can  I  do,  Caecilanus?  You  expect  Hyblean  or  Hymethian  honey 
to  be  produced  and  yet  offer  the  Attic  bee  nothing  but  Corsican 
thyme."  (Epigrams  Bk.  XI.  Ep.  42).  Ovid  refers  to  honeys 
collected  from  hemlock  as  infamous.  Galen  mentions  an  incident 
when  two  physicians,  tasting  honey  at  the  open  market  in  Rome, 
fell  to  the  ground  and  soon  afterwards  died.  In  Heidelberg  and 
its  surroundings,  it  is  well  known  that  chestnut  honey  has  a  strong 
hypnotic  effect.  The  bees  collect  this  honey  from  the  blooms  of 
the  chestnut  trees  (castania  vesca). 

If  an  extracted  sting  apparatus,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  accom- 
panied by  a  poison  bag,  is  imbedded  in  honey,  it  may  inflict  a 
wound  hours  or  even  days  later.  The  venom  is  volatile,  but  its 
strength  is  well  preserved  in  honey.  Sporadic  cases  have  been 
reported  where  buried  stings  were  found  in  broken  combs  and 
persons  eating  such  honey  were  injured  in  their  mouths.  A  de- 
tached sting,  coming  in  contact  with  body  surfaces,  may  work  auto- 
matically without  the  bee,  and  dig  itself  into  the  layers  of  the 
skin  or  of  the  mucuous  membranes,  emptying  the  contents  of  the 
poison  bag  into  the  wound. 

The  "mad"  honey  {maenomenon)  of  Pontus  was  often  men- 
tioned. Aelian  (V.  42)  commented  that  honey  of  Pontus  made 
people  mad  but  cured  epilepsy.  Its  toxicity  was  also  attributed 
to  rhododendron  and  azalea,  with  which  the  woods  of  Pontus 
abound.  Pliny  described  a  mountain  on  the  Island  of  Crete,  nine 


144  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

miles  in  circumference.  The  honey  produced  there  would  not  be 
touched  even  by  flies  but  it  was  highly  valued  as  a  medicine. 
Poisonous  honeys  are  also  found  in  certain  districts  of  Persia. 

Dr.  Barton  reported  (American  Philosophical  Transactions, 
1790,  Vol.  V.)  that  in  the  autumn  and  winter  of  the  year  1790 
many  people  died  in  Pennsylvania  from  the  effects  of  wild 
honey,  collected  from  kalmia  (lamb-kill)  plants.  Several  fatal 
cases  were  reported  at  the  same  time  in  New  York  State,  caused 
by  wild  honey  made  from  the  flowers  of  laurel  shrubs.  Honey 
collected  by  the  bees  from  mountain  laurel  is  often  poisonous. 
Even  today  the  beekeepers  in  North  and  South  Carolina  first 
try  the  effect  of  laurel  honey  on  the  family  dog.  If  the  dog,  after 
indulging  in  suspicious  honey,  shows  symptoms  of  staggering  and 
has  a  glazed  look,  the  honey  is  condemned. 

Maladies  caused  by  the  consumption  of  honey  are,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  not  attributable  to  the  honey  itself.  The  bees,  besides 
gathering  nectar,  collect  a  certain  amount  of  pollen  which  they 
deposit  in  the  brood  cells  for  their  young.  Pollen  is  a  protein 
substance  which  the  brood  requires  for  building  new  tissues.  After 
the  brood  is  developed  it  will  consume  only  honey,  that  is  car- 
bohydrates, to  generate  energy.  A  full-grown  bee  does  not  re- 
place tissues,  consequently  does  not  require  protein.  The  pollen, 
called  bee-bread,  a  protein  substance,  is  exposed  to  fouling  and 
decomposition  and  also  to  formation  of  toxins  through  bacterial 
invasion.  In  a  word,  some  ailments  are  produced  not  by  honey 
but  by  protein  j  they  are  plain  and  simple  cases  of  ptomaine 
poisoning. 

In  modern  honey  production,  of  course,  this  cannot  happen. 
The  bees  do  not  store  protein  in  the  small  upper  combs,  called 
supers,  but  in  the  larger  brood  frames.  The  honey  in  the  supers 
is  meant  for  human  consumption.  To  prevent  the  queen  from 
laying  eggs  in  these  small  combs  the  two  sections  of  the  hive  are 
separated  by  a  screen  through  which  there  is  a  passage,  large 
enough  to  permit  the  entrance  of  the  smaller  worker  bees  but 
which  prevents  the  queen,  on  account  of  her  massive  figure,  from 
going  through  it.  If  honey  is  extracted  by  centrifugal  force  even 


WORDS    TO    THE    WISE  145 

from  the  brood  cells,  only  the  liquid  honey  is  ejected  and  the 
bee-bread  will  remain  in  the  combs.  The  contention  made  by  some 
research  workers  that  poisoning  from  eating  honey  is  sometimes 
due  to  bee  venom  is  all  wrong.  The  venom,  if  there  is  any  in 
honey,  would  be  easily  destroyed,  as  already  mentioned,  by  diges- 
tive ferments. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  flowers  of  certain  plants  are  not 
poisonous  to  the  bees,  but  the  honey  made  from  these  plants  is 
harmful.  Other  plants  again,  e.g.  poison-ash,  are  liable  to  kill  a 
whole  hive  of  bees.  (Certain  kalmia  leaves  are  fatal  even  to 
pheasants.)  Some  plants  affect  young  bees  and  not  the  older 
ones.  Dead  bees  are  found  occasionally  on  tulips,  though  tulips 
do  not  secrete  nectar.  Bees  collect  nectar  from  poison  ivy  with- 
out injury  to  themselves,  neither  is  such  honey  harmful.  All  in 
all,  poisonings  with  wild  honeys  are  rare,  since  bees  carefully 
select  the  wholesome  plants  and  resort  to  other  sources  only  when 
in  utmost  need.  Bees  will  avoid  plants  like  wormwood,  rhubarb, 
aconite,  jasmine,  senna,  wood-laurel  and  rhododendron}  they 
never  visit  these  flowers  except  when  there  are  no  others  obtain- 
able. Honeys  collected  from  the  blooms  of  onions  and  leeks  (the 
national  emblem  of  the  Welsh)  are  not  unhealthy  but  their  aroma 
is  transmitted — not  to  the  best  advantage.  Chinquapin  honey  is 
bitter  as  gall,  but  not  harmful.  The  beautiful  and  fragrant  yellow 
jessamine  that  turns  the  color  of  the  Southern  swamps  to  gold 
in  the  springtime  has  the  reputation  of  yielding  poisonous  honey. 

ADULTERATED  HONEY 

Honey  always  was,  and  still  is,  adulterated.  Since  the  strict 
enforcement  of  the  Federal  Pure-Food  Law,  violators  are  severely 
punished  and  gross  vitiations  are  now  extremely  rare.  The  fact 
that  honey  was  one  of  the  leading  articles  which  the  Food  Stand- 
ards Committee  considered  when  the  law  was  passed,  attests  the 
importance  of  the  product  as  a  food  and  it  also  reflects  the  fre- 
quency with  which  it  was  adulterated.  Adulterated  honey,  of 
course,  does  not  mean  artificial  honey  but  honey  that  has  been 


146  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

mixed  with  sucrose,  commercial  glucose,  starch,  chalk,  gelatine, 
water  and  other  substances.  The  greatest  problem  for  the  chem- 
ists of  the  Food  and  Drug  Administration  today  is  to  detect 
commercial  invert  sugar  which  is  not  so  easily  traced  as  other 
adulterants. 

The  fact  is  that  good  honey  could  no  more  be  successfully  imi- 
tated than  milk,  a  bird's  egg  or  a  genuine  pearl.  The  apprehension 
most  people  have  that  certain  honeys  are  adulterated  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  taste  differently  from  honeys  previously  consumed. 
Honeys  have  the  same  flavor,  color  and  aroma  only  when  the 
nectar  is  gathered  from  the  same  flowers ;  otherwise,  these  char- 
acteristic attributes  will  greatly  differ.  Procuring  comb  honey  is 
not  a  protection  against  being  deceived.  Beekeepers,  when  there  is 
a  scarcity  of  flowers  or  during  an  unusually  rainy  season,  feed  their 
bees  with  sugar-water  which  they  place  before  the  entrance  of  the 
hives.  The  bees  gorge  themselves  with  this  sugar  and  quickly  de- 
posit it  in  the  combs  without  giving  it  a  chance  to  undergo  in- 
version. The  result  is  a  poor  quality  of  honey  in  the  comb  which 
lacks  most  of  the  important  constituents  of  real  honey.  Most 
extracted  honeys  on  the  market  are  now  chemically  pure. 

Since  the  Federal  Pure  Food  Law  went  into  effect,  January  1, 
1907,  as  mentioned,  there  is  hardly  any  adulterated  honey  to  be 
found.  Previously  "factitious"  honeys  were  quite  common  on  the 
markets.  When  Dr.  H.  W.  Wiley,  during  his  campaign  for  pure 
food  laws  pleaded  before  Congress,  he  presented,  among  many 
other  fraudulent  articles,  a  bottle  of  honey,  on  the  surface  of  which 
there  was  a  dead  bee.  The  tricky  dealer  believed  that  the  buyer, 
seeing  the  bee,  would  not  doubt  the  genuineness  of  the  honey. 
This  was  just  a  trap  because  the  bottle  contained  a  sticky  sweet 
substance  which  resembled  honey  in  appearance  but  was  never 
produced  by  bees  and  contained  many  injurious  ingredients. 

Date  and  fig-honey  were  known  in  ancient  Palestine.  The  Bible 
mentions  that  a  substance  made  from  dates  and  figs  was  sold  as 
honey.  Quintillian  and  Herodotus  referred  to  denatured  honey. 
Diophanes  in  Geoponica  gave  already  a  method  of  how  to  detect 
it. 


WORDS    TO    THE    WISE  147 

The  United  States  Federal  Food  and  Drugs  Act  is  in  need  of 
several  amendments  regarding  honey.  In  jams  and  jellies,  for 
instance,  the  standard  recognizes  only  sugar  and  not  honey.  In  a 
word,  if  some  manufacturer  adds  honey  to  these  products  it  is 
technically  considered  an  adulteration.  W.  S.  Frisbie,  Chairman 
of  the  Food  Standards  Committee,  admits  that  a  departure  from 
a  definite  standard  is  an  adulteration  even  if  the  substitution  is 
effected  by  a  more  valuable  ingredient  instead  of  one  of  less  in- 
trinsic value.  The  use  of  gold  in  our  copper  coinage  would  be  con- 
sidered an  adulteration.  The  Administration,  however,  does  not 
bar  the  use  of  honey  in  jams  and  jellies  provided  the  labeling  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  honey  is  used  as  a  sweetener. 

THE  PRICE  OF  HONEY 

The  price  of  honey,  taking  into  account  countries  and  centuries, 
has  varied  considerably.  In  ancient  Egypt,  where  honey  was  abun- 
dant, it  was  sold  for  an  amount  which  was  equivalent,  according 
to  our  valuation,  to  about  five  cents  a  pound. 

Stanley  complained  about  the  exorbitant  charges  for  honey  in 
Africa  during  his  travels.  He  was  compelled  to  give  four  yards 
of  linen  in  exchange  for  two  quarts  of  honey.  Muir  mentioned 
that  in  1856,  in  California,  the  price  of  a  pound  of  honey  was  two 
dollars}  twelve  years  later  the  price  had  fallen  to  12^  cents. 
The  value  of  sugar  underwent  a  corresponding  change.  In  the 
XVI  Century,  the  price  of  sugar  was  approximately  $2.50  a 
pound. 

The  wholesale  price  of  extracted  honey  today  is  about  four  to 
five  cents  a  pound;  inferior  honey  for  baking  purposes  sells  at 
much  lower  prices.  Comb  honey  is  higher  because  the  wholesale 
price  of  wax  alone  is  about  20  to  22  cents  a  pound.  The  prices 
vary  each  year  depending  on  demand  and  production.  During  the 
World  War,  for  instance,  when  sugar  was  scarce  and  could  not 
be  obtained  in  large  quantity,  honey  sold  in  carlots  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  cents  a  pound.  Ice  cream  was  made  with  honey 
during  this  period,  and  it  was  a  far  superior  product.  Soon  after 


I48  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

the  Armistice,  when  sugar  was  again  obtainable,  the  honey  prices 
tumbled  and  ice  cream  is  made  today  with  sugar  because  it  is 
cheaper. 

There  are,  of  course,  objections  to  the  high  price  of  honey, 
compared  with  that  of  sugar.  This  drawback  is  mainly  due  to  the 
fact  that  honey,  as  a  rule,  is  purchased  in  small  quantities.  The 
customer  pays  for  the  jar,  label,  workmanship  and  the  cost  of 
the  persuasive  advertisements  just  as  much  as  for  the  honey. 
When  honey  will  be  considered  a  standard  article  and  not  a  fancy 
product  and  will  be  procured  in  bulk,  the  price  should  be  greatly 
reduced.  And  then  .  .  .  rhyming  slogans  such  as  "Better  than 
honey,  for  less  money,"  and  other  efforts  very  much  in  vogue 
today,  to  make  every  goose  appear  a  swan,  should  be  accepted  with 
less  gullibility. 

There  are  over  a  million  beekeepers  in  the  United  States  and 
over  six  hundred  million  pounds  of  honey  are  produced.  The  au- 
thor's opinion  is  that  honey  production  could  be  increased  here 
tenfold,  because  only  a  fraction  of  the  available  nectar  and  pollen 
is  utilized  by  the  colonies  of  bees  we  have  today. 


CHAPTER    XI 
HONEY  IN  THE  HOME 

i.     IN  COOKING,  BAKING  AND  CONFECTIONERY 

HONEY  is  far  superior  for  cooking  and  baking  purposes  than 
corn  syrup,  molasses,  maple  or  refined  sugars.  Sugar  does 
not  possess  the  fragrance  and  flavor  of  honey.  Honey  is  high  in 
calories  and  in  sweetening  power. 

There  are  thousands  of  uses  for  honey  in  cooking  and  baking. 
The  list  of  recipes  issued  by  the  American  Honey  Institute  of 
Madison,  Wisconsin,  is  almost  endless.  In  practically  every  copy 
of  apicultural  magazines,  domestic  or  foreign,  there  are  new 
suggestions  for  the  use  of  honey  in  preparing  cakes,  bread,  bis- 
cuits, muffins,  jelly-rolls,  waffles,  griddle-cakes,  puddings,  fritters, 
mousses,  and  all  kinds  of  confectionery.  Preserves,  jams,  jellies, 
candies,  ice-cream,  icings,  hard  sauce,  meringue,  salad  dressings 
(plain  or  French),  cinnamon  or  pecan  toast,  etc.,  are  more  delicious 
when  made  with  honey.  Apples  baked  with  honey  are  very  de- 
lectable. 

Honey  is  excellent  for  baking  pastries  and  bread.  They  remain 

sweet,  moist  and  palatable  for  an  indefinite  period.  When  bread 

and  pastries,  baked  with  honey  become  dry — often  only  after 

many  years — and  are  transferred  for  a  few  days  to  a  damp  place, 

they  will  change  to  their  original  condition  on  account  of  the 

great  hygroscopic  property  of  honey.  (Some  people  say  that  honey 

pastries  are  so  tasty  that  they  are  consumed  long  before  they  have 

a  chance  to  become  stale).  Honey  jumbles  are  sometimes  as  good 

ten  years  later  as  on  the  day  they  were  baked.  Cakes  and  bread  made 

with  honey  are  easily  masticated  and  digested  and  have  a  distinct 

laxative  effect.  Martial  (XIV.  222)  refers  to  the  fact  that  honey 

was  extensively  used  in  antiquity  for  baking  purposes  when  he  re- 

149 


150  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

marks:  "Bakers  prepare  for  you  sweet  cakes  in  thousands  of  forms 
because  the  bees  work  for  them." 

Honey  cakes  were  extremely  popular  in  ancient  Egypt,  Greece 
and  Rome.  The  Egyptians  fed  honey  cakes  to  their  sacred  bull 
Apis  and  the  sacred  crocodiles.  On  the  wall-painting  of  the  tomb 
of  Rekh-Mi-Re  the  mixing  and  baking  of  honey  cake  is  repro- 
duced. In  the  tomb  of  the  Pa-Ba-Sa  a  man  kneels  and  prays  before 
honey  cakes.  They  were  used  in  Egypt  during  all  ceremonial  oc- 
casions. Cerberus,  the  three-headed  dog,  and  the  serpents  guarding 
Hades  were  fed  on  honey  cakes,  likewise  the  sacred  serpent 
guarding  the  Acropolis. 

Cheese-cake  baked  with  honey  was  a  favorite  subject  and  highly 
praised  by  all  Greek  poets.  Cheese-cake  was  glorified  by  Euripides 
and  Aristophanes  and  honey  cake  by  Anacreon  and  Sophocles. 
Horace  praised  the  "ova  mellita",  eggs  with  honey.  In  Rome, 
libum  was  a  sacrificial  honey  cake,  the  root  of  German  "Leb"- 
kuchen;  placenta  was  baked  for  festive  occasions;  scribitta  was 
decorated  with  inscriptions  and  savillum  was  eulogized  by  Cato 
as  the  most  savory  of  all  cakes. 

The  fain  d'epice  (gingerbread),  made  with  honey,  has  always 
enjoyed  great  popularity  in  France.  Mention  of  it  is  made  as 
early  as  1530.  The  pants  mellitus  of  the  Romans,  baked  with 
honey  and  anis,  was  a  similar  pastry.  The  Lebkuchen  of  Nurem- 
berg (Germany)  has  a  world-wide  reputation.  The  German  Leb- 
kuchen is  made  of  flour,  honey,  spices,  alcohol,  almonds,  citron 
and  orange  peel.  In  its  manufacture  the  main  requirement  is  to 
allow  the  dough  to  rest  for  a  considerable  time  before  baking.  This 
will  accomplish  the  amalgamation  of  the  flavors  of  its  component 
parts.  The  dough  is  often  kept  for  several  months  before  it  is 
placed  in  the  oven.  In  Hungary  and  in  all  Slavic  countries  honey 
cakes  are  made  in  the  shape  of  hearts,  human  or  animal  figures 
and  are  in  great  demand  at  country  fairs. 

Wheat,  corn,  groats,  sago,  tapioca,  barley,  beans  and  lentils  are 
often  mixed  with  honey,  vinegar,  oil,  mustard  and  spices.  In  Tur- 
key a  great  assortment  of  confectionery  is  made  with  honey.  They 
call  it  chalva.  Pastry  made  with  honey  and  nuts,  called  baclava, 


HONEY    IN    THE    HOME  I5I 

is  the  favorite  dessert  of  all  Orientals.  The  Arabs  make  up  bars 
similar  to  our  chocolate-bars,  from  sesame  oil,  ground  nuts  and 
honey  which  they  call  halva.  Sesame  seed,  honey  and  nuts,  called 
sahm-sahm,  is  another  favorite  confiture  of  the  Arabs.  Most  ori- 
ental sweetmeats  were  prepared  with  honey.  The  snow-white 
Anatolian  honey,  collected  by  the  bees  from  the  blooms  of  the 
cotton  plant,  was  a  great  favorite  of  the  seraglios  of  ancient  Con- 
stantinople. Recently  in  California  confections  have  been  made 
with  apples,  oranges,  walnuts,  raisins  and  honey. 

Candy  made  with  honey  has  a  more  distinguished  taste  and 
cannot  be  compared  with  candy  made  with  sugar.  Honey  preserves 
the  aroma  and  prevents  staling.  Honey  candy  seems  to  satisfy  the 
craving  for  sweets  more  quickly  and  there  is  no  desire  to  keep  on 
ruminating  unremittingly  as  in  the  case  of  sugar  candy.  Several 
pieces  of  honey  candy  go  as  far  as  a  whole  box  of  the  cane-sugar 
variety.  The  ordinary  chocolate  candy  contains  as  much  as  40  to 
60%  cane  or  beet-root  sugar.  The  cheaper  the  candy  the  more 
sugar  it  contains.  Honey  possessing  much  higher  sweetening 
power  requires  a  smaller  amount  of  admixture.  The  same  applies 
to  honey  ice  cream,  which,  in  addition  to  being  smooth  and  de- 
licious, is  also  more  satisfying  and  cloys  the  appetite  against 
further  indulgence.  But,  of  course,  sugar  is  cheaper  and  freezes  at 
a  higher  temperature.  Adding  honey  to  chocolate  candies  would 
also  require  less  cocoa,  which  in  itself  is  a  harmful  substance.  The 
cocoa  plant  absorbs  a  great  amount  of  manganese  from  the  soil. 
Manganese  is  a  metallic  substance  which  produces  symptoms  simi- 
lar to  those  caused  by  lead  or  mercury.  It  is  supposed  to  impair 
the  intellect  and  affect  the  stomach  and  gall  bladder.  Cocoa,  be- 
sides, contains  oxalic  acid. 

Honey  with  butter,  cream  or  cottage  cheese  are  very  satisfac- 
tory and  wholesome  combinations.  Honey  preserves  butter  from 
becoming  rancid  if  the  honey  is  previously  heated  and  the  yeasts 
and  enzymes  destroyed.  The  mixture  will  keep  for  two  or  three 
weeks  under  refrigeration.  It  is  an  excellent  spread  for  children 
and  grown-ups  over  bread  and  pancakes  and  will  also  overcome 
one  of  the  greatest  objections  to  honey,  i.e.,  its  extreme  fluidity.  It 


152  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

is  an  oversight  on  the  part  of  the  great  milk  companies  not  to 
market  a  delicious  honey  cream,  which  would  preclude  the  use  of 
unsavory  cod-liver  oil  and  the  purchase  of  expensive  vitamin 
pearls. 

The  best  Italian  Zampaglione,  the  Dutch  Avocat  and  the  Dan- 
ish Rodgrod  are  prepared  with  honey:  likewise  the  German  red 
groats,  Rote  Griitze,  Kaiserschmarren,  the  French  Biscuit  de 
Savoie  and  the  Tourte  a  la  Frangipane. 

Foreign  cookbooks,  especially  the  older  ones,  contain  valuable 
suggestions  and  numberless  recipes  for  baking  bread,  muffins, 
cakes,  cookies,  etc.,  with  honey.  There  are  choice  combinations  to 
improve  the  flavor  of  honey  with  spices,  e.g.,  anis,  coriander, 
ginger,  cloves,  cinnamon,  cardamom  seeds,  nutmeg,  etc.  The 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  653  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Honey  and  its  Uses  in  the  Home,  is  a  valuable  pamphlet 
and  covers  the  subject  well.  In  cooking  and  baking,  honey  has 
unlimited  possibilities.  Let  us  be  guided  by  the  oft-repeated  state- 
ment of  our  ancestors,  "Honey  bread  is  good  to  the  last  crumb". 

2.     IN  BEVERAGES 

Honey  added  to  beverages  offers  another  grateful  field  for 
wholesome  mixtures.  Honey  added  to  a  cup  of  coffee  or  tea  im- 
parts an  exquisite  aroma,  besides  sweetening  and  laxative  effects. 
Soft  drinks,  for  example  lemonades,  sodas  and  fruit  punches, 
mixed  with  well-ripened  honey  are  delicious.  Honey  milk-shake, 
egg-nogg,  spiced  milk  must  be  tried  only  once.  In  cases  of  grippe 
several  tablespoonfuls  of  honey  with  lemon  juice  in  a  cup  of  boil- 
ing water  or  red  wine,  sipped  while  hot,  will  keep  the  doctor  away 
more  successfully  than  a  basketful  of  apples.  Honey  mixed  with 
carbonated  water  binds  the  gases. 

Alcoholic  drinks,  cocktails  and  whisky  mixed  with  honey  are 
delectable.  A  quart  of  old  sherry  with  an  equal  amount  of  water 
and  whole  cloves,  sticks  of  cinnamon,  allspice,  a  few  grains  of  salt 
and  honey,  to  suit  the  taste,  boiled  slowly  for  several  hours  and 
then  allowed  to  stand  a  while,  will  make  an  unforgettable  drink 


HONEY    IN    THE    HOME  153 

on  cold  winter  evenings.  It  must  be  served  hot  after  being  strained. 
The  author  delights  in  offering  this  drink  to  his  guests  and  it  is 
often  commented  upon  during  a  cheerful  evening.  The  cup  pro- 
duces warmth,  benefits  the  digestion  and  stimulates  without  invad- 
ing, as  do  most  hard  drinks,  the  head,  feet,  heart,  kidneys,  and 
not  infrequently,  the  liver — as  a  rule — all  at  once. 

3.     THE  PRESERVING  QUALITY  OF  HONEY 

Honey  was  used  for  ages  as  a  preserver  of  organic  matters.  In 
medieval  England  meats  and  leather  were  cured  in  honey.  In 
Sudan  they  boil  meat  in  honey  to  preserve  it.  In  Ceylon  honey 
is  used  instead  of  salt  as  a  conserver. 

Honey  is  excellent  to  preserve  fruit  because  it  intensifies  the 
original  flavor  of  fruit  to  which  it  adds  its  own  aroma.  The  milder 
flavored  honeys  are  preferred  for  preserving  fruits,  the  stronger 
flavored  ones  are  better  for  pickling.  Jams,  jellies  and  marma- 
lades made  with  honey  are  superior  to  those  in  which  sugar  is 
used.  The  world-famous  Bar-le-duc  (currant  jam)  of  France  is 
made  with  honey.  Pickled  fruits  are  prepared  with  honey,  vinegar 
and  water  to  which  ginger,  cloves,  cinnamon  and  allspice  are 
added.  The  spiced  honey  of  the  Turks  is  well  known. 

Ripe  fruits  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  sugar.  Of  course, 
if  they  were  pickled  prematurely  (green)  and  they  were  not  long 
enough  exposed  to  the  sun  and  only  incompletely  ripened,  the 
creative  force  of  Nature  was  interrupted  and  resulted  in  a  failure 
to  convert  the  acids  into  natural  sugar.  Such  fruits,  when  they  are 
preserved,  require  the  addition  of  a  great  amount  of  refined  sugar 
to  make  up  for  the  deficiency,  that  is,  for  the  natural  sweetness. 

Plant-grafts,  birds'  eggs  and  valuable  seeds  which  must  be 
transported  to  different  climates  can  be  preserved  in  honey  for  a 
considerable  time. 

All  sweet  media  had  an  age-old  repute  to  preserve  not  only 
organic  matters  but  life  itself.  This  can  be  verified  by  the  experi- 
ence of  our  own  Benjamin  Franklin,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
great.  While  in  France,  he  received  from  America  a  quantity  of 


154  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Madeira  wine,  which  had  been  bottled  in  Virginia.  In  some  of  the 
bottles  he  found  a  few  dead  flies,  which  he  exposed  to  the  warm 
sun,  in  the  month  of  July;  and  in  less  than  three  hours  these 
apparently  dead  insects  recovered  life,  which  had  been  so  long 
suspended.  At  first  they  appeared  as  if  convulsed;  they  then  raised 
themselves  on  their  legs,  cleaned  their  eyes  with  their  forefeet, 
dressed  their  wings  with  the  hind  legs,  and  began  in  a  little  while 
to  fly  about.  This  acute  philosopher  proposed,  therefore,  the  fol- 
lowing question: — "Since,  by  such  a  complete  suspension  of  all 
internal  as  well  as  external  consumption,  it  is  possible  to  produce 
a  pause  of  life,  and  at  the  same  time  to  preserve  the  vital  prin- 
ciple, might  not  such  a  process  be  employed  in  regard  to  man? 
And  if  that  be  the  case,"  added  Franklin,  like  a  true  patriot,  "I 
can  imagine  no  greater  pleasure  than  to  cause  myself  to  be  im- 
mersed along  with  a  few  good  friends  in  Madeira  wine,  and  to  be 
again  called  to  life  at  the  end  of  fifty  or  more  years,  by  the  genial 
solar  rays  of  my  native  country,  only  that  I  may  see  what  improve- 
ment the  State  has  made,  and  what  changes  time  has  brought  along 
with  it." 

The  preserving  and  hygroscopic  powers  of  honey  could  be  con- 
verted to  divers  uses  in  several  branches  of  industry.  It  is  a  regret- 
table oversight  on  the  part  of  the  cigar  and  cigarette  manufac- 
turers, for  instance,  that  an  admixture  of  honey  to  the  tobacco  is 
not  employed  more  universally.  Honey  preserves  the  original 
flavor  of  the  tobacco,  to  which  it  adds  its  own  aroma  and  sweet- 
ness; besides,  it  would  protect  the  stock  from  becoming  dry.  Many 
foreign  pipe-mixtures  and  chewing  tobacco  contain  honey  which 
considerably  enhances  their  mellowness.  Lately,  American  packers 
have  been  experimenting  with  honey-cured  meats.  Jewelers  darken 
natural  onyx  with  honey.  There  are  about  a  million  and  a  half 
golf  balls  manufactured  yearly  in  the  United  States  containing 
honey  in  their  centers  which  is  supposed  to  greatly  enhance  their 
resiliency.  Carbon  paper  and  sail  cloth  are  more  tenacious  when 
treated  with  honey.  Chewing  gum  is  another  product  for  which 
honey  could  be  utilized  to  advantage,  on  account  of  its  ability  to 
retain  moisture. 


HONEY    IN    THE    HOME  155 

Honey  has  innumerable  chemical  and  technical  possibilities. 
Brewers  ought  to  pry  into  the  secrets  of  how  the  ancient  Saxon 
"beor",  honey  beer,  was  made  (beo  =  bee,  from  which  the  term 
beer  was  derived).  Apparently  there  is  a  tendency  today  to  pro- 
duce variety  instead  of  quality  because  it  offers  a  wider  field  for 
exploitation  and  a  better  opportunity  to  play  the  favorite  modern 
sport — called  competition. 

4.     IN  COSMETICS 

The  beneficial  effect  of  honey  on  the  skin  has  an  age-old  repute. 
Poppea,  the  comely  wife  of  Nero,  who  employed  a  hundred  slaves 
to  attend  her  beauty,  used  honey  and  tepid  asses'  milk  as  a  face 
lotion.  The  patrician  women  of  Rome  followed  her  practice  for 
centuries.  The  famous  beauty,  Mme.  Du  Barry,  the  mistress  of 
Louis  XV,  used  honey  extensively  in  her  toilet  preparations ;  so 
did  Mme.  du  Sevigne,  Marguerite  of  Navarre  and  Agnes  Sorel. 
The  latter  called'honey  "the  soul  of  flowers." 

Many  face  creams  and  lotions,  even  today,  contain  honey. 
Honey  has  a  nourishing,  bleaching,  astringent  and  antiseptic  ef- 
fect on  the  skin.  The  noted  beautiful  hands  of  the  Japanese 
women,  devoid  of  all  wrinkles,  is  attributable  to  their  daily  use  of 
fresh  honey  as  a  hand  lotion.  The  Chinese  women  use  a  paste 
made  from  crushed  orange  seeds  and  honey  for  pimples  and  also 
to  clear  their  complexions.  Crushed  seeds  of  peaches  or  apricots 
with  honey  they  use  for  softening  their  hands.  Honey,  yolks  of 
eggs  and  sweet  almond  oil  is  the  best  softener  of  hands.  For 
chapped  lips  and  skin,  honey  (30  gm.)  lemon  juice  (30  gm.)  and 
Eau  de  Cologne  (15  gm.)  is  an  excellent  remedy.  Honey,  glycer- 
ine, alcohol  and  lemon  juice  or  citric  acid  are  the  ingredients  of 
most  lotions  for  sunburn,  chafed  skin  and  freckles.  Many  skin- 
soaps  contain  honey.  The  famous  Balm  of  Gilead  was  made  of 
mutton  tallow,  castile  soap,  honey,  beeswax  and  alum.  Honey  as 
a  cosmetic  remedy  has  an  advantage  over  cold  creams  because  it 
does  not  grow  hair.  As  a  cleanser  of  hands,  honey  equals  even 
mechanic  soaps  in  efficiency  without  making  the  skin  rough. 


I56  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Honey  packs,  honey  masks  and  honey  facials  are  getting  more 
and  more  popular.  The  Creole  women  of  Louisiana  rub  their 
entire  bodies  with  a  lotion  consisting  of  honey  and  water,  to  which 
all  possible  assortments  of  spices  are  added.  They  use  it  not  only 
as  a  cosmetic  but  as  a  cure  for  all  kinds  of  skin  trouble  and  sore 
throat.  This  application  is  also  supposed  to  have  the  power  to 
drive  away  evil  spirits  and  to  accord  a  clear  view  of  the  future. 
The  Egyptian  women  chewed  perfumed  pills  made  of  honey  and 
spices  to  sweeten  their  breath.  In  ancient  Rome  a  high-priced 
semisolid  paste,  called  "honey-mint,"  was  used  for  bad  breath. 

Needless  to  say  the  cosmetic  effect  of  honey  is  not  restricted  to 
its  external  application  because  the  consumption  of  honey  in  itself 
will  greatly  improve  not  only  the  color  but  the  texture  of  the 
skin.  The  beautiful  complexions  of  Spanish  and  Italian  women 
are  due  not  solely  to  olive  oil  but  also  to  honey.  Many  a  "pimply- 
face"  has  blessed  the  author  for  suggesting  honey  as  the  principal 
sweet. 


PART  II 

THE    HISTORY    OF    HONEY 


CHAPTER    XII 
PREHISTORIC  TIMES 


PREADAMITIC  man,  before  he  changed  his  habitation  and 
moved  from  trees  to  more  comfortable  quarters  in  caves  and 
in  the  process  of  time  became  carnivorous,  must  have  delighted 
in  the  luscious  honey  which  evidently  was  plentiful  in  the  forests. 
The  friendship  between  man  and  the  bees  must  have  been  sealed 
during  those  good  old  days,  and  has  been  preserved,  even  deep- 
ened, by  continuous  close  contact  and  mutual  service  up  to  the 
present  day.  The  bees  still  remain  "man's  best  little  friends  in  the 
world."  They  supply  him  with  food,  drink,  light  and  medicine. 

The  human  race,  since  pristine  times,  has  looked  upon  Nature 
from  the  viewpoint  of  utility.  Animals  and  plants  which  were 
most  useful  or  most  harmful  were  always  best  known  to  man.  It 
is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  bees  have  been  so  much  in  favor 
since  remotest  antiquity.  Divine  Providence  would  have  been 
devoid  of  benevolence  if  she  had  neglected  to  produce  a  creature 
like  the  honeybee,  so  essential  to  man,  "for  whom  all  things  were 
made." 

