Dictionary of the world's commercial products, with French, German & Spanish equivalents for the names of the commercial products

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Cornell University Library
HF 1041.S6

Dictionary of the world's commerc a! pro

3 1924 013 803 907

Cornell University
Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924013803907

DICTIONARY OF THE
WORLD'S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

PITMAN'S

BUSINESS MAN'S

GUIDE

A Handbook for all
engaged in business

BY

j. A. Slater, B.A., LL.B. (Lond.)

SEVENTH EDITION.
Crown 8vo, 510 pages, 5/- net.

"An admirable specimen of
the new type of business instruc-
tion book The summarised

information . . is given with
great lucidity. . . . Can be heartily
recommended."— rA« Daily Mail.

PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SERIES.

DICTIONARY

OF THE

WORLD'S Commercial
Products

WITH FRENCH, GERMAN, & SPANISH
EQUIVALENTS FOR THE NAMES
OF THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

J. A. SLATER, B.A., LL.B. (Lond.)

OF THE mDDLE TEMPLE AND KORTH-EASTERN CIRCUIT, BARRISTER-AT-LAW

Author of " The Commercial Law of England,"
and " Pitman's Business Man's Guide,"

SECOND EDITION

London

Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.C.4

And at Bath, Melbourne and New York

PRiNtEO BY Sir Isaac Pitman

& Sons, Ltd.^ London, Bath,

Melbourne and New York

Cpi^isj

PREFACE

TO THE SECOND EDITION

THE object of the present volume is to give a list of the chief
commercial products ancj manufactures of the world, together
with a short description of each of them, and the names of the
countries or districts from which they are obtained. Full particu-
lars upon these matters can only be gained by consulting either
special books or works of an encyclopaedic nature ; but it is
believed that the present book may be useful as a handy work of
reference in connection with the teaching of commercial subjects,
and especially Commercial Geography, since the ordinary text-
books on that subject, when dealing with the products of a
country, do not go beyond an enumeration of these various
products, and leave the student absolutely ignorant of their
nature or kind. The addition of French, German, and Spanish
equivalents will, it is believed, render the volume of additional
use to those who are preparing for a commercial career.

The present (Second) Edition has been thoroughly revised.

DICTIONARY OF

THE WORLD'S COMMERCIAL

PRODUCTS

Abaca. (Fr. Abaca, Ger. Abaka,
Manillahanf, Sp. Abaca.)

A species of banana, also called
Manilla Hemp. A woody fibre is ob-
tained from the leaf stalks of the plant
by splitting them into long strips, and
these strips are then beaten with clubs,
washed, and dried. The coarser fibres
are used for the manufacture of cord-
age, and the finer for the production of
the most delicate Indian muslins. The
abaca is a native of the Philippine
Islands, and the Manilla Hemp is their
most considerable export.

Abietine. (Fr. Huile de pin, Ger.
Terpentinol, Sp. Abietino.)

A resinous substance — a hydro-
carbon — the product of distillation
obtained from the Pinus sabiniana, a
Califomian tree. It is useful for the
removal of grease spots, and as a
substitute for petroleum benzine.

Absinthe. (Fr. Absinthe, Ger. Wer-
mut, Sp. Ajenjo.)

A spirit produced by steeping the
leaves and flowering tops of certain
species of A rtemisia, chiefly wormwood,
and other aromatics in alcohol, and
subsequent distillation. The product
is a greenish coloured liquid. At first
used as a medicine in cases of fever,
absinthe has become a common bever-
age on the Continent. Its effects,
when taken in any quantity, are ex-
tremely deleterious, and the danger
arising from its use is largely increased
by the common practice of adultera-
tion, blue vitriol being sometimes found
in so-called absinthe. It is manufac-
tured principally at Couvet, in Switzer-
land, and at Pontarlier, in France.
It has also recently been made in the
United States.

Acajou. (Fr. Acajou, Ger. Acajou,
Mahagoni, Sp. Anacardo.)

The French name for mahogany,
though the name is really applicable
only to the fragrant wood of the Cedrela
brasiliensis. It is exported from
Brazil in logs of sixteen to eighteen feet

in length. From the nut of the acajou
a medicinal essential oil is obtained.
Acetal. (Fr. AcMal, Ger. Acetal,
Sp. Acetal.)

A colourless liquid with a pleasant
odour, and a flavour resembling that of
the hazel nut. It is produced by the
slow oxidation of alcohol under the
influence of dilute sulphuric acid and
peroxide of manganese. Its chemical
symbol is C2H4(OC3Hs)2. Specific
gravity -821 ; boiling point 105° C,
It is a valuable reagent in organic
chemistry.

Acetic Acid. (Fr. Acide acltique,
Ger. Essigsdure, Sp. Acido acMco.)

The principal ingredient of common
vinegar when diluted with water.
Pure acetic acid, which is a crystalline
solid at ordinary temperature, is
obtained by distilUng dry acetate of
potassium and sulphuric acid. Its
chemical symbol is C^Ufi,. Specific
gravity, 1-063 ; boiling point, 119° C.
When applied to the skin it causes
blisters to arise. It is sometimes used
as a caustic. The salts of acetic acid,
known as acetates, are important in
the arts, the best known being the
acetate or sugar of lead, and the
acetate of copper, or verdigris.