The  history  of  honey  is  really  the  history  of  mankind.  Bees, 
like  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  faithfully  accompanied  man  in  all 
his  wanderings;  they  followed  him  over  hills  and  dales,  oceans 
and  rivers,  and  were  the  chief  witnesses  of  human  civilization.  To 
try  to  submit  a  complete  history  of  honey  would  be  a  futile  effort 
because  there  is  not  even  a  doubt  that  it  is  much  older  than  human 
records  and  the  race  itself.  Bees  and  their  products  were  on  our 
globe  long  before  the  Lord  proclaimed:  "Faciamus  hominem  ad 
imaglnem  et  similitudinem  nostram."  (Let  us  now  make  man  in 
our  image  and  likeness.)  Genesis  Ch.  I,  v.  26. 

159 


i6o 


HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


We  find  the  earliest  traces  of  bees  in  the  fossil  ages.  They  were 
imbedded  in  amber,  preserved  by  natural  inhumation.  Such  dis- 
coveries have  been  reported  in  the  Baltic  regions  of  Germany,  in 
Switzerland  and  in  other  parts  of  Central  Europe.  The  size  of 
these  insects  was  about  the  same  as  that  of  our  honeybees  today. 
(Plate  I.)  Menzel  suggested  that  they  looked  very  much  like  the 
present  Italian  bees;  Tony  Kellen,  on  the  other  hand,  thought 
that  they  seem  to  represent  the  Apis  adamitica  or  pre-adamitica, 
originating  in  an  era  when  the  human  race  did  not  exist.  Pytheas, 
the  Greek  navigator  and  astronomer  (300  B.C.),  referred  to  these 
fossil  bees  of  the  Baltic  countries.  Martial,  in  his  epigrams  (IV. 
32),  alludes  to  bees  entombed  in  amber,  as  though  buried  in 
honey,  immortalized  through  their  own  labors. 

"The  bee  inclos'd,  and  through  the  amber  shewn, 
Seems  buried  in  the  juice,  which  was  his  own. 
So  honour'd  was  a  life  in  labor  spent: 
Such  might  he  wish  to  have  his  monument." 

(Translated  by  Wm.  Hay,  1755.) 


The  petrified  bee  on  Plate  I  is  an  interesting,  very  rare  and 
unusually  well  preserved  specimen.  It  was  found  only  recently  in 

the  browncoal  beds  of  Transylvania. 
This  fossil  bee  from  the  Tertiary 
strata,  imbedded  in  sandstone  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  years  ago,  is 
also  similar  to  our  contemporary 
honeybee.  The  rear  legs  have  the 
identical  rows  of  brushes,  the  abdo- 
men  consists  of  six  segments  separ- 
^  ated  by  lighter  colored  bands  and 
the  antennae  contain  the  same  num- 
ber of  joints.  The  author  is  indebted 
for  the  cut  to  Mr.  J.  Skovbo  of 
fig.  1.  Spanish  Cave  picture.       Hermiston,  Oregon,  who  was  kind 

(Courtesy   Hispanic  Society   of  America)     enOUgh    tO    place    it    at    his    disposal. 


f 

4  ' 

:      A    '    ■■         '                    J 

FOSSIL  BEE   IN   AMBER 

(In  the   Geological  Institute,  Zurich) 


PETRIFIED  BEE   IN   SANDSTONE 

(Courtesy   of  J.  Skovbo) 
PLATE   I 


\ 


r 

4  *  C: 


PREHISTORIC    TIMES  l6l 

The  oldest  evidence  that  honey  was  an  important  human  ob- 
jective is  revealed  by  a  prehistoric  painting,  discovered  in  191 9 
at  Cuevas  de  la  Arana  (Spider  Cave),  northwest  of  Bicorp, 
Valencia,  Spain.  This  picture,  painted  in  red,  is  the  most  ancient 
work  of  art  known.  (Fig.  1.)  It  originated  in  the  Stone  Age  when 
man,  trying  to  find  shelter  from  the  superabounding  beasts,  lived 
in  caves.  The  painting  is  supposed  to  be  about  15,000  years  old, 
but  as  likely  as  not,  it  is  some  thousand  years  younger  or  older. 
The  time-worn  fossil  relic  is  rather  primitive  but  it  clearly  depicts 
a  man  climbing  up  on  long  ropes,  probably  woven  of  sedge  grass, 
to  a  natural  hole  in  the  cliff,  which  the  artist  evidently  intended 
to  represent  the  dwelling  of  a  swarm  of  wild  bees.  The  man  is 
taking  honeycombs  out  of  the  cavity  and  putting  them  into  a  bag 
or  basket.  Some  disturbed  bees  around  the  intruder  are  painted  on 
a  scale  much  larger  than  that  of  the  human  figure.  (Obermaier.) 
The  ancient  origin  of  Spanish  cave  pictures  is  confirmed  by  the 
fact  that  many  species  of  animals  which  are  represented  in  these 
drawings  are  extinct  today. 

Other  evidences  that  honey  and  wax  existed  during  prehistoric 
eons  are  the  earthenware  colanders  found  in  the  lake  dwellings  of 
Switzerland,  originating  in  the  Neolithic  era.  That  these  vessels 
were  employed  for  straining  honey,  and  possibly  also  for  the  utili- 
zation of  wax,  seems  more  than  a  conjecture  because  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Bernese  Alps  still  use  similar  vessels  for  these  pur- 
poses. 

Beyond  doubt  primitive  man  obtained  honey  from  wild  bees 
nesting  in  hollow  trees  and  rocks,  a  habit  which  undomesticated 
bees  still  pursue.  In  all  probability  man  cultivated  bees  as  he 
tamed  horses,  oxen,  sheep  and  dogs,  instituting  a  cooperative 
partnership. 


CHAPTER    XIII 


HISTORIC  TIMES 


WE  DERIVE  our  knowledge  of  the  earliest  use  and  im- 
portance of  honey  in  historic  times  from  archives  of  the  an- 
cient cultural  states,  Babylon,  Assyria,  Persia,  India,  Egypt,  Greece 
and  Rome.  The  oldest  existing  scripts  corroborate  the  fact  that  bees 
were  already  domesticated  creatures  and  honey  was  extensively 
used  for  food,  drink,  medicine  and  exclusively  for  sweetening 
purposes.  Honey  was  an  important  commodity.  Taxes  and  trib- 
utes were  imposed  in  the  form  of  payments  of  honey  and  wax.  It 
was  equivalent  to  currency.  Today,  in  the  twentieth  century,  we 
could  understand  the  vital  importance  of  honey  in  the  domestic 
life  of  bygone  ages  only  if  we  were  forced  to  relinquish  com- 
pletely the  use  of  industrial  sugar.  This  would  overload  the  imag- 
ination of  even  a  most  daring  dreamer. 

We  do  not  know  of  any  people  on  earth,  including  savage 
tribes,  who  did  not  cultivate  bees  for  their  honey  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  native  Indians  of  the  Americas  and  the  Australian 
indigenes.  Honeybees  were  unknown  to  them  and  they  obtained 
their  scanty  supply  of  honey  from  stingless  bees. 

Before  parchment,  paper  and  writing  were  invented,  pictorial 
engravings  on  stones  conveyed  the  meaning  of  human  concep- 
tions. Geometric  ideography  was  the  first  attempt  of  antiquity  to 
express  and  perpetuate  thoughts  on  lapidary  specimens.  Animals 
and  plants  were  later  objects  and  finally,  anthropomorphic  images. 
We  find  most  petroglyphic  carvings  in  Egypt,  India,  Mexico  and 

Peru. 

162 


HISTORIC    TIMES  163 

EGYPT 

The  most  fertile  field,  in  our  historical  research,  for  establish- 
ing the  singular  and  paramount  role  which  honey  played  in  the 
social,  economic  and  spiritual  life  of  ancient  nations  is,  unquestion- 
ably, Egypt,  the  land  of  Pharaohs.  The  oldest  hieroglyphic  carv- 
ings in  temples,  on  sarcophagi  and  obelisks  sufficiently  prove  that 
bees  and  honey  had  a  vital  significance  in  the  daily  life  of  the 
population  of  Egypt.  These  monuments  symbolically  perpetuate 
bees  and  their  principal  product,  honey.  On  the  Flamic  and 
Pamphilic  obelisks  (Amada),  on  the  famous  Rosetta  stone,  on  the 
pillars  of  the  Temple  of  Karnak  and  on  the  obelisk  of  Luxor 
(which  was  erected  in  1836  on  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris), 
we  find  many  images  of  bees.  On  the  colossal  sarcophagus  of 
Rameses  III  (20th  Dynasty)  in  the  Musee  Louvre,  on  the  sar- 
cophagus of  a  priest  who  died  during  the  reign  of  Psametic  I 
(26th  Dynasty)  and  on  a  granite  statue  of  Rameses  II;  there  are 
numerous  such  designs.  King  Menes,  the  founder  of  the  First 
Dynasty  of  Egyptian  Kings,  the  date  of  whose  rule  is  variously 
given  as  4000  to  5000  b.c.  (according  to  Brugsch,  4445  B.C.),  was 
called  "the  Beekeeper."  Tony  Kellen  found  some  writing  on  one 
of  the  Louvre  papyri  which  suggested  that  it  had  been  a  restau- 
rant check  and  honey  was  among  the  food  consumed. 

Next  to  hieroglyphic  representations,  the  wall  paintings  of  the 
royal  tombs  demonstrate  the  great  national  importance  of  honey. 
There  are  only  a  few  funeral  vaults  in  which  bees  and  honey  are 
not  represented  pictorially.  Honeycombs,  honey  cakes,  sealed  jars 
of  honey  and  lotus  blooms  were  placed  next  to  the  sarcophagi  as 
food  for  the  souls  of  the  dead.  (Plate  II.)  In  the  tomb  of 
Pa-Ba-Sa,  in  Thebes,  the  entire  wall  is  decorated  by  rows  of  bees. 
A  man  is  shown  pouring  honey  into  a  pail,  another  is  kneeling  and 
praying  before  a  pyramid  of  honeycombs.  (Plate  III.)  On  the 
wall  of  the  tomb  of  Rekh-Mi-Re  all  phases  of  the  honey  industry 
are  depicted ;  how  the  combs  were  removed  from  the  hives  with 
the  aid  of  smoke,  the  baking  of  honey  cakes,  the  filling  and  sealing 
of  jars,  etc.  (Plate  IV.) 


164  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

From  a  literary  aspect  there  is  little  left  in  Egypt  so  far  as  the 
subject  is  concerned.  During  the  conflagration  of  312  B.C.,  the 
great  library  of  Alexandria  was  totally  destroyed  and  all  its 
treasures  and  documents  were  lost.  It  is  remarkable  that  one  of 
their  seers  predicted  this  catastrophe  when  he  said:  "Oh  Egypt 
.  .  .  only  unbelievable  legends  will  remain  for  later  generations 
.  .  .  engraved  on  stones,  monuments,  obelisks  and  pyrarnids." 

The  Egyptian  Papyri,  representing  the  oldest  civilization  of  the 
world,  often  refer  to  honey,  especially  to  its  medicinal  value. 
Almost  all  Egyptian  medicines  contained  honey,  wine  and  milk. 
Honey  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  deities.  The  frequent  sym- 
bolical use  of  bees  in  Egypt  must  be  attributed  not  only  to  the 
fact  that  honey  was  an  important  article  of  commerce  and  a  valu- 
able food  and  medicinal  substance  but  to  the  admiration  of  the 
Egyptians  for  the  diligence,  industry,  order,  economy,  endurance, 
intelligence  and  courage  of  the  bees  and  their  loyalty  to  a  sov- 
ereign. The  bees  are  the  only  creatures  which  are  entirely  subju- 
gated to  a  ruler.  Next  to  the  signatures  of  Egyptian  kings  there 
was  a  figure  of  a  bee.  Apiculture  was  far  advanced  in  Egypt,  like- 
wise in  Babylonia  and  in  Assyria. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  were  habitual  beer  drinkers.  The  land 
was  ill-suited  to  the  cultivation  of  the  grape-vine.  Xenophon  (400 
b.c.)  mentions  an  Egyptian  beverage  made  of  wheat,  barley  and 
honey.  On  the  decline  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  rise  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  wine  made  of  grapes  became  a  drink  of  civilization, 

INDIA 

Soulful  India  was  supposed  to  be  not  only  the  cradle  of  human- 
ity but  also  the  birthplace  of  the  bee.  The  latter  claim  was,  how- 
ever, contested  by  both  Egypt  and  Greece.  In  ancient  Indian 
scripts  we  find  scanty  information  about  apiculture.  They  allude 
to  honey  and  bees  more  from  mythological,  poetical,  philosophi- 
cal, moral  and  religious  viewpoints.  The  Rig- Veda,  written  about 
3000  b.c,  often  mentions  honey.  To  the  population  of  India 


PLATE   III 


THE  TOMB  OF  PA-BA-SA  AT  THEBES,  625-610   b.c. 

(Courtesy   of  Metropolitan   Museum   of  Art) 


q 

o 
h 


DC    g 

Pi  ^ 


HISTORIC    TIMES  l6$ 

honey  represented  everything  that  was  sweet  and  beneficial.  The 
Hindu  had  to  turn  his  right  side  toward  the  beehive,  as  though 
passing  a  deity.  God  Krishna  was  symbolized  by  a  bee  and  was 
called  madhava,  born  in  honey.  The  Hindu  believed  that  who- 
ever ate  honey  would  become  strong,  rich,  happy  and  wise  and 
that  it  would  improve  not  only  his  own  looks  but  would  influence 
even  his  offspring. 

In  India,  due  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  abundance  of 
water  and  sunlight,  the  animals  and  plants  are  the  largest  on 
earth.  The  bees  are  no  exception.  Apis  dorsata,  the  giant  bee  of 
India,  builds  enormous  combs,  often  six  feet  square,  suspended 
from  the  highest  trees,  hanging  rocks  and  other  inaccessible  places 
to  gain  protection  from  man  and  beast.  The  combs  are  visible 
from  a  distance  of  miles.  Special  honey  hunters  approach  the 
nests  with  ladders  and  ropes,  usually  at  night  time,  to  collect  their 
plentiful  harvest.* 

Honey  had  a  popular  use  in  India  as  a  food  and  medicine  and 
in  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  drinks.  The  Hindus  drank  mad- 
hwparkay  a  mixture  of  honey  and  curds,  during  religious  ceremo- 
nies with  the  toast:  "I  drink  thee  for  luck,  glory,  power,  and  for 
the  enjoyment  of  food." 

CHINA 

In  China,  the  home  of  sugar-cane,  honey  was  used  less  than  in 
any  other  country.  There  was  no  need  of  honey  as  a  sweetening 
substance  because  cane-juice  was  plentiful.  The  Chinese  did  not 
cultivate  bees  for  this  reason.  Besides,  the  bees  caused  consider- 
able damage  to  sugar  plantations  and  also  plundered  the  syrup 
during  'the  process  of  extraction.  Honey  was  used  by  the  Chinese 
more  as  a  medicinal  substance  and  a  complement  to  diets.  In  the 
interior  of  China,  even  today,  honey  can  be  obtained  only  in  old- 
style  medicine  shops.  Mi-tsao  or  honey-jujube  is  a  popular  con- 

*Apis  indica,  the  "hive-bee"  of  India  and  of  China,  is  not  only  smaller  in 
size  than  our  honeybee  but  is  somewhat  different  in  behavior. 


I  66  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

fection  in  China.  It  is  made  from  honey  and  jujuba  (Zizyphus 
vulgaris),  a  red  fruit  shaped  like  a  date.  The  Chinese  often  mix 
their  opium  with  honey. 

GREECE 

The  solemn  and  prominent  part  honey  played  in  the  history  of 
Greece  is  conclusively  proven  by  its  mythology.  Ambrosia,  the 
food,  and  nectar,  the  drink  of  the  gods,  were  made  of  honey.  The 
Iliad  (XI.  630)  refers  to  honey  as  the  food  of  kings.  The  honey 
of  Mt.  Hymettus  was  a  daily  food  of  Athens.  This  mountain  was 
covered  with  odoriferous  wild  flowers,  principally  thyme,  and  the 
air  was  scented  with  the  fragrance  of  the  blooms.  The  bees  were 
partial  to  these  hills.  (It  is  singular  that  the  population  of  ancient 
Greece,  a  maritime  country  far  excellence,  as  fond  as  they  were 
of  honey,  utterly  neglected  sea-food.  Homer  in  the  Iliad  never 
mentions  fish;  in  the  Odyssey,  Menelaus  complains  that  he  and 
his  men  were  so  hungry  that  they  were  compelled  to  eat  fish.) 

Ancient  Attica,  with  its  area  of  forty  square  miles,  recorded 
twenty  thousand  hives  during  the  time  of  Pericles  (429  B.C.).  All 
ancient  Greek  authors  praised  the  medicinal  and  nutrimental  value 
of  Attic  honey,  "the  crowning  dish  of  all  feasts."  The  oldest  ruins 
in  the  rural  districts  of  Greece  are  buildings  which  originally 
housed  the  hives.  These  stone  edifices  were  built  high,  to  outwit 
the  cunning  of  the  bears,  arch  enemies  of  bees  and  bosom  friends 
of  honey. 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE 

In  the  ancient  Roman  Empire  honey  was  in  great  abundance. 
All  Mediterranean  states  surrounding  this  glorious  sea  were  veri- 
table honey-lands.  During  the  second  Punic  War  (218-201  B.C.), 
apiculture  was  already  flourishing.  Honey  production  was  prac- 
ticed at  a  much  earlier  date  in  Greece  and  the  art  was  conveyed 
by  the  Phoenicians  and  early  Greek  settlers  to  the  Italian  penin- 
sula. 


HISTORIC    TIMES  l6j 

Virgil,  the  poet  laureate  of  bees,  was  the  greatest  glorifier  of 
honey.  Book  IV  of  Georgics  is  a  panegyric  on  "heaven-born" 
honey.  Protinus  ceril  mellis  caelestia  dona  exsequar,  is  the  first  line 
of  Georgics  (next  I  sing  of  honey,  the  heavenly  ethereal  gift). 
Virgil  often  bepraises  even  in  the  Aeneid  the  "sweet-scented  honey, 
fragrant  with  thyme." 

Pliny  in  the  Xlth  book  of  his  Historia  Naturalis  devotes  many 
chapters  to  honey,  "which  the  bees  collect  from  the  sweet  juices 
of  flowers,  so  beneficial  to  health."  From  Pliny's  very  voluminous 
works  (thirty-seven  books)  we  derive  much  information.  This 
most  prolific  writer,  who  quotes  no  less  than  twenty-five  hundred 
authors,  had  great  admiration  for  honey  and  assembled  all  the 
Egyptian,  Greek  and  Latin  knowledge  on  the  subject.  Pliny  also 
describes  the  contemporary  honey  industry  in  Italy,  in  old  Ger- 
mania  and  in  the  British  Isles  during  the  Roman  invasion.  Pliny 
refers  to  eight-feet  long  "honey-slabs",  brought  from  Alemannia. 
All  other  Latin  writers  speak  in  high  terms  of  bees  and  honey. 
Cicero  remarks  in  De  Senectute  that  he  considers  the  successful 
production  of  honey  essential  to  good  farming  and  describes  how 
the  slaves  collected  wild  honey  in  the  forests.  Foods  and  drinks, 
mixed  with  honey,  were  seldom  missing  on  the  daily  menus  of 
ancient  Rome.*  It  was  a  courteous  act  of  the  Romans  to  offer  a 
respected  guest  some  honey,  fresh  from  the  hives.  The  host  wel- 
comed his  visitors  with  the  words:  "Here  is  honey  which  God 
provided  for  your  health."  Snails  destined  for  the  royal  tables 
were  fattened  and  sweetened  with  honey. 

ANCIENT  BRITAIN 

Pliny  quoted  the  reports  of  ancient  voyagers,  who  found  in  the 
present  BRITISH  ISLES  a  honey-brew  which  was  freely  consumed 
by  the  Islanders.  This  was  long  before  the  Roman  conquest  of 
the  Islands,  so  the  assumption  that  bee  culture  was  introduced 
into  England  by  the  Romans  is  erroneous.  Undoubtedly,  apicul- 

*  Mulsum,  four-fifths  wine  and  one-fifth  honey,  was  a  favorite  drink  of  the 
Romans.  Hydromel,  which  is  really  mead,  was  used  as  a  medicine. 


1 68  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

ture  was  of  vital  importance  in  the  Roman  Empire,  because  its 
triumphant  armies,  when  invading  foreign  territories,  carried  their 
beehives  with  them.  The  Britons  must  have  broadened  their 
knowledge  of  bee-craft  during  the  Roman  invasion. 

That  beekeeping  was  an  outstanding  pursuit  among  the  Britons 
is  illustrated  by  Tickner  Edwardes'  graphic  account  in  his  delight- 
ful book,  The  Lore  of  the  Honey-Bee.  "Among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  the  beehives  supplied  the  whole  nation,  from  the  king 
down  to  the  poorest  serf,  not  only  with  an  important  part  of  their 
food  but  with  drink  and  light  as  well.  .  .  .  Britain  was  known 
among  the  early  Druid  bards  as  the  Isle  of  Honey."  (The  Honey 
Isle  of  Beli  was  another  bardic  name  for  Britain.) 

"British  History  begins" — Edwardes  continues — "with  the  rec- 
ord of  the  first  voyage  of  the  Phoenicians,  who  adventuring  far- 
ther than  any  other  of  their  intrepid  race,  chanced  upon  the  Scilly 
Isles  and  the  neighbouring  coast  of  Cornwall  and  thence  brought 
back  their  first  cargo  of  tin.  The  whereabouts  of  the  Phoenician 
'Barat-Anac',  The  Country  of  Tin,  remained  a  secret  probably  for 
ages,  jealously  guarded  by  these  ancient  mariners,  the  first  true 
seamen  that  the  world  had  ever  known.  They  were  expert  navi- 
gators, venturing  enormous  distances  overseas,  even  in  King 
Solomon's  time,  and  that  was  a  thousand  years  before  the  advent 
of  Caesar.  In  all  likelihood,  they  had  been  in  frequent  communi- 
cation with  the  Britons,  centuries  before  the  Greeks  took  to  search- 
ing for  this  wonderful  tin-bearing  land,  and  still  longer  before  the 
name  Barat-Anac  became  corrupted  into  the  Britannia  of  the 
Romans.  And  it  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  a  people  of  so  ancient 
a  civilization,  and  of  so  great  a  repute  in  the  sciences  and  refine- 
ments of  life,  as  the  Phoenicians — a  people  from  whom  the  early 
Greeks  themselves  had  learned  the  art  and  practice  of  letters — 
could  remain  in  touch,  century  after  century,  with  a  nation  like 
the  Britons  without  effecting  in  them  enormous  improvement  and 
development  in  every  way  that  would  appeal  to  so  high-mettled 
and  competent  a  race." 

Honey  must  have  been  abundant  in  the  British  Isles,  another 
veritable  land  of  milk  and  honey.  The  Welsh  and  Celtic  legends 


HISTORIC    TIMES  169 

teem  with  references  to  sparkling  mead  and  honey  drinks.  The 
chief  Irish  God,  Manannan,  praised  the  island-paradise  (Isle  of 
Man),  where: 

Rivers  pour  forth  a  stream  of  honey 
In  the  land  of  Manannan,  son  of  Ler 


Abundant  there  are  honey  and  wine, 
Death  and  decay  thou  wilt  not  see. 


Tributes  were  paid  with  mead  and  honey  and  the  laws  fixed  the 
amount  which  had  to  be  delivered  to  the  chieftains.  The  measures 
which  the  laws  mention  (Brehon  Law  Tracts)  prove  that  honey 
must  have  been  plentiful:  A  milch-cow  measure  of  honey  could 
be  lifted  by  an  average  individual  up  to  his  knees ;  a  large  heifer 
measure  of  honey  one  could  raise  to  the  waist;  a  small  heifer ,  to 
the  shoulder;  and  a  dairt,  over  one's  head.  The  shell  of  an  egg 
was  also  used  to  measure  smaller  quantities  of  honey;  twelve  of 
these  equaled  about  a  pint. 

There  is  frequent  mention  that  the  ancient  Britons  used  honey 
for  cooking  and  baking.  Meat  and  fish  were  often  cooked  in  honey, 
and  they  mixed  their  porridge  with  it.  The  principal  use  of  honey 
was,  however,  in  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  drinks. 

From  most  ancient  times  merrie  England  was  drenched  in  ale. 
Unquestionably  it  was  their  national  drink.  The  ale-wife,  depicted 
with  two  cups  in  her  hands,  so  gloriously  immortalized,  was  the 
symbol, of  old  English  inns.  (Plate  V.)  Ale  was  considered  a 
wholesome  liquor  which  supported  the  natural  heat  and  moisture 
of  the  body  and  "there  is  no  drink  which  conduceth  more  to  the 
preservation  of  one  and  the  increase  of  the  other  than  Ale."  While 
the  English  drank  ale  they  were  strong,  brawny  and  able  men  and 
"could  draw  an  arrow  an  ell  long  but  when  they  fell  to  wine  and 
beer,  they  were  found  to  be  impaired  in  strength  and  age." 

The  old  Saxon  ale  or  mead  was  not  a  malt  liquor  but  "made 
from  honey  or  the  washing  of  the  honeycombs."  The  name  ale 


170  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

came  into  the  English  language  during  the  Panish  invasion  of 
England  and  was  derived  from  the  Danish  word  "6l"J  The  mead 
or  meth  of  the  Norse  and  Teutonic  forefathers  was  made  of 
honey.  The  big  and  burly  gods  with  prodigious  droughtiness  and 
appetite  indulged  in  a  copious  supply  of  strong  mead  which  never 
failed.  The  Valkyries,  the  tall  and  beautiful  maidens,  were  the 
modern  barmaids.  \ 

Mead  held  its^sway  in  old  England  at  least  for  a  thousand 
years.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forebears  indulged  generously  in  mead, 
a  habit  they  seem  to  have  inherited  from  the  Teutonic  heroes. 
These  chieftains  were  accused  of  gluttony  and  drunkenness  and  of 
going  to  battle  drunk  with  mead,  "bringing  about  the  ruin  of 
Britain." 

"Hop-drinks"  were  introduced  into  England  by  the  Flemish 
immigrants.  Hop  was  considered  for  a  long  time  as  an  adulterant 
and  the  "wicked  weed"  was  checked  by  legislation,  even  prohib- 
ited because  it  not  only  "spoilt  the  taste  of  the  drink  but  endan- 
gered the  lives  of  the  people."  A  century  of  industrial  progress 
in  manufacturing  beer  undoubtedly  improved  its  quality.  Wine 
always  was,  and  still  is  considered  the  "beverage  of  the  rich."  The 
whiskey  of  the  Irish  and  the  Scotch  invaded  England  only  at  a 
very  late  date. 

The  Saxon  "beor"  meant  mead  (beo  =  bee)  and  the  term 
"beer"  was  undoubtedly  derived  from  it.  On  many  old  English 
inns  we  find  the  sign  of  a  beehive  often  accompanied  by  some 
rhyme.  (Plate  V.)  At  Grantham,  which  boasts  of  a  three  hun- 
dred foot  high  steeple,  there  is  a  real  beehive  set  up  before  the 
inn  with  the  following  inscription: 

"Stop!   Traveller,  this  wondrous  sign  explore, 
And  say  when  thou  hast  viewed  it  o'er, 
Grantham,  now,  two  rarities  are  thine, 
A  lofty  steeple  and  a  living  sign." 

Before  a  Birmingham  inn  there  is  the  verse: 


HISTORIC    TIMES  171 

"In  this  hive  we  all  are  alive, 
Good  liquor  makes  us  funny! 
If  you  be  dry,  step  in  and  try 
The  value  of  our  honey." 

GERMANY 

In  Germany,  honey  production  has  always  been  an  outstanding 
and  favorite  occupation.  Few  nations  have  studied  the  economy 
and  management  of  bees  more  thoroughly  than  the  Germans. 
Possibly  this  has  contributed  to  their  far-famed  thrift. 

Forest  apiculture  preceded  everywhere  the  cultivation  of  bees 
by  cottagers  and  farmers.  German  apiculture  must  have  been  far 
advanced  before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  the  emissaries  of 
continental  culture.  Pytheas  and  Massilia  (after  whom  Marseilles 
was  named),  contemporaries  of  Alexander  the  Great,  described 
that  on  a  journey  of  exploration  they  found  meth  (honey-wine, 
often  mentioned  in  the  Niebelungen  Saga)  excessively  used  in  old 
Alemannia,  and  that  the  inhabitants  covered  their  bread  with 
honey.  The  record  in  itself  proves  that  honey  must  have  been  in 
great  abundance.  And  this  was  four  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  Pliny's  reference  to  the  enormous  honeycombs  of 
Germania  would  indicate  that  they  were  removed  from  hollow 
tree-trunks.  There  are  many  traces  among  the  ancient  laws  of 
Germany  that  litigations  concerning  honey  production  and  espe- 
cially swarming  were  quite  frequent.  Special  tribunals  adjudged 
these  disputes. 

Charlemagne  in  his  famous  "Capitulares  Karlomanni"  gave  strict 
orders  pertaining  to  honey  industry.  Chapter  V  described  honey, 
mead  and  wax  in  minutest  details.  Chapter  XX  directed  the  popu- 
lation to  take  an  inventory  every  year  of  their  honey  and  mead 
supply.  Upon  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  honey  production 
increased  greatly  in  Germany  on  account  of  the  demand  for  wax 
for  church  candles.  Monasteries  were  invariably  cultivators  of 
bees.  Mead  must  also  have  been  plentiful,  judging  from  an  ancient 
record  that  a  fire  in  Meissen,  on  the  Upper-Elba,  in  1015,  was 


172  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

extinguished  with  mead  because  the  inhabitants  were  short  of 
water. 

Land-rule  (dominium)  was  universal  in  Germany  and  the 
phrase  in  signwm  vel  recognitionem  dominii  (in  mark  and  ac- 
knowledgment of  land-rule)  was  a  traditional  expression.  The 
lands  were  mainly  owned  by  princes  and  the  Church.  Those  who 
lived  in  such  lands  were  obliged  to  pay  taxes  in  honey  and  wax. 
Honey  and  wax  were  considered  royal  or  princely  gifts  and  re- 
ligious people  freely  contributed  them  to  the  Church. 

The  German  honey  industry  was  closely  associated  with  the 
Liineburger  Heide.  These  plains  of  stormy  historical  background 
have  been  a  real  paradise  of  bees  and  the  favorite  topic  of  German 
poets.  The  province  of  Hanover  in  which  these  plains  are  located 
is  famous  for  its  honey.  The  level  land,  covered  with  primitive 
vegetation,  mainly  heather,  is  unusually  rich  in  nectar.  This  sec- 
tion of  the  country  has  been  preserved  in  a  wild  state  by  the  bees 
and  its  primitive  beauty  is  under  their  protection.  Few  men  and 
beasts  ever  approach  the  localities,  fearing  the  proverbial  anger  of 
these  insects.  Usually  a  narrow  path  leads  to  the  beestands;  a 
beaten  track  made  by  the  bee-fathers  for  the  collection  of  honey. 

The  honey  market  of  Breslau,  on  Maundy  Thursday,  was  fa- 
mous for  centuries,  and  the  day  is  celebrated  even  now  with 
festivities.  There  were  many  mead  breweries  in  Munich,  Ulm  on 
the  Danube,  Danzig,  Riga,  etc.  According  to  old  documents,  "the 
judge  sat  in  court  with  a  jug  of  mead  before  him,  so  filled  to  the 
brim  that  a  fly  could  drink  from  its  border." 

Honey  production  suffered  a  noticeable  decline  at  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  and  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  centuries  due  to  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  It  was  neglected  for  many  years  before  and 
after  this  long  conflict.  Germany  also  suffered  a  similar  setback 
during  the  World  War.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the  course  of  the 
same  period,  beekeeping  made  a  great  advance  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain. 


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HISTORIC    TIMES  I  73 

FRANCE 

With  the  possible  exception  of  the  Germans  and  the  Slavic 
races,  there  are  only  a  few  nations  on  the  European  continent  who 
held  honey  in  higher  esteem  than  the  French.  The  French  re- 
garded it  as  a  life-giving  substance  much  the  same  as  bread  and 
milk.  Their  folklore,  fables,  laws  and  religious  customs  give  evi- 
dence of  the  importance  of  honey  in  the  daily  life  of  the  nation. 

Historical  records  substantiate  the  fact  that  beekeeping  was  a 
foremost  industry  in  France.  The  ancient  Barons  derived  consid- 
erable revenue  from  taxes  imposed  upon  beehives.  The  lords  of 
the  land  were  permitted  to  collect  tax  from  the  people  who  hunted 
for  honey  in  their  forests  and,  at  a  later  period,  from  those  who 
cultivated  bees  there.  A  certain  proportion  of  honey  and  wax  had 
to  be  relinquished  by  the  vassals.  The  French  Government  also 
imposed  taxes  on  beehives.  In  1 79 1,  when  the  government  de- 
manded from  the  prefects  of  the  provinces  an  exact  record  of 
hives,  the  population,  fearing  an  additional  tax,  destroyed  their 
hives  in  preference  to  paying  higher  taxes.  After  that,  for  a  long 
time,  apiculture  was  wholly  neglected  in  France. 

The  taxation  of  beekeeping  in  France  was  not  solely  a  medieval 
custom.  A  fairly  recent  fiscal  legislation  (1934)  imposes  a  tax  on 
beehives.  According  to  this  new  law,  if  a  beekeeper  feeds  his  bees 
on  his  own  property  he  is  assessed  with  a  tax  on  agricultural  prod- 
ucts j  but  if  his  bees  feed  on  the  grounds  of  his  neighbors  the  tax 
is  higher  because  the  revenue  classes  as  non-commercial  business. 
[The  revenue  collectors  must  have  a  difficult  time  keeping  their 
eyes  on  the  bees,  to  ascertain  whether  they  remain  at  home  or  pay 
business  or  social  calls.] 


The  Island  of  CORSICA,  comprising  3790  square  miles,  had 
to  pay  200,000  pounds  of  wax  as  a  yearly  tribute  to  the  Romans, 
which  means  that  they  produced  at  least  three  million  pounds  of 
honey.  HOLLAND, especially  Friesland,  had  several  thousand  hives 
to  the  square  mile.  SPAIN  teemed  with  beehives.  Ex-King  Alfonso 


174  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

was  an  ardent  bee  lover  and  was  keenly  interested  in  apiculture. 
In  the  park  of  the  royal  palace  he  had  about  a  thousand  colonies 
of  bees  and  many  more  hives  on  his  country  estates.  The  leading 
apiculturist  of  Spain,  Antonio  Garay  Victoria,  had  1500  colonies 
on  his  estate  in  Claveria. 

HUNGARY 

The  ancient  Roman  province  of  Pannonia,  which  consisted  of 
Hungary,  Austria,  Slavonia,  Styria,  Croatia,  Bosnia,  etc.,  was  an- 
other veritable  honey-land.  The  prevalence  of  bees  along  the 
Danube  is  verified  by  the  statement  of  Herodotus  (484  b.c.)  who 
remarked  that  at  certain  intersections  it  was  impossible  to  cross 
the  river  on  account  of  bees.  The  Turks  used  beehives  to  thwart 
hostile  crossings  of  the  Danube. 

Hungary  always  was  and  still  is  an  Eldorado  of  bees.  Priscus, 
who  in  448  a.d.  traversed  Hungary  with  the  Greek  emissaries 
sent  to  King  Attila,  reported  that  he  was  liberally  provided  there 
with  mead.  Historical  records  show  that  the  population  of  Hun- 
gary had  to  supply  the  monasteries  with  honey  and  wax.  The  blind 
king,  Bela  II  (1138  a.d.),  donated  sixty  beekeepers  to  an  Abbey 
to  attend  the  hives.  One  Palatinate  produced  as  much  as  ten  thou- 
sand barrels  of  mead.  The  redolent  acacia  honey  of  Hungary  has 
always  been  considered  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 

A  USTRIA 

In  Austria,  both  Upper  and  Lower,  likewise  in  Salzburg,  Tyrol, 
Voralberg,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola  and  in  the  other  former 
provinces  of  Istria,  Dalmatia,  Galicia  and  Bukowina,  beekeeping 
was  an  important  industry.  There  were  many  apicultural  schools 
and  societies  with  frequent  meetings  and  festivals.  All  members 
of  the  Imperial  house  of  Hapsburg,  since  the  reign  of  the  great 
Empress  Maria  Theresa,  who  founded  the  Apicultural  College  in 
Vienna  (1769),  were  enthusiastic  supporters  of  apiculture  and 
lovers  of  honey. 


HISTORIC    TIMES  1 75 

THE  SLAVIC  COUNTRIES 

All  Slavic  races  were  partial  to  honey  production.  They  used 
honey  freely  on  their  bread,  mixed  it  with  curds  and  butter, 
employed  it  in  baking  and  in  the  preparation  of  alcoholic  drinks. 
The  Russians  and  Poles  were  experts  in  making  hot  honey  drinks, 
and  there  are  many  popular  winter  beverages  on  the  European 
continent  which  originated  in  Russia.  The  Poles  were  reputed  to 
be  the  brewers  of  finest  mead. 

The  Slavs  were  widely  disseminated  over  Eastern,  Southeastern 
and  Central  Europe  and  Asia.  The  Russians,  Poles,  Ruthenians, 
Serbs,  Croatians,  Lithuanians,  Czechs,  Moravians,  Slovaks, 
Wends,  Bosnians,  Montenegrins  and  Slovens  were  all  ardent  bee- 
lovers.  The  old  Prussians  and  Silesians  belonged  originally  to 
Slavic  races  but  were  later  absorbed  by  the  ancient  Teutons  who 
inherited  the  Slavic  fondness  for  honey.  The  Slavic  interbreeding 
with  the  Hungarians,  the  Bulgarians,  the  Northern  Finnish  and 
Tartar  races  spread  this  lickerish  tendency  among  the  respective 
lands. 

Poland  was  especially  rich  in  honey.  Gallus,  who  explored 
Poland  in  the  eleventh  century,  remarked  fane  et  came  et  melle 
satis  est  coposa  (there  is  plenty  of  bread,  meat  and  honey)  and 
stated  further  ubi  aer  salubris,  ager  fertilis,  silva  melliflua  (where 
the  air  is  salubrious,  the  fields  are  fertile  and  the  forests  flow  with 
honey).  One  of  their  beekeepers,  Piast,  who  treated  the  royal 
electors  with  mead  which  never  diminished,  was  elected  king  and 
his  descendants  ruled  over  Poland  for  several  centuries.  In  the 
fourteenth  century,  Poland  sold  honey  in  foreign  markets  which 
yielded  millions  of  florins  in  export  duties  to  the  royal  treasury. 

Of  Poland  we  read  many  fantastic  tales,  in  themselves  an  indi- 
cation of  the  enormous  honeycombs  which  filled  hollow  trees  in 
the  forests.  William  Harrison,  in  Holinshed's  Chronicles  (1577), 
mentions  (III,  Ch.  4)  that  in  Poland  the  honeycombs  were  so 
great  and  abundant  that  huge  bears  fell  into  them  and  were 
drowned  before  they  could  recover  and  find  a  means  of  escape. 


I76  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

THE  AMERICAN  CONTINENT 

As  already  mentioned,  there  were  only  two  continents  on  our 
globe  where  the  honeybee  was  non-existent,  the  Americas  and 
Australia.  When  John  Eliot  translated  the  Bible  into  the  language 
of  the  North  American  aborigines  he  could  not  even  find  expres- 
sive terms  in  their  phraseology  for  honey  and  wax. 

Previous  to  the  importation  of  the  German  bees  (brown  or 
black),  there  were,  however,  other  honey-collecting  bees  in  the 
Americas,  such  as  the  stingless  bees  (Trigonae  and  Meliponae), 
the  size  of  domestic  flies,  which  occasionally  bite  like  ants  and 
then  rub  their  poison  of  rancid  odor  into  the  wound.  Columbus 
found  their  honey  and  wax  in  abandoned  huts.  The  South  Amer- 
icans call  them  "Angelitos",  little  angels,  because  they  do  not 
sting.  They  nest,  as  a  rule,  in  the  hollows  of  dead  trees,  but  occa- 
sionally make  their  own  hives  in  the  ground  or  attached  to  the 
branches  of  trees.  There  are  evidences  that  the  Indians  cultivated 
them  and  supplied  them  with  wooden  logs  and  earthenware  jars 
in  which  to  nest. 

The  honey  which  these  stingless  bees  produce  is  rather  thin  but 
of  an  agreeable  aromatic  odor;  the  natives  even  prefer  it  to  the 
honey  of  the  white  man's  "stinging  fly"  and  attribute  greater 
remedial  value  to  it.  The  combs  are  not  as  regular  as  those  of  the 
honeybee;  they  form  an  irregular  mass  of  cells  but  are  occasion- 
ally hexagon  shaped. 

That  honey  had  an  important  part  in  the  lives  of  the  natives 
before  the  discovery  of  America  is  proven  by  the  ancient  Mayan 
and  Aztec  codices.  The  conquered  tribes  had  to  pay  tributes  of 
honey.  The  Codex  Mendoza  lists  the  tributes  of  seven  hundred 
pottery  jars  of  honey  paid  to  Montezuma,  the  Aztec  emperor  of 
Mexico.  Some  of  the  sacred  books  mention  that  the  conquering 
heroes  permitted  the  defeated  tribes  to  pursue  pottery  making  and 
beekeeping,  apparently  two  of  their  most  important  occupations. 
Many  hieroglyphic  carvings  represent  bees  and  honeycombs,  and 
human  figures  carrying  on  their  backs  large  jars,  containing  honey, 
as  a  tribute.  (Fig.  2.) 


EDWIN    FORBES:  SCENES   FROM  THE  CIVIL  WAR 
,        In  the  Executive  R  :om  of  the  Union  League  Club 
(Courtesy  of  Union  League  Club  of  the  City  of  New  York) 


PLATE   VI 


HISTORIC    TIMES 


177 


fig.  2.  Mexican  Vase. 

Gatherer  of  wild  honey. 

(Courtesy  Hispanic  Society  of 
A  merica) 


Honey  was  unquestionably  used  as  a 
food  and  for  the  preparation  of  intoxi- 
cating beverages.  The  Mexican  mead 
(acan)  was  probably  not  unlike  the 
mead  of  other  nations.  It  is  mentioned 
that  it  was  health-giving  and  intoxicat- 
ing, similar  to  the  drinks  made  of 
pulque.  The  Mexican  Indians  had  their 
bee-gods  to  whom  they  prayed  for 
plenty  of  honey.  There  are  several  folk 
tales  of  the  South  American  Indians 
connected  with  hunting  for  wild  honey 
which  are  remarkably  similar  to  those 
of  the  Russians,  the  Hindus,  the 
African  and  East  Indian  natives.  (See 
page  196.) 

Honeybees  (Apis  Mellifica)  were 
brought  to  the  American  Continent  by  the  Spanish,  Dutch  and 
English  settlers  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  Mexico 
they  were  domesticated  much  earlier  than  in  the  United  States. 
We  find  fthe  first  traces  of  bees  in  the  United  States  in  Boston  in 
1644,  where  they  were  imported  by  the  English.  A  hurricane 
carried  them  over  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  Their  tendency  to 
migrate  southward  was  very  expressed.  The  bees  found  a  new 
home  in  the  United  States  in  much  the  same  manner  as  did  the 
European  settlers. 

Toward  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  ( 1 764)  the 
bees  were  taken  from  Spanish  Florida  to  Cuba,  where,  however, 
they  did  not  remain  very  long.  The  planters  soon  annihilated 
them  because  they  robbed  the  sugar-canes.  The  bees  rapidly  multi- 
plied in  Cuba.  M.  Montelle  {Choix  de  Lectures  Geogra-phlques 
et  Historiques,  Tome  5,  Part  II)  says,  in  speaking  of  the  island 
of  Cuba:  "When  the  Floridas  were  ceded  in  1763  by  Spain  to 
England,  the  five  or  six  hundred  miserable  beings  who  vegetated 
in  those  regions,  took  refuge  in  Cuba,  and  carried  with  them  some 
Bees:  these  useful  insects  repaired  to  the  forests,  established  them- 


I78  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

selves  in  the  hollows  of  old  trees,  and  multiplied  with  a  celerity 
which  appeared  incredible.  The  hives  yield  four  crops  every  year 
and  the  swarms  succeed  each  other  without  interruption."  Don 
Ulloa  in  Philosophical  and  Historical  Memoirs,  concerning  the 
discovery  by  Spain,  also  refers  to  bees:  "These  insects  multiplied 
to  such  a  degree,  that  they  spread  to  the  mountains  and  were 
prejudicial  to  the  sugar-canes,  on  which  they  fed.  Their  fecundity 
was  so  great  that  a  hive  yielded  a  swarm  and  sometimes  two  in  a 
month.  The  wax  is  uncommonly  white  and  the  honey  of  perfect 
transparency  and  of  exquisite  taste."  In  the  Barbadoes,  the  bees 
did  not  visit  flowers  but  lived  in  the  midst  of  sugar  refineries.  In 
Argentina,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  the  bees  made  their 
appearance  around  1840,  in  Brazil  in  1848,  and  in  Chile  and  Peru 
only  in  1857. 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

In  the  United  States,  the  honeybees  spread  very  rapidly.  The 
American  Indians  looked  upon  them  as  the  harbingers  of  mis- 
fortune. It  seems  as  though  they  were  right,  and  the  prophecy  was 
well-grounded.  Longfellow  referred  to  it  in  "Hiawatha": 

"Wheresoe'er  they  move,  before  them 
Swarms  the  stinging  fly,  the  Ahmo, 
Swarms  the  Bee,  the  honey-maker; 
Wheresoe'er  they  tread,  beneath  them 
Springs  a  flower  unknown  among  us, 
Springs  the  White  Man's  Foot  in  blossom."  * 

The  Indians  called  the  bees  the  "white  man's  flies"  or  "English 
flies."  They  were  the  heralds  of  American  civilization,  and  when 
the  Indians  perceived  a  swarm  in  the  forest  they  shouted:  "The 
pale-faced  intruders  are  coming,  they  will  soon  be  here!"  The 
bees  swiftly  covered  the  West.  Washington  Irving  remarked  that 
in  the  proportion  that  the  bees  advanced,  the  Indians  and  the 
buffaloes  retired.  {Tour  in  the  Prairies?) 

*  White  clover. 


HISTORIC    TIMES  179 

The  bees  spread  in  swarms  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  toward  the 
Pacific.  The  old  settlers  recorded  the  time  when  bees  first  crossed 
the  Mississippi.  The  West  was  a  real  paradise  for  these  nectar- 
seeking  insects,  another  veritable  land  of  promise.  William  Cullen 
Bryant  vividly  described  the  seething  activity  of  the  bee  in  the 
new  country,  where  she — 

"Fills  the  Savannahs  with  her  murmurings, 
And  hides  her  sweets,  as  in  the  golden  age, 
Within  the  hollow  oak.  I  listen  long 
To  her  domestic  hum,  and  think  I  hear 
The  sound  of  that  advancing  multitude, 
Which  soon  shall  fill  the  deserts." 

The  first  honeybees  were  taken  to  California  in  March,  1853. 
They  flourished  in  the  Santa  Clara  valley,  sending  off  as  many  as 
three  swarms  during  the  first  season.  How  highly  valued  they 
were  is  best  proven  by  the  fact  that  during  the  settlement  of  the 
estate  of  a  land  owner,  named  Shelton,  who  had  been  killed,  two 
colonies  of  bees  were  sold  at  auction  for  $105  and  $110,  respec- 
tively. It  is  recorded  that  four  swarms  were  imported  to  Califor- 
nia from  the  East  Coast  in  1859.  The  hives  were  placed  in  the 
rear  of  covered  wagons.  The  pioneers  occasionally  stopped  to 
allow  the  bees  to  hover  about  the  flower-pastures  within  their 
reach,  until  darkness,  when  the  hives  were  again  closed. 

The  West,  especially  California,  as  described  by  Muir,  was  one 
sweet  bee  garden,  from  the  snowy  Sierras  to  the  ocean,  where  the 
"bee-flowers"  bloomed  in  lavish  abundance.  Plows  and  sheep 
made  a  sad  havoc  of  these  glorious  pastures,  destroying  like  wild- 
fire tens  of  thousands  of  flowery  acres,  and  banishing  many  species 
of  the  best  honey  plants,  for  which  loss  cultivation  so  far  has  given 
no  adequate  compensation.  The  rich  primeval  soil  of  the  United 
States  was  covered  with  thick  forests,  profuse  vegetation  and  wild 
flowers.  The  settlers,  however,  lumbered  the  forests,  slaughtered 
wild  animals,  tilled  the  soil,  destroyed  the  surface  moisture  and 
created  droughts  by  offsetting  the  equilibrium  of  Nature's  forces. 


l80  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

They  worked  the  land  for  all  it  was  worth  and  planted,  instead  of 
soil-building,  soil-depleting  crops.  The  recent  formation  of  the 
Western,  so-called  dust-bowl,  seems  to  be  a  "vendetta"  of  the 
bees. 

The  bees  preferred  the  woods  to  comfortable  hives.  Forests 
provided  them  with  shelter,  food  and  good  protection  against  the 
elements,  the  cold  of  winter  and  the  heat  of  summer ;  against 
rains  and  storms  and,  besides,  kept  their  treasures  concealed.  They 
made  a  nest  in  any  suitable  place.  Muir  told  how  a  friend  of  his, 
hunting  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  sat  down  on  a  coon-trap  to 
rest,  but  soon  was  surrounded  by  an  angry  crowd  of  bees.  He 
discovered  that  he  had  been  sitting  upon  their  hive  which  con- 
tained over  two  hundred  pounds  of  honey. 

Contemporary  newspapers  related  how  bees  also  made  their 
nests  in  abandoned  houses.  When  the  old  Hawes  homestead  in 
Yarmouth,  Mass.,  which  had  sheltered  many  generations  of  Cape 
Cod  people,  was  doomed  to  be  torn  down,  the  workmen  could  not 
approach  the  ruins  because  the  bees  resented  their  intrusion  and 
the  demolishing  had  to  be  postponed  until  cold  weather  set  in. 
The  walls  of  the  building  were  found  to  be  solidly  packed  with 
honeycombs  and  hundreds  of  pounds  of  honey  were  removed.  , 

Bees  have  always  suffered  from  drought.  During  the  famine  of 
the  dry  year  1877,  it  1S  said  that  the  fate  of  the  bees  was  the  sad- 
dest of  all.  In  Los  Angeles  and  San  Diego  counties,  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  the  bees  perished  from  sheer  starvation.  Not  less 
than  eighteen  thousand  colonies  were  lost  in  these  two  counties 
alone,  and  in  others  the  loss  was  equally  as  great.  The  latest  disas- 
trous droughts  and  floods  in  the  United  States  played  havoc 
among  the  bees. 

Next  to  successive  droughts  and  floods  there  is  a  new  danger 
brought  on  by  civilization,  which  lurks  behind  apiculture,  namely, 
the  indiscriminate  use  of  poisonous  dust  and  liquid  sprays  which 
commercial  airplanes  broadcast  to  protect  the  orchards  and  other 
plantations  from  injurious  insects.  This  practice  is  daily  increasing 
in  the  West  and  in  some  Eastern  States.  In  one  county  of  Cali- 


HISTORIC    TIMES  l8l 

fornia  alone  there  were  seventeen  pilots  licensed  in  1936  to 
engage  in  pest  control. 

The  arsenical  sprays  drift  to  large  areas,  partly  spread  by  the 
propellers  of  the  airplanes,  partly  by  the  velocity  of  air  currents. 
The  destructive  poisons  often  drift  three  to  five  miles  from  the 
places  over  which  they  are  applied.  This  is  dangerous  not  only  to 
the  bees  but  also  to  livestock  and  to  public  health.  If  the  poison 
does  not  kill  older  bees,  the  tainted  pollen  which  they  carry  into 
the  hives  will  destroy  the  brood.  This  high-pressure  application  of 
sprays  and  dusters  (3000  to  5000  pounds  at  a  time)  is  a  dan- 
gerous practice.  The  benefits  which  are  derived  from  this  pro- 
cedure may  be  outweighed  by  the  loss  of  the  pollinating  services 
of  bees,  besides  a  great  decrease  in  honey  production.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  so  far  not  a  single  instance  has  been  found  of  any  of 
the  arsenic  getting  into  the  honey. 

Among  the  Southern  States,  Texas  was  another  "land  flowing 
with  milk  and  honey."  To  quote  J.  Taylor  Allen  {Early  Pioneer 
Days  of  Texas),  "Honey  Grove  (Texas)  derived  its  name  from 
the  immense  number  of  bee  trees  of  richest  honey;  deposited  in 
every  hollow  tree,  and  sometimes  in  the  tangled  down  weeds  and 
grass.  David  Crockett  and  my  father  W.  B.  Allen  and  his  pioneer 
comrades  found  here  honey  in  abundance  in  the  early  days  of 
Texas.  Oh,  what  happy,  indescribable  times  we  would  have  if  we 
could  find  such  country  again,  but  gone  forever.  .  .  .  Honey  Grove 
— let  the  name  perpetuate  the  meaning  that  its  name  implies;  a 
grove  where  industry,  economy,  enterprise  and  perseverance  shall 
be  perpetuated.  It  is  said  that  Davy  Crockett  and  his  men,  those 
illustrious  Texan  heroes,  camped  here  a  week  on  their  way  to  that 
world-famed  Alamo,  and  fed  on  the  honey  that  gave  them  the 
joy  of  Service  and  Zeal  for  their  country's  cause.  ...  I  cannot 
refrain  from  paying  tribute  to  the  industrious  bees.  How  diligently 
they  gather  and  economically  store  during  the  season  of  labor  that 
they  may  have  plenty  in  the  storehouses  in  the  winter.  What  a 
lesson  to  us  the  bees  give,  teaching  us  the  need  for  industry,  thrift 
and  economy,  using  our  God-given  talent  while  it  is  day  and  lay- 


1 82  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

ing  in  store  for  the  day  when  our  work  is  done.  .  .  .  Nor  shall  I 
forget  the  nectar  of  the  gods,  the  honey  furnished  us  by  the  indus- 
trious honey  bee,  the  most  wonderful  insect  in  God's  creation, 
flitting  from  flower  to  flower,  extracting  here  a  little  and  there  a 
little  and  gathering  the  sweetest  of  all  sweets.  If  there  is  anything 
I  like  better  than  honey  it  is  .  .  .  more  honey." 

During  the  Civil  War,  soldiers  carried  off  beehives.  (Plate  VI.) 

AMERICAN  HONEY-LORE 

In  American  folklore,  young  as  it  is,  we  find  many  tales  which 
reflect  on  honey.  H.  B.  Parks,  in  "The  Lost  Honey  Mines  in 
Texas",  Southwest  Review,  (1930.  16.)  remarks:  "The  best  place 
and  time  to  hear  honey-cave  stories  is  some  bee-yard  in  the 
chaparral  of  Southwest  Texas,  when  the  extracting  crew  is  resting 
around  the  campfire  after  a  hard  day's  work.  From  the  prevalence 
and  absurdity  of  the  legends,  however,  it  is  safe  to  infer  that  they 
are  of  long  standing." 

"The  tales  of  bee-caves  have  much  in  common  with  stories  about 
lost  mines,"  Parks  continues.  .  .  .  The  mouths  of  the  caves  were 
supposed  to  be  guarded  by  huge  rattlesnakes,  vicious  bats,  scor- 
pions j  occasionally,  by  ghosts.  Usually,  as  the  story  goes,  some 
surveyor  entered  the  cave  about  thirty  years  ago  and  reported 
vast  rooms  filled  with  honey  in  pure  white  combs.  Often  a  well- 
driller  in  the  vicinity  has  passed,  they  say,  through  just  thirty  feet 
of  honey  and  wax.  And  someone  can  always  (for  a  certain  con- 
sideration and  not  otherwise)  show  you  the  location  of  the  cave. 

The  Story  of  Bee  Mountain,  as  described  by  Parks,  is  very 
popular.  It  was  disclosed  to  two  boys  by  a  cowpuncher  who  was 
well  acquainted  with  the  mountain  and  who  had  procured  plenty 
of  honey  there  himself.  According  to  the  informant,  this  mountain 
was  a  hollow  hill,  conical  in  shape  and  several  thousand  feet  in 
height.  On  one  side  was  an  opening;  and  if  the  searchers  could 
have  used  sulphur  fumes,  sufficiently  strong  to  stupefy  the  bees, 
they  might  have  entered  the  interior  of  the  mountain,  where 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  pounds  of  honey  were  suspended  from 
the  roof.  There  was  also  a  rumor  afloat  that  some  boys  had  at- 


HISTORIC    TIMES  I  83 

tempted  to  invade  it,  but  they  were  frightened  away  by  Cherokee 
Indians. 

Another  story,  according  to  Parks,  was  told  by  a  man  who  could 
remember  that  during  his  early  childhood  Indians  would  come 
after  every  wet  spring  to  obtain  honey  from  bees  living  in  colo- 
nies, attached  to  the  undersurface  of  a  wide  projecting  rock  at  the 
top  of  a  nearby  cliff,  some  seventy  feet  above  the  bed  of  a  river. 
The  Indians  reached  the  honey  by  splicing  together  mesquite 
poles.  Then  some  light  Indian  would  climb  the  pole  and  the 
others  would  move  it  from  place  to  place,  while  the  Indian  aloft 
lowered  the  honeycombs  by  means  of  a  rope  and  a  grass  sack. 
Once  a  group  of  hostile  Indians  came  to  gather  some  honey,  and 
after  they  had  obtained  all  they  desired,  turned  on  the  white 
settlers  and  killed  many  of  them.  Mr.  Parks  visited  Bee  Moun- 
tain several  years  ago,  and  counted  some  three  hundred  colonies 
of  bees  attached  to  an  overhanging  rock.  At  the  base  of  the  bluff 
were  the  remains  of  hundreds  of  pieces  of  mesquite  poles,  for- 
merly parts  of  ladders  used  probably  by  the  Indians. 

"Bee  Cave  up  Blanco"  seems  to  be  famous  everywhere  except 
along  the  Blanco  River.  An  old  hunter  said  that  one  man  in  his 
party  had  climbed  to  the  mouth  of  a  great  cave  along  the  banks  of 
the  river.  On  arriving  at  the  opening,  he  was  completely  covered  by 
thousands  of  bees  and  he  was  saved  from  being  stung  to  death 
only  by  his  heavy  clothing.  He  was  able  to  drive  the  bees  from 
his  eyes  just  long  enough  to  obtain  a  glimpse  of  the  cave,  where 
he  beheld  a  solid  wall  of  white  honeycombs.  The  man  later  re- 
turned with  a  companion,  and  with  the  aid  of  smoke  and  the  light 
of  torches  the  hunters  were  enabled  to  enter  this  gigantic  hive. 
They  were  approaching  beautiful  sheets  of  honeycombs  when  a 
warning  note  caused  them  to  look  to  the  floor  of  the  cave.  Horri- 
fied, they  discovered  that  they  were  standing  at  the  edge  of  what 
appeared  to  be  a  solid  mass  of  wriggling,  twisting  rattlesnakes. 
The  hunters,  by  quick  movement,  regained  the  entrance  in  safety. 

Another  famous  bee  cave,  Parks  continues,  is  reported  to  be 
located  very  close  to  the  City  of  San  Marcos,  in  the  side  of  a  cliff. 
The  entire  rock  composing  the  bluff  is  full  of  holes  and  this  is  the 


184  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

home,  not  only  of  an  immense  colony  of  bees,  but  also  of  many 
snakes,  rattlesnakes  being  predominant.  According  to  the  story,  a 
group  of  men  tried  to  open  a  hole  in  the  side  of  this  bluff.  The 
leader  said  that  he  had  been  assured  that  there  were  hundreds  of 
pounds  of  honey  and  beeswax  in  the  cave,  and  he  felt  certain  that 
this  treasure  could  be  obtained  with  the  aid  of  a  patented  smoke 
gun  which  he  possessed.  Carrying  the  famous  smoke  gun  and  a 
lantern,  one  of  the  members  explored  the  cave  to  a  depth  of  sev- 
eral thousands  of  feet.  He  returned  with  the  report  that  enormous 
amounts  of  honey  and  wax  were  almost  at  their  finger  tips.  The 
exploring  company  tried  to  enlarge  the  opening,  but  as  soon  as- 
they  commenced  to  pound  on  the  rock,  snakes  began  to  issue  from 
every  little  hole  in  the  face  of  the  bluff,  and,  while  no  one  was 
hurt,  the  sight  was  so  terrible  that  the  men  fled  and  no  amount 
of  hidden  treasure  could  induce  them  to  return. 

The  bee  cave  in  the  Davis  Mountains  is  another  place  that  can 
be  "easily"  approached.  The  opening  is  as  large  as  the  doorway 
of  an  immense  cathedral.  With  proper  protection  a  person  can 
enter  the  cave  and  is  at  once  astonished  by  the  curtainlike  sheets 
of  honeycomb  which  hang  from  the  ceiling.  As  far  as  one  pene- 
trates into  the  cave  this  white  honeycomb  extends,  one  sheet  right 
after  another.  The  terrible  thing  about  the  cave,  however,  is  super- 
natural. The  first  thing  that  attracts  the  attention  of  the  explorer 
is  the  fact  that  he  is  standing  in  the  midst  of  dozens  of  human 
skeletons.  If  he  proceeds,  he  feels  a  sudden  chill  in  the  atmosphere 
and  something  seems  to  take  hold  of  him  in  such  a  way  that  he 
cannot  move  farther  inward,  although  he  can  see  nothing  to  stop 
him.  If  the  adventurer  does  not  heed  the  warning  and  tries  to  go 
still  farther,  he  is  crushed  by  an  unknown  force  and  falls  dead 
to  the  floor.  Should  his  companions  attempt  to  remove  the  body, 
they,  too,  are  stricken  with  death  and  add  to  this  pile  of  grim 
reminders  of  the  force  which  protects  the  honey  bees  of  the  Davis 
Mountains.  (All  these  stories  are  somewhat  reminiscent  of  the 
legend  about  the  four  Greeks,  who  tried  to  plunder  the  grotto  of 
Zeus.) 

The  cave  up  the  Nueces  is  thought  to  be  located  in  the  face  of 


HISTORIC    TIMES  I  85 

a  cliff  some  thousand  feet  in  height.  During  the  spring  season,  to 
one  standing  on  the  top  of  the  bluff,  the  bees  going  and  coming 
from  the  mouth  of  the  cave  resemble  a  great  stream  of  smoke; 
and  the  hum  of  their  wings  is  so  loud  that  the  roar  can  be  heard 
for  miles.  According  to  the  story,  thirty  years  ago  a  surveyor  dis- 
covered a  second  entrance  and,  making  a  torch  of  his  coat,  went 
into  the  cave,  protected  by  the  smoke  of  the  burning  garment.  He 
passed  through  room  after  room  filled  with  long  white  sheets  of 
purest  guajillo  honey,  and  estimated  that  the  cave  contained  sev- 
eral million  pounds.  Some  of  the  combs  were  at  least  fifty  feet 
from  top  to  bottom.  Before  the  surveyor  had  time  to  make  the 
proper  preparations  to  remove  the  honey,  he  fell  sick  and  died. 
Just  before  his  death,  he  called  a  doctor  and  gave  him  a  map 
showing  the  entrance  to  the  bee  cave.  A  story  was  current  in  San 
Antonio  some  five  or  six  years  ago  that  this  map  was  on  sale  for 
$500.  A  second  version  is  that  a  ranchman  living  near  this 
canyon  had  a  well  drained  for  water.  Some  fifty  feet  down,  the 
drill-bit  entered  a  cavity,  and  when  a  sand  bucket  was  substituted 
for  the  rock-bit,  honey  and  beeswax  were  brought  up  in  great 
quantities.  The  cavity  was  thirty  feet  from  top  to  bottom. 

Another  story,  Parks  relates,  is  that  of  an  old  beekeeper  and 
former  cowboy,  "Jones,"  who  said  that  up  the  Nueces  canyon  the 
whole  wall  was  filled  with  bees.  With  a  companion,  he  planned 
to  take  advantage  of  the  bees,  and  to  become  rich  by  selling  honey. 
"Jones"  and  his  friend  bought  a  blacksmith's  bellows  and  made 
a  machine,  which  they  mounted  on  a  sled,  for  blowing  sulphur 
fumes.  A  honey  extractor  was  placed  on  another  sled.  The  men 
then  bought  two  colonies  of  bees  and  several  burros.  When  the 
cave-bees  had  finished  gathering  the  spring  crop  of  honey, 
"Jones"  and  a  curious  caravan  set  out  for  the  canyon.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  canyon,  the  party  made  camp.  The  next  day  they  pushed 
the  smoke  engine  as  far  as  the  first  bee  cave,  fired  it  up,  and 
pumped  the  fumes  into  the  skeleton  rock  that  guarded  the  honey. 
After  a  hard  day's  work,  the  bees  in  this  cave  were  all  killed.  That 
night,  two  colonies  of  bees  in  hives  were  placed  in  front  of  the 
cave.  The  next  day  these  hive-bees  worked  overtime,  stealing  the 


1 86  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

honey  from  the  cave.  In  the  evening,  "Jones"  and  his  companion, 
as  the  story  goes,  extracted  three  hundred  pounds  of  honey  which 
they  had  secured  with  the  aid  of  these  two  colonies.  Elated  by  the 
success  of  the  scheme,  they  sent  for  more  colonies.  By  the  use  of 
the  smoke-machine  and  by  moving  from  cave  to  cave,  the  men 
were  soon  keeping  a  regular  line  of  burros  busy  carrying  honey  to 
the  city  and  returning  with  empty  cans.  The  bees  worked  so  hard 
that  the  colonies  had  to  be  replaced  every  two  weeks.  Unfortu- 
nately winter  put  an  end  to  this  performance. 

Honey  caves  have  been  the  object  of  many  expeditions,  Parks 
concludes.  Such  quests  for  hidden  sweets  were  often  broached  by 
country-boys,  generally  without  definite  plan  or  reliable  informa- 
tion, except  that  someone  had  told  of  a  bee  cave  somewhere,  and 
they  were  determined  to  get  the  honey.  The  stories  that  have 
appeared  in  the  papers  are  among  the  most  marvelous  pieces  of 
misinformation  ever  read.  It  is  to  be  said  in  defense  of  the  credu- 
lity of  these  seekers  after  the  rumored  treasure  houses  that  there 
are  holes  in  the  rocks,  and  crevices  in  the  bluffs,  where  honey  bees 
have  lived  for  years  and  each  year  a  certain  amount  of  honey  and 
wax  is  secured  from  such  locations. 

John  Taylor  Allen  alludes  to  the  affluence  of  honey  in  the  State 
of  Texas:  "The  wonderful  tales  told  of  honey  and  the  honey  bee 
may  seem  exaggerated  but  no  tale  can  exaggerate  the  abundance 
of  honey  that  was  to  be  found  right  here  in  Texas  in  the  early 
days.  What  sweet,  happy  days  we  had  cutting  bee  trees  and  eating 
the  rich  wild  honey  spread  over  our  buttered  biscuits, .  .  .  We  had 
a  bountiful  supply  the  whole  year  around — combed  honey, 
strained  honey  and  candied  honey." 

Wild  bee  cave  tales  are  very  much  in  vogue  in  Texas.  Dr. 
Phillips  of  Cornell  related  a  story  about  a  man  who,  some  years 
ago,  came  North  from  Texas  with  a  most  impressive  story  con- 
nected with  huge  accumulations  of  honey — which  our  man  firmly 
believed — and  who  used  all  his  efforts  to  interest  prominent  bee- 
keepers in  the  promotion  of  a  scheme.  Everybody  realized  how 
silly  his  project  was  but  luckily  no  one  told  him.  Finally  they 
brought  him  to  the  meeting  of  the  National  Beekeepers'  Associa- 


HISTORIC    TIMES  I  87 

tion  in  Indianapolis,  where,  during  the  evening  banquet,  after  he 
had  told  his  tale,  a  company  was  organized,  with  a  $2,000,000 
capital  for  the  promotion  of  his  project.  Dr.  Phillips  was  elected 
Secretary  of  the  Company  at  some  astounding  salary.  A  well- 
known  beekeeper  was  chosen  as  the  "Chief  Dronekiller"  at  a 
yearly  salary  of  $20,000,  an  important  position  because  the 
worker  bees  are  very  irritable  during  the  period  when  they  kill 
the  drones.  All  the  details  were  attended  to:  how  to  remove  the 
honey  and  wax  by  elaborate  machinery,  and  how  to  transport  the 
honey  through  glass-lined  pipes  to  San  Antonio.  It  was  the  wild- 
est hoax.  All  attending  the  banquet  were  holding  their  sides  from 
laughter  without  the  victim  discovering  that  they  were  having  a 
grand  time  at  his  expense.  At  the  end  of  the  evening  it  fell  to 
Dr.  Phillips''  lot  to  perform  a  most  perplexing  and  painful  duty, 
that  of  telling  the  victim  that  the  entire  scheme  was  only  a  huge 
joke. 