Acetic Ether. (Fr. Ether acHique,
Ger. Essigdther, Sp. Eter acitico.) •

Also called " ethyl acetate," a,
colourless liquid prepared by the
addition of a mixture of alcohol and
acetic acid to a mixture of alcohol
and sulphuric acid. The substance
has a pleasant fruity odour, and is
used for flavouring sweets, Avines,
perfumes, etc.

Acetylene. (Fr. AcHylene, Ger. Ace-
tylen, Sp. Acetylene.)

A colourless and rather heavy gas
with an unpleasant odour. It is a
powerful illuminant. It is made with
the greatest ease by the decomposi-
tion of carbide of calcium by means
of water. Acetylene gas is highly
explosive.

AOD]

world's commercial products.

[Ale

Aconite. (Fr. Aconit, Ger. Eisen-
hiitchen, Woljswurz, Sp. Aconito.)

A genus of plants of the order
Ranunculaceae. They are natives of
Europe, Asia, and North America, but
the woolly aconite, or monk's hood, is
probably a native of Britain. All
species have violent poisonous proper-
ties. In certain forms, however, a
tincture of the root is used medicinally
in cases of heart disease.

Aconitin. (Fr. Aconitine, Ger. Aco-
nitin, Sp. Aconiiina.)

An alkaloid contained in the leaves
of the monk's hood. It is one of the
most powerful poisons known. If ap-
plied to the skin it produces a tingling
followed by numbness, and on that
account it can be used with advantage
to allay pains caused by neuralgia and
rheumatism.

Aerated Waters. (Fr. Eaux airies,
Ger. Mineralwasser, Sp. Aguas
gaseosas.)

Waters artificially impregnated with
a large amount of carbonic acid gas,
and other gaseous substances, used as
beverages and medicines. The best
known is soda water, a water which
does not however, contain any soda.
Other varieties are seltzer, potass,
lithia water, lemonade, ginger ale, etc.

Agar-agar. (Fr. Agar-agar, Ger.
Agar-agar, Sp. Agar-agar.)

The name given to a gelatinous
substance extracted from a species of
seaweed abounding in the Eastern seas.
It is prepared by boiling the sea-weed
in water. In China and Japan agar-
agar is much used as a food, and is
sometimes known as Bengal or Japan-
ese isinglass. It is also used for dress-
ing various fabrics and paper, but the
quantity imported into Europe is very
small.

Agate. (Fr. A gate, Ger. A chat, A chat-
stein, Sp. Agata.)

A mineral composed of layers of
quartz, closely compressed and of
various colours. Silica enters largely
into its composition, and it also con-
tains a mixture of alumina and oxide
of iron. It is capable of being very
finely polished, and is much used in
the manufacture of ornaments. It is
found in considerable quantities in
Scotland, Saxony, India, and Siberia.
The agates found in Scotland are known
as Scotch pebbles.

8

Agave. (Fr. Agave, Ger. Agave,
Baumaloe, Sp. Agave.)

The name of a genus of plants, all
natives of Central America, of the order
Amaryllidacete. The best known
species is the Agave americana, com-
monly called the American Aloe. The
agaves have short stems, crowded at
the top with large leaves. Coarse
fibres are obtained from the leaves,
which are manufactured into thread,
twine, rope, hammocks, etc. This
fibre is sometimes called "pita flax."
Latterly it has been introduced into the
southern countries of Europe. The
juice obtained from the leaves has been
utilised as soap, and makes a lather
in salt as well as in fresh water. The
fermented juice is used by the Mexicans
as an intoxicant under the name of
" pulque."

Alabaster. (Fr. Albdtre, Ger. Ala-
baster, Sp. Alabastro.)

A mineral substance chiefly used for
ornamentation. It is a variety of
gjrpsum or selenite. It resembles
marble in its general appearance,
though it is softer than the latter
mineral. When freed from foreign
matter alabaster has a finely grained
structure, is pure white or of a deli-
cately tinted colour, and very trans-
parent. The best alabaster is pro-
cured from Volterra in Tuscany.
Other kinds are veined, striped, or
spotted, and these are used for making
statuettes and ornaments. A plentiful
supply is obtained in Derbyshire.
Since alabaster is somewhat soluble in
water it is not suitable for external
decoration, and as it is never found
in large pieces, the work in it is limited
to small articles.

Oriental alabaster is a stalactitic
carbonate of calcium, a variety of
marble. It is harder than ordinary
alabaster and is obtained chiefly from
Egypt.

Alcohol. (Fr. Alcool, Ger. Alhohol,
Sp. Alcohol.)