CHAPTER    XIV 
WANDERING  BEEKEEPERS 


THE  traditional  manner  in  which  the  ancient  races  furnished 
the  bees  with  new  pastures,  when  their  natural  surroundings 
did  not  afford  a  sufficient  supply  of  nectar,  is  highly  interesting. 
The  old  "tillers"  of  Egypt  placed  the  hives  on  boats  and  drifted 
along  the  Nile  to  provide  the  bees  with  fresh  flowers  which  grew 
on  the  banks  of  the  receding  river,  especially  on  its  expansive 
delta.  There  was  hardly  any  other  pasturage  for  the  bees  in 
Egypt  j  there  were  no  forests  or  meadows  with  wild  flowers. 
Ancient  Egypt  had,  by  all  means,  less  vegetation  than  present-day 
Egypt,  because  a  considerable  number  of  plants  have  been  im- 
ported during  the  past  thousands  of  years.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
lotus,  brought  in  all  likelihood  from  India,  and  considered  sacred, 
was  more  extensively  cultivated  than  it  is  today,  when  it  is  nearing 
extinction.  Lotus  honey  was  in  great  favor  in  ancient  Egypt. 

The  inhabitants  of  Lower  Egypt  well  knew  that  the  blooming 
of  fruit-trees  and  flowers  of  Upper  Egypt  preceded  theirs  by  sev- 
eral months.  Toward  the  end  of  October,  the  villagers  embarked 
on  boats  or  rafts,  packed  with  pyramided  hives,  and  conveyed 
them  down  the  Nile  into  Upper  Egypt,  just  at  the  time  when  the 
inundations  had  subsided  and  the  flowers  had  begun  to  bud.  The 
bees  soon  exhausted  the  supply  of  nectar  two  or  five  miles  around 
a  new  locality j  then  the  floats  were  moved  to  another  station  and 
remained  there  as  long  as  it  proved  desirable.  These  wanderers 
returned  to  their  homes  about  February,  the  hives  well-stocked 
with  honey,  gathered  from  the  orange  blossoms  of  Said  and 
Arabian  jessamine.  The  hives  were  carefully  numbered  and  deliv- 
ered to  their  respective  owners.  Niebuhr  reported  seeing  such  a 
flotilla  of  four  thousand  hives  on  the  Nile. 


WANDERING    BEEKEEPERS  I  89 

We  learn  from  the  Zenon  papyri  that  the  Egyptians  had  wan- 
dering beekeepers  even  on  land.  These  papyri,  originating  from 
the  third  century  b.c,  were  discovered  in  19 14  by  peasants  dig- 
ging for  antiquities  on  the  site  of  ancient  Philadelphia  on  the  edge 
of  the  Fayoum.  Zenon  was  a  high  official  of  Apolloneos  who  sent 
him  to  Philadelphia  when  Egypt  was  under  Greek  influence.  In 
one  of  the  papyri  there  is  an  appeal  of  the  beekeepers  to  Zenon, 
entreating  him  to  return  the  donkeys  which  they  had  lent  him  and 
which  they  needed  at  once  to  bring  home  their  hives  from  distant 
fields.  Some  farmers  threatened  the  beekeepers  that  they  would 
ruin  the  hives  because  it  was  necessary  to  burn  the  brushwood  and 
inundate  the  fields.  "The  donkeys  were  loaned  for  only  ten  days" 
— said  the  petition — "and  now  it  is  eighteen  days  and  the  donkeys 
have  not  been  returned."  They  begged  Zenon  to  deliver  the 
donkeys  with  the  assurance  that  after  the  hives  had  been  brought 
home  they  would  be  immediately  returned  in  case  he  needed  them. 
"We  pay  a  large  tax  to  the  King  and  if  the  donkeys  are  not 
restored  at  once  the  tax  will  be  lost.  May  you  prosper." 

The  Greeks  imitated  the  custom  of  the  Egyptians.  Columella 
describes  how  the  inhabitants  of  Achaia  took  their  hives  overseas  as 
far  as  the  Attic  peninsula  to  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  of  its 
wonderful  pastures.  Solon  mentioned  bee-caravans  and  bee-floats 
in  600  B.C.,  and  his  laws  demanded  that  each  group  of  hives 
should  be  kept  three  hundred  feet  apart.  It  would  not  be  surpris- 
ing if  the  Egyptians  journeyed  as  far  as  Greece  with  their  hives. 
The  ancient  Greeks  called  the  Egyptian  bees  "cecropic"  bees. 
Cecrops  was  an  Egyptian,  who,  about  1500  B.C.,  wandered  to 
Greece  and  probably  introduced  apiculture. 

The  Romans,  in  the  third  century,  took  their  hives  with  them 
to  old  Alemannia,  and  drifted  down  the  Rhine.  Wandering  bee- 
keepers have  been  known  since  earliest  times.  Pliny  reported  that 
when  the  local  sources  of  honey  were  exhausted,  the  inhabitants 
of  Hostilia,  a  village  on  the  Po,  placed  their  hives  on  boats  and 
sailed  during  the  night  five  miles  upstream,  where  next  day  the 
bees  helped  themselves  in  their  new  location.  The  temporary 
stations  were  changed  each  night,  until  the  bees  had  collected  so 


190  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

much  honey  that  the  boats  were  heavily  laden.  Then  the  villagers 
drifted  downstream,  homeward-bound.  The  French  "bee-barges," 
with  a  capacity  of  sixty  to  a  hundred  hives,  were  frequently  re- 
ferred to.  The  Provence  and  the  forests  of  Orleans  were  covered 
during  certain  seasons  with  visiting  hives. 

The  same  antiquated  custom  prevailed  in  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, starting  from  New  Orleans.  The  blossoms  of  the  river-wil- 
lows yielded  excellent  virgin  honey.  Perrine,  of  Chicago,  traveled 
in  a  large  boat  up  the  Mississippi  from  New  Orleans  to  St.  Paul, 
anticipating  that  the  shores,  after  the  flood  had  receded,  would 
supply  ample  pasturage  for  the  bees.  The  scorching  heat,  how- 
ever, ruined  his  plans ;  he  was  even  compelled  to  pour  water  over 
the  hives,  which  alone  destroyed  many  colonies. 

That  this  procedure  was  known  also  in  England  is  shown  by  an 
article  published  in  the  London  Times,  1830:  "As  the  small  sail- 
ing vessel  was  proceeding  up  the  Channel  from  the  coast  of  Corn- 
wall and  running  near  land,  some  of  the  sailors  noticed  a  swarm 
of  bees  on  the  island  j  they  steered  for  it,  landed,  and  after  they 
succeeded  in  hiving  the  bees  they  took  them  on  board  and  pro- 
ceeded on  their  voyage.  As  they  sailed  along  the  shore,  the  bees 
constantly  flew  from  the  vessel  to  the  land  to  collect  honey  and 
returned  again  to  their  floating  hive;  and  this  was  continued  all 
the  way  up  the  Channel." 

On  land,  the  hives  were  placed  on  wagons  and  when  the  combs 
were  filled,  the  traveling  beekeepers  returned  home.  In  Pales- 
tine, the  orange  groves  of  Jaffa  offered  a  rich  pasturage.  The  hives 
were  carried  by  night  on  camels,  sixteen  hives  to  a  load.  Such 
journeying  was  called  "giving  the  bees  a  pasture."  In  medieval 
Spain,  they  had  similar  customs  except  that  the  hives  were  trans- 
ported on  mules.  The  Russians  and  Armenians  around  the  Black 
Sea  traveled  like  nomads,  migrating  with  thousands  of  hives, 
pitching  their  tents  where  abundant  wild  flowers  were  to  be  found. 
Such  bee-caravans,  ambulatory  establishments  like  gipsy-hordes, 
are  often  described  in  Greece,  Italy,  Germany,  Austria  and 
France.  In  Scotland,  they  conveyed  the  hives  on  carts  to  the  High- 
lands, when  the  supply  of  nectar  in  the  Lowlands  was  exhausted. 


WANDERING    BEEKEEPERS  191 

They  closed  the  entrances  of  the  hives  with  wire  screens  which 
secured  ample  ventilation.  The  luxuriant  blooms  of  the  mountain- 
heather,  which  last  over  two  months,  supplied  plentiful  nectar  to 
the  bees  in  the  autumn  when  no  other  flowers  are  available.  The 
shepherds  and  gamekeepers  took  the  hives  under  their  protection 
for  a  modest  quittance ;  as  a  rule,  a  shilling  a  hive.  Wandering 
beekeepers  were  also  known  in  Switzerland,  where  the  hives  were 
taken  to  the  valleys  when  the  buckwheat,  which  produces  excellent 
honey,  was  blooming.  In  the  Luneburger  Heide,  nomadic  troupes 
of  beekeepers  were  traditional,  especially  in  the  springtime  and 
late  summer.  The  ancient  laws  well  protected  them. 

This  almost  archaic  practice  still  seems  to  prevail  in  the  United 
States.  Many  beekeepers  make  the  bees  work  the  year  round. 
Early  fall  they  truck  about  two  hundred  hives  to  a  load  to  the 
winter  pastures  of  wild  flowers  and  orange  groves  of  Florida.  By 
May,  when  they  return  homeward,  the  colonies  have  multiplied 
considerably  and  produce  a  double  crop  of  honey. 


CHAPTER    XV 
HUNTING  FOR  WILD  HONEY 


PAINSTAKING  efforts  to  collect  wild  honey  were  just  as 
ancient  a  sport  as  hunting  and  fishing.  When  the  bees  were  not 
yet  domesticated  and  nested  in  hollow  trees  and  rocks,  to  find  the 
nests  and  rob  them  of  honey  was  a  profitable  and  favorite  pastime. 
Special  hunters  devised  all  kinds  of  schemes  to  ferret  out  their 
habitations. 

The  bees'  well-known  sense  of  orientation,  as  acute  as  that  of 
homing-pigeons,  was  an  important  aid  in  tracking  their  lair. 
Columella  (60  a.d.)  describes  how  the  hunters  followed  the  bees. 
Washington  Irving  (A  Tour  of  the  Prairies,  1835)  gives  an 
account  of  his  experience  with  honey-hunters  in  quest  of  "bee- 
trees."  They  placed  a  honeycomb,  which  served  as  bait,  on  a  low 
bush.  Soon  the  bees  appeared  and  after  they  had  provided  them- 
selves with  enough  honey,  they  flew  into  the  air  and  in  a  "bee- 
line"  to  their  nest.  The  hunters  followed  the  bees'  course  and 
traced  them  to  some  hollow  tree-trunks  where  they  found  their 
cache  sometimes  sixty  feet  above  the  ground.  Then  they  chopped 
down  the  trees  and  with  knives  and  scoops  emptied  the  cavities, 
replete  with  honey.  John  Burroughs  (Idyl  of  the  Honey-Bee) 
described  an  identical  performance. 

Tickner  Edwardes  {The  Bee-Master  of  Warrilow)  also  tells 
how  to  discover  wild  bees'  nests.  It  is  useless  to  search  the  woods 
for  wild  honey,  for  one  may  travel  a  whole  day  and  find  nothing. 
The  only  plan  is  to  follow  the  laden  bees  as  they  return.  The  bee- 
master  produces  a  saucer  covered  with  honey  which  is  in  no  time 
black  with  crowding  bees.  The  saucer  is  then  covered  with  a  wire 

cage.  These  captured  bees  are  the  guides  to  the  hidden  treasure - 

192 


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HUNTING    FOR    WILD    HONEY  193 

chambers.  By  opening  a  small  door  in  the  trap,  one  bee  is  allowed 
to  escape  and  she  immediately  rises  into  the  air,  makes  a  circle  and 
speeds  away  in  a  certain  direction  which  one  must  follow.  After 
a  while,  another  bee  is  set  free,  and  the  same  procedure  is  repeated 
until  the  nest  is  located  high  in  the  hollow  of  a  dead  tree.  The 
Russian  name  of  a  beekeeper  is  "tree-climber";  in  Lithuanian,  a 
"bee-climber".  The  inseparable  adjunct,  almost  an  emblem  of  the 
Hungarian  shepherd,  is  a  stick  with  a  little  hatchet  on  its  end. 
This,  called  fokos,  was  originally  a  beekeeper's  implement  for 
cutting  the  trunk  of  the  tree  to  remove  the  welcome  treasure.  A 
similar  tool  is  still  used  in  the  District  of  Hanover,  Germany.  It 
is  called  Be'ide  and  is  the  symbol  of  beekeeping. 

It  was  a  most  ancient  custom  that  the  finder  had  the  right  to 
mark  the  trees  with  a  special  design  or  initials,  after  which  he  or 
his  tribe  had  the  sole  privilege  of  collecting  honey  from  such 
trees.  The  laws  were  strict  and  severe  punishment  was  meted  out 
for  altering  or  destroying  these  markings.  In  Germany,  if  one 
were  caught  in  the  act  of  trespassing,  he  had  to  pay  a  fine  and, 
besides,  received  twenty  lashes.  (Plate  VII.) 

On  almost  every  continent  there  are  birds  which  are  fond  of 
honey.  They  show  the  honey-hunters  where  the  bees'  nests  are 
located.  The  birds  receive  their  share  for  these  services.  Vasco  de 
Gama  related  how  the  "honey-birds"  of  India  guided  the  natives 
to  the  rocks  where  honey  was  to  be  found.  The  ajaje  birds  lead 
the  Lango  tribes,  and  the  honey-ratels  the  Hottentots  to  the  wild 
bees'  nests.  The  honey-guide  {Cuculus  indicator),  a  tropical  bird, 
shows  the  South  African  natives  where  the  honey  is  located.  She 
flies  before  the  hunters  to  show  them  the  way.  As  a  reward,  the 
bird  receives  part  of  the  spoils.  The  natives  faithfully  obey  this 
tradition  and  give  the  birds  their  liberal  share ;  otherwise,  they 
believe,  out  of  revenge  the  birds  will  surely  lead  them  the  next 
time  to  a  lion's  den  or  a  snake's  nest,  and  then  fly  away  with  a 
merry  chirp.  According  to  a  Rhodesian  folk-tale,  these  vindictive 
creatures  lead  the  travelers  to  the  nests  to  retaliate  for  an  old 
injury  which  they  suffered  from  the  bees. 

Among  primitive  races  honey-hunting  was  an  important  event 


194  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

and  began  with  solemn  rites.  Chastity  had  to  be  observed  the 
night  before,  otherwise  the  hunters  would  be  badly  stung  by  the 
bees  or  some  other  misfortune  would  befall  them. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  honey-hunting  was  a  royal  sport.  The 
German  archives  describe  the  Nuremberg  forests  as  a  hunting 
ground  of  royalty  not  only  for  game  but  for  wild  honey.  Charle- 
magne began  to  domesticate  wild  bees  in  the  Nuremberg  forests 
out  of  gratitude  because,  after  he  had  been  stung  by  bees,  he 
recovered  from  an  obstinate  gout.  The  Nuremberg  forests  were 
called  the  bee-garden  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  under  the 
reign  of  Charles  IV  (1347),  the  bee  garden  of  Germany.  From 
the  honey  collected  there,  the  famous  Lebkuchen  was  baked  which 
is  still  popular  the  world  over  after  twelve  hundred  years. 

In  many  countries  special  permits  were  issued,  and  the  amount 
of  honey  had  to  be  accounted  for  and  taxes  paid  on  it.  The  Domes- 
day Book  mentions  that  the  Bishop  of  Worcester,  under  the  reign 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  was  privileged  to  hunt  for  honey  in  the 
forests  of  Malvern. 

The  ancient  origin  of  honey-hunting  is  demonstrated  in  myth- 
ology. (Plate  VIII.)  The  Satyrs  (Fauns),  the  attendants  of  Diony- 
sus, were  extremely  fond  of  honey.  In  one  of  the  legends  the 
jolly  old,  red-nosed,  bloated  and,  as  a  rule,  intoxicated  Silenus, 
the  schoolmaster  and  foster-father  of  Bacchus  and  the  alleged 
inventor  of  the  flute,  was  anxious  to  find  the  wild  bees'  nest  and 
plunder  it  of  honey.  As  the  story  goes,  Silenus  stood  on  his 
donkey's  back,  reaching  for  honey-combs,  when  the  bees  flew  at 
him  and  stung  him  on  his  bald  head.  He  fell  on  top  of  the  donkey, 
which,  when  also  stung,  kicked  him  and  escaped,  to  the  great 
merriment  of  the  other  Satyrs  who  witnessed  his  plight.  Ovid 
describes  the  scene  and  tells  how  Dionysus  laughed  and  taught 
Silenus  how  to  ease  the  pain  of  the  sting  with  mud.  (Plate  IX.) 

Innumerable  fables  and  legends  refer  to  honey-hunting.  One 
of  the  oldest  legends,  often  mentioned  in  ancient  literature,  is 
that  of  Antophilus,  the  Greek  poet,  who  was  a  great  lover  of 
honey  and  who  sang  its  praise  in  his  poems.  Antophilus,  while 
searching  for  wild  honey,  climbed  a  precipice  and  swinging  on  a 


HUNTING    FOR    WILD    HONEY  1 95 

rope,  emptied  the  contents  of  a  nest.  Some  honey  trickled  down 
the  rope.  His  dog,  also  very  fond  of  honey,  chewed  the  rope  and 
Antophilus  fell  from  the  perilous  height  and  was  killed. 

The  following,  a  rather  amusing  little  story  from  Poland,  is 
credited  to  Demetrius,  the  Russian  Ambassador  to  Rome:  "A  man, 
searching  in  the  woods  for  honey,  slipped  down  into  a  great  hol- 
low tree,  where  he  found  himself  up  to  his  breast  in  a  veritable 
lake  of  this  sweet  substance.  He  stuck  fast  there  for  two  days, 
making  the  lonely  woods  resound  in  vain  with  his  cries  for  help. 
Finally,  when  the  man  had  almost  abandoned  hope,  a  large  bear 
appeared  upon  the  scene,  bent  on  the  same  business  that  had  taken 


fig.  3.  The  man  saved  by  a  bear. 
(From  Wilhelm  Busch's  serial) 

the  man  there.  Bruin  smelled  the  honey,  which  had  been  stirred 
up  by  the  struggles  of  the  prisoner,  and  straightway  climbed  the 
tree  and  let  himself  down  backward  into  the  hollow.  The  man, 
whose  wits  had  been  sharpened  by  the  adversity,  caught  him  about 
the  loins  and  made  as  vigorous  an  outcry  as  he  could.  Up  clam- 
bered Bruin  in  a  panic,  not  knowing  what  had  got  hold  of  him. 
Our  man  clung  fast,  and  the  bear  tugged,  until  by  main  force  he 
had  pulled  himself  and  his  captor  out  of  the  tree;  then  he  let 
go  and  Bruin,  considerably  frightened,  took  to  the  woods  with  all 
speed,  leaving  his  smeared  companion  to  his  own  congratulations." 
Wilhelm  Busch,  the  graphic  humorist  and  pastmaster  of  comical 
sequence,  must  have  been  quite  impressed  by  the  story  since  he 
illustrated  it  with  a  complete  serial  of  pictures.  (Fig.3.) 


I96  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

In  connection  with  honey-hunting  we  find  among  the  primitive 
tribes  of  far-off  continents  many  fanciful  tales  which  relate  the 
identical  and  characteristic  yarn.  The  honey-hunter  usually  finds 
among  the  honeycombs  in  a  tree  an  enchanted  bee-woman  who 
will  cook  for  him  and  will  prepare  a  delicious  honey-wine.  The 
hunter  proposes  marriage  to  her,  which  she  accepts  under  the  con- 
dition that  he  should  never  mention  to  anybody  where  he  had 
found  her,  otherwise,  she  would  disappear.  This  actual  proviso  is 
typical  also  of  many  other  myths;  the  story  of  Psyche,  the  Lohen- 
grin Saga  and  the  story  of  Undine,  are  only  a  few  instances.  This 
peculiar  secrecy  seems  to  be  analogous,  in  certain  respects,  with 
the  curious  marriage  customs  of  primitive  races,  according  to 
which  a  wife  was  not  permitted  to  pronounce  the  husband's  name 
or  it  was  unlawful  for  a  husband  to  see  his  wife's  face  until  after 
she  had  given  birth  to  her  first  child. 

The  following  is  a  popular  legend  along  the  Orinoco  River 
(Amazon  region) :  There  was  a  man  who  possessed  great  skill  in 
detecting  bees'  nests,  with  which  the  forest  abounded;  in  fact,  he 
was  better  in  this  respect  than  anyone  else.  One  day  the  man  tried 
to  drill  a  hollow  tree,  with  the  intention  of  removing  honey, 
when  suddenly  he  heard  a  loud  scream,  "You  are  killing  me!" 
He  carefully  opened  the  tree  and  to  his  amazement,  saw  a  beau- 
tiful naked  woman  before  him.  He  made  her  a  loin-cloth  and 
bade  her  marry  him.  The  woman  consented  to  be  his  wife  under 
one  condition,  that  he  would  never  call  her  Maba  (bee),  or  tell 
anyone  that  it  was  her  name.  Our  man  promised  and  the  two 
became  husband  and  wife.  The  hunter  remained  just  as  efficient 
in  finding  the  bees'  nests  as  in  former  days.  His  wife  made  the 
best  honey-wine  that  was  ever  brewed;  a  cupful  was  sufficient  to 
supply  all  the  guests.  On  one  occasion,  many  visitors  arrived,  and 
they  all  became  intoxicated.  The  host  promised  his  guests  that 
the  next  time  his  wife  would  prepare  more  and  still  better  honey- 
wine,  and  in  the  same  breath  referred  to  her  as  Maba.  In  an 
instant,  like  a  shot,  Maba  flew  away.  From  that  time  on  the  man's 
luck  changed  and  honey  became  scarce  in  the  region.  His  wife  had 
been  one  of  the  legendary  bee-women. 


HUNTING    FOR    WILD    HONEY  197 

There  are  similar  tales  in  Indonesia.  The  Bornean  version, 
quoted  in  The  Mythology  of  All  Races  (Vol.  IX),  is  as  follows: 

A  man  named  Rakian  was  out  hunting  for  honey,  when  in  the 
top  of  a  mangis  tree  he  saw  many  bees'  nests,  in  one  of  which 
were  white  bees.  (Several  Christian  legends  allude  to  snow-white 
bees  producing  virginal  honey.)  Since  white  bees  were  a  rarity,  he 
carefully  removed  the  nest  and  took  it  home.  The  next  day  he 
was  working  in  his  garden  and  when  he  returned  to  his  house  in 
the  evening  he  found  a  meal  cooked  for  him.  He  was  surprised 
because  he  lived  alone.  The  following  day  the  same  thing  oc- 
curred, his  meal  was  again  cooked.  This  continued  for  some  time. 
Finally  he  resolved  to  investigate  the  mystery. 

He  pretended  to  go  to  the  garden  but  silently  returned,  hid 
himself  and  watched.  The  door  of  the  house  soon  creaked  and  a 
beautiful  woman  came  out,  and  went  to  the  river  to  fetch  some 
water.  While  she  was  gone,  Rakian  entered  the  house,  and  found 
that  the  bees'  nest  was  empty.  He  hid  the  nest  and  secreted  him- 
self again.  The  woman  returned  and  upon  finding  the  nest  gone 
commenced  to  weep.  In  the  evening  Rakian  entered  the  house  as 
was  his  custom.  The  woman  sat  there  silent.  "Why  are  you  here?" 
he  asked,  "perhaps  you  want  to  steal  my  bees?"  The  woman  an- 
swered, "I  don't  know  anything  about  your  bees."  Rakian  asked 
her  to  cook  for  him  because  he  was  hungry,  but  she  refused,  as 
she  was  vexed.  The  woman  demanded  her  box  but  he  was  afraid 
that  she  would  disappear  into  it  again.  She  promised  not  to,  and 
that  she  would  become  his  wife  if  he  would  not  disclose  her 
identity.  Rakian  agreed  j  they  were  married  and  by  and  by  she 
bore  him  a  child. 

One  day  Rakian  went  to  a  feast  at  his  neighbors.  All  asked  him 
whence  his  beautiful  wife  had  come.  He  evaded  the  question. 
After  a  while,  when  they  all  were  intoxicated,  he  forgot  his  prom- 
ise and  revealed  to  his  friends  that  his  wife  had  been  a  bee. 

When  he  returned,  his  wife  did  not  speak  to  him.  Later  she 
reproached  him  for  having  broken  his  promise  and  said  that  she 
must  return  to  her  home.  "In  seven  days  my  father  will  pass  here 
and  I  shall  go  with  him,  but  the  child  I  leave  with  you."  Rakian 


198  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

wept.  He  could  not  change  her  mind.  Seven  days  later  he  saw  a 
white  bee  flying  by,  whereupon  his  wife  came  out  of  the  house 
and  exclaimed:  "There  is  my  father."  She  turned  into  a  bee  and 
flew  away. 

Rakian  picked  up  the  child  and  pursued  the  bees.  For  seven 
days  he  followed  them  until  finally  he  lost  sight  of  them.  Soon  a 
strange  woman  appeared  who  directed  him  to  his  wife's  home. 
Rakian  climbed  into  the  house  and  found  it  full  of  bees,  except 
the  middle  room.  The  child  began  to  cry,  when  suddenly  Rakian's 
wife  appeared.  Rakian  was  happy  but  she  reproached  him  for 
revealing  her  secret.  Finally  they  became  reconciled  and  all  the 
bees  dropped  down  from  the  roof-beams  to  the  floor  and  became 
men.  Rakian  and  the  child  remained  in  the  bees'  village. 

There  are  similar  fables  among  the  African  tribes. 

An  old  Hungarian  fable  suggests  that  Christ,  Himself,  was  a 
honey-hunter.  Christ  and  St.  Peter  were  wandering.  Peter  said, 
"It  must  be  wonderful  to  be  a  God,  help  the  widows  and  orphans, 
reward  good  deeds  and  punish  the  wicked.  If  this  could  be  ac- 
complished, there  wouldn't  be  any  vice  on  earth."  While  Peter 
was  talking,  Jesus  looked  around  and  noticed  a  bees'  nest  in  the 
hollow  of  a  tree.  Christ  suggested  to  Peter  that  he  put  the  swarm 
into  his  cap,  "Maybe  they  will  be  useful."  Peter  obeyed  and  put 
cluster  after  cluster  into  his  cap  until  one  of  the  bees  stung  him 
on  the  finger.  With  a  loud  cry  of  pain,  he  threw  the  cap,  full  of 
bees,  to  the  ground,  saying,  "Oh,  the  devil  shall  take  this  swarm ; 
how  one  of  them  has  stung  me!"  Christ  said,  "Well,  why  don't 
you  find  the  one  which  stung  you?"  "How  can  I,"  said  Peter, 
"they  all  look  alike."  Then  Jesus  said,  "If  you  were  God,  you 
would  do  the  same  thing;  if  one  of  your  people  sinned,  all  the 
innocent  would  have  to  suffer." 

During  the  pioneer  days  of  America  honey-hunting  was  a 
profitable  pursuit  and  a  favorite  occupation  of  the  Southwestern 
backwoodsmen.  Wild  honey  was  sold  for  a  quarter  of  a  dollar  a 
gallon  and  some  bee-trees  yielded  as  much  as  a  dozen  gallons  of 
honey.  The  honey-hunter  with  his  old  sombrero,  open  hickory 
shirt  and  deer-skin  breeches  is  often  described  in  contemporary 


HUNTING    FOR    WILD    HONEY  199 

writings.  He  is  portrayed  as  a  real  character;  fond  of  nature, 
solitude  and  the  stillness  of  the  woods,  listening  to  the  drowsy 
hum  of  the  bees.  His  power  of  vision  became  extremely  keen 
through  education  and  he  could  follow  the  bees  with  his  eyes  for 
hundreds  of  yards.  His  equipment  consisted  of  an  axe,  several 
buckets,  a  fishing  outfit  and,  of  course,  a  rifle  to  protect  him  from 
Indians  and  bears. 

The  honey  hunters,  as  a  rule,  built  their  log-cabins  near  navi- 
gable rivers  and  grew  their  vegetables  on  the  land  surrounding 
their  shacks.  They  depended  on  their  rifles  to  procure  the  neces- 
sary meat.  Honey  was  an  important  article  of  barter.  After  the 
hunters  had  collected  several  barrels  of  honey,  they  rolled  them 
down  to  the  river  bank,  placed  them  on  boats,  and  paddled  their 
cargo  to  the  nearest  settlement  where  they  exchanged  the  honey 
for  flour,  gunpowder,  lead  and  other  necessities.  Hunters  who 
lived  on  or  near  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  traded  their  honey 
with  the  skippers  of  the  steamboats.  The  rivermen  took  the  honey 
to  New  Orleans,  where  they  sold  it  at  a  fair  profit. 

The  importance  of  felling  bee  trees  is  best  proven  by  the  dis- 
pute which  occurred  in  1840  between  the  States  of  Iowa  and 
Missouri.  A  farmer  of  Clark  County  (Mo.)  cut  down  several  bee 
trees  filled  with  honey  on  the  boundary  line  between  the  two 
States.  This  strip  of  land  had  been  claimed  by  both  States  and 
ended  in  the  so-called  Honey-War.  The  United  States  Supreme 
Court  finally  decided  the  matter  in  1851  and  settled  the  exact 
boundary  between  the  two  States. 


CHAPTER    XVI 
IN  RELIGION 


AMONG  polytheistic  nations  (Varro  counted  30,000  gods), 
l  sacrifices  to  the  gods  were  a  common  practice.  These  obla- 
tional services  consisted  of  prayers  supplemented  with  gifts,  to 
win  the  favor  of  the  gods  and  to  express  gratitude  for  their  bounty 
or  to  appease  their  anger  and  ward  off  their  sinister  influence;  in 
a  word,  sacrifices  to  the  gods  were  either  thank  offerings  or  sin 
offerings.  The  hunters  sacrificed  their  prey,  the  farmers  their 
fruit  and  harvest  products  or  animals,  like  horses,  bulls,  sheep, 
etc.  In  some  countries,  occasionally  even  women  and  children  were 
sacrificed. 

We  find  that  honey  was  universally  used  in  consecratory  rites 
when  people  wished  to  offer  something  especially  holy  and  accept- 
able to  a  deity  as  an  expression  of  thanksgiving,  penitence  or 
atonement.  Sophocles  in  the  fragment  of  the  lost  Polydos  de- 
scribes the  offerings,  dear  to  the  gods: 

"Wool  of  the  sheep  was  there,  fruit  of  the  vine, 
Libations  and  the  treasured  store  of  grapes. 
And  manifold  fruits  were  there,  mingled  with  grain 
And  oil  of  olive,  and  fair  curious  combs 
Of  wax,  compacted  by  the  yellow  bee." 

To  the  ancient  Germanic  god,  Neckar,  there  was  yearly  sacri- 
ficed a  man,  a  sheep,  a  loaf  of  bread  and  a  beehive. 

Honey,  the  celestial  food,  collected  from  the  "virtues"  of  flow- 
ers, was  considered  by  all  ancients  the  symbol  of  purity,  love  and 
wisdom.  During  the  Leontic   (inhabitants  of  an  ancient  Greek 


HONEY    IN    RELIGION  201 

town  in  the  province  of  Syracuse)  initiation  ceremonies  honey  was 
poured  on  the  hands,  instead  of  water,  to  keep  them  pure  from 
everything  that  causes  pain,  harm  or  brings  defilement.  Honey 
was  also  thought  to  purify  the  tongue  from  every  sin.  St.  Gregory 
(Pope,  590—604  a.d.),  in  Morals  on  the  Book  of  Job  (Vol.  II,  p. 
185),  remarked,  "When  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit  bathes  us,  it 
fills  us  with  honey  and  butter  equally.  Honey  falls  from  above, 
butter  is  drawn  from  the  milk  of  animals,  so  honey  is  from  the 
air,  butter  from  the  flesh."  In  primitive  baptism  the  neophyte 
drank  a  cup  of  milk  and  honey  mixed;  "the  new-born  in  Christ" 
partook  of  the  food  of  infants.  St.  Jerome  mentions  among  the 
"unsanctioned  rites"  the  cup  of  honey  and  milk.  While  honey  was 
used  in  the  early  Christian  services,  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury its  use  in  the  Roman  church  was  discontinued.  The  Copts 
and  Ethiopians,  however,  kept  it  up  in  their  baptismal  ceremonies. 
The  wine  used  in  Ethiopia  for  communion  purposes  is  prepared 
from  honey.  Honey,  in  all  probability,  symbolized  the  Land  of 
Promise.  The  fifth  century  book,  Joseph  and  Arsenath,  relates 
how  the  angel  had  eaten  a  piece  of  honeycomb  and  also  put  a 
piece  into  the  mouth  of  Arsenath,  exclaiming,  "Now  thou  hast 
eaten  the  bread  of  life  and  hast  drunk  the  cup  of  immortality  and 
received  the  unction  of  incorruption."  In  Persia  during  the  Mith- 
raic  feasts  honey  was  used  on  the  hands  of  the  candidates  as  a 
cleansing  substance  instead  of  water.  The  Christians  ate  honey 
before  fast-days,  especially  on  Holy  Thursday.  On  the  eve  of  the 
Jewish  New  Year  an  apple  dipped  in  honey  was  eaten ;  fruit  and 
honey  symbolized  prosperity  and  peace. 

Prehistoric  man  worshiped  the  sun,  the  most  glorious  object 
in  Nature,  as  the  supreme  god,  the  giver  and  sustainer  of  all  life. 
Only  the  most  intellectual  amongst  the  primitive  races  were  sun- 
worshipers.  Honey  had  a  significant  part  in  all  their  rituals.  The 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians  poured  honey  on  the  foundation-stones 
and  walls  of  the  temples.  Nebuchadnezzar  was  a  liberal  user  of 
honey.  The  priests  anointed  themselves  with  honey  and  placed 
some  on  the  altars.  At  sunrise  honey  sacrifices  were  brought  to  the 
Sun-God.  In  one  of  the  Magical  papyri  (Berlin),  the  worshiper 


202  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

is  thus  instructed:  "Take  honey  with  the  milk,  drink  it  before  the 
rising  of  the  sun,  and  there  shall  be  in  thy  heart  something  that 
is  divine."  We  find  that  the  same  custom  existed  among  the 
Egyptians  and  among  the  Incas  of  Peru.  The  Hindus  and  Per- 
sians used  honey  in  profusion  during  their  religious  services}  they 
considered  honey  a  sacred  substance,  a  divine  food,  a  cleanser  and 
purifier. 

Many  rituals  of  the  African  tribes  in  Somaliland,  Gallaland, 
and  also  of  the  Bushmen  and  Hottentots,  even  today,  are  inti- 
mately associated  with  honey.  The  Hottentots  dance  during  full 
moon  and  pray  for  plenty  of  honey  and  milk.  Their  honey  har- 
vests are  opened  with  religious  ceremonies.  No  one  is  allowed  to 
collect  honey  before  a  certain  time.  The  priests  taste  the  honey 
first  and  then  they  announce  that  everyone  is  permitted  to  collect 
his  share.  In  medieval  France  pilgrimages  were  conducted  to 
certain  shrines  to  pray  for  an  abundant  honey  harvest. 