A colourless liquid with a burning
taste, and a slight but agreeable smell.
It is the characteristic ingredient in all
fermented drinks, giving them their
intoxicating quality. Though occur-
ring in nature in various plants, alcohol
is practically derived from two sources
only, viz., difierfent kinds-of sugar and

Ale]

WORLD'S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[All

Starch. If these substances are plenti-
fully mixed with water and then al-
lowed to ferment with yeast, grape
sugar is produced, and this can be
decomposed into alcohol and carbonic
acid. From the dilute solution thus
obtained alcohol can be partially
separated by distillation, but as alcohol
has a strong a£finity for water, it is
impossible to separate the two by
distillation alone — the strongest recti-
fied spirit thus obtained containing
between nine and ten per cent, of water.
To obtain pure or absolute alcohol the
rectified spirit must be treated with
quicklime and metallic sodium.

Pure alochol is inflammable smd
bums with a bluish flame. Its chemical
symbol is C2H5OH. Specific gravity,
•809 ; boiling point. 78°C. As it has
never been frozen, alcohol, coloured red
by means of cochineal, is used for
thermometers when it is necessary to
register low temperatures. In the arts
it is in great demand as a solvent of
resins and fats, and in the preparation of
VEUmishes. Owing to heavy duties, how-
ever, a mixture of alcohol and commer-
cial wood naphtha, called methylated
spirit, is very commonly employed.

Proof spirit is a mixture of alcohol
and water in the proportion of 49'5 and
50'5. If the spirit is stronger than
proof spirit it is said to be so many
degrees over proof (O.P.), and if it is
weaker than proof spirit, so many
degrees under proof (U.P.). Proof
spirit is very largely used in pharmacy
in the preparation of various tinctures.
Alewife. (Fr. Alose, Ger. Alse,
A lose, Sp. Alosa.)

Alosa tyrannus. A fish, closely re-
sembling the shad, which is obtained
in large quantities ofE the eastern coasts
of North America. In the United
States it is considered to be superior
to the herring. There is a large trade
in the export of this fish in a salted
state from St. John's, New Brunswick,
to the West Indies,
Alfa. (Fr. Alfa, Ger. Alfa, Sp. Alfa.)
Otherwise Haifa. One of the varie-
ties of esparto — ^for which it is the
Arabic name — the stalks of which are
extremely valuable for paper making.
It grows in Algiers, Tunis, and Spain,
though the first named country sup-
plies the greatest quantity, and exports
it largely to England. (See Esparto). \

Algaroba. (Fr. Algarobie, Ger. Al-
garoba, Sp. Algarroha.)

This is the Spanish name for the
sweet pods of the Prosopis dulcis. The
pods are used for feeding cattle in
Mexico, and also for purposes of tan-
ning. The A Igaroba glandulosa of Arkan-
sas provides a gum, by an incision made
in its bark, which in many respects
resembles gum arable.

Alizarine. (Fr. Alizarine, Ger, Alt-
sarin, Krappfarbstoff, Sp. AUzarino.)

The colouring matter used in the
dyeing of Turkey red. It was oiigin-
aUy found in the madder root, but it is
now chiefly obtained from anthracene.
The latter industry has developed so
rapidly within the last generation
that the cultivation of the madder root
in Europe has been practically des-
troyed. The production of alizarine
was for a long time almost a German
monopoly. Its chemical symbol is
C^HeO, (OH),.

Alkanet. (Fr. Orcanete, Ger. Al-
kanna, Sp. Anchusa.)

The name of the root of the Anchusa
tinctoria, cultivated in various parts of
southern Europe, and the Levant.
From this root a beautiful reddish
brown colour is obtained which is
soluble in oils, turpentine, and spirit,
and is very generally used by perfumers
for colouring oils, soaps, pomades, etc.
and in the composition of stains and
varnishes. Great Britain imports
nearly fifteen tons of alkanet every year.

Alligator Skins. (Fr. Peaux d'alli-
gator, Ger. Alligatorfelle, Sp. Cueros de
aligador.)

The hides of Mississipi alligators,
now largely used in America and
Europe for saddlery and leather goods.
As the alligator does not perspire, the
sMn is not perforated with holes like
the skins of land animals. The trade
has grown up within the last half
century. It is only the skins of young
alligators that can be easily utilised,
as those of the older ones are too hard
and horny to be of much value in
manufacture.

Alloys. (Fr. Alliages, Ger. Legier-
ungen, Alliagen, Sp. Ligas.)

The bodies resulting from the union
of two or more metals, a union brought
about almost invariably under the
influence of a high temperature. The
sole exception is presented by mercury.

All]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Aim

which attacks other metals when cold,
and unites with them so as to form
amalgams.

MetaUic alloys have properties of
'.heir own which do not depend so much
upon the metals of which they are
composed, as upon the proportions in
which the metals are mixed. In many
cases it is possible for an alloy to be
worked much more easily than pure
metal, and in others pure metal can-
not be used at all unless it is somewhat
changed by the addition of another
constituent. Gold and silver are good
instances. They are neither of them
hard enough for use as coins until a
small quantity of copper has been
added to them.

The principal alloys, with their
percentage compositions, are • —

Bronze Copper 95 Tin 5

Gun-metal ,, 90 ,, 10

Bell-metal „ 78 „ 22

Speculum-metal ,, 66 ,,34
Brass „ 64 Zinc 36

Aluminium-bronze ,, 90 Alu-
minium 10
German silver ,, 60 Zinc 20

Nickel 20
Pewter Tin 80 Lead 20

Type-metal „ 10 „ 70

Antimony, 20

Britannia-metal, varying proportions
of copper, zinc, tin, antimony,
and bismuth.

Allspice. (Fr. Piment, Get. Piment,
Nelken-pfeffer, Sp. Pimienta.)

The name commonly given to the
dried fruit of the Eugenia pimenta, or
Eugenia acris. It is also known as
Jamaica pepper and pimento, and is
obtained from the West Indies. The
name allspice is given to this substance
because it possesses the combined
flavour of several kinds of spices,
especially cinnamon, nutmegs, and
cloves.

Almond. (Fr. Amande, Ger. Mandel,
Sp. Almendra.)

A genus of the natural order Rosa-
ceae. The almond tree (Amygdalus
communis) is very similar to the peach.
It is a native of Africa, but is now
widely distributed. The wood of the
tree is hard and of a reddish colour,
and is much in request by cabinet
makers. But the almond tree is chiefly
valuable on account of the kernel of

its fruit. There are two kinds of
almonds — bitter and sweet. The former
is the original kind, the sweet being an
accidental variety, which has been
perpetuated and improved by cultiva-
tion. The chief kinds of sweet almonds
are the Valencia, the Italian, and the
Jordan, and these are imported in
large quantities into Great Britain
annually. They are used medicinally
as well as for dessert. Bitter almonds
are imported from Mogadore, in
Morocco. They are valuable for the
essential oil contained in them (the
oil being obtained by distillation), and
also for flavouring purposes. Great
care is required in the use of bitter
almonds, owing to the poisoning pror
perties which they possess. These
properties are very similar to those
of prussic acid.

Almonds, Essential or Volatile Oil
of. (Fr. Huile volatile d'amandes
ameres, essence d'amandes amires, Ger,
Bitteres Mandelol, Sp. Aceite amargo
de almendras.)

The amygdalin contained in bitter
almonds acting upon another consti-
tuent, emulsin or synaptase, causes
the formation of the essential or vola-
tile oil of almonds. The oil is obtained
from bitter almonds, when the cake
from which the fixed oil has been
extracted is steeped in water and sub-
mitted to distillation. The essential
oil then forms and comes over, and
consists of a mixture of several
substances, especially hydrocyanic acid
and benzoic acid. In commerce it is
a golden-yellow Uquid of an agreeable
smell, but bitter taste, and is extremely
poisonous. It is used by perfumers
for scenting soaps, and also for flavour-
ing purposes in cookery and con-
fectionery, when the prussic acid ele-
ment has been removed from it. The
oil can also be extracted in large
quantities from peach and apricot
kernels, and there is a large trade in
this business carried on at Damascus.
The chemical sjrmbol of the essential
oil is CfiHsCOH,

Almonds, Fixed Oil of. (Fr. Huile
d'amandes, Ger. Siisses Mandelol,
Sp. Aeeite de almendras.)

The oil obtained from either bitter
or sweet almonds when they are sub-
jected to pressure. One hundred-
weight of almonds will produce about

Alo]

WORLP S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Alu

SO lbs. of fixed oil. At first the oil
extracted is of a milky appearance, but
it quickly becomes of a yellowish
colour, and turns rancid after a short
exposure to the air. Its specific
gravity is '92, and it becomes solid at
— 20° C. It is composed almost en-
tirely of a mixture of glycerine and
oleic acid, called triolein. It is useful
in pharmacy, and forms a good
substitute for olive oil.

Aloe. (Fr. Aloes, Ger. Aloe, Sp.
Aloe.)

A plant of which there are nearly
two hundred species, most of them
being natives of South Africa, but now
widely spread. The fibres of the leaves,
being stronger than hemp, are used for
cords and nets by the negroes of West
Africa, and in Jamaica one species is
used for making stockings. From the
juice of the leaves of many species a
drug is obtained, known as aloes, which
is of much value in medicine. The
drug is found in various forms, but all
agree in possessing an extremely bitter
taste. Formerly the chief source of
the drug was Socotra, but it is now
imported from various parts of the
world.

The concentrated principle of aloes
is called " aloin."

Aloes Wood. (Fr. Bois d'aloes.
Ger. Aloeholz, Sp. Madera de aloe.)

Also called eagle wood. It is the
lign aloes of commerce, and is the
product of the Aquilaria agallocha, a
native of tropical Asia. Aloes wood
contains a fragrant resinous substance,
which is much used in the East as a
medicine and as a perfume.

Aloin.

(See Aloe.)

Alpaca. (Fr. Alpaga, Ger. Alpaca,
Sp. Alpaca.)

The long, silky, lustrous wool ob-
tained from the animal of the same
name (of the same genus as the llama),
largely bred and domesticated in Peru
and other South American States.
Each animal produces from 10 to 12
lbs. in weight of wool.