There  are  many  evidences  in  ancient  archives  which  prove  the 
importance  of  bees  and  of  their  products,  honey  and  wax,  in  the 
Christian  religion.  The  Lorsch  (Hessen,  Germany)*  manuscript 
in  the  Vatican  library  is  an  interesting  example.  It  is  a  supplica- 
tion to  the  Lord  to  protect  the  bees,  these  "dear  animals,"  vihu 
mlnaz.  The  huge  bronze  baldachin  before  the  main  altar  of  St. 
Peter's  Church  in  Rome  is  studded  with  bees,  likewise  the  tomb 
of  Urban  VIII.  (Plate  X.)  The  shape  of  the  papal  tiara  was 
unquestionably  derived  from  an  old-fashioned  beehive  (skep). 
On  the  title-page  picture  of  the  German  edition  of  De  roomische 
byen-korf  (Roman  beehive),  by  Filips  van  Marnix,  the  papal 
tiara  serves  as  a  hive  for  the  bees.  One  bee  represents  the  pope 
(king  bee),  others  function  as  cardinals,  bishops  and  monks  saying 
Mass  and  attending  to  burials  and  confessions.  (Fig.  4.)  Accord- 
ing to  a  passage  of  the  book,  "our  dear  and  loving  mother,  the 
holie  church  of  Rome,  ought  not  to  scorn  or  disdaine  that  we  do 
compare  her  customs  and  orders  to  a  Bee-Hive,  considering  that 
shee  herself  doth  compare  the  incomprehensible  generation  of 
the  Sonne  of  God  from  his  Father,  together  with  his  birth  out  of 

*  Lorsch  was  one  of  the  localities  where  Charlemagne  kept  his  bees. 


HONEY    IN    RELIGION  203 

the  pure  and  undefiled  Virgine  Marie  unto  the  Bees;  which  were 
in  verie  deede  a  great  blasphemie,  if  the  bees  were  not  of  so  great 
vertue,  that  by  them  wee  might  liken  and  compare  the  holie 
church  of  Rome.  And,  seeing,  she  saith,  that  God  is  delighted 
with  the  giftes  and  presentes  of  the  bees,  why  should  not  shee 
herself  exceedingly  rejoyce  with  our  Bee-Hive."* 


fig.  4.  The  Roman  beehive. 

Title  page  of  De  roomische  byen-korf  by  Filips  van  Marnix.  1 58 1. 

(Courtesy  Hilda  M.  Ransome,  The  Sacred  Bee,  1937) 

EXULTET  ROLLS 

A  most  notable  acknowledgment  of  the  significance  of  bees  and 
honey  is  found  in  the  Exultet  Rolls.  These  sumptuously  illus- 
trated liturgical  parchment  manuscripts,  some  of  them  twenty- 
two  feet  long  and  one  foot  in  breadth,  are  the  oldest  extant  texts 
of  the  Roman  Mass.  They  date  back  to  the  early  eleventh  century 
and  were  named  after  the  first  word  of  the  prayer,  Exultet  iam 
angelica  turba  caelorum  (Let  now  rejoice  the  heavenly  choir  of 

*  Quoted  by  W.  Hone,  Ancient  Mysteries,  1823. 


204  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

angels).  It  was  sung  by  the  monks  on  Easter  Eve  during  the 
consecration  of  the  Easter  taper.  The  texts  are  divided  into  short 
chapters,  intersected  by  elaborately  illuminated  pictures.  The  pic- 
tures are  in  reverse  to  the  text  so  that,  when  the  priests  chanted 
the  songs  and  unfolded  the  rolls  over  the  pulpit,  the  congregation 
could  see  the  subject  illustrated.  Certain  sections  of  these  prayers 
are  veritable  eulogies  of  bees  and  honey.  "Talia  igitur  Domine, 
digna  sacris  altaribus  tuis  munera  offeruntur,  quibus  te  laetari 
religio  Christiana  non  ambigit."  (Such  gifts,  therefore,  O  Lord, 
are  offered  worthy  of  thy  altars,  with  which  the  Christian  religion 
does  not  hesitate  that  thou  rejoicest.) 

The  Barberini  manuscript  in  the  Vatican  library  is  a  typical 
specimen.  (Plate  XI.)  In  a  garden  of  flowery  bushes,  with  trees 
in  the  center,  bees,  gathering  honey,  cover  the  entire  field.  A 
crouching  bee-master  cuts  honeycombs  from  the  hive  and  places 
them  in  a  bowl.  Another  figure  is  holding  a  pitcher  under  it,  not 
to  waste  a  drop  of  honey.  Two  other  men  are  cutting  the  branch 
of  a  tree  to  hive  a  swarm  which  settled  on  it.  The  rolls  of  Monte 
Cassino,  Capua,  Troja,  Fondi,  Gaeta,  Bari,  Mirabella,  etc.,  vary 
in  composition  but  all  are  decorated  with  hives  and  laboring  bees. 

IN  THE  BIBLE 

Honey  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible  j  it  was  referred  to 
as  a  wholesome  food,  a  helpful  medicine,  an  ingredient  of  de- 
licious drinks,  an  appropriate  gift  and  a  valued  possession.  There 
is  only  little  evidence  that  the  Hebrews  cultivated  bees,  but  they 
used  wild  honey  in  profusion.  "Wild"  honey  is  often  mentioned; 
whether  this  was  meant  as  a  contrast  to  domesticated  honey,  it  is 
difficult  to  say.  That  the  Jews  were  solicitous  about  their  honey 
supply  is  indicated  in  the  Talmud  (B.  Batra  18,  A)  where  a 
warning  is  given  never  to  let  mustard  plants  grow  near  bees'  nests 
because  bees  are  fond  of  these  flowers  which,  however,  burn  their 
throats  and  they  then  consume  a  greater  quantity  of  honey.  The 
Jews  were  permitted,  according  to  their  religious  laws,  to  provide 
water  on  Saturdays  and  holidays  to  their  domestic  animals,  but 


HONEY    IN    RELIGION  205 

this  dispensation  did  not  apply  to  bees,  because  they  themselves 
could  secure  it  (Sabath  24:  3).  On  the  other  hand,  in  case  of  rain, 
or  to  protect  the  bees  from  the  scorching  sun,  the  Jews  were  per- 
mitted to  cover  the  nests  with  linen  even  on  holidays  (Sabath 
436). 

Philo,  the  historian  (in  the  time  of  Christ),  in  his  work,  De 
Vita  Contemflativa  (II.  663),  refers  to  a  caste  among  the  He- 
brews called  Essenes,  who  lived  in  the  region  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  whose  occupation  was  supposed  to  be  the  cultivation  of  bees 
and  the  production  of  honey.  Josephus,  in  the  Antiquities  of  the 
Jews,  also  mentions  the  Essenes  of  Judea.  (It  is  noteworthy  that 
the  Greek  term  Essenos  (king  bee)  was  the  epithet  of  Zeus. 
The  priestesses  of  Artemis  were  called  Melissa!  (bees)  and  their 
high  priests,  Essenes.) 

When  the  Hebrews  referred  to  Palestine  they  used  the  pro- 
verbial metaphor,  expressive  of  plenty,  "a  land  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey."  This  reference  is  repeated  twenty-one  times  in  the 
Bible.  (Exod.  3:  8}  3:  175  13:  5;  33:  35  Lev.  30:  35;  Num.  13: 
28}  14:  8;  16:  14;  Deut.  6:  35  11:  9;  26:  15;  27:  35  31:  20j 
Jos.  5:  6;  Tob.  30:  17 j  Jer.  11:5;  32:  22 j  Ezek.  20:  6;  30:  15; 
Sirach  46,  10;  Baruch  1,  20.)  The  day  Christ  rose  from  the  dead 
and  appeared  before  His  Disciples,  He  asked  for  food.  They  gave 
Him  broiled  fish  and  a  honeycomb  (Luke  24:  42).  Christ  ate  the 
food  to  prove  to  the  Apostles  that  He  was  truly  resurrected  and 
not  merely  a  Spirit  or  a  Thought.  John  the  Baptist,  in  his  camel's 
hair  raiment,  ate  dried  locusts  and  honey  in  the  wilderness  (Mark 
1 :  6,  Matth.  3:  4).  In  the  Hebrew  language  debash  means  honey 
and  Deborah,  bee. 

There  was  honey  galore  in  Palestine.  Samuel  described  woods 
where  honey  was  so  plentiful  that  the  combs  were  strewn  on  the 
ground.  "And  when  the  people  were  come  into  the  woods,  behold, 
the  honey  dropped."  (Samuel  14:  26.)  Not  only  trees  but  also 
the  rocks  poured  forth  honey.  "He  would  feed  them  .  .  .  with 
honey  out  of  the  rock."  In  the  songs  of  Moses  there  is  an  allusion, 
"he  shall  not  see  the  rivers,  the  flowing  streams  of  honey  and 
butter."  (Job  20:  17.)  Prophet  Isaiah  (eighth  century  b.c.)  men- 


206  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

tions  honey  and  butter :  ".  .  .  for  butter  and  honey  shall  everyone 
eat  that  is  left  in  the  midst  of  the  land."  (Isa.  7:  21.) 

The  heaven-born  manna,  on  which  the  Israelites  subsisted  in 
the  desert  for  forty  years,  contained  honey ;  it  was  probably  honey- 
dew.  "And  the  House  of  Israel  called  the  name  thereof  manna; 
and  it  resembled  coriander  seed,  white,  and  tasted  like  wafers 
made  with  honey."  (Exod.  16:  31.)  That  manna  contained  only 
a  small  quantity  of  honey  is  mentioned  in  the  chapter  of  the 
"Fives"  in  the  Talmud: 

"Fire  is  one-sixtieth  of  hell, 
Honey  is  one-sixtieth  of  manna, 
Sabbath  one-sixtieth  of  rest  of  the  world  to  come, 
Sleep  one-sixtieth  of  death, 
Dreams  one-sixtieth  of  prophecy." 

Honey  must  have  been  an  important  article  of  commerce  among 
the  Jews.  Ezekiel  mentions  (27:  17)  that  the  Israelites,  in  addi- 
tion to  wine,  oil  and  balsams,  also  carried  honey  to  a  Phoenician 
mercantile  town,  known  as  Tyrus,  and  it  is  possible  that  they 
supplied  other  markets  with  honey.  That  the  Jews  put  aside  honey 
for  future  use  is  proven  by  the  appeal  of  the  men  to  Ishmael: 
"Slay  us  not,  for  we  have  stores  hidden  in  the  fields,  of  wheat 
and  of  barley  and  of  oil  and  of  honey."  (Jer.  41 :  8.) 

There  are  many  references  in  the  Bible  to  honey  as  an  at- 
tractive gift.  Jacob,  the  Patriarch,  when  he  sent  his  son  to  Egypt, 
gave  him  honey,  spices,  myrrh  and  almonds  to  deliver  as  a  present 
to  the  Governor.  When  Jeroboam's  queen  visited  the  blind 
Prophet  Ahijah  at  Shiloh  (Kings  14:  3),  she  brought  with  her  a 
cruse  of  honey  in  order  to  obtain  a  favorable  report  about  her 
dying  son.  Possibly  honey  was  also  intended  to  cure  the  Prophet's 
blindness.  King  David's  army,  3,000  years  ago,  was  provided 
with  honey,  .  .  .  "they  brought  beds  and  basins  and  earthen  ves- 
sels and  wheat  and  barley  .  .  .  beans  and  lentils  .  .  .  and  honey 
and  butter  for  David  and  for  the  people  with  him,  to  eat ;  for  they 
said,  the  people  are  hungry  and  weary  and  thirsty  in  the  wilder- 


HONEY    IN    RELIGION  207 

ness."  (2  Sam.  17:  28,  29.)  That  the  Hebrews  highly  valued 
honey  as  a  food  substance  is  conclusively  proven  by  the  words  of 
the  son  of  Sirach,  who  recognized  honey  as  "one  of  the  principal 
things  for  use.  in  man's  life."  (Eccl.  39:  26.)  The  medicinal  value 
of  honey  is  often  emphasized  in  the  Talmud.  It  was  used  for 
various  diseases,  especially  for  heart  troubles,  gout  and  as  an  ex- 
ternal application  for  the  wounds  of  man  and  beast.  Mixing  honey 
with  wine  is  repeatedly  mentioned.  Assyria  was  called  the  land  of 
honey  and  olive  trees. 

Honey  was  frequently  employed  in  the  Bible  in  a  symbolical 
sense,  namely,  to  draw  a  comparison  between  some  act  or  con- 
ception and  the  sweetness  of  honey.  David,  who  had  been  a  shep- 
herd boy,  often  utilized  metaphorically  the  sweetness  of  honey: 
"The  judgment  of  the  Lord  is  sweeter  than  honey  and  the  drop- 
pings of  the  honeycomb."  (Ps.  19:  10.)  "How  sweet  are  thy 
words  to  my  taste,  yea,  sweeter  than  honey  in  my  mouth."  (Ps. 
119:  102.)  In  Solomon's  Proverbs  (16:  24) :  "Pleasant  words  are 
as  an  honeycomb,  sweet  to  the  soul  and  health  to  the  bones."  "The 
lips  of  the  bride  are  as  sweet  as  honey.  The  lips  of  the  concubine 
are  like  honey  but  later  bitter  as  vermuth"  (Prov.  5:3).  There  are 
two  accounts  in  the  Bible  of  men  being  ordered  to  eat  a  book  and 
in  each  case  "the  book  tasted  as  sweet  as  honey."  (Ezek.  3:  3 
and  Revel.  10:  9,  10.)  In  the  Revelation:  "And  I  took  the  little 
book  out  of  the  angel's  hand,  and  ate  it  up;  and  it  was  in  my 
mouth  sweet  as  honey." 

The  mythical  tale  of  Samson  (Judges  14:5-18)  is  well  known. 
Samson  was  calling  on  his  Philistine  sweetheart  when  he  was  at- 
tacked by  a  young  lion.  Samson  had  no  weapon,  only  the  Spirit 
of  Jehovah  came  mightily  upon  him  and  "he  rent  the  lion  as  he 
would  have  rent  a  kid."  When  he  returned  "after  a  while"  he 
passed  the  spot  and  found  that  bees  had  taken  possession  of  the 
lion's  carcass  and  had  built  combs  in  it,  where  they  stored  their 
honey.  Samson  removed  some  honey,  took  it  home,  gave  a  portion 
to  his  father  and  to  his  mother  and  ate  some  of  it  hemself. 

During  his  marriage  feast  Samson  put  a  riddle  to  the  Philistine 
young  men:  "Out  of  the  eater  came  forth  meat  and  out  of  the 


208  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

strong  came  forth  sweetness."  The  young  men  could  not  solve  the 
riddle  for  three  days,  but  Samson's  wife  obtained  from  him  the 
answer  and  betrayed  him  to  the  young  men,  who  then  claimed  to 
have  solved  the  enigma  by  saying:  "What  is  sweeter  than  honey 
and  what  is  stronger  than  a  lion?" 

This  Biblical  tale  was  much  discussed  by  ancient  and  modern 
apicultural  writers.  Aristotle  emphasized  the  bees'  dislike  for 
strong  odors  and  decayed  matter.  It  seems  improbable  that  the 
bees  would  utilize  a  carcass  for  their  nesting  place.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  in  tropical  countries 
at  a  certain  season  of  the  year  the  heat  is  so  intense  that  it  dries 
up  all  moisture  and  the  carcass  will  not  undergo  decomposition.  In 
the  desert  dead  camels  remain  mummified  for  a  long  time  and 
their  bodies  are  entirely  free  from  offensive  odors.  Often  jackals, 
vultures  and  dogs  gnaw  off  the  soft  parts  and  only  the  skeleton 
remains  in  which  the  bees  may  build  their  combs.  In  the  West  of 
the  United  States  (Montana)  skeletons  of  oxen  have  been  found 
which  the  bees  had  converted  into  dwelling  places. 

Honey  sacrifices  were  prohibited  by  the  Jews  as  honey  was 
liable  to  ferment.  "Ye  shall  burn  no  leaven,  nor  any  honey  as  an 
offering  unto  Jehovah"  (Lev.  2:  11).  Honey,  however,  was  al- 
lowed as  a  "not  burnt"  offering  or  as  a  tribute  of  first  fruit  (Lev. 
2:  12).  One  may  assume  that  the  Jews  used  honey  as  a  leavening 
for  baking  purposes. 

Today,  there  is  again  honey  in  abundance  in  modern  Palestine 
and  vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  inhabitants  to  find 
foreign  markets  for  their  bees  and  honey. 


THE  TOMB  OF  POPE   URBAN  VIII   IN   ST.  PETER'S 
CHURCH,   ROME 

PLATE  X 


2IO 


HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


Zeus,  the  omnipresent,  omniscient  and  omnipotent  father  of 
the  gods,  was  brought  up  on  honey.  (Fig.  5.)  According  to  the 
legend,  the  father  of  Zeus,  Cronos,  one  of  the  Titans,  married  his 
own  sister,  Rhea.  Cronos  ate  his  children  as  soon  as  they  were 
born  because  it  was  presaged  that  one  of  his  offspring  would 
replace  him  in  the  heavenly  kingdom.  Cronos  had  already  de- 
voured the  five  elder  children.  Zeus,  the  sixth  and  most  beautiful 
of  them,  was  hidden  by  his  mother  after  his  birth  in  an  almost 
inaccessible  grotto  in  Mt.  Ida,  on  the  island  of  Crete.  Rhea 
wrapped  a  stone  in  swaddling  bands,  which  looked  like  a  new- 
born child,  and  gave  it  to  Cronos,  who  swallowed  it,  thinking  that 
it  was  his  son.  The  daughters  of  the  King,  the  nymphs  Melitta 
(the  bee)  and  Amalthea  (the  goat),  nursed  Zeus  on  honey  and 


fig.  6.  Ancient  Greek  coin. 
The  laureate  head  of  Zeus,  on  the  reverse,  his  symbols,  the  eagle  and  bee. 

milk.  When  Zeus  grew  up  he  dethroned  his  father  after  a  ten 
years'  war  and  became  the  ruler  of  Mt.  Olympus.  The  number 
of  legendary  tales  associating  Zeus  with  bees  and  honey  are  in- 
finite. Homer  gave  Zeus  the  epithet,  Essenos,  the  Bee  King.  On 
many  ancient  Greek  coins  there  is  a  head  of  Zeus  and  on  the 
reverse  side,  a  bee.  (Fig.  6.)  Honey  was  considered  a  heavenly 
gift.  Zeus  rained  honey  (honeydew)  which  had  the  power  to  raise 
the  dead.  Plutarch  called  honey  the  saliva  of  the  stars  (saliva 
siderum) . 

The  Hindus  believed  that  the  heaven-born  honey  which  fell 
on  the  leaves  and  grass  sweetened  even  the  milk  of  cows  and 
goats.  Kalidasa  in  the  "Hero  and  Nymph"  exclaims: 


IN    MYTHOLOGIES  211 

"Delightful  words!  they  fell  like  drops  of  nectar, 
No  wonder  nectar  from  the  moon  should  flow." 

In  Hindu  mythology  the  moon  had  the  epithet,  Madhukara, 
honey-giver. 

Artemis,  the  Moon-goddess,  was  often  figured  in  the  shape  of 
a  bee.  It  was  an  ancient  Germanic  belief  that  the  moon  was  sup- 
posed to  be  a  huge  cup,  filled  with  honey  and  mead;  and  the 
stars  were  swarms  of  bees,  whose  honey  fell  to  the  earth  upon  the 
oak  and  sweet  ash.  The  honeydew  which  settled  over  the  mighty 
sacred  ash,  Ygdrasil  (representing  the  tree  of  the  Universe), 
nourished  the  bees.  The  well  of  Ymir,  the  source  of  all  wisdom, 
was  under  this  tree  and  Odin  pawned  one  of  his  eyes  to  obtain  a 
drink  from  it. 

The  sweet  ash  which  was  believed  to  feed  the  bees  with  honey- 
dew  had  noteworthy  significance  in  all  mythologies.  The  word  ash 
(in  Latin  melia,  mel  =  honey)  is  derived  from  the  Norse  aska, 
meaning,  man.  Odin  fashioned  the  first  man  from  this  tree.  Pliny 
mentioned  that  all  evil  creatures  have  a  fear  of  the  ash  and  that 
serpents  would  rather  pass  through  fire  than  over  its  leaves. 
Mothers  used  to  place  the  cradles  of  their  infants  under  an  ash 
tree  to  protect  them  from  harm.  The  Finnish  shepherds  planted 
an  ash  stick  on  the  pasture  to  protect  their  cattle  and  the  Scotch 
Highlanders  placed  a  piece  of  the  wood  over  their  cow  stables  to 
keep  the  witches  from  contaminating  the  milk.  Achilles  used  an 
ashen  spear  and  Cupid  made  his  arrows  from  ash. 

The  Bushmen  call  honey  moon's  water.  When  the  game  is  shot 
and  does  not  die,  or  even  arises,  they  believe  it  is  due  to  the  magic 
effect  of  moon's  water.  The  Bushmen  have  a  special  drum  called 
goin-goin  and  while  they  are  beating  it  they  dance  and  pray  that 
the  bees  may  become  abundant  and  bring  home  honey,  so  that 
their  women  and  children  will  not  go  hungry. 

There  is  much  evidence  in  all  mythologies  of  how  fond  the 
gods  were  of  honey.  Ovid  relates  in  Metamorphosis  that  Jupiter 
and  Mercury  were  traveling  through  Phrygia  as  plain  mortals  and 
no  one  would  admit  them,  except  two  charitable  souls  living  in  a 


212 


HONEY    AND    HEALTH 


fig.  7.  Antique 

Roman  gem. 

Amor  sailing  on  a 

honey-j  ar. 


modest  tent,  who  offered  them  the  food  which 
they  most  desired,  namely,  honey,  milk  and 
fruit. 

Eros  (Amor)  was  often  pictured  as  a  honey- 
thief.  Anacreon,  the  Greek  bard  (fifth  century 
b.c),  has  written  an  immortal  song,  Eros,  the 
honey-thief.  Theocritus  (third  century  b.c.) 
transcribed  the  same  poem,  hove  stealing 
honey.  Lucas  Cranach,  the  distinguished  early 
sixteenth  century  painter,  composed  no  less 
than  nine  pictures  of  Amor  as  a  honey-thief. 
(Plate  XII.)  Albrecht  Diirer  made  the  drawing 
of  his  Honey -Thief  in  15 14.  (Plate  XIII.)  Many  antique  gems 
depict  Amor  in  association  with  honey.  One  of  them  represents 
Amor  floating  over  waves  with  spread  sails  on  a  honey  jar  on 
which  there  is  the  image  of  a  bee.  (Fig.  7.)  On  another  gem  Amor, 
to  protect  the  bees,  chases  some  birds  from  a  tree.  (Fig.  8.) 
Amor  is  supposed  to  have  dipped  his  arrows  into  honey  to 
produce  blissful  love.  He  was  often  called  metaphorically  the 
honey-bird,  with  "eyes  and  voice  as  sweet  as  honey."  In  the  Idyl 
of  MoschuSy  the  Greek  bucolic  poet  of  Syracuse  (200  b.c),  Venus 
thus  describes  the  lost  Cupid,  whom  she  is  trying  to  find:  "The 
child  is  most  notable  j  thou  couldst  tell  him  among  twenty  others ; 
his  skin  is  not  white  but  flame  colored ;  his  eyes  are  keen  and  burn- 
ing; an  evil  heart  and  a  honeyed  tongue  has  he,  for  his  speech  and 
mind  are  at  variance.  Like  honey  is  his  voice 
but  his  heart  of  gall;  all  tameless  is  he  and 
deceitful,  the  truth  is  not  in  him,  a  wily  brat 
and  cruel  in  his  pastime." 

It  is  interesting  that  Kama,  the  Hindu 
god  of  love,  is  also  closely  associated  with 
honey  and  bees.  Kama  rides  on  a  bee  *  and 
the  string  of  his  bow  consists  of  a  chain  of 
bees,  symbolizing  the  sweetness  and  sting  of 

*On  a  Hittite  gem  found  near  Aleppo,  Atargatis  (another  name  for  Diana  of 
Ephesus,  originating  in  Babylon)  stands  on  a  bee. 


fig.  8.  Roman  gem. 

Amor  protecting  the 

bees. 


IN    MYTHOLOGIES 

love.  (Fig.  9.)  (Honey  and  the  sting  of 
the  bee  are  contrasted  as  often  as  roses 
and  thorns.)  Kalidasa,  the  Hindu  poet, 
refers  to  Kama  and  his  bow.  For  in- 
stance, in  The  Birth  of  the  War-God, 
Kama: 

"Weaves  a  string  of  bees  with  deft  invention 
To  speed  the  missile  when  the  bow  is  bent." 

Then  again  in  the  Shakuntala: 

"A  stalwart  soldier  comes,  the  spring, 
Who  bears  the  bow  of  Love; 
And  on  that  bow,  the  lustrous  string 
Is  made  of  bees.  .  .  ." 


213 


fig.  9.   Hindu  honey-jar. 

Kama,  the  Hindu  Cupid, 

riding  on  a  bee. 


Possibly  the  names  of  the  two  gods,  Amor  and  Kama,  were  de- 
rived from  the  same  root,  amo>  I  love. 

The  Hindus,  Greeks,  Romans  and  all  Slavic  races  had  gods  for 
bees  and  honey.  There  were  only  a  few  gods  in  mythologies  to 
whom  honey  sacrifices  were  not  offered.  Zeus,  Ceres,  her 
daughter,  honied  Proserpina,  Apollo,  Dionysus,  Aphrodite,  even 
Hecate  of  Hades  were  some  of  the  gods  to  whom  frequent  honey 
offerings  were  brought.  Dionysus  was  also  worshiped  as  a  honey- 
god.  His  priestesses  carried  in  their  hands  the  thyrsos,  a  cane  with 
a  crown  of  ivy.  Euripides  comments,  "the  ivy  wands  distilled 
from  all  their  tops  rich  store  of  honey." 

"And  as  they  pass,  through  every  plain 
Flows  milk,  flows  wine,  the  nectar'd  honey  flows, 
And  round  each  soft  gale  Syrian  odors  throws." 

Virgil,  in  Georgics  I,  refers  to  the  honey  sacrifices  brought  to 
Ceres:  "For  thee  let  all  the  rural  youths  adore  Ceres ;  to  whom 
mix  thou  the  honeycomb  with  milk  and  gentle  wine." 

In  one  of  his  Elegies,  Tibullus  describes  the  honey  offerings  to 
the  household  gods: 


214 


HONEV    AND    HEALTH 


"Or  dulcet  cakes  himself  the  farmer  paid, 
When  crown'd  his  wishes  by  your  powerful  aid; 
While  his  fair  daughter  brought  with  her  from  home 
The  luscious  offering  of  a  honeycomb." 

Empedocles  (490-430  B.C.)  mentions  the  honey  sacrifices  to 
Aphrodite: 

"And  holy  offerings  of  unmixed  myrrh, 
And  sweetly  smelling  frankincense;  and  many 
A  pure  libation  of  fresh  golden  honey 
They  pour'd  along  the  floor." 

According  to  the  legend,  Dedalus,  the  divine  artist  and  the  builder 
of  the  famous  Cretan  labyrinth,  made  a  honeycomb  for  Aphrodite 
from  the  purest  gold  which  looked  so  natural  that  it  was  confused 
with  a  real  one.  (Diodorus  Siculus  IV.  78.) 

Pan,*  the  god  of  shepherds,  Priapus,  the  god  of  gardens,  and 
the  Nymphs  were  considered  the  protectors  of  the  bees  and  they 
had  also  their  share  of  honey  offerings.  In  one  of  the  Idyls  of 
Theocritus,  the  shepherd  professes:  "And  I  will  set  out  eight 
bowls  of  milk  for  Pan  and  eight  bowls,  full  of  the  richest  honey- 
combs." 

Many  priestesses  and  nymphs,  according  to  Greek  mythology, 
gained  their  inspiration  from  honey  intoxicants  under  the  influ- 
ence of  which  "they  raved  in  holy  frenzy."  Horace  refers  to  it  in 
the  "Ode  to  Bacchus": 

"Give  me  to  sing,  by  thee  inspir'd, 
Thy  priestesses  to  madness  fiVd: 
Fountains  of  wine  shall  pour  along, 
And,  melting  from  the  hollow  tree, 
The  golden  treasures  of  the  bee, 
And  streams  of  milk  shall  fill  the  song." 

*The  word  panic  was  derived  from  mischievous  Pan,  who  took  delight  in 
frightening  unsuspecting  travelers. 


IN    MYTHOLOGIES  215 

Homer  in  the  "Hymn  to  Mercury"  comments  on  the  prophetic 
powers  with  which  the  priestesses  were  endowed  by  indulging  in 
honey  drinks: 

"From  these  I  have  learned  true 
Vaticinations  of  remotest  things 
My  father  cared  not.  Whilst  they  search  out  dooms, 
They  sit  apart  and  feed  on  honey-combs. 
Drunk  with  divine  enthusiasm,  and  utter 
With  earnest  willingness  the  truth  they  know, 
But,  if  deprived  of  that  sweet  food,  they  mutter 
All  plausible  delusions; — these  to  you 
I  give; — if  you  inquire,  they  will  not  stutter; 
Delight  your  own  soul  with  them; — any  man 
You  would  instruct  may  profit  if  he  can." 

The  hypnotic  effect  of  honey  is  frequently  mentioned  in  myth- 
ology. Orpheus  sang  that  if  anyone  fell  asleep  after  eating  honey 
it  was  difficult  to  awaken  him.  Zeus,  before  he  attacked  his  father, 
put  him  asleep  with  a  honey  drink: 

"When  prostrate  'neath  the  lofty  oaks  you  see  him 
Lie  drunken  with  the  work  of  murmuring  bees, 
Then  bind  him.  .  .  ." 

Porphyry  (De  antr.  nymfh.  7) 

Virgil  relates  that  when  his  hero  Aeneas  descended  to  Hades, 
he  flung  a  soporific  honey  cake  to  Cerberus  and  that  the  creature 
"in  a  mad  rage  opened  his  three  mouths  and  snatched  the  offered 
morsel,  relaxing  his  monstrous  limbs,  extending  at  vast  length  all 
over  the  cave."  Three  times  each  year  honey  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered to  Pluto,  the  god  of  the  underworld.  The  Romans  had 
divers  names  for  their  religious  places.  One  was  called  scrobiculus. 
It  consisted  of  a  pit  containing  an  altar  on  which  they  poured 
the  blood  of  a  slain  beast  tempered  with  honey  as  a  sacrifice  to 
the  infernal  deity.  To  Bona  Dea  (the  Earth),  a  mixture  of  milk 
and  honey  was  offered  and  the  container  in  which  it  was  kept  was 
called  the  honey-vessel.  Chaucer  in  The  Knight's  Tale: 


2l6  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

"With  vessels  in  her  hand  of  gold  full  fine, 
All  full  of  Hony,  Milk,  Blood  and  Wine." 

Plutarch  mentions  (Symp.  5)  that  the  Athenians  offered  no  wine 
to  their  gods  but  only  water,  sweetened  with  honey. 

To  the  Fates  who  spin  the  thread  of  human  destiny,  honey  was 
also  offered.  The  Spartan  women  believed  that  the  Fates,  though 
invisible,  frequently  visited  a  newborn  child,  especially  on  the 
third  or  fifth  night  after  birth.  They  left  the  doors  of  the  house 
open  on  these  nights  and  set  on  the  table  bread,  honey  and  water 
to  win  the  favor  of  the  Fates. 

The  use  of  honey  cake  as  a  sacrificial  offering  was  universal  in 
all  mythologies.  In  Egypt  the  sacred  bull  Apis  and  the  sacred 
crocodile  of  Thebes  were  fed  on  honey  cakes.  It  was  an  ancient 
custom  in  Egypt  to  consult  in  all  perplexing  situations  the  sacred 
bull  at  the  oracle  of  Memphis.  Food  was  offered  to  Apis;  if  this 
was  accepted,  it  was  considered  a  favorable  sign,  if  refused,  it  was 
an  indication  of  ill-omen.  As  an  inducement,  to  tickle  the  palate 
of  Apis,  the  food  was  mixed  with  honey  to  secure  a  propitious 
ruling. 

Among  the  Greeks,  Romans,  the  Germanic  and  Slavic  races 
sacrificial  offering  of  honey  cake  was  an  established  and  favorite 
ceremony. 

In  the  Rig-Veda  honey  was  a  super-eminent  subject.  Vishnu, 
Indra  and  Krishna  were  all  called  Mad/zava,  honey-born.  The  two 
demigods,  Aswins,  who  attended  to  the  welfare  of  men,  were  the 
children  of  the  Sun  and  the  Moon,  the  givers  of  dawn,  of  a  new 
day.  They  were  pictured  in  a  three-wheeled  golden  chariot,  on 
which  they  carried  honey.  Many  hymns  were  sung  to  the  Aswins: 
"Harness  your  bounty-shedding  golden  chariot  with  swift  horses, 
refresh  our  strength  with  trickling  honey,  bring  prosperity  to  our 
people  and  to  our  cattle.  Animate  us,  prolong  our  existence,  bring 
us  vigor,  wipe  out  our  sins,  destroy  our  foes  and  be  always  with 
us."  The  Hindus  prayed  at  daybreak  to  the  Aswins,  the  creators 
of  a  new  day: 


IN     MYTHOLOGIES  217 

"Anoint  me  with  the  honey  of  the  bee, 
That  I  may  speak  forceful  speech  among  men." 

The  Russians  and  all  the  Slavs  had  honey-gods,  and  images  of 
these  deities  were  only  seldom  missing  in  their  gardens. 

Jovial  (Jove)  feasts,  carnal  pleasures  and  boisterous  revelries, 
characterized  by  overindulgence  in  food  and  intemperate  drink- 
ing, were  the  daily  amusement  of  the  heathen  deities.  Without 
intoxicating  beverages  this  could  not  be  imagined.  Wine,  whisky, 
and  beer  did  not  exist  in  those  days,  and  drinks  made  from  honey 
were  used  instead. 

Mead  (derived  from  the  Hindu  word  madhu,  honey),  the 
drink  of  the  Norse  gods,  was  the  nectar  of  Mt.  Olympus.  Odin, 
the  chief  of  the  Norsemen,  patron  of  wisdom,  culture  and  heroes, 
visited. Saga,  the  Goddess  of  History,  and  drank  mead  with  her 
out  of  a  golden  goblet. 

Odin  was  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Scythia  and  to  have 
subdued  with  his  tribes  the  whole  of  Northern  Europe.  He  later 
became  the  Anglo-Saxon  Woden  and  the  Wotan  of  the  Niebelun- 
gen.  Odin,  after  his  birth,  was  exposed  as  a  helpless  child.  He  was 
stabbed  and  hung  on  a  tree.  Ymir  freed  him,  healed  his  wounds 
and  gave  him  some  mead  from  the  Wonder-Kettle  of  Oedroerir, 
which  renewed  his  strength.  But  once  Odin  had  tasted  mead,  he 
sacrificed  his  life  to  obtain  the  vessel.  Odin  gave  the  meal,  which 
was  put  before  him,  to  his  wolves ;  mead  alone  was  ample  food 
and  drink  for  him. 

Odin  and  all  his  followers  loved  mead  which  they  drank  from 
their  horns: 

"Went  there  at  times  a  fair  maid  round  the  board, 

upfilling  the  mead-horns, — 
Blush'd  she  with  downcast  eyne, — in  the  mirrowing 

shield  her  image, 
Even  as  she  blush'd  too; — how  it  gladded  the 

deep-drinking  champions!" 


21 8  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

Odin's  principal  pleasures  were  carnage,  war,  banquets,  the 
"celestial"  boar  and  mead,  which  virgins  served  to  him  in  the 
skulls  of  his  enemies.  It  is  singular  that  in  Scandinavian  languages 
the  word  "Skol"  (skull)  is  used  when  they  drink  to  the  health  of 
people.  It,  undoubtedly,  originated  from  the  legend  of  Odin. 

"Their  banquet  is  the  mighty  chine 
Exhaustless,  the  stupendous  boar; 
Virgins  of  immortal  line 
Present  the  goblet  foaming  o'er; 
Of  heroes'  skulls  the  goblet  made 
With  figur'd  deaths  and  snakes  of  gold  inlaid." 

Penrose  thus  opens  the  Carousal  of  Odin: 

"Fill  the  honey'd  bev'rage  high, 
Fill  the  skulls,  'tis  Odin's  cry! 
Heard  ye  not  the  powerful  call, 
Thundering  through  the  vaulted  hall? 
Fill  the  meath  and  spread  the  board, 
Vassals  of  the  grisly  lord!  — 
The  feast  begins,  the  skull  goes  round, 
Laughter  shouts — the  shouts  resound." 

The  Valkyries  took  the  dead  heroes  to  Valhalla,  the  slain  war- 
riors' Paradise,  where  under  a  golden  roof  they  continued  to  live 
in  celestial  glory.  From  the  udders  of  the  goat,  Heidrun,  savory 
mead  was  supposed  to  flow;  "From  out  her  teats  there  runneth 
forth  so  much  mead  that  she  filleth  therewith  each  day  a  huge 
drinking  vessel  and  all  are  made  drunken  thereby."  (Gudrun 
mixed  her  mead  with  the  blood  of  her  spouse.)  The  meth  was 
inexhaustible,  like  the  celestial  boar,  which  was  eaten  by  day  and 
restored  by  night. 

Alaric  and  Attila,  the  descendants  of  Odin,  also  favored  mead. 

"Bid  him  welcome,  maiden;  haste, 
Let  him  our  metheglin  taste." 


IN    MYTHOLOGIES  219 

That  it  sometimes  led  to  mischief  we  may  see  in  the  Elder 
Edda: 

"For  Asi  sons  the  bowl  I  fill 

'With  mead,  the  source  of  many  an  ill." 

It  is  possible  that  Attila,  the  Scourge  of  God,  when  he  married 
the  beautiful  Ildiko  (about  452  a.d.)  and  died  from  nose-bleed 
during  the  wedding  festivities,  had  indulged  in  too  much  mead. 
When  Ossian,  the  Gaelic  poet  (third  century),  referred  to  a 
liquor,  "the  joy  and  strength  of  shells,"  which  so  delighted  his 
heroes,  he  probably  meant  mead.  Shells  were  used  by  many  an- 
cient races  as  drinking  vessels,  e.g.,  the  Caledonians.  Their  de- 
scendants in  some  parts  of  the  Highlands  still  use  them  today.  The 
expression  "Feast  of  Shells"  alludes  to  this  custom. 

In  Nordic  mythology,  derived  from  the  Eddas,  honey  is  often 
mentioned.  In  Finnish  mythology,  the  bees  were  implored  to  fly 
to  the  sun  and  moon,  into  the  dwelling  of  the  Creator ;  to  carry 
honey  and  health  in  their  mouths  and  on  their  wings  to  the  good, 
and  wounds  of  fire  and  iron  to  the  wicked. 

Bees  were  supposed  to  have  made  honey  in  Paradise  and  to  be 
survivors  of  the  Golden  Age  (which  preceded  the  present  state  of 
vice  and  misery),  when  there  was  no  need  for  worry,  and  happy 
simplicity  for  men  and  beasts  prevailed. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

IN  TRADITIONS,  CUSTOMS  AND 
SUPERSTITIONS 


IN  ALL  ages  honey,  and  indirectly  its  producer,  the  bee,  were 
closely  connected  with  the  domestic  life  of  the  populace,  and 
thus  had  a  profound,  almost  magnetic  influence  on  the  people. 
The  conception  of  honey  was  associated  with  everything  that  was 
holy,  agreeable  and  beneficial. 

The  origin  of  these  traditions  and  customs  is  almost  impossible 
to  trace.  They  were  handed  down  from  one  generation  to  another, 
for  innumerable  centuries.  Though  some  traditions  have  certain 
national  characteristics,  most  of  them  were  not  limited  to  defined 
territories,  but  were  disseminated  among  nations  far  apart.  The 
same  popular  customs  are  found  among  the  Far  Eastern,  Asiatic, 
African  and  European  races  and  the  distances  which  they  trav- 
eled, compared  to  our  present  day  facilities  of  communication, 
must  be  considered  enormous. 

Among  the  most  ancient  races,  the  Assyrians,  Babylonians, 
Chaldeans,  Phoenicians  and  Hebrews;  in  India,  China,  Persia, 
Egypt,  Greece  and  Rome,  in  fact,  among  almost  all  cultural  and 
primitive  races,  we  find  many  customs  and  traditions  associated 
with  honey.  These  beliefs,  closely  connected  and  intimately  inter- 
woven with  their  domestic,  social  and  religious  lives,  offer  plenti- 
ful and  intriguing  material  for  research.  On  solemn  occasions,  like 
births,  weddings,  funeral  services,  and  during  religious  ceremonies 
honey  played  an  important  role.  Honey  was  considered  a  sacred 
substance,  symbolizing  the  purest  and  noblest  in  Nature.  It  was 
looked  upon  not  only  as  a  food  and  medicine,  but  as  a  talisman,  a 
protector  from  all  evil.  Among  the  Germanic  and  Slavic  races 
there  was  a  belief  that  if  one  ate  honey  on  Maundy  Thursday  he 


IN    TRADITIONS,    CUSTOMS    AND    SUPERSTITIONS  221 

would  gain  protection  for  the  year  against  all  diseases,  and  if 
honey  were  sprinkled  in  a  room  on  Holy  Saturday  it  would  kill 
all  vermin.  In  Poland  and  Silesia  honey  was  given  to  the  cows  and 
even  rubbed  into  their  eyes  to  prevent  pestilence.  To  ward  off 
contamination  of  wells,  honey  was  poured  into  them.  A  string 
dipped  into  honey  at  sunrise  and  tied  around  a  fruit  tree  would 
produce  a  rich  fruit  crop.  Blessing  the  fields  with  honey  was  an 
old  pagan  custom.  The  ancient  Germanic  farmer,  after  he  had 
finished  plowing  the  first  furrow,  poured  milk  and  honey  into  it. 
This  was  called  Acker se gen.  The  ritual  was  especially  employed 
when  there  was  a  suspicion  that  the  fields  were  blighted  by  magic. 

Many  beliefs  and  customs  connected  with  honey  existed  among 
the  populations  of  all  countries.  For  example,  stingy  or  quarrel- 
some people,  it  was  believed,  were  never  successful  in  producing 
honey.  Every  year,  one  had  to  send  some  honey  and  wax  to  the 
neighbors  in  appreciation  of  their  courtesy  in  allowing  the  bees 
to  feed  on  their  flowers.  Denying  honey  to  the  sick  meant  empty 
combs  in  the  future.  To  refuse  honey  to  children  was  a  sin  against 
Mary  and  Joseph,  who  had  fed  Child  Christ.  To  send  honey  to 
a  dying  person,  however,  was  bad  luck.  Selling  honey  was  pro- 
hibited among  many  nations  but  barter  was  permitted.  Men- 
struating women  had  to  keep  away  from  the  hives,  otherwise 
the  honey  would  turn  sour. 

A  tree  in  which  wild  bees  had  nested  and  stored  their  honey 
was  reputed  to  possess  occult  powers.  Girls  would  carry  a  splinter 
from  such  trees  to  entertainments  to  assure  themselves  of  being 
well  supplied  with  dancing  partners.  Farmers  carried  the  branches 
with  them  when  they  drove  their  cattle  to  market,  with  the  expec- 
tation of  securing  good  buyers.  The  Slavs  called  a  bee-tree  a  lucky 
tree,  and  a  branch  of  it,  broken  off"  on  St.  Andrew's  day,  was 
considered  a  lucky  charm.  In  Finland  there  is  a  belief  that  if  a 
girl  bakes  a  honey  cake  on  Christmas  Eve,  keeps  it  in  her  bed 
overnight,  and  then  gives  a  piece  to  her  sweetheart,  he  will  remain 
true  to  her  through  life.  There  was  a  widespread  belief  among 
many  nations  that  where  there  were  honey  and  bees,  lightning 
would  not  strike  and  the  devil  would  never  approach. 


222  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

In  enumerating  only  a  few  of  the  superstitious  beliefs,  customs 
and  traditions  connected  with  honey,  the  writer  has  thought  it 
best  to  group  them  according  to  the  three  paramount  and  most 
solemn  events  of  life,  namely,  birth,  marriage  and  death. 

i.     BIRTH 

The  use  of  honey  was  only  rarely  omitted  during  birth-rites. 
Among  Babylonians,  Iranians,  Egyptians  and  Hebrews,  honey 
and  milk  was  the  first  nutriment  which  touched  the  lips  of  a  new- 
born. Calvin  mentions  in  Isaiah,  Ch.  IX,  that,  "the  Jews  to  this 
day,  give  their  infants  a  taste  of  honey  and  butter  before  they 
suck."  The  Galician  Jews  put  a  piece  of  honeycomb  into  the  cradle 
before  the  infant  is  placed  in  it.  During  Hindu  birth  ceremonies, 
after  a  male  infant  is  born  and  the  umbilical  cord  is  severed,  the 
father  touches  the  lips  of  the  son  with  honey  taken  from  a  golden 
vessel  and  applies  it  with  a  golden  spoon,  at  the  same  time  giving 
the  child  its  name.  The  Hindus  hang  a  branch  of  the  sacred  tree, 
smeared  with  honey,  over  their  doors  with  the  invocation:  "The 
young  child  cries  to  it  ;  the  cow  that  has  a  young  calf  shall  low  to 
it."  Amongst  the  Mohammedans  in  the  Province  of  Punjab  (N. 
W.  India)  the  most  respected  member  of  the  family  puts  ghutti 
(made  of  honey)  into  the  mouth  of  the  infant  as  its  first  food  and 
holds  honey  over  its  head  to  ward  off  evil  spirits. 

There  were  similar  customs  among  the  Greek,  Roman,  Slavic 
and  all  Anglo-Saxon  races.  The  Scotch  Highlanders,  soon  after 
the  birth  of  a  child,  take  a  fresh  branch  of  ash  (melia,  mel  = 
honey)  which  secretes  a  sweet  manna-like  juice,  burn  it  at  one  end 
and  after  smearing  some  honey  on  the  other  end,  they  daub  with 
it  the  lips  of  the  infant.  The  Scotch  believe  that  honey,  being  a 
sacred  substance,  should  be  the  first  food  to  touch  the  palate  of 
the  new-born.  An  identical  ceremony  prevails  in  Finland  and  in 
the  Caucasus.  During  birth  ceremonies  in  modern  Greece  a  chosen 
child  smears  honey  on  the  lips  of  the  infant  with  the  prayer:  "Be 
thou  as  sweet  as  this  honey."  To  give  honey  to  an  infant  as  its 
first  food  was  also  a  heathen  Germanic  custom. 


CUSTOMS    AND    SUPERSTITIONS  223 

If  honey  were  placed  on  the  lips  of  an  infant  by  some  miracu- 
lous means,  it  was  believed  that  the  act  bestowed  the  gift  of  poetic 
inspiration  and  eloquence  or  that  the  child  would  become  a  saint. 
Cicero  described  how  Plato,  yet  an  infant,  was  taken  by  his  father 
to  Mount  Hymettus  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the  Muses.  The  child 
was  laid  in  a  thicket  and  while  he  slept  a  swarm  of  bees  built  a 
honeycomb  in  his  mouth  which  presaged  the  singular  sweetness 
of  his  discourses  and  his  future  eloquence.  The  same  miracle  hap- 
pened to  Xenophon,  Sophocles,  Pindar,  Virgil,  Lucanus,  St. 
Ambrose,  St.  John  Chrysostomus,  St.  Dominic,  St.  Isidor  and 
many  others.  Among  the  Mohammedans,  there  is  a  superstition 
that  if  one  dreams  of  a  bee  he  will  become  a  great  singer.  The  bee 
was  a  symbol  of  the  Koran.  In  Hungary  the  population  believed 
that  when  a  son  was  born  to  the  King,  the  bees  put  honey  on  his 
lips  for  good  luck.  Homer  was  nursed  by  priestesses  whose  breasts 
distilled  honey.  Zeus,  the  god  of  Mount  Olympus,  was  nursed  on 
honey.  The  Greeks  and  Teutons  believed  that  honey  conferred 
immortality. 

(Thomas  Huxley,  the  famous  biologist,  humorously  referred 
in  his  biography  to  the  magic  power  of  honey  to  endow  mellifluous 
eloquence.  He  deplored  his  lack  of  oratorical  talent,  because  the 
power  of  speech  gains  higher  places  in  Church  and  State  than 
worth,  ability  or  honest  work.  Huxley  blamed  his  incompetency 
in  this  respect  on  a  lamentable  incident:  "A  neighboring  beehive 
emitted  a  swarm  and  the  new  colony,  pitching  on  the  window  sill, 
was  making  its  way  into  the  room  when  a  horrified  servant  shut 
down  the  sash.  If  that  well-meaning  woman  had  sustained  from 
her  ill-timed  interference  the  swarm  might  have  settled  on  my 
lips  and  I  should  have  been  endowed  with  eloquence.") 

Once  honey  had  touched  the  lips  of  an  infant,  the  act  was  sup- 
posed to  confer  on  it  a  certain  magic  spell.  According  to  the  ancient 
laws  of  Friesland,  a  father  was  permitted  to  expose  an  infant  to  its 
doom,  but  after  the  child  had  tasted  honey  and  milk  its  life  had 
to  be  spared.  Hieron  II  as  an  infant  was  exposed  in  the  fields  by 
his  father  Hierocles,  because  the  child  was  born  to  him  by  one 
of  his  servants.  The  bees  cared  for  the  foundling  and  fed  him  on 


224  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

honey.  When  the  father  learned  of  the  miracle  his  attitude  toward 
his  son  changed.  The  child  was  raised  with  great  solicitude  and 
received  a  liberal  education.  Hieron  subsequently  became  a  noted 
patron  of  literature  and  chief  of  the  army,  and  as  such  won  the 
battle  of  Mylae  (296  b.c).  After  the  victory  he  became  king  of 
Syracuse. 

When  the  Pharaoh  of  Egypt  gave  the  order  that  all  male 
Hebrew  children  should  be  destroyed  by  drowning  them  in  the 
Nile,  Jewish  mothers  were  constrained  to  give  birth  to  their  chil- 
dren in  the  fields.  The  mother  of  Moses  kept  the  future  Prophet 
concealed  for  three  months,  and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  he 
also  were  brought  up  on  honey.  This  might  account  for  his  wis- 
dom, eloquence  and  prophetic  powers.  According  to  the  Biblical 
legend  (Exod.  R.  23:  8),  the  exposed  children  were  given  two 
pebbles,  from  one  of  which  they  obtained  oil,  and  from  the  other, 
honey. 

2.     MARRIAGE 

"Und  suss  wie  der  Honig 
1st  der  Ehestand." 
(And  sweet  as  honey  is  wedlock.) 

In  nuptial  ceremonies  and  in  the  matrimonial  lives  of  most 
ancient  nations  and  of  many  of  the  primitive  races  to  this  day, 
honey  has  played  just  as  important  a  role  as  in  birth-rites.  In 
Egypt,  honey  was  considered  such  an  essential  substance  that  in 
every  marriage  contract  the  bridegroom  had  to  promise  to  supply 
his  bride  yearly  with  a  definite  amount  of  honey.  When  the  nup- 
tial knot  was  tied,  the  bridegroom  said,  "I  take  you  for  my  wife 
and  bind  myself  to  furnish  you  annually  with  twenty-four  hins 
(32  pounds)  of  honey"  (Brugsh).  During  Hindu  wedding  cere- 
monies honey  offering  was  an  important  function.  The  bridegroom 
kissed  the  bride  and  said:  "This  is  honey,  the  speech  of  my  tongue 
is  honey,  the  honey  of  the  bee  is  dwelling  in  my  mouth  and  in 
my  teeth  dwells  peace."  During  the  course  of  the  services  the 


AMOR  AS  HONEY-THIEF 

By  Lucas  Cranach,   15^0 
(Kopenhagen  Statens  Museum) 


VENUS  AND  CUPID 

By  Lucas  Cranach 
(Villa  Borghese,  Ro»:.-) 


'LATE   XII 


X 
h 

I 


225 

bride's  forehead,  mouth,  eyelids,  ears  and  genitals  were  anointed 
with  honey.  In  Bengal,  the  Brahmans  believed  that  if  the  bride's 
pudenda  were  covered  with  honey  it  would  produce  fertility. 
When  the  Dekan  Hindu  bridegroom  called  on  the  bride,  honey 
and  curds  were  offered  to  him  with  the  object  of  scaring  away  evil 
spirits.  The  Hindu  firmly  believed  that  honey  had  the  magic 
power  to  ward  off  demoniacal  spirits,  so  much  feared  during 
marriage  ceremonies. 

We  find  similar  customs  among  African  natives.  In  Galla-land, 
a  country  bordering  on  Abyssinia,  honey  was  an  important  food 
and  a  principal  commodity  of  trade.  Before  a  wedding  the  Galla 
bridegroom  had  to  bring  a  fair  quantity  of  honey  to  the  intended 
bride.  If  the  amount  were  unsatisfactory,  the  bride  and  her  family 
rejected  him  as  a  future  husband.  The  Galla  women  have  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  independent  among  the  women  of 
Eastern  Africa. 

In  Morocco,  the  wedding  guests  are  offered  honey  before  the 
ceremonies.  During  the  nuptial  rites  no  honey  is  used  because  it  is 
reserved  for  the  cult  of  the  dead.  After  the  wedding  the  groom 
feasts  on  honey  to  which  also  the  Moroccans  attribute  a  powerful 
aphrodisiac  effect.  The  nuptial  supper  of  a  Roman  couple  con- 
sisted of  milk,  honey  and  poppy-juice. 

On  the  European  continent  among  the  Greeks,  Nordic,  Ger- 
manic, and  Slavic  races  honey  had  an  important  function  before, 
during  and  after  wedding  festivities.  The  Poles  sang  a  song  at 
weddings:  "Diligent  is  the  life  on  a  farm,  like  the  life  of  the  bee, 
and  marriage  is  sweet  as  honey."  When  a  Polish  bride  reached 
her  home  after  the  ceremonies,  she  was  led  three  times  around  the 
fire-place,  her  feet  were  washed  and  when  she  entered  the  bridal 
chamber  she  was  blindfolded  and  honey  was  rubbed  on  her  lips. 
In  Hungary  the  bride  baked  honey  cake  during  full  moon  and 
gave  it  to  the  groom  to  secure  his  love.  During  the  celebration  of 
marriages  the  young  couples  were  fed  with  honey  by  wise  women. 
This  was  supposed  to  sweeten  their  wedded  life.  In  Croatia  the 
parents  of  the  bridegroom  await  him  at  the  threshold  of  the  house 
with  a  pitcher  of  honey.  The  container  must  not  be  made  of  glass. 


226  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

When  the  groom  appears  he  asks  his  mother  what  is  in  the  pitcher. 
The  answer  is:  "My  son,  it  contains  my  honey  and  thy  good 
will."  When  the  bride  enters  the  house  she  is  offered  by  her 
mother-in-law  a  spoonful  of  honey.  The  spoon  is  several  times 
withdrawn  but  finally  with  a  sudden  dash  is  put  into  her  mouth. 
The  bride  is  given,  besides,  a  nosegay  and  a  cup  of  honey.  While 
the  bride  walks  around  the  house  she  spreads  honey  over  each 
threshold  and  door.  In  Dalmatia  and  Herzegovina  there  is  the 
same  custom ;  even  the  wedding  ring  is  dipped  into  honey  during 
the  ceremonies.  In  Slovakia,  milk  and  honey;  in  Silesia,  cooked 
barley  and  honey  j  in  Bulgaria,  bread  and  honey  are  given  to  the 
bride.  The  Bulgarians  offer  a  special  soup  to  the  bridal  couple, 
called  okrap,  which  is  made  from  wine  and  honey.  The  wedding 
cake  baked  with  honey  is  broken  over  the  head  of  the  bridegroom 
and  some  honey  is  rubbed  on  his  face.  The  woman  who  anoints 
the  groom  exclaims:  "Be  fond  of  each  other  as  the  bees  are  fond 
of  this  honey."  In  Serbia,  Albania,  Rumania  and  Turkey  similar 
customs  prevail,  especially  among  the  gipsy  tribes. 

During  Swedish  wedding  festivities  honey  was  liberally  used. 
According  to  ancient  records  in  1500,  when  the  daughter  of  a 
wealthy  Swede,  named  Krogenose,  was  married,  half  a  ton  of 
honey  was  consumed.  In  1567,  during  the  wedding  feast  of  Sigrid 
Sture,  453  jars  of  honey  were  used.  The  Finns  also  did  justice  to 
honey  and,  more  so,  to  honey  drinks. 

In  modern  Greece  some  of  the  ancient  customs  still  persist. 
When  the  bride  arrives  at  the  groom's  cottage,  his  mother  stands 
waiting  at  the  door  with  a  jar  of  honey  of  which  the  bride  must 
partake  that  the  words  of  her  lips  may  become  sweet  as  honey. 
The  remaining  contents  of  the  jar  are  smeared  on  the  lintel  of 
the  door,  that  strife  may  never  enter  the  home.  In  Rhodes,  when 
the  groom  arrives  in  his  new  home,  he  dips  his  finger  into  a  cup  of 
honey  and  traces  a  cross  on  the  door. 

In  Brittany,  Westphalia  and  Lincolnshire  the  betrothals  are 
announced  to  the  bees  and  the  hives  are  decorated  with  red  or 
white  ribbons;  part  of  the  wedding  cakes  are  placed  before  them 


IN    TRADITIONS,    CUSTOMS    AND    SUPERSTITIONS  227 

and  the  new  couples  -must  introduce  themselves  to  the  bees,  other- 
wise their  married  life  would  surely  be  unlucky. 

In  Hungary,  where  honey  always  was  an  important  food,  the 
production  had  fallen  off  considerably  after  the  World  War.  The 
town  of  Kecskemet  decided  that  every  newly  married  couple 
should  receive  from  the  municipality  a  beehive  and  a  swarm  of 
bees  as  a  wedding  present  to  encourage  apiculture.  (If  one — or 
both — of  the  contracting  parties  were  stung,  the  city  fathers  may 
also  be  blamed  for  it.) 

We  could  not  very  well  close  this  chapter  without  reflecting  on 
the  meaning  of  a  popularly  used  term,  honeymoon.*  Some  philolo- 
gists (probably  with  conjugal  experiences)  have  suggested  that 
this  sweetest  period  of  wedlock  was  compared  with  the  moon  be- 
cause as  soon  as  this  celestial  body  reaches  a  full  phase  it  com- 
mences to  wane,  not  unlike  the  affection  of  wedded  couples. 
Others  have  thought  that  the  allusion  stems  from  the  ancient 
custom  whereby  the  bride  and  groom  were  wont  to  eat  honey  and 
drink  mead  during  the  first  four  weeks  of  their  married  life.  That 
a  honeymoon  is  not  necessarily  "sweet"  can  be  adjudged  from 
Hood's  poem: 

"The  moon,  the  moon,  so  silver  and  cold, 
Her  fickle  temper  has  often  been  told — 
Now  shady — now  bright  and  sunny; 
But  of  all  the  lunar  things  that  change, 
The  one  that  shows  most  fickle  and  strange, 
And  takes  the  most  eccentric  range, 
Is  the  moon — so  called — of  honey!" 

2.     DEATH 

Honey  had  a  wider  use  and  more  significance  during  burial 
services  and  funeral  rites  than  during  ceremonies  for  either  birth 

*  The  era  between  the  years  1898  to  1902  was  called  the  honeymoon  feriod 
of  American  industry.  Collective  bargaining  was  introduced  and  the  accord  be- 
tween employers  and  employees  was  compared  with  the  harmony  of  newlyweds. 


228  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

or  marriage.  Many  ancient  races,  among  them  the  Egyptians, 
believed  that  the  souls  of  the  departed  continued  to  live  and 
required  food  for  their  future  maintenance,  otherwise  they  would 
starve.  According  to  ancient  concept,  the  body  was  destroyed,  but 
not  the  soul,  which  survived  and  was  supposed  to  return  to  earth. 
Death  was  considered  not  so  much  the  departure  of  the  body  but 
that  of  the  soul,  freed  of  its  fetters,  in  flight  to  a  future  destina- 
tion. Honey,  as  a  rule,  symbolized  death  among  the  ancients,  an 
allusion  to  the  sweetness  of  death,  contrasted  with  the  bitterness 
of  life.  The  Greeks  also  thought  that  life  was  bitter  and  death 
sweet.  Honey  was  offered  to  Hecate,  the  Chthonian  Artemis. 
Hecate's  by-name  was  Melitodes  (honey-like). 

There  was  no  other  more  appropriate  and  favored  food  for  the 
dead  than  honey.  It  was  an  established  custom  among  the  Hindus, 
Chinese,  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans  to  place 
honey  next  to  the  corpse.  Similar  practices  were  in  vogue  among 
the  ancient  Mexicans,  the  North  American  Indians  and  the  Eski- 
mos. The  Japanese  supplied  not  only  food  and  drink  but  also 
clothing  for  their  dead. 

Before  burial,  the  so-called  funeral  repast  was  placed  next  to 
the  bier  and  rations  were  also  stored  in  the  graves  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  deceased.  On  solemn  occasions,  especially  on  death 
anniversaries,  ritual  services  were  held  by  relatives  and  friends 
during  which  the  most  favored  provisions  of  the  departed  ones 
were  laid  on  the  burial  places  or  in  the  tombs.  Honey  and  wine 
were  often  sprinkled  over  the  graves  and  over  the  funeral  pyres. 

In  the  various  copies  of  the  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead  which 
are  the  most  ancient  scripts,  originating  as  far  back  as  the  Pyramid 
Age,  honey  is  often  mentioned.  In  the  tombs  of  kings,  next  to  the 
mummies,  jars  of  honey  were  placed.  When  found,  this  honey 
was  still  in  a  fairly  good  state  of  preservation.  The  great  papyrus 
of  Rameses  III  records  that  during  his  reign  of  thirty-one  years, 
millions  of  jars  of  honey  were  purchased  from  the  royal  treasury 
for  sacrificial  offerings.  There  is  an  inscription  on  a  tomb  in  the 
Necropolis  of  Abidos:  "The  King  appoints  that  a  sum  of  three 
and  a  half  pounds  of  silver  from  the  Treasury  of  the  Temple  of 


IN    TRADITIONS,    CUSTOMS    AND    SUPERSTITIONS  229 

Osiris  be  given  in  order  to  cover  the  daily  demand  for  one  measure 
of  honey,  to  be  used  at  the  ceremony  of  the  worship  of  the  dead, 
for  his  beloved  Naromantha."  The  picture  (Plate  XIV)  shows 
how  the  Royal  Butler,  accompanied  by  the  sacred  bull,  carried 
honeycombs  and  lotus  blooms  to  the  tomb  of  the  royal  dead. 

Honey  sacrifices  consisting  of  honey,  honey  cakes  and  edible 
plants  were  often  tendered  to  the  Egyptian  gods.  The  lips  of  the 
priests  were  anointed  with  honey  and  part  of  the  sacrificial  food 
was  later  consumed  by  the  believers  (Plutarch,  Op.  Ch.  68). 

During  the  funeral  rites  of  many  nations,  the  wish  was  ex- 
pressed that  the  departed  ones  might  find  a  land  where  there  was 
plenty  of  honey.  The  Mohammedan  dream  was  a  land  with  rivers 
of  honey  j  this  was  also  Mohammed's  promise  to  the  faithful  and 
his  true  conception  of  Paradise. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  excelled  all  other  nations  in  bringing 
honey  sacrifices  to  the  graves.  In  the  Iliad  Achilles  offers  honey 
at  the  bier  of  his  friend  Patroclus,  who  was  killed  after  he  had 
driven  back  the  Trojans. 

"And  he  sat  therein  two-handled  jars  of  honey  and  oil, 
Leaning  them  against  the  bier." 

Achilles  also  sprinkled  honey  on  the  grave  as  an  offering  to  the 
Chthonian  gods. 

Aeschylus  describes  in  The  Persians  the  honey  libations  which 
Queen  Atossa  tenders  to  her  husband,  Darius: 

"I  return,  and  bear 
Libations  soothing  to  the  father's  shade 
In  the  son's  cause;  delicious  milk,  that  foams 
White  from  the  sacred  heifer;  liquid  honey, 
Extract  of  flow'rs." 

Euripides  pictures  Iphigenia  at  the  grave  of  her  brother  bring- 
ing honey  sacrifices: 

"For  him,  as  dead,  with  pious  care 
This  goblet  I  prepare; 


23O  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

And  on  the  bosom  of  the  earth  shall  flow 
Streams  from  the  heifer  mountain-bred, 
The  grape's  rich  juice,  and  mix'd  with  these, 
The  labor  of  the  yellow  bees, 
Libations  soothing  to  the  dead. 
Give  me  the  oblation:  let  me  hold 
The  foaming  goblet's  hallowed  gold." 

In  the  Odyssey,  Circe  advises  Ulysses  upon  entering  Hades  to 
sprinkle  the  shadows  of  the  dead  with  honey,  milk  and  wine. 
Hesiod's  grave  in  Locris  was  deluged  with  honey  by  the  pious 
shepherds.  Zarathusthra  paid  homage  in  similar  manner. 

We  learn  from  one  of  the  dramas  of  Lucian,  the  celebrated 
Greek  satirist,  why  honey  was  poured  over  the  graves.  Charon, 
the  boatman  of  the  underworld's  black  river,  ascends  to  the  world 
above  and  with  the  guidance  of  Hermes  surveys  the  realm  of 
mortals.  The  first  thing  he  wishes  to  see  is,  of  course,  the  places 
where  the  dead  bodies  are  inhumed.  The  ferryman  expresses  his 
astonishment  upon  seeing  there  all  the  honey  and  mead,  which 
mortals  call  libations,  poured  over  the  graves  in  honor  of  the 
dead. 

Charon  exclaims: 

"Why,  then,  crown  they 
These  stones,  and  why  with  unguent  rich  anoint  them? 
And  why  do  some,  heaping  a  funeral  pile 
Before  the  mounds,  and  digging  out  a  trench, 
Burn  sumptuous  viands  there,  and  in  the  ditches 
Pour,  if  I  right  conjecture,  mead  and  wine?" 

Hermes  explains: 

"I  know  not  ferryman,  what  use  it  can  be 
To  those  in  Hades;  but  it  is  believed 
That  souls  returning  from  the  world  below 
Will  come  to  supper — very  probable ! 
Hovering  above  the  savor  and  the  smoke, 
And  from  the  trench  will  drink  up  the  metheglin." 


231 

Supplying  the  dead  with  food  was  originally  a  heathen  custom 
which  later  became  a  Christian  ritual.  In  Russia  and  many  other 
countries,  even  today,  a  jar  of  honey  is  placed  next  to  the  corpse 
and  some  is  desposited  in  the  grave.  The  Russian  kutja  (death 
food)  is  made  of  flour,  poppy  seeds  and  honey.  Some  of  it  is 
consumed  by  the  funeral  guests,  the  rest  left  for  the  dead.  Honey 
cake,  as  a  sacrificial  offering  to  the  deity,  had  an  Indo-Germanic 
origin. 

Among  many  African  tribes,  placing  honey  next  to  the  bier  and 
in  the  grave,  is  still  a  custom.  The  Indians  gave  their  dead  honey 
and  rice. 

Honey  was  considered  by  all  ancients  a  sacred  substance,  the 
purest  and  best  thing  in  the  world,  the  symbol  of  eternal  bliss. 
There  was  an  old  belief  that  if  a  corpse  was  preserved  in  honey 
it  would  reincarnate.  Democritus  firmly  believed  that.  There  are 
many  mythical  tales  that  people  who  perished  in  honey  revived. 
The  ancients  undoubtedly  were  impressed  with  the  efficiency  of 
honey  in  protecting  organic  matter  from  decay  and  the  origin  of 
the  belief  in  the  miraculous  preserving  power  of  honey  can  be 
ascribed  to  this  appreciation. 

Ancient  cultural  states  and  also  primitive  races  used  their  best 
efforts  to  preserve  their  dead  and  prevent  decomposition  of  the 
body.  The  simplest  method  was  to  expose  the  corpse  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  sun-rays  until  the  body  fluids  evaporated  and  the 
tissues  dried  up.  This  is  still  practiced  by  some  savages. 