Alpaca became an article of com-
merce three-quarters of a century ago.
It is enormously used for the manu-
facture of shawls, coatlinings, cloth for
warm countries, umbrellas, etc. More
than .2,000,000 lbs. are imported
annually into Great Britiaih. The

chief seat of the manufacture is the
West Riding of Yorkshire, especially
Bradford and Saltaire.

Vicuna and guanaco are different
species of alpaca. The colour is of
various shades — black, grey, and
brown.

Alpiste. (Ger. Kanariensamen.)

The French and Spanish name for
canary seed.

Alum. (Fr. Alun, Ger. Alaun, Sp.
Alumbre.)

A crystalline compound composed
of sulphate of potash, sulphate of
alumina, and water, which unite and
form into octahedra or into cubes.
Its chemical symbol is K2SO4 AI2 3SO4
24H2O. It is a colourless substance of
a sweetish, astringent taste, and is
soluble in water. It is useful in medi-
cine as an astringent for the prevention
of haemorrhage. In commerce it is
employed in the manufacture of the
so-called lake colours, and it is valuable
as a mordant in dyeing processes. This
last mentioned property is owing to
the presence of alumina, which has a
strong attraction for textile tissues, and
also for colouring matters. Thus it is
the means of fixing colours in cloth.
Alum is often mixed with poor flour in
order to give a whiteness to bread.

Alum is obtained in large quantities
near Whitby, and in the neighbourhood
of Glasgow, in the shape of alum ore.
The consumption in England is more
than 700 tons each week.

Alumina. (Fr. Alumine, Ger. Alu-
min, Aluminiumoxyd, Sp. Alumina.)

The oxide of aluminium. It occurs
largely in nature, and in its pure state is
known as corundum. When alumina
is coloured with small quantities of
metalUc oxides it occurs as the sap-
phire, the ruby, and the topaz, in a less
pure state as emery, and when com-
bined with water as the mineral dias-
pore. It is valuable in commerce for
its properties in acting upon the fibres
of cloth, etc., as a mordant, and in
fixing colours.

SiUcate of alumina is the basis of
clay soils, and of many rocks
and minerals. The most important
aluminiferous minerals are felspars,
which also contain silicates of
potassium or sodium. By the gradual
action of air and water the rocks
crumble down, the felspar contained

Alu]

world's commerciai. products.

[Am«

in them splitting up into soluble
salts of potash and insoluble siUcate of
alumina. Difierent varieties of soils
have been formed by this disintegra-
tion.

Aluminium. (Fr. Aluminium, Ger.
Aluminium, Sp. Aluminio.)

A white metal found in clay, felspar,
slate, and other rocks. The most
convenient source of aluminium is
bauxite, a clay found at Les Baux
(France), which has replaced the
cryolite obtained from Greenland.
The metal is extremely light — its
specific gravity being only 2'5 — and
takes a high polish. It is used as
an alloy with most metals, but will not
amalgamate with mercury. It is
especially valuable in the manufacture
of mathematical and optical instru-
ments, where lightness and durability
are essential quaUties. It is also useful
for castings. Its great value has now
been recognised in the building of ships
and boats, particularly torpedo boats,
and owing to its present cheapness it
will certainly be appUed more and
more to metal manufactures.

Aluminium bronze is an alloy of
copper and aluminium — the latter to
the extent of about ten per cent. — and
is much used in the manufacture of
cheap jewellery.

Amadou. (Fr. Amadou, Ger. Ama-
dou, Zunderschwamm, Sp. Amadou.)

A preparation obtained from various
species of fungi which grow upon old
trees in Great Britain and on the
Continent. It is sometimes used as
tinder, but its chief value is as a stjrptic
in surgery. Soft amadou is sometimes
employed in the manufacture of
surgical pads. In Franconia the
inhabitants have discovered a method
of making a material resembUng cha-
mois skin from amadou, and this is
worked up into very warm garments.

Amalgams. (Fr. Amalgames, Ger.
Amalgam, Quickmetalle, Sp. Amal-
gamas.)

Under this name are included the
alloys which mercury forms with cer-
tain metals. Mercury combines easily
with lead, bismuth, zinc, tin, silver,
and gold, less easily with copper, and
not at all with iron, nickel, cobalt, and
platinum. It is on account of this
property which mercury possesses of
combining with most metals that it is

utiUsed for separating some metals
from their ores, especially gold and
silver. A solid amalgam of _ tin_ is
employed for the purpose of silvering
looking-glasses.

Amber. (Fr. Ambre, Ger. Bernstein,
Sp. Ambar.)

The fossil resinous exudation of cer-
tadn extinct species of conifers. Hard
and brittle, it varies in colour from pale
yellow to reddish-brown. It is gener-
ally transparent, though sometimes it
is found clouded and opaque. Amber
is mainly used for the manufacture of
personal ornaments, especially pipe
mouth-pieces, beads, etc., and is much
prized in the East. Though found in
small quantities in various parts of the
world, the greater portion of the mar-
ket supply is derived from the shores
of the Baltic, the annual value of the
amber obtained there being about
;£70,000. Its chemical symbol is
CioH,6 0.