The  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  Persians,  Assyrians  and  Arabs 
used  honey  and  wax  for  embalming  their  prominent  dead.  Herod- 
otus records  that  the  Babylonians  buried  their  dead  in  honey.  He 
also  relates  the  same  about  the  Assyrians,  who,  however,  first 
covered  the  corpses  with  wax.  The  old  Spartan  Kings  were  em- 
balmed in  honey,  as  were  Justinian,  the  Byzantine  emperor,  and 
Alexander  the  Great.  Alexander  the  Great,  as  Statius  records, 
ordered  before  his  death  that  his  remains  be  preserved  in  honey. 
Aristotle,  his  teacher,  had  undoubtedly  made  him  appreciate  the 
conserving  power  of  honey.  Aristotle  wrote  an  extensive  thesis  on 
this  phase  of  honey,  which  however  was  lost  in  the  conflagration 


232  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

of  the  library  in  Alexandria.  Strabo  described,  in  his  fourteenth 
book,  how  the  body  of  Alexander  the  Great  was  placed  in  a  golden 
coffin  filled  with  white  honey.  Herod  I,  King  of  Judea  (40-4 
b.c),  the  superstitious  despot  and  tyrant,  more  hated  than  any 
other  person  of  his  age,  in  a  fit  of  jealousy  ordered  his  beautiful 
wife,  Marianne,  to  be  executed}  after  which  he  kept  the  dead 
body  in  honey  for  seven  years — because,  he  avowed,  he  loved  her. 
Aristobulos,  whom  Caesar  had  ordered  to  Syria  and  who  was 
poisoned  by  the  followers  of  Pompeius,  was  also  embalmed  in 
honey,  until  Anthony  sent  the  remains  to  Judea  to  be  entombed 
in  the  royal  sepulchre.  The  Assyrians  and  Persians  (Herodotus  I. 
198)  covered  corpses  with  wax  and  then  buried  them  in  honey. 
The  dead  body  of  Agesilaus  was  covered  with  wax,  we  learn  from 
Plutarch.  "The  attendants  of  Agesilaus  had  no  honey  to  preserve 
the  body  (he  died  in  a  foreign  country),  so  they  embalmed  it 
with  melted  wax  and  thus  carried  it  home."  Cornelius  Nepos  and 
Plutarch  ascribed  the  adoption  of  the  use  of  wax  to  a  scarcity  of 
honey.  Homer  in  the  Odyssey  (XXIV.  68)  describes  the  funeral 
of  Achilles,  "buried  in  the  garments  of  the  gods  and  in  sweet 
honey."  The  Iliad  (XIX.  38  and  XXIII.  170)  also  renders  an 
account  of  how  the  dead  were  anointed  with  honey.  An  old  Egyp- 
tian script  mentions  that  a  corpse  in  honey  mummifies  in  120 
years. 

The  secret  of  the  remarkable  art  of  Egyptian  embalming  is 
entirely  lost.  This  is  not  surprising  because  the  mysterious  process 
was  unknown  even  to  the  contemporary  Egyptians.  The  embalm- 
ers,  as  a  rule,  inherited  the  proficiency  from  their  ancestors.  All 
we  know  from  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  of  antiquity  is  that 
the  contents  of  the  cranial,  pleural  and  abdominal  cavities  were 
removed  and  filled  with  aromatic  herbs,  fragrant  spices,  balsams, 
oil  of  cedar,  etc.  That  the  corpse  afterwards  was  placed  in  honey 
or  wrapped  in  honey-soaked  bandages  seems  more  than  probable 
because  several  allusions  in  the  Egyptian  papyri  intimate  that 
honey  converts  a  corpse  into  a  mummy  in  the  course  of  years. 
Columella  repeatedly  mentions  the  embalming  of  bodies  in  honey. 
The  honey-loving  philosopher  Democritus  was  also  preserved  in 


IN    TRADITIONS,    CUSTOMS    AND    SUPERSTITIONS  233 

honey.  Abd'  Allatif  relates  that  some  men,  searching  for  treasures 
in  the  Egyptian  tombs  near  the  Pyramids,  discovered  a  sealed 
cruse  and  upon  opening  it  they  found  that  it  contained  honey. 
They  began  to  dip  their  bread  into  it  when  one  of  them  noticed 
hairs  upon  his  fingers.  The  jug  was  carefully  examined  and  was 
found  to  enclose  the  body  of  a  small  child  in  a  perfect  state  of 
preservation.  After  the  body  was  entirely  withdrawn,  rich  jewels 
and  brilliant  ornaments  with  which  the  child  was  covered,  were 
revealed. 

In  Persia  burial  in  honey  also  was  practiced.  In  one  of  their 
manuscripts  there  is  even  a  prescription  for  making  mummies  for 
profit.  A  red-haired  man  had  to  be  fed  until  he  reached  the  age 
of  thirty.  Then  he  was  to  be  drowned  in  honey  and  drugs  and  the 
vessel  sealed.  After  150  years,  according  to  the  script,  the  honey 
transformed  the  corpse  into  a  mummy.  The  reason  for  supplying 
mummies  for  commercial  purposes  was  because  powdered  mum- 
mies were  credited  with  curative  value  for  both  internal  and 
external  diseases.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
mummy-powder  was  in  great  demand  and  sold  in  the  apothecaries 
for  a  good  price.  For  this  reason  many  tombs  were  plundered. 
The  Jews  in  the  East  and  the  French  were  the  best  customers  and 
used  it  for  various  maladies  (Ambroise  Pare).  The  powder  had 
an  aromatic  sweet-acrid  taste.  It  was  used  externally  for  wounds 
to  prevent  gangrene.  The  Arabs  use  it  even  today  for  the  purpose. 
The  belief  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  curative  effect  of  honey 
seems  to  suggest  that  the  substance  was  used  for  embalming.  There 
is  a  sepulchral  inscription  in  Thelmessos  (Greece),  of  the  first 
century  a.d.  : 

"Here  lies  Boethos,  Muse-bedewed,  undying, 
Joy  hath  he  of  sweet  sleep  in  honey  lying." 

In  the  famous  medieval  Romanesque  cathedral  of  Bamberg,  on 
the  tomb  of  Henry  II  (Saint),  Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  who  died  in  1024,  there  is  the  following  inscription: 


234  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

"Sus  lit  er  da  in  siner  stift 
di'er  het  erbouwen,  als  diu  bin  ir  wift 
uz  manege  bluete  wurket,  daz  man  honc-seim  nennet." 

("He  lies  in  the  minster  he  built,  as  the  bee  her  web 
from  many  a  blossom  works,  which  we  name  honey-juice.") 

When  King  Edward  I  of  England,  who  died  in  1307,  was 
exhumed  in  1774,  his  hands  and  face  were  found  to  be  well  pre- 
served. This  condition  was  attributed  to  the  fact  that  they  had 
been  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  wax  and  honey. 

In  Burma,  during  the  rainy  season,  the  eviscerated  corpses  are 
preserved  temporarily  in  honey,  until  relatives  are  able  to  pro- 
cure dried  fire-wood  for  the  customary  cremation.  If  the  dead 
person  buried  in  honey  is  a  holy  Buddhistic  monk  and  the  corpse 
is  removed  from  the  coffin  for  cremation,  the  honey  is  dispensed 
in  one  ounce  jars  and  sold  at  auction.  Often  fortunes  are  realized 
from  such  sales.  The  Burmese  firmly  believes  that  a  drop  of  this 
honey  will  cure  any  affliction. 


The  ancient  belief  that  anyone  who  drowned  in  honey  would 
revive,  is  best  illustrated  in  the  legend  of  Glaucos. 

Glaucos,  the  son  of  the  Cretan  King  Minos,  while  playing  with 
a  mouse  (the  symbol  of  death)  fell  into  a  jar  of  honey  and 
drowned.  Minos  searched  for  him  in  vain.  At  last  he  appealed  to 
the  oracle  of  Apollo  and  only  under  its  guidance  did  he  find  the 
body  of  his  son.  Apollo  announced  to  Minos:  "A  monstrosity  has 
been  born  in  your  land  and  the  person  who  will  be  able  to  discover 
its  meaning  shall  find  and  restore  your  son."  The  whole  country 
looked  for  the  monstrosity,  which  was  very  soon  found.  It  proved 
to  be  a  calf  which  changed  its  color  thrice  daily  j  first  it  was  white, 
then  it  became  red  and  finally  black.  Minos  summoned  all  his 
augurs  to  find  out  what  this  signified.  The  seer  Polydos  was  the 
one  who  could  construe  its  meaning.  He  thought  the  calf  repre- 
sented a  mulberry  tree,  the  fruit  of  which  is  first  white,  afterwards 


235 

red  and  when  ripe,  black.  Minos  ordered 
Polydos  to  find  his  son.  At  first  he  hesitated 
but  after  he  was  compelled,  he  commenced 
his  search  for  the  lost  son  of  the  King.  Polydos, 
during  his  long  wanderings,  passed  a  honey- 
bin,  on  top  of  which  an  owl  was  perched, 
driving  away  some  bees.  He  considered  this 
an  omen,  entered  the  bin  and  found  Glaucos, 
drowned  in  a  vessel  of  honey.  (Fig.  10.) 

Polydos  notified  the  King  of  the  recovery 
of  Glaucos'  body.  The  seer  was  locked  in  a 
vault  with  the  corpse  and  ordered  to  resusci- 
tate it.  A  snake  soon  crawled  toward  the  body 
of  Glaucos,  but  Polydos  killed  the  snake.  An- 
other snake,  bearing  an  herb,  laid  this  over  the 
dead  snake,  which  at  once  revived.  Polydos 
then  placed  the  same  herb  over  the  body  of 
Glaucos,  who  immediately  came  to  life.  Polydos  received  royal 
rewards  for  his  deeds  and  was  discharged,  laden  with  treasures. 

The  circumstance  that  the  bees  which  tried  to  enter  the  honey- 
bin  were  driven  away  by  the  owl,  was  symbolical  of  the  fact  that 
the  bees,  representing  the  soul  of  the  deceased,  were  using  their 
best  efforts  to  regain  their  former  habitation  and  were  prevented 
only  by  the  sinister  influence  of  the  owl. 


fig.   IO.  Old  Cretan 

gem. 

Polydos  finding 

Glaucos  in  a  honey 

vessel. 

(Courtesy  Hilda  M.  Ran- 

sotne,     The     Sacred     Bee, 

1937) 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  KALEVALA 


THERE  is  no  better  illustration  of  the  belief  in  the  magic 
power  of  honey  than  in  the  romantic  tales  of  the  Kalevala, 
the  national  epic  of  the  Finns.  Through  the  magnetic  effect  of 
honey,  steel  was  produced,  beer  was  brewed,  the  dog  created,  and 
with  the  help  of  honey's  blissful  charm  wounds  were  healed  and 
the  dead  restored  to  life. 

In  Finland,  the  Land  of  the  Thousands  of  Lakes,  we  find  many 
delightful  fables  intimately  connected  with  honey.  The  Finnish 
supposedly  are  a  Mongolian  race,  like  the  Hungarians,  Mordvins 
and  other  nations  of  kindred  tongues.  Apiculture  was  far  advanced 
among  them.  Honey  has  been  in  great  favor  in  Finland  since  time 
immemorial.  The  Kalevala,  the  epic  poem  of  Finland,  which  is 
comparable  only  to  the  Iliad,  Niebelungen,  or  Roland  legends, 
often  alludes  to  honey. 

The  Kalevala  (the  abode  of  heroes,  a  bardic  designation  of 
Finland)  is  a  charming  national  epic  and  one  of  the  most  sig- 
nificant poetic  works  in  existence.  Its  origin  and  introduction,  in 
addition  to  its  literary  value,  are  extremely  instructive  from  a 
historical  viewpoint.  The  old  sagas,  the  mythical  and  allegorical 
folktales  and  proverbs  which  the  Kalevala  contains,  in  the  form 
of  songs,  ballads  and  incantations,  were  on  the  lips  of  the  ancient 
people  of  that  cold,  bleak  and  desolate  country  for  over  a  thou- 
sand years  before  they  were  collected  by  Zacharias  Topelius  and 
Elias  Lonnrot,  both  practicing  physicians  of  Helsingfors,  and 
their  collaborators,  who  spent  many  years  of  travel  in  Finland, 
Lapland  and  Russia,  recording  the  popular  songs  and  stories  of 
the  peasantry  and   fishermen.   They  traveled   through   forests, 

marshes  and  ice-plains,  on  horseback,  in  sledges  drawn  by  rein- 

236 


THE    KALEVALA  237 

deer,  in  canoes  and  other  primitive  conveyances  to  collect  the 
legends  and  precious  runes  from  the  lips  of  the  minstrels.  The 
epic,  filled  with  the  power  of  magic,  is  a  Herculean  prototype  of 
unwritten  history.  Longfellow  must  have  had  great  admiration 
for  the  beauty  of  the  Kalevala  because  the  Hiawatha  is  a  faithful 
imitation  of  it,  both  in  respect  to  matter  as  well  as  to  meter. 

The  enormous  influence  of  the  Kalevala  on  the  Finnish  popu- 
lation, since  it  was  first  published  (1835),  is  best  proven  by  the 
remarkable  transformation,  real  regeneration  of  Finland.  The 
disclosure  of  these  romantic  tales  of  wonderful  heroism  aroused 
patriotism  and  resulted  in  a  surprisingly  universal  civic  and  moral 
revival  of  the  nation.  Formerly  the  upper  classes  of  Finland  had 
been  absorbed  by  Sweden  and  Russia,  while  the  majority  of  the 
population,  as  William  Sharp  remarked,  became  "a  listless  and 
inert  mass." 

Today  Finland,  after  long  lethargy  and  constant  retrogression, 
is  a  new-born  progressive  country,  full  of  hope,  pride  and  ambi- 
tion. The  fact  that  Finland  is  the  only  country  paying  its  inter- 
national debts,  is  the  best  evidence.  Of  course,  Providence  is  kind. 
Finland  is  a  poor  (which  may  be  the  reason  why  it  pays  its  debts), 
barren  country,  otherwise  it  would  long  ago  have  been  swallowed 
up  by  enterprising  nations.  Ethiopia,  which  is  supposed  to  be  one 
of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world,  should  envy  Finland  its 
indigence. 

Some  of  the  legends  from  the  Kalevala  associated  with  honey, 
are  as  follows: 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  BEER 

Kapo,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Osmotar,  was  supposed  to  have 
invented  beer.  She  took  six  seeds  of  barley,  seven  leaves  of  hop, 
and  mixed  them  in  seven  pitchers  of  water. 

"On  the  fire  she  sets  the  caldron 
Boils  the  barley,  hops  and  water 
Lets  them  steep  and  seethe  and  bubble." 

(Translation  by  John  Martin  Crawford) 


238  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

The  concoction  did  not  ferment  and  had  no  taste. 

"What  will  bring  the  effervescence, 
Who  will  add  the  needed  factor, 
That  the  beer  may  foam  and  sparkle, 
May  ferment  and  be  delightful?" 

A  snow-white  squirrel  was  commanded  to  fetch  some  cones  from 
the  pine  trees,  and  the  weasel  to  gather  some  of  the  bear's  saliva, 
"the  foam  from  the  lips  of  anger",  to  serve  as  yeast.  All  efforts 
were  in  vain — the  beer  would  not  foam. 

Kalevatar,  a  sparkling  maiden,  found  a  little  shell  lying  on  the 
ground,  picked  it  up,  and  gave  it  to  Kapo.  From  it,  with  the  aid 
of  Kapo's  magic  virginal  fingers,  a  bee  issued.  The  newly  created 
bee  was  instructed  to  fly  to  an  island,  far  over  the  seas,  where  a 
maiden  peacefully  slumbered  under  honey-bearing  blooms,  and 
collect  nectar  from  these  flowers.  The  agile  creature  flew  off  in 
haste  and  did  what  was  ordered.  The  bee  soon  returned  with  the 
honey,  which  was  quickly  added  to  the  stubborn  mixture.  Imme- 
diately, the  foam  rose  in  the  vessel,  and  the  new  beverage  was 
found  to  have  a  wonderful  taste. 

"Thus  was  brewed  the  beer  of  Northland, 
At  the  hands  of  Osmo's  daughter; 
This  the  origin  of  brewing 
Beer  from  Kalew-hops  and  barley; 
Great  indeed  the  reputation 
Of  the  ancient  beer  of  Kalew 
Said  to  make  the  feeble  hardy, 
Famed  to  dry  the  tears  of  women, 
Famed  to  cheer  the  broken-hearted, 
Make  the  aged  young  and  supple, 
Make  the  timid  brave  and  mighty, 
Make  the  brave  men  ever  braver, 
Fill  the  heart  with  joy  and  gladness, 
Fill  the  mind  with  wisdom-sayings, 
Fill  the  tongue  with  ancient  legends, 
Only  makes  the  fool  more  foolish." 


THE    KALEVALA  239 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  STEEL 

Ilmarinen,  the  master-blacksmith,  the  eternal  metal-worker 
whose  fame  and  wizardry  were  known  over  the  seven  seas,  made 
arms  and  tools  for  all  the  people.  The  water  was  not  strong 
enough  to  make  his  steel  sharp,  so  he  implored  the  bee  to  fetch 
him  some  honey  from  the  field-flowers. 

"Little  bee,  thou  tiny  birdling 
Bring  me  honey  on  thy  winglet 
On  thy  tongue,  I  pray  thee,  bring  me 
Sweetness  from  the  fragrant  meadows, 
From  the  little  cups  of  flowers 
From  the  tips  of  seven  petals 
That  we  thus  may  aid  the  water 
To  produce  the  steel  from  iron." 

The  cunning  wasp  overheard  the  command  and  flying  much 
faster  than  the  bee  returned  with  some  venom  of  a  viper.  Ilmari- 
nen thought  he  had  obtained  honey,  and  commenced  to  harden 
the  steel  with  the  water  which  was  mixed  with  poison.  Thereafter, 
all  the  wounds  produced  by  his  arms  and  tools  were  mortal,  kill- 
ing even  the  brothers  of  those  who  used  them. 

While  constructing  a  boat,  the  famous  minstrel  Wainamoinen, 
the  wisdom-singer,  severely  injured  his  hand  with  a  hatchet 
forged  by  Ilmarinen.  When  the  blood  gushed  in  streams  from  the 
wound,  the  singer  desperately  cried  for  help.  An  old  man  was 
passing  by  and  with  magic  words  stopped  the  flow  of  blood.  The 
man  then  sent  his  young  son  for  a  healing  honey-balm,  made  from 
the  finest  blooms  of  the  fields. 

"There  to  make  a  healing  balsam, 
From  the  herbs  of  tender  fibre, 
From  the  healing  plants  and  flowers, 
From  the  stalks  secreting  honey, 
From  the  roots,  and  leaves,  and  blossoms." 

He  rubbed  the  balm  on  the  wound,  and  it  soon  healed.  The  leg- 
ends linked  to  Wainamoinen  resemble  very  much  those  about 


24O  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Orpheus.  Wainamoinen  had  the  epithet:  "Orpheus  of  the  North". 
Just  as  Orpheus  charmed  the  birds  and  beasts  with  the  golden 
tones  of  his  music,  so  Wainamoinen  lured,  with  his  songs,  the 
wolves  from  their  lairs,  the  fish  from  the  rivers,  and  the  birds 
from  the  trees. 


THE  REANIMATION  OF  THE  DEAD 

Lemminkainen,  the  handsome  young  hero,  in  quest  of  a  wife, 
wooed  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Pohyola.  Before  their  betrothal, 
Lemminkainen  was  put  through  severe  tests  and  while  perform- 
ing one  heroic  act,  he  was  bitten  by  a  venomous  snake  and  died. 
His  enemies  cut  his  body  asunder  and  threw  it  piecemeal  into 
deep  water. 

Lemminkainen's  devoted  aged  mother,  in  the  meanwhile,  was 
sitting  at  home  anxiously  waiting  for  his  return.  Suddenly  she 
noticed  that  blood  was  oozing  from  the  hero's  hairbrush.  She  had 
a  foreboding  that  her  son  had  suffered  a  sad  fate.  She  left  her 
home  in  anguish,  weeping  and  trembling,  in  search  for  the  hero. 
She  questioned  the  trees,  the  rivers,  the  moon  about  her  lost  son. 
They  would  not  tell  her.  Finally  the  Sun  informed  her  of  the 
sorrowful  event.  She  immediately  began  a  search  for  the  sub- 
merged parts  of  the  hero  and  after  great  effort  she  succeeded  in 
recovering  them  from  the  depths  of  the  water.  The  grieving 
mother  assembled  the  parts  but,  though  she  used  all  known  magic, 
she  could  not  create  life  in  the  dead  body. 

The  mother  appealed  to  Mehilainen  (little  bee),*  and  begged 
her  to  collect  the  nectar  of  the  finest  blossoms.  (Plate  XV.) 

"Tiny  bee  thou  honey-birdling 
Lord  of  all  the  forest  flowers, 
Fly  away  and  gather  honey 
Bring  to  me  the  forest  sweetness.  .  .  ." 

*  In  the  Finnish  language,  meh  means  bee  (the  same  as  in  Hungarian),  and 
Mehilainen  is  a  diminutive  of  meh.  In  both  these  related  languages,  a  diminu- 
tive is  frequently  used  as  an  endearing  term. 


THE   TOMB  OF  A  ROYAL  BUTLER.  ABOUT   1450  b.c. 

(Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art) 
PLATE   XIV 


THE  KALEVALA 

Mehilainen   (little  bee)   departs  to  fetch  honey-balm  for 

the  anxious  mother 


PLATE  XV 


THE    K.ALEVALA  24I 

In  a  short  time,  the  bee  returned,  dripping  with  honey.  The 
mother  made  a  healing-balm  from  it  and  rubbed  some  over  the 
body,  but  the  embrocation  had  no  effect. 

The  mother  again  asked  the  bee  for  help:  "Little  Bee,  you 
queen  of  the  flowers,  fly  for  me  again  but  in  another  direction. 
Look  for  a  little  island,  far  across  the  seven  seas,  where  you  will 
find  some  magic  nectar,  which  will  produce  wonders."  The  little 
bee  started  upon  the  journey  and  flew  for  three  days  without 
interruption,  until  at  last  she  found  the  isle  with  meadows  rich 
in  honey. 

"There  the  honey  was  preparing 
There  the  magic  balm  distilling, 
In  the  tiny  earthen  vessels, 
In  the  burnished  copper  kettles 
Smaller  than  a  maiden's  thimbles, 
Smaller  than  the  tips  of  fingers.  .  .  ." 

The  island  was  filled  with  jars  of  healing  honey-balm.  Mehi- 
lainen,  after  a  short  rest,  took  seven  jars  into  her  lap,  seven  on 
her  shoulders  and  so,  well  laden,  commenced  her  return  trip.  The 
mother  tried  again  to  rub  the  wonder  balsam  over  the  assembled 
body  of  her  son,  but  still  there  was  no  sign  of  life. 

Once  more,  she  addressed  the  bee:  "Little  Bee,  you  bird  of  the 
air,  please  fly  for  the  third  time!  Go  over  the  clouds,  up  to  the 
ninth  heaven!  You  will  find  plenty  of  honey  there  which  will 
surely  produce  results.  The  Lord  has  blessed  this  honey,  to  resus- 
citate His  children."  Mehilainen  answered:  "How  will  I,  such  a 
tiny  creature,  ever  get  there?  No!  My  strength  will  give  out  and 
I  will  lose  my  way!"  But  the  mother  encouraged  her:  "Just  fly, 
my  little  Darling ;  a  gorgeous  highway  leads  there  and  you  cannot 
miss  your  way."  The  bee  acquiesced,  flew  into  the  air,  and  soon 
reached  the  azure  sky.  She  passed  the  Moon  and  she  passed  the 
Sun,  flying  among  constellations  of  golden  stars  until  she  reached 
the  omnipotent  Jumala's  castle.  ( Jumala,  in  Finnish,  the  Supreme 
Creator  and  also  sky.) 


242  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

Here  the  balm,  made  of  the  health-giving  juices  of  flowers,  was 
waiting  for  her  in  golden  and  silver  vessels. 

"On  one  side,  heart-easing  honey, 
On  a  second,  balm  of  joyance, 
On  the  third,  life-giving  balsam. 
Here  the  magic  bee,  selecting.  .  .  ." 

The  faithful  bee,  collecting  only  the  best  from  all  the  urns,  put 
a  hundred  little  jars  into  her  lap  and  a  thousand  jars  on  her  back. 
Heavily  laden,  she  started  her  homeward  trip.  The  eager  mother 
happily  greeted  the  bee,  tasted  the  honey,  and  found  that  it  was 
the  right  compound.  Immediately,  she  rubbed  it  over  the  body 
of  her  dead  son  with  the  words:  "Wake  up,  my  son,  from  your 
deep  slumber;  get  up  from  your  sick-bed!" 

Lo  and  behold!  The  miraculous  honey,  for  which  the  bee  had 
flown  for  days,  worked;  the  blood  commenced  to  circulate,  the 
cheeks  became  flushed  and  Lemminkainen  raised  himself  and 
uttered  words.  So  the  faithful  little  bee,  which  had  made  the 
wearisome  trip  through  the  immeasurable  skies  to  secure  the  magic 
honey,  brought  back  life  to  the  dead. 

In  the  Kalevala  the  bee  is  glorified  by  one  of  the  most  appro- 
priate epithets  with  which  she  was  ever  honored,  namely,  "the 
bird  of  the  Universe." 

THE  SAVING  OF  CATTLE 

The  hostess  of  Northland  drove  her  cattle  daily  to  the  mead- 
ows. In  fear  of  the  mighty  bear,  the  honey-eater,  which  robbed 
her  of  the  best  cattle,  she  fetched  from  Heaven  a  cornucopia,  blew 
into  it,  and  soon  the  wide  pastures  were  covered  with  honey;  she 
begot  even  a  golden  well  filled  with  honey,  from  which  her  cows 
drank.  She  suggested  to  the  bear:  "Otso,  you  beloved  honey-paw, 
you  pride  of  the  woods,  here  you  are  now  lavishly  provided  with 
honey;  be  content  and  spare  my  cattle." 

"Thou  shalt  feed  on  milk  and  honey, 
Honey  is  the  food  of  strangers." 


THE    KALEVALA  243 

Otso  agreed  to  the  bargain  and  was  perfectly  satisfied.  From  that 
time  on,  the  herd  was  unmolested. 

THE  CURE  OF  DISEASES 
There  were  nine  diseases  in  Northland: 

"Colic,  Pleurisy  and  Fever, 
Ulcer,  Plague  and  dread  Consumption, 
Gout,  Sterility  and  Cancer." 

Wainamoinen,  "the  wise  and  wonderful  enchanter",  hastens  to 
his  people's  rescue. 

"Wainamoinen  heats  the  bathrooms, 
Heats  the  blocks  of  healing  sandstone 
With  the  magic  wood  of  Northland 
Gathered  by  the  sacred  river. 
Then  a  honey  heat  he  wakens, 
Fills  the  rooms  with  healing  vapors." 

Then  he  prays  to  Ukko,  the  Great  Spirit  of  Finland: 

"On  the  heated  blocks  of  sandstone 
May  the  water  turn  to  honey 
Laden  with  the  balm  of  healing. 
Send  us  mingled  rain  and  honey, 
Balsam  from  the  great  physician 
To  remove  this  plague  of  Northland." 

The  "eternal  wise  enchanter"  then: 

"Rubbed  his  sufferers  with  balsams 
Rubbed  the  tissues,  red  and  painful, 
With  the  balm  of  healing  flowers 
Balsams  made  of  herbs  enchanted." 


244  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

"The  eternal  wisdom  singer 
Thus  expelled  the  nine  diseases 
Healed  the  tribes  of  Kalevala 
Saved  his  people  from  destruction." 


THE  CREATION  OF  THE  DOG 

The  dog  was  created  by  the  virginal  fingers  of  the  purest 
maiden  of  Pohyola.  She  was  engaged  in  melting  virgin  honey, 
when  some  of  it  hardened  on  her  fingers  and  from  that  the  first 
dog  was  created.  It  was  a  neat,  sweet,  white-collared  creature  that 
did  not  bite  "in  the  very  least." 


CHAPTER    XX 

HONEY  IN  POETRY,  SYMBOLISM, 
EXPRESSIONS  AND  NAMES 


HONEY  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  works  of  all  poets 
and  writers,  especially  by  the  oriental  and  classical  writers. 
Honey  represented  to  them  all  things  that  are  sweet  and  pleasing 
to  the  palate,  to  the  mind  and  to  the  heart.  Honey,  like  the  bees, 
was  a  symbol  of  spirituality  and  also  of  poetic  inspiration;  it  was 
looked  upon  as  psychic  nourishment — the  food  of  the  saints,  car- 
ried by  the  bees  even  to  the  thrones  of  the  gods.  Metaphorical 
references  to  honey  are  found  in  innumerable  phrases,  names, 
proverbs,  and  symbols  j  to  all  intents  and  purposes  alluding  to  its 
many  noteworthy  characteristics.  Honey  and  the  hive  shared  in 
popularity.  Honey  and  the  sting  of  the  bee  were  often  contrasted. 

Bees  were  called  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  Birds  of  the 
Muses.  The  golden  bees  were  supposed  to  have  gathered  honey 
for  the  poets  on  thyme-covered  Mount  Hymettus  to  sweeten 
their  verses. 

Hindu  poetry  is  literally  drenched  in  honey.  Madhukara 
(honeyborn)  had  three  meanings:  bee,  lover  and  moon.  There  are 
many  romantic  Hindu  tales  associated  with  honey. 

In  the  Rig-Veda: 

"My  tongue  hath  honey  at  the  tip,  and  sweetest  honey  at  the  root. 
Thou  yieldest  to  my  wish  and  will,  and  shalt  be  mine  and  only  mine. 
My  coming  in  is  honey  sweet,  and  honey  sweet  my  going  forth ; 
My  voice  and  words  are  sweet:  I  fain  would  be  like  honey  in  my  look 
Around  thee  have  I  girt  a  zone  of  sugar-cane  to  banish  hate 
That  thou  may'st  be  in  love  with  me,  my  darling,  never  to  depart." 

24S 


246  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

In  Hindu  mythology  all  delightful  endowments  were  symbol- 
ized by  honey.  When  mem-sahib  (woman)  was  forged  by 
Twasktrie,  the  Hindu  Vulcan,  he  mixed  a  little  honey  in  the  raw 
material.  The  ingredients,  by  the  way,  were  the  following:  The 
buoyancy  of  the  leaves,  the  velvety  gloss  of  the  fawn,  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  sun's  rays,  the  tears  of  the  mist,  the  inconstancy  of 
the  winds,  the  trepidation  of  the  hare,  the  vanity  of  the  peacock, 
the  softness  of  the  dawn  on  the  throat  of  the  swallow,  the  hardness 
of  the  diamond,  the  sweetness  of  honey,  the  cruelty  of  the  tiger, 
the  warmth  of  fire,  the  chill  of  snow,  the  chatter  of  the  jay,  and 
the  cooing  of  the  dove.  From  these  components  he  created 
Woman  and  presented  her  to  man.  (Evidently,  with  a  bountiful 
spirit  of  giving  "something  to  remember  me  by.") 

According  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  honey  possessed 
the  magic  power  to  confer  the  genius  of  poetry  and  eloquence ;  in 
Hindu  mythology,  even  wisdom. 

The  deep  influence  which  honey  always  has  had  on  mankind  is 
demonstrated  by  the  innumerable  geographic  designations  which 
include  the  name  honey.  In  India,  Egypt,  the  Holy  Land;  Greece, 
Italy,  and  in  fact,  on  the  entire  European  Continent  and  in  Africa 
there  are  many  names  of  towns,  mountains,  lakes  and  rivers  which 
are  associated  with  the  word  honey. 

In  Greece  there  are  several  towns  called  Melita  or  Melite.  The 
classical  name  of  the  Island  of  Malta  was  Melita  (Sicilian  spell- 
ing). Melville,  means  honey-town;  Melrose,  honey-rose.  In 
Germany,  Austria,  Hungary  and  the  Slavic  countries  we  find 
innumerable  names  derived  from  bees  and  honey.  Dardanos,  a 
village  near  the  Strait  of  Dardanelles,  means  bee-town  (darda  in 
Turkish,  bee). 

In  England  there  are  Honington  (honey  farm)  in  Suffolk; 
Honeydon  in  Bedfordshire;  Honnington  and  Honiley  in  War- 
wickshire; Honeybourne  and  Honeybrook  in  Worcestershire. 
There  are  several  Clonmels  (honey-meadow)  in  Ireland. 

In  the  United  States: 


247 

Honey,  Mississippi  Honeycreek,  Iowa 

Honey,  North  Carolina  Honey  Creek,  Oregon 

Honey  Hill,  South  Carolina  Honeycreek,  Wisconsin 

Honey  Bend,  Illinois  Honeyford,  North  Dakota 

Honey  Creek,  Illinois  Honeygrove,  Texas 

Honeybrook,  Pennsylvania  Honey  Island,  Louisiana 

Honeygrove,  Pennsylvania  Honey  Lake,  California 

Honeycreek,  Indiana  Honey ville,  Oklahoma 
Honey  Falls,  New  York 

The  word  amber  also  seems  to  be  associated  with  honey.  It  was 
believed  that  amber  was  anointed  with  honey  (ambrosia).  Amber 
is  an  old  English  name  for  pitcher.  Amberstone  and  Honeycrock 
in  Sussex  are  adjoining.  In  Wiltshire  there  are  Ambresbury  and 
Mount  Ambrosius.  The  name  Melleray  (Brittany),  a  town  where 
the  Trappist  monks  established  an  abbey,  was  derived  from 
mellearium  (apiary).  The  good  old  Irish  name  Mahoney  is  prob- 
ably a  contraction  of  the  words  my  honey. 

Melos  (song),  Melpomene,  melodrama,  melody,  melon,  mel- 
low (rich  in  flavor),  mellifluous,  mellify,  etc.,  etc.,  are  derived 
from  the  root,  mel  =  honey.  "My  honey"  is  a  favorite  expression 
of  the  Southern  negro.  In  old  Latin  writings,  we  also  find  fuella 
mellita  (honey  girl).  Honey  boy  is  a  recent  acquisition.  The  verb 
honey  means  to  flatter,  cajole. 

The  expression  sardonic  laugh  also  originated  from  honey.  On 
the  Island  of  Sardinia,  there  is  a  plant  from  which  honey  is  col- 
lected by  the  bees  and  if  this  is  consumed  it  will  cause  a  grim, 
convulsive,  often  fatal  laugh. 

*  *  * 

There  are  many  legendary  myths  and  fairy  tales  which  glorify 
the  bees,  not  only  for  industry,  economy  and  the  political  perfec- 
tion of  their  state  but  especially  for  supplying  mankind  with 
heaven-born  honey.  James  Northcote's  fable,  The  Bee  and  the 
Ant,  is  a  typical  illustration.  "Violent  dispute  once  arose  between 
the  Bee  and  the  Ant,  each  claiming  superiority  for  prudence  and 


248  HONEY   AND    HEALTH 

industry}  and,  as  neither  of  them  would  give  up  the  point,  they 
agreed  to  refer  the  decision  of  the  great  question  to  the  decree  of 
Apollo,  who  was  fortunately  at  hand  tending  the  cattle  of  Adme- 
tus.  Accordingly,  approaching  the  god,  each  made  out  his  title  to 
preference,  with  all  the  eloquence  of  which  a  Bee  or  an  Ant  had 
ever  been  master.  Then  Apollo  gave  judgment  thus:  'I  consider 
you  both  as  most  excellent  examples  of  industry  and  prudence.' 
'You',  said  he,  addressing  the  Ant,  £by  your  care,  your  foresight 
and  your  labor,  make  yourself  ample  provision  in  time  of  need} 
thus  independent,  you  never  intrude  on  or  tax  the  labors  of  others 
for  helpj  but  recollect,  at  the  same  time,  that  it  is  yourself  alone 
that  you  benefit}  no  other  creature  ever  shares  any  part  of  your 
hoarded  riches.  Whereas  the  Bee  practices,  by  his  meritorious  and 
ingenious  exertions,  that  which  becomes  a  blessing  to  the  world. 
Therefore  I  must  give  judgment  in  favor  of  the  Bee." 