Ambergris. (Fr. Ambre gris, Ger.
der graue Ambra, Sp. Ambar gris.)

A speckled grey fatty substance, so
called on account of its fancied re-
semblance to raw amber. It is gener-
ally beUeved to be an exudation of the
spermaceti whale, and is found floating
in the sea, or thrown up on the shores
of Greenland, China, Japan, the West
Indies, and Brazil. It has a peculiar
sweet, earthy odour. Its use is con-
fined to perfumery to increase the
fragrance of other perfumes. It is
extremely costly, its price varying from
£2 to £6 per ounce. Host of the
ambergris which is imported into Great
Britain comes from the Bahamas.

Amberite. (Fr. and Ger., Amber-
ite, Sp. Ambarite.)

The name given to a smokeless
powder which is mainly composed of
gun cotton, barium nitrate, and solid
paraffin.

Amboyna Wood. (Fr. Bois d'Am-
boyne, Ger. Amboynahols, Sp. Madera
de Amboyna.)

The beautiful Indian mottled wood
obtained from the Pterospermum indi-
cum. It is highly prized by cabinet
makers, andislargely used for inlajring.

Amethyst. (Fr. AmAhyste, Gvt.
Amethyst, Sp. Amatista, Amatiste.)

One of the most esteemed varieties
of quartz, and difiering from common
quartz by reason of its beautiful violet

Amm]

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[Ani

blue colour, which is caused by the
presence of peroxide of iron, or of man-
ganese. It is used for seals, rings, etc.
Owing to its abundance it is cheaper
than other gems. The finest specimens
are obtained from India, Ceylon, and
Brazil ; but the amethyst is common in
Europe, especially in many parts of
Scotland. A variety of the sapphire,
of a purple colour, is known as the
" oriental amethyst."

Ammonia. (Fr. Ammoniaque, Ger.
Ammoniak, Sp. Amoniaco.)

A gaseous compound of nitrogen and
hydrogen, the chemical symbol being
NH3. The gas is much lighter than air,
and has a characteristic suffocating
smell. It is extremely soluble in water,
and the strong solution is known as
liquor ammonia. Ammonia is a valu-
able reagent in chemical analysis, and
is used medicinally, both internally
and externally. Its salts are very
numerous and useful in commerce.
Sulphate of ammonia serves as a top-
dressing for farmers, and is frequently
mixed with other manures. Carbonate
of ammonia is valuable as smelling
salts, and its solution is known as "Sal
Volatile." Nitrate of ammonia is re-
solved into " laughing gas " and water.

Ammoniacum. (Fr. Gomme ammo-
niaque, Ger. Ammoniahgummi, Sp.
Goma amoniaca.)

A medicinal gum resin, valuable on
account ofits stimulating qualities. It
is a product of the Dorema Ammonia-
cum of Persia, and is obtained by
exudation.

Amontillado. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Amontillado.)

The name of a very pale and dry
sherry.

Amygdalin. (See Oil of Almonds.)

Anatto. (See Annatto.)

Anchovy. (Fr. Anchois, Ger. Sar-
delle, Sp. Anchoa, Anchova.)

A small fish of the herring family,
from two to eight inches in length. It
is very abundant ofi the Mediterranean
^ores, and a very large trade is carried
on in tinning anchovies at Cannes,
Frejus, and St. Tropez. Anchovies are
chiefly used in the preparation of
condiments.

Anchovy Pear. (Fr. Paired' anchois,
Ger. Birnsardelle,Sp. Perade anchoa.)

The fruit of a tree which grows
largely in Jamaica,'Jand which is used

in the manufacture of pickles. In
taste it bears a strong resemblance to
the mango.

Angora. (Fr. Chevre d'Angora, Ger.
Angora-Ziege, Sp. Cobra de Angora.)

The trade name of a breed of goats,
derived from the capital of a province
of Asia Minor. These goats have long
silky curling hair, of which mohair is
the principal. In Turkey the finest
garments are made of Angora wool.
Elsewhere it is chiefly used for trim-
mings, braids, and shawls. The chief
seats of manufacture in England are
Norwich and Bradford. Latterly a
species of Angora goat has been intro-
duced into and bred in the United
States, South Africa, and Australia
— especially Victoria — ^for the sake of
the wool. The supplies of Great Britain
Eire now mainly derived from the two
last-mentioned sources.

Angostura Bark. (Fr. &corced' An-
gostura de Columbie, Ger. Angostura-
rinde, Sp. Corteza de Angostura.)

Also called Cusparia Bark. It is
obtained from the Galipea cusparia and
Galipea officinalis, natives of the
tropical regions of South America.
The name is derived from Angostura,
in Venezuela, where it is an article of
considerable commerce. It is some-
times called true Angostura to distin-
guish it from false Angostura, which is
a poisonous product supplied by
strychnos nux vomica, and for which it
was sometimes mistaken with disas-
trous results. It is a valuable tonic in
dysentery and similar ailments, and is
also useful as a febrifuge. Its virtues
arise from the presence of a volatile
oil and bitter principle, the nature
of which is uncertain. In England its
use is confined to the preparation of
aperitive wines.