MISCELLANEOUS  PROVERBS 

Honey  sometimes  turns  sour.  (The  end  of  good  luck.) 

The  diligence  of  the  hive  produces  the  wealth  of  honey. 

A  drop  of  honey  will  not  sweeten  the  ocean. 

Don't  have  honey  watched  by  a  bear  (make  a  goat  the  gardener). 

If  you  want  to  gather  honey,  don't  kick  over  the  beehive.  (Abra- 
ham Lincoln.) 

Honey  young,  wine  old. 

Every  bee's  honey  is  sweet. 

Honey  you  swallow,  gall  you  spit. 

If  you  are  too  sweet,  the  bees  will  eat  you. 

Make  honey  out  of  yourself  and  the  flies  will  devour  you  (Cer- 
vantes— Don  Quixote.  II.  43.) 

Where  there  is  honey,  the  bears  come  uninvited. 

The  bear  dreams  of  honey. 

To  your  own  honey  the  devil  puts  one  spoon ;  to  strange  honeys, 
two  spoons. 

Luxury  has  honey  in  her  mouth,  gall  in  her  heart,  and  sting  in 
her  tail. 


HONEY  IN   POETRY,  SYMBOLISM,   EXPRESSIONS  AND  NAMES     249 

Where  bees  are,  there  is  honey. 

Where  a  bee  sucks  honey,  the  spider  sucks  poison. 

A  still  bee  gathers  no  honey.  Old  bees  yield  no  honey.  Dead  bee 

maketh  no  honey. 
No  bees,  no  honey;  no  work,  no  money. 
Who  is  afraid  of  the  sting  never  earns  honey. 
If  you  love  honey,  don't  fear  the  sting. 
Honey  is  not  far  from  the  sting. 

Who  collects  honey  and  roses  must  bear  the  stings  and  the  thorns. 
Wit  is  honey  lent,  without  the  sting.  (Tennyson.) 

The  following  are  some  of  the  many  foreign  sayings  and  prov- 
erbs associated  with  honey: 

LATIN 

Where  there  is  honey,  there  are  bees.  (Ubi  mel,  ibi  apes)  Plautus. 
Deadly  poisons  are  concealed  under  sweet  honey.    (Impia  sub 

dulci  melle  venena  latent.)  (Ovid — Amorum  I.  8.) 
Where  honey,  there  is  gall.  (Ubi  mel,  ibi  fel.)  This  was,  by  the 

way,  the  favorite  saying  of  Martin  Luther. 
Honey  in  mouth,  sting  in  tail.  (In  ore  mel,  in  caude  aculeum 

habet.) 

GERMAN 

Who  shares  honey  with  a  bear,  gets  the  least  of  it. 

Honey  is  not  meant  for  an  ass. 

Honey  is  too  good  for  the  bear. 

Honey  is  sweet,  but  the  bee  stings. 

Bees  have  honey  in  their  mouths,  but  stings  in  their  tails. 

Bees  bring  honey,  honey  brings  bees. 

FRENCH 

A  drop  of  honey  catches  more  flies  than  a  barrel  of  vinegar. 
A  little  gall  spoils  a  great  deal  of  honey. 


25O  HONEY    AND    HEALTH 

A  honey  tongue  and  a  heart  of  gall.  (Bouche  de  miel,  coeur  de 

fiel.) 
Who  deals  with  honey  will  sometimes  be  licking  his  ringers. 
Who  has  no  honey  in  his  pot — let  him  have  it  in  his  mouth. 
It  is  dearly  bought  honey,  that  is  licked  off  a  thorn.  (Cher  est  le 

miel  qu'on  leche  sur  epines.) 

SPANISH 

Michael,  Michael,  you  have  no  bees  and  yet  you  sell  honey. 

ITALIAN 

Rub  yourself  with  honey  and  the  flies  will  eat  you.  (Fatevi  miele, 
che  le  mosche  vi  mangieramo.) 

RUSSIAN 

If  you  make  a  honey  barrel  out  of  yourself,  everybody  wants  to 
eat  you. 

ARABIAN 

Honey  in  the  hive  of  good  fortune  quickly  sours. 
A  lazy  man  is  never  fed  on  honey. 
Lick  up  the  honey  and  ask  no  questions. 

CHINESE 

Bees  make  honey  and  men  eat  it. 

When  the  nest  is  destroyed  others  get  the  honey. 

PERSIAN 

Honey  is  a  wonderful  substance  but  it  does  not  help  the  dead. 
(Sadi.) 


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INDEX    OF   AUTHORS 


Abd'  Allatif,  233 

Abraham  a  St.  Clara,  124 

Abulfeda,  I.,  84 

Aelian,  88,  143 

Aeschylus,  229 

Aetius,  89 

Allen,  J.  T.,  181 

Ameiss,  F.  C,  109 

Anacreon,  66,  150,  212 

Antichus,  66 

Archangelsky,  142 

Arima,  R.,  105 

Aristophanes,  150 

Aristotle,  38,  125,  208,  231 

Aristoxenus,  89 

Atheneus,  67 

Aughinbaugh,  W.  E.,  118,  119 

Bacon,  R.,  67,  77 
Bacon,  Sir  F.,  78,  82 
Baldwin,  Sir  H.,  139 
Balfour,  P.,  127 
Banting,  F.  G.,  41,  139 
Barnard,  H.  E.,  139 
Bartley,  E.  H.,  57,  58 
Barton,   114,   144 
Bennett,  A.  W.,  23 
Bergheim,  31 
Beszedits,  D.,  109 
Bevan,  E.,  124,  137 
Beveridge,  J.,  114 
Blattner,  119 
Blosser,  R.,  58 
Bock,  H.,  91 
Boerhaave,  68 
Borelli,  67 
Boswell,  131 
Browne,  C.  A.,  103,  104 
Brugsch,  163,  224 
Brunich,  Ch.,  120 
Bryant,  W.  C,  179 
Buchheister,  H.,  119 
Buffon,  78 
Bunge,  von,  48,  54 
Burns,  R.,  12 
Burroughs,  J.,   192 
Busch,  W.,  195 

Butler,  Ch.,  25,  46,  90,  91,  117,  12! 
132 


Caillas,  A.,  31,  33 

Calvin,  222 

Cato,  12 

Celsus,  87,  88 

Cervantes,  248 

Charlemagne,  171 

Chaucer,  125,  215 

Chester,  Sir  W.,  45 

Cicero,  167,  223 

Clement,  A.  L.,  31 

Coleridge,  26 

Columella,  189,  192,  232 

Cornaro,  L.,  67,  79,  80,  81,  82 

Cowan,  Th.  W.,  69 

Craig,  J.  D.,  62 

Cranach,  L.,  212 

Crawford,  J.  M.,  237 

Crow,  C,  24 

Dadant,  Ch.,  69 
Davidov,  A.  Y.,  no,  in 
Davis,  T.  M.,  29 
Deeks,  W.  E.,  53 
Demetrius,  195 
Democritus,  67,  231 
Dennig,  60 
Descartes,  10 
Diophanes,   146 
Dioscorides,  87,  91,  113 
Douglas,  N.  89 
Dryden,   130 
Duke,  141 
Diirer,  A.,  212 
Dutcher,  A.,  3 1 
Dzierzon,   69 

Edwardes,  T.,  73,  123,  129,  131,  168, 

192 
El,  Basry,  88 
Eliot,  J.,  176 
El  Madjoussy,  89 
Elser,  E.,  35 
Emerick,  L.  R.,  in 
Empedocles,  214 
Emrich,  P.,  52 
English,  C.  H.,  99,  139 
Euripides,  150,  213,  229 

,      Faber,  H.  K.,  31 

Farnsteiner,  34 
263 


264 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS 


Fiehe,  34 

Finke,  56 

Finlay,  W.  L.,  61 

Fletcher,  H.,  82 

Flood,  R.  G.,  51 

Fordyce,  G.,  7 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  7,  78,  153,  154 

Fraser,  H.  M.,  143 

Frisbie,  W.  S.,  147 

Galen,  49,  67,  77,  87,  88,  99,   117, 

118,  132,  140 
Gallus,  175 
Gardiner,  J.,  45 
Garencieres,  Th.,  45,  46 
Goldsmid,  E.,  63 
Goss,  R.  J.,  in 
Gregory,  St.,  201 
Gundel,  M.,  119 

Haeckel,  63 

Haggard,  H.  W.,  62 

Haller,  65 

Harris,  S.,  52,  53 

Harrison,  W.,    175 

Hawk,  Ph.  B.,  31,  139 

Haydak,  M.  H.,  48 

Heermann,  A.,  101 

Hennepin,  38 

Herodotus,  94,  146,  174,  232 

Herondas,  94 

Hesiod,  10,  230 

Hippocrates,  66,  78,  87 

Holmes,  O.  W.,  16,  56 

Homer,  49,  59,  166,  210,  215,  223, 

229,  230,  232 
Hood,  227 
Horace,  150,  214 
Hoyle,  E.,  31 
Huber,  F.,  69 
Hufeland,  67,  68,  78 
Hutchinson,  141 
Huxley,  Th.,  223 

Ibn  Magih,  85 

Iches,  L.,  31 

Irving,  W.,  178,  192 

Johnson,  S.,  1 1 
Josephus,  205 
Joslin,  E.  P.,  138 


Kalidasa,  210,  213 
Kellen,  T.,  160,  163 
Kellogg,  J.  H.,  139 
Kerley,  Ch.  G.,  56,  57 
Klemperer,  47 
Kneipp,  S.,  70,  98 

Laborde,  J.  M.,  31 
Lane,  Sir  A.,  99 
Langstroth,  L.  L.,  69 
Leete,  56 
Le  Goff,  53 
Leib,  C.  W.,  41,  139 
Leyden,  112 
Liebig,  J.,  22 
Lohr,  1 1 9 

Longfellow,  178,  237 
Lonnrot,  E.,  236 
Lorand,  A.,  97,  98,  139 
Lucian,  230 
Lucke,  H.,  119 
Lucretius,  87 
Luther,  M.,  249 
Luttinger,  P.,  50,  139 
Lycus,  67 

Macmillan,  H.,  113 
McCann,  A.  W.,  136 
McCollum,  E.  V.,  35,  42 
McGrew,  G.  D.,  102,  103 
Magnus,  J.,  127 
Mann,  H.,  6 
Manuel,  Don  J.,  91 
Marcellus,  87,  118 
Marco  Polo,  38 
Marnix,  van  F.,  202 
Martial,  143,  149,  160,  209 
Massilia,  171 
Mendoza,  Codex,  176 
Menzel,  160 
Merl,  Th.,  34 
Mildmay,  Th.,  45 
Miller,  C.  C,  69 
Milton,  J.,  3 
Montelle,  M.,  177 
Montesquieu,  14 
Moschus,  212 
Muffet,  88,   128 
Muir,  J.,  179,  180 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS 


265 


Nepos,  Cornelius,  232 
Niebuhr,  188 
Northcote,  J.,  247 

Obermaier,  161 
O'Gorman,  M.  W.,  50 
Oribasius,  89 
Osier,  Sir  W.,  43 
Ossian,  219 
Ovid,  143,  21  Ij  249 

Paracelsus,  69 

Pare,  Ambroise,  233 

Parkinson,    1 13 

Parks,  H.  B.,  182-186 

Paul  of  Aegina,  89 

Pausanias,  94 

Penrose,  218 

Philippi,   Dr.,   5 

Phillips,  E.  F.,  33,  186,  187 

Philo,  205 

Phytheas,   160,   171 

Pindar,  223 

Plato,  209,  223 

Plautus,  249 

Pliny,  15,  26,  27,  37,  66,  67,  72,  73, 

88,  89,  123,  132,  143,  167,  171, 

189 
Plutarch,  209,  210,  216,  229,  232 
Porphyry,  88,  209,  215 
Purchas,  S.,  87 
Pythagoras,  66,  78,  89 

Quintillian,  146 

Ransome,  Hilda  M.,  203,  235 
Reepen,  H.,  115 
Reinhart,  J.  F.,  101 
Remnant,  R.,   117 
Rhodius,  Apoll.,   125 
Roach,  J.,  91 
Rolleder,  A.,  52 
Root,  E.  R.,  138,  139 
Rosebery,  Earl  of,  12 

Sack,  A.,  119 
Sacket,  W.  G.,  139 
Sadi,  250 
Sala,  A.,  46 
Schacht,  97 


Seneca,  37 

Seyffert-Dresden,  60,  126 

Shakespeare,  125,  130,  1 38 

Sharp,  W.,  237 

Shuette,  H.  A.,  35 

Siculus,  D.,  214 

Smith,  31 

Socrates,  12,  69 

Sophocles,  77,  150,  200,  223 

Ssanjuk,  142 

Statius,  231 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  112 

Stover,  G.  H.,  141 

Strabo,  37,  232 

Sundberg,  35 

Syriac  Book  of  Medicines,  88 

Szent-Gyorgyi,  A.,  103,  m 

Telephus,  66 
Temple,  Sir  W.,  76,  82 
Tennyson,  249 
Terman,  56 
Theocritus,  212,  214 
Theodorows,  no 
Theophrastus,  37,  38,  214 
Thomas,  G.  N.  W.,  98,  139 
Thorley,  J.,  131 
Thuanis,  79 
Tibullus,  213 
Topelius,  Z.,  236 

Ullersberger,  115 
Ulloa,  Don,  178 

Van  Helmont,  22 

Varro,  38,  200 

Vigerius,  116 

Virgil,  94,  167,  213,  215,  223 

Voronoff,  S.,  45 

Warder,  J.,  131 
Waugh,  L.  M.,  55 
Weesen,  P.  E.,  52 
Wiley,  H.,  14,  44,  50,  146 
Williams,  L.,  139 
Willis,  Th.,  46 

Xenophon,   142,  164,  223 

Zaiss,  W.,  119 
Zenon,  189 


INDEX   OF   PROPER   NAMES 


Aaron,  84 

Abraham,  71 

Abyssinia,  225 

Achilles,  211,  232 

Aeneas,  215 

Aeneid,  94 

Aesculapius,  93 

Africa,  23,  54,  94,  126,  225,  231 

Agnes  of  Burgundy,  69 

Ahijah,  206 

Albuna,  77 

Alemannia,  189 

Alexander  the  Great,  38,  231 

Amalthea,  210 

Amazon,  196 

Ambrose,  St.,  84 

American  Association  of  Adult  Educa- 
tion, 4 

American  Bee  Journal,  117 

American  Honey  Institute,  44,  138, 
149 

Amor,  212,  213 

Anglo-Saxons,  43,  73,  127,  129,  168, 
170,  222 

Anthony,  St.,  8,  77 

Antophilus,  194 

Aphrodite,  213 

Apollo,  213,  234,  248 

Arabia,  10,  38,  51,  54,  86,  94,  1 50, 
231 

Argentina,  178 

Argonauts,  125 

Aristobulos,  232 

Artemis,  205,  211,  228 

Asclepiades,  77 

Assyria,  162,  164,  201,  220,  231,  232 

As  wins,  216 

Athens,  12 

Attica,  86,  166 

Attila,  77,  174,  218,  219 

Australia,  23,  26,  114,  162,  176,  178 

Austria,  174,  190 

Babylon,  126,  162,  164,  201,  220, 
222,  231 


Barberini,  204 

Bavaria,    II,   132 

Bee  Mountain,  182 

Bible,  22,  48,  56,  59,  60,  66,  68,  71, 

76,  83,  84,  90,   146,   159,  204, 

205  if.,  224 
Birmingham,   1 70 
Black  Forest,  26 
Bowels,  J.,  75 
Brazil,  23,  38,  178 
Buddha,  10 
Burma,  234 
Bushmen,  21 1 

Caledonians,   219 

California,  59,  147,  150,  179,  180 

California   Fruit   Growers'   Exchange, 

44 
Canada,  28 
Canary  Islands,  38 
Cape  Cod,  180 
Carmelites,   1 1 
Cam,  Th.,  74 

Catherine,  Countess  of  Desmond,   74 
Caucasus,  222 
Cave  up  Blanco,  183 
Cecrops,  189 
Ceres,  213 

Charlemagne,  171,  194 
Charon,  230 
Chile,  5,  178 
China,  7,  24,  37,  38,  83,  86,  1 1 7,  1 26, 

155,  165,  166,  220 
Christ,  51,  60,  84,  198,  221 
Circe,  230 
Confucius,  10 
Consist,  F.,  75 
Corsica,  143,  173 
Crete,  38,   143,  210 
Cronos,  209 
Cuba,  177 

Cuevas  de  la  Arana,  161 
Cupid,  211,  212,  213 
Cyprus,  24,  38 
Czartan,  P.,  77 


266 


INDEX    OF    PROPER    NAMES 


267 


Damme,  Th.,  75 
Daudon,  73 

David,  St.,  77,  90,  207 
Davis  Mountains,  184 
Deborah,  205 
Dedalus,  214 
Diana,  212 
Diomedes,  49 
Dionysus,   194,  213 
Druids,  130,  168 
Du  Barry,  155 
Dumoulin,  D.,  97 

Eccleston,  75 

Eckardt,  E.,  100 

Eddas,  86,  125,  219 

Edward  I.,  234 

Egypt,  10,  11,29,  38,  83,  86,94,  150, 
156,  163,  164,  188,  189,  206, 
215,  216,  220  ff.,  228,  229,  231 

Eliot,  John,  176 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  45,  128 

Ellis,  W.,  75 

Epimenides,  73 

Eros,  212 

Eskimos,  6,  55,  119 

Essenes,  72,  205,  210 

Ethiopia,  26,  38,  201,  237 

Evans,  W.,  75 

Exultet  Rolls,  203,  204 

Finland,  221,  222,  226,  236 

Florida,  25,  177,  191 

Foster,  M.,  75 

France,  25,  131,  132,  173,  190 

Frauenfelder  Sanitarium,   51,  52 

Frithiof  Saga,  122 

Gabriel,  84 

Gallas,  225 

Gama,  Vasco  de,  193 

Garden,  P.,  75 

Gatinais,  25 

Georgics,  167 

Germany,    10,   47,   59,  60,   61,    100, 

115,    119,   150,    171,    190,    193, 

194,  220,  222 


Gandhi,  Mahatma,  82 

Glaucos,  234,  235 

Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  60,  98,  99, 

138 
Grantham,  170 
Grasse,  25 
Great  Britain,  45,  73,  124,  131,  167, 

168,  170,  172 
Greece,  10,  38,  59,  73,  86,  94,  116, 

123,    124,    125,    126,    150,    162, 

166,  189,  190,  213,  220,  222 

Hades,  230 

Headley,  L.  C,  49 

Hebrews,  13,  71,  84,  1 37,  204,  205, 

206,  220,  222 
Hecate,  228 
Henry  II,  233 
Hermes,  230 
Hermippus,  63,  68 
Herod,  232 
Hertel,  Ethel,  60 
Hiawatha,  178,  237 
Hieron,  223,  224 
Hindus,  165,  202,  210,  211,  213,  216, 

222,  224,  245 
Holinshed's  Chronicles,  175 
Holland,  173 
Hottentots,  202 
Hrothgar,  125 
Hunding,  127 
Hungary,  24,  94,  103,  1 50,  174,  1 75, 

227,  236 
Hutland,  L.,  76 
Hybla,  Mt.,  24,  113,  143 
Hymettus,   Mt.,    24,    143,    166,    223, 

245 

Iliad,  166,  232 

India,  7,   38,   83,   86,   89,   117,   162, 

164,  1 88,  220 
Indra,  216 
Iranians,  222 
Ishmael,  71 

Jacob,  71 
Jamaica,  20 


268 


INDEX    OF    PROPER    NAMES 


Jenkins,  H.,  74 

Jeroboam,  206 

Jerome,  St.,  201 

John,  the  Baptist,  203 

Jonathan,  84 

Joseph,  71 

Joseph  and  Arsenath,  201 

Joshua,  71 

Jupiter,  27 

Justinian,  231 

Kalevala,  236 

Kama,  212,  213 

Kenneth,  the  Conqueror,  112 

Kentigern,  75 

Koran,  83  ff.,  89 

Krishna,  165,  216 

Kubla  Khan,  26 

Languedoc,  25 
Liafsburg,   86 
Lindgar,  St.,  86 
Lithuania,  124 
L'Marr,  P.,  79 
Lohengrin  saga,  196 
Longueville,  de,  76 
Lorsch,  202 
Lucanor,  El  Conde,  91 
Luckner,  Count,  100 
Lullius,  Raimundus,  90 
Liineburger  Heide,  172,  191 
Lusitania,  62 

Maba,  196 

Macfadden,  Bernarr,  70 
Madeira,  38 
Madison,  Helene,  60 
Malta,  24 
Mainnannan,  169 
Marguerite  of  Navarre,  155 
Meissen,  127,  171 
Meliponae,  26,  176 
Melitta,   209 
Menelaus,  166 
Menelik,   no 
Mercury,  27 
Methuselah,  76,  77 


Mexico,  162,  176,  177 
Mississippi,  38,  1 00,  190 
Mohammed,  10,  84,  85,  229 
Moldavia,  137 
Morocco,  225 
Moses,  10,  71,  84,  224 
Mount,  J.,  75 
Muses,  223,  245 

Napoleon,  43 

Narbonne,  25 

Narcissus,  St.,  77 

Nazis,  11,16 

Nearchus,  38 

Nebuchadnezzar,  201 

New  Zealand,  178 

Niebelungen,  125,  126,  171,  217,  218, 

236 
Norway,  5 
Nubia,  38 

Nueces  canyon,  185 
Numas  de  Cugna,  77 
Nuremberg,  194 

Odin,  211,  217,  218,  219 
Odyssey,  166,  232 
Olympus,  Mt.,  223 
Onomocritus,  73 
Ophir,  62 
Orpheus,  215 
Owen,  Sir,  75 

Palestine,  10,  32,  205,  208 

Pan,  214 

Panama,  41 

Papal  ius,  77 

Papyrus  Ebers,  49,  85,  164 

Paradise,  5,  84,  219 

Parr,  Th.,  74 

Patrick,  St.,  77 

Patten,  M.,  75 

Paul,  the  Hermit,  77 

Pericles,  166 

Persia,  24,  83,  86,  162,  201,  202,  220, 

231,  232 
Peru,  162,  178,  202 
Phoenicians,  126,  168,  220 


INDEX    OF    PROPER    NAMES 


269 


Piast,  76 

Pluto,  215 

Poland,  76,  129,  175,  221,  225 

Polydos,  234,  235 

Ponce  de  Leon,  64 

Pontus,  88,  143 

Poppea,  155 

Proserpina,  213 

Psyche,  196 

Radaloy,  D.,  75 

Rakian,  197,  198 

Rhea,  209 

Rhodes,  38,  226 

Rig- Veda,  164,  216,  245 

Roman   Empire,    86,    166,    168,    194, 

213,  215,  222,  245 
Rome,   10,   150,   155,   156,   162,  220 
Ronsey,  J.,  75 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  44 
Rovin,  J.,  77 
Rudolph  I,  69 
Rumilius,  Pollio,  66 
Russia,  23,   129,   132,  175,  190,  231 

Samson,  207 

Samuel,  60 

Sands,  J.,  76 

Saracens,  38 

Sarah,  71 

Sardinia,  67,  143 

Satyrs,  194 

Saul,  90 

Scandinavia,  125,  217,  218 

Scotland,  ill,  131,  170,  190,  222 

Sevigne,  du,  155 

Shelton,  179 

Siberia,  23 

Sicily,  24,  38 

Skovbo,  J.,  160 

Slavs,    86,   94,    118,    124,    150,    175, 

213,  220,  221,  222 
Solarville,  M.,  77 
Solomon,  16,  83,  140,  168,  207 


Sorel,  Agnes,  155 
South  America,  26,  177 
Spain,  38,  131,  156,  161,  173 
St.  Domingo,  38 
Switzerland,   120,   1 60,   161 

Talmud,  83,  117,  206 
Taylor,  J.,  76 
Texas,  181  ff. 
Thelmessos,  233 
Tiresias,  73 
Titans,  209 
Torton,  P.,  75 
Transylvania,   161 
Trigonae,  26,  176 
Turkey,  54 

Ukraine,  137 
Ulysses,  230 
Undine,  196 
United  States  of  America,  7,  25,  41, 

42,  56,  92,  94,   136,   137,   148, 

154,  176,  177,  178,  191,  208 
U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agriculture,  30,  42,  44, 

152 
United  States  Pure  Food  Law,  33,  145, 

146,  147 
United  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Schools,  4 
University  of  Chicago,  4 
Urban  VIII,  202 

Valhalla,  218 
Valkyries,  218 
Victoria,  Queen,  112 
Vishnu,  216 

West  Indies,  19,  38 
Winsloe,  Th.,  75 

Ygdrasil,  211 
Ymir,  211 

Zarathusthra,  230 

Zeus,  72,  209,  210,  213,  215,  223 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS 


Ale,  honey-  169,  170 

Amber,  5,  160,  247 

Ambrosia,  166,  209 

American  folklore,  92,   182  ff. 

Animals  fed  on  honey,  49 

Antisaccharites,  46 

Bees 

fossil,  5,  160 

history  of,  159 

preadamitic,  159 

stingless,  25,  26,  162,  175,  176 

Bee-woman,  196,  197 

Beor,  155,  170 

Birth  rites,  222 

Blood  sugar,  61,  107 

Candy  poisoning,  55  ff. 

Cane-sugar,  see  artificial  sugars 

Death  ceremonials,  229,  231 

DIET 

Common  sense  in,  9,  10,  1 1  ff.,  16 
Disputes  in  dietetics,  4,  8,  12 
-  Influence  of,  6 
Knowledge  of,  4,  7 
Problem  of  society,  6,  1 1 
Primitive  man,  5,  7,  19,  65,  159 
Cultural  races,  1 1 
Various  stages  of  life,  9 
Quality  of  food,  4,  6,  8,  16 
Quantity  of  food,  12,  14 
Protein,  7,  9,  16,  21,  63,  143 
Meat,  5,  6,  13,  23,  24 
Carbohydrates,  7,  8,  9,  1 6,  1 7,  2 

31,  61,   104 
Fat,  7,  8,  9,  16,  17 
Minerals,  7,  8,  9,  16 
Vitamins,  9,  16,  17,  31 
Fruits,  5,  8,  9,  10,  19,  53,  56 
Vegetables,  5,  6,  8,  9,  19,  53,  56 
Dairy  products,  6,  13,  48 
Milk,  13,  18,  22,  94,  152 
Fish,  6,  166 
Alcohol    and   stimulants,    6,    8,    1 

14,   19,   137,   152 
Hors  d'oeuvre,  13,  14 

Drip-cut  pitcher,  29,  135 

Embalming,  231  ff. 

Eucalyptus  honey,  114,  115 

Flour,  white,  42,  43 


1, 


Health,  see  medicinal  uses  of  honey 
Heather  ale,  112,  113 
Heather  honey,  1 1 1  ff . 
Hieroglyphs,  86,  162,  163 
HONEY 

Physical  Aspects,  22,  23 
Taste,  23,  30 
Color,  23,  30 
light,  30,  35 
dark,  30,  35 
Aroma,  23,  30 
Consistency  (specific  gravity),  23, 

30,  32 
Comb,  27 
Extracted,  27 
Strained,  27 
Granulated,  28,  29,  33 
Types,  23  ff. 
Chemistry  of,  28,  33  ff. 
Acidity,  34 
Calorie  value,  40,  149 
Hygroscopic  property,  28,  29,  33, 

36,  149,  154 
Invert  sugars,  21  ff.,  32 
dextrose,  20,  31  ff. 
levulose,  20,  31  ff. 
Sucrose,   32 
Dextrin,  32 
Enzymes,  17,  21,  22,  28,  31,  33, 

40 
Vitamins,  16,  31,  40,  43,  53,  58, 

94 

Mineral  content,  28,  34,  35,  36, 

52,  54>  94 
Oxidation,  17,  18,  62,  106 
Bee  venom  in  honey,  33,  34,  101 
Adulteration,  145  ff. 
Poisonous  honey,  142  ff. 
Home  Uses  of,  7 
Baking,  149,  150  ff. 

baclava,  150 

biscuit  de  Savoie,  152 

chalva,  150 

halva,  151 

lebkuchen,  150 

libum,  150 

ova  mellita,  150 

pain  d'epice,  150 

panis  mellitus,  150 


270 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS 


271 


placenta,  150 

rodgrod,  152 

rote  griitze,  152 

savillum,  150 

scribita,  150 

tourte  a  la  Frangipane,  152 

zampaglione,  152 
Beverages,  152 

conditum,  132 

hydromel,  see  mead 

mulsum,  59,  167 
Confectionery,  37,  150 

bar-le-duc,  153 

candy,  51  ff.,  150 

ice  cream,  149 

mi-tsao,  165 

preserves,  153 

sahm-sahm,  151 
Cooking,  149,  150 
Cosmetics,  155 

chafed  skin,  47,  155 

face,  96,  155 

freckles,   155 

growing  hair,  47,  88 

hands,   155 

honey  mint,   155 

honey  packs,  156 

sunburn,  155 
Tobacco,  154 

latuka,  126 
Medicinal  Uses  of,  83  ff. 
Ancient  therapeutics,  83  ff. 
Middle  ages,  90  ff. 
Modern  therapeutics,  92 

aphrodisiac,   89 

blood    reconstructive,    52,    91, 
IOO,   101 

diuretic,  87,  89,  91,  94 

energy  producer,    17,   21,   52, 
61,  83,  89,98,99,  102,  108 

expectorant,  87,  95,    100 

laxative,    33,   47,   51,  62,   86, 
88,  89,90,94,97,  149,  152 

popular  nostrum  83,  92  ff. 

restorative,  98,   134 

sedative,  96,  97,  132,  143 

sweetener,  93,  96 

arthritis,  45,  101 
bronchitis,  94 
cough,  94,  96 


diabetes,  41,  42,  45,  95,  96, 
104  ff. 

gastric  ulcers,  97,  98 

gravel  and  stones,  86,  88 

hay  fever,  102,  103 

heart  tonic,  70,  98,  99,  100 

influenza,  colds,  103 

kidney  ailments,  94 

obesity,  47,  102 

pneumonia,  98,  99 

protective  food,  94 

pulmonary  ailment,  91,  94 

throat  ailments,  26,  47,  95 

tuberculosis,    49,    51,    94,    95, 
96,   IOI,   102 

typhoid,  99 

worm  cure,  95,  99,  no 

enema,  99 
Nutritive  Value  of,  21,  47  ff. 
Infant  feeding,  49  ff. 
Children,  51  ff. 
Athletes  and  soldiers,  59  ff.,  98 
Longevity,  63  ff. 
Surgical  Uses  of,  116,  ff. 
Historical,  116 
Antiphlogistic  use,  118 
Antiseptic    effect,    47,    90,    91, 

117  ff.,  120 
Boils,  117,  120 
Burns,  117 
Carbuncles,  117,  120 
Diphtheria,    118 
Ear  troubles,  118,  120 
Eye  afflictions,  86,  87,  1 10,  1 16, 

117,  118 
Gout,  101 
Ointments,  117,  118,  119,  120 

balm  of  Gilead,  155 
Skin  diseases,  117,  120 
Ulcerations,  84,  87,  117 
Wounds,  84,  117,  119 
Honey  dew,  25,  26 
Honey  guide,   194 
Honey  War,  199 
Hunting  for  wild  honey,  192  ff. 

Insulin,  17,  107  ff. 

Kalevala,  236  ff. 

Manna,  206 

Marriage  ceremonies,  224 


272 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS 


MEAD,  122-133 

Origin  of  name,  124,  217 
Preparation  of  mead,  124,  128,  129 
Mead  makers,  130 
Medicinal  values  of,  116,  132,  133 
Types  of  mead,  1 22  ff. 

simple  mead,  122 

compound,  122 

vinous,  123 

athol  brose,  130 

athol  porridge,  131 

bochet,  129 

braggots,  128 

Canary  sack,  130 

corma,  131 

elixir  vitae,  64,  133 

hydromel,  132 

krupnik,  129 

lipez,  129 

mahogany,  131 

metheglin,  128,  1 30 

miodomel,  129 

misshu,  126 

morat,  129 

oenomel,  132 

omphacomel,  132 

oxymel,  132 

pigment,  129 

Queen  Elizabeth's  metheglin,  128 

rhodomel,  132 

sikaru,  126 

tetsch,  126 

thalassiomel,  123 

usquebaugh,  128 

zythus,  131 
Nordic  drink,  125 
Anglo-Saxon,  127,  129 
Slavic,  129 
India,  126 
Africa,  126 
Measures  for  honey,  169 
Melezina,  91 
Mummies,  232,  233 

as  medicine,  233 
Mythologies,  209 
Egyptian,  216 
Germanic,  218 
Greek,  209,  214,  215 
Hindu,  213,  216 
Nordic,  218,  219 
Roman,  211,212,213,215 
Slavic,  216,  217 


Nectar,  23,  25,  146,  166,  209 
Nutrition,  16  ff. 

obj  ect  of,  1 6,  1 7 

laws  of  Nature,  65 

optinum  nutrition,  22,  47 

Papyri,  Egyptian,  201 
Poetry,  245 
Pollen  in  honey,  27 
Prehistoric  times,  159  ff. 
Preserving  quality  of  honey,  153 
Price  of  honey,  147,  148 
Proverbs,  247  ff. 

Religion,  200  ff. 

sacrificial  offerings,  200,  229,  230 

baptism,  201 

blessing  the  bees,  202,  204 

valued  gift,  206 

prayers  for  honey  harvest,  202 
Runic  calendars,  125 

Saccharin,  44,  45 

Salt,  45,  105 

Salvemet,  91 

Sensitivity  to  honey,  135,  140,  141 

Skol,  218 

Spanish  cave  picture,  161 

Storing  honey,  29 

Sugar-cane,  19,  37,  38,  40,  86 

Sugars,  18  ff. 

natural,  3,  4,  7,  18,  19,  20,  31,  40, 
41,43,  54,61 

artificial,  19,  37,  38,  41,  42,  43,  45, 
46,  54  ff.,  57,  105,  107,  146, 
149 

history  of  refined  sugar,  37,  38 

manufacturing  of  refined  sugar,  40, 

41 

sugar   consumption    in    U.S.A.,    56, 
136,  137 
Superstitions,  220 
Sweets,  4,  13,  43 
Swiss  cave  dwellings,  16 
Symbolism,  245 

Tabes  anglica,  45 
Tiara  (papal),  202,  203 

Vinegar,  honey-,  133 
oxymel,  132,  133 

Waldhonig,  26 

Wandering  beekeepers,  188  ff. 

World  War,  137,  147,  172 


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