Angostura Bitters. (Fr. Amers
d'Angostura, Ger. Angostura-Bittern,
Sp. Amargos de Angostura.)

The well-known and esteemed bitter
of commerce. It is an essence into the
composition of which enter various
aromatics — especially angostura, Ca-
milla, cinchona, and lemon. Much is
sold which contains no angostura at all.
Originally prepared at Angostura, it is
now chiefly produced at Siegert, in
Trinidad.

Aniline. (Fr. Aniline, Ger. Anilin,
Sp. Anilina.)

13

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[Apn

Aniline was discovered in 1826, but
it remained merely an article of the
laboratory until its useful properties
in the production of the aniline colours
became known. All the aniline now
manufactured is obtained from coal
tar, which, upon distillation, produces
benzene. When benzene is treated
with strong nitric acid nitro-benzene is
formed, and this when mixed with ace-
tic acid and iron filings yields acetate
of aniline. Aniline may also be pre-
pared by passing a mixture of benzene
and ammonia through a hot tube.

Aniline is an oily colourless liquid
when it is quite pure, but darkens
rapidly when it is exposed to the air.
Its chemical symbol is CsHjNHb.
Specific gravity, 1*02 ; boiling point,
182°C. Its odour is strong and of an
ammoniac character, and its taste is
weak and aromatic. Though it is not
very soluble in water, it dissolves
readily in alcohol and ether. Owing to
its poisonous character great care is
required in its use.

When aniline is treated with chloride
of lime it gives rise to a beautiful violet
colour. Nearly half a century ago it
was discovered that if the colour thus
produced was purified it could be fixed
with the greatest ease upon silk and
woollen fabrics. By degrees all other
colours were obtained. There is no
need of a mordant in fixing aniline
colours upon silk and wooUen materials,
simple immersion in a solution of ani-
line being sufficient. In the case of
vegetable tissues, however, a previous
preparation is necessary.

Aniline colours have practically
superseded all other dyes, owing to
their great brilUancy, their diversity of
colour and shade, and the ease with
which they can be fixed. The trade
has increased rapidly during the last
thirty years. Owing to her energy,
Germany had, prior to 1914, almost
a monopoly in the manufacture of
these colours, although she was later
in the field than England and France.
No doubt the events of 1914-15 in
connection with the great European
War will materially affect this industry,
so far as production is concerned.

Anime. (Fr. Rhine anime, Ger.
Animeharz, Cummi-Anime , Sp. Goma
animi.)

A kind of resin, obtained from

various species of trees, but principally
from the Hymentsa mossamticensis.
It is also known as African copal, and
is imported into this country from
Zanzibar. Another kind of anime is
obtained from the West Indies. It is
yellow in colour, transparent, and of a
pleasant smell, especially when it is
warmed. It is used for varnishing.
Over one milUon pounds are imported
into England annually.

Aniseed. (Fr. Anis, grains d'anis,
Ger. Anis, Sp. Anis. simiente de ams.)

The aromatic fruit of the anise. It
contains an essential oil which is used
for flavouring cordials and medicine,
and in the preparation of certain kinds
of liqueurs. Aniseed is obtained from
Russia and Germany, but the best
comes frdm Alicante, in Spain. Anise
water, a preparation from anise oil and
water, is much used in Italy as a
cooling drink.

Aniseed, Star. (Fr. Anis itoiU, Ger.
Sternanis, Sp. Anis de la China, ba-
diana. )

The fruit of the Illicium anisatum,
a tree resembling the laurel. It is
held in high esteem in Japan and China,
and in England it is valuable as a spicie
and as giving a flavour in cooking; It
is mainly obtained from China and
Singapore.

Anisette. (Fr. Anisette, Get. Aniset,
Anisbranntwein, Sp. Anisete.)

A cordial made chiefly at Bordeaux
and Amsterdam from the seeds of the
anise. It bears a strong resemblance
to the Russian hummel.

Annatto. (Fr. Rocou, Ger. Anotta,
Sp. Annatto.)

Also known in commerce as Arniitto,
Roucou, and Orleana. It is the fine
yellowish-red colouring substance
obtained from the pulp surrounding
the seeds of the Bixa orellana-, a
tree of medium size which grows in
the West Indies and the tropical
parts of South America. It is
extensively employed for giving a
colour to milk, cream, and cheese, and
both in cake and fluid form it is an
article of considerable importance in
all the dairy districts of the United
Kingdom and America. It is abso-
lutely tasteless and harmless, and it
has no other effect upon the substance
into which it is introduced than to
give it a yellowish tinge. Annatto is

14

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WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[App

also used for dyeing cloth, and for
giving a bright colour to varnishes.

Anthracene. (Fr. Anthracene, Ger.
Anthracen, Sp. Antracino.)

A compound which is obtained by
the distillation of coal tar. Its chemi-
cal symbol is (CeH^), (CH),. Its com-
mercial value is very great, as it is the
source of artificial aliza.rine.

Anthracite. (Fr. Anthracite, Ger.
Anthracit, Sp. Antracito.)

A species of stone coal, of the hardest
and most dense kind, with a shining
surface. It is much used for steam
fuel, and bums extremely well in
furnaces. It is almost smokeless and
contains ninety per cent, of carbon.
This coal is worked largely in South
Wales, but the largest deposits are in
Pennsylvania.

Antifebrin. (Fr. Fibrifuge, anti-
fibrine, Ger. Antifebrin, Fiebermittel,
Sp. Febrifugo, remedio antifibril.)

Also called Acetanilid. This is a
modern product and is often used as
a substitute for quinine. Like anti-
pyrin it is a colourless white powder,
but is hardly soluble in cold water,
though readily soluble in alcohol. It
is prepared from anilin. Its chemical
symbol is CsHsNHC^HaO.

Antimony. (Fr. Aniimoine, Ger.
Antimon, Sp. Antimonio.)

A crystalline metal of a bluish white
colour. Its principal ore is stibnite or
sulphide of antimony. It occurs in
Germany, Hungary, France, America,
Great Britain, and Borneo. Metallic
antimony is extremely brittle, and is
easily reduced to powder. It is chiefly
valuable for its aUoys, and when fused
with most metals increases their hard-
ness. Tjrpe metal and Britannia metal
contain a considerable quantity of
antimony. It is used in many com-
pounds, and in medicine it is valuable
m the preparation of tartar emetic.

Antipyrin. (Fr. Antipyrine, Ger.
and Sp., Antipyrin.)

A modern and formidable rival of
quinine. It is mainly obtained from
coal-tar products, and is a white
crystalline powder, tasteless, colour-
less, and soluble in water. Its chief
value is as a febrifuge, reducing the
temperature of the patient very rapidly
without causing great perspiration. Its
.chemical symbol is CHiaNjO.

Antlers. (Fr. Andouillers, Ger.

Hirschgeweih, Sp. Cornamenta, las
cuernas del ciervo.)

The outgrowths from the frontal
bones of the deer family, which possess
the chemical properties of true bone.
Except in the case of the reindeer,
antlers are restricted to the males.
They are shed periodically. When
they have been sawn and filed to the
shape required, the exterior of the deer
horn is useful, in its natural state, as an
ornament, and for the handles of knives
and instruments which require a firm

grip-

Apatite. (Fr. and Sp., Apatite, Ger.
Apatit.)

A mineral largely imported into the
United Kingdom, especially from Nor-
way and Canada, for manuring land.
It is mainly composed of native phos-
phate of lime, mixed with chloride and
fluoride of calcium. It is of a beautiful
bluish-green colour and crystalline in
form. Its importance as a fertiliser
has rapidly increased owing to the
decline in quality and quantity of
Peruvian guano.

ApoUinaris Water. (Fr. Eau d'Apol-
linaris, Ger. Apollinariswasser, Sp.
Agua de ApoUinaris.)

A favourite mineral water obtained
from the ApoUinaris Spring in the val-
ley of the Ahr, in the Rhine provinces.
It is largely impregnated with carbon-
ate of soda.

Apple. (Fr. Pomme, Ger. Apfel,
Sp. Mamana.)

The fruit procured from the culti-
vated varieties of the Pyrus ntalus.
There are about two thousand varieties
of the apple-tree, and the commerce in
the fruit is enormous. The tree is,
indeed, the most widely distributed of
all fruit trees. Besides being used for
dessert, the apple is valuable for the
manufacture of cider. The apple
contains malic acid, which is used for
medicinal purposes, and owing to the
presence of this substance a vinegar
and a spirit are made from the fruit
in Switzerland. In England the
cultivation of the apple is mainly
carried on in the west. The importa-
tions into the United Kingdom are
very large, the continent of Europe and
North America supplying almost every
demand. From America come Bald-
wins, Greenings, Russets, and New-
town pippins. Tasmania has lately

'5

Apr]

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[Arn

grown a great quantity of this fruit,
and there is a growing export trade in
the Same.

The wood of the tree is hard, durable,
and fine-grained, and the bark contains
a yellow dye.

Apricot. (Fr. Abficot, Ger. Apri-
hose, Sp. Albaricoque.)

The well-known fruit of difierent
varieties of the Prunus armeniaca.
There are various forms and varieties
of this fruit, the most famous being the
Royal, Turkey, Moorpiark, and Breda.
It is a native of Armenia, though now
cultivated in many parts of the world.
From its kernel prussic acid may be
obtained, and by distillation the
French eaa de noyaux is also derived
from it.

Aqua Fortis. (Fr. Eau forte, Ger.
Scheidwasser, Sp. Agua fuerie.)

The name given by old chemists to
dilute nitric acid, and still commercially
applied to it, on account of its corrosive
action on many substances.

Aquamarine. (Fr. Aigue-marine,
Ger. Aquamarin, Sp. Aguamarina.)

A precious stone. It is a name that
is sometimes popularly given to the
beryl, on account of its sea-green
colour. It has almost the same chemi-
cal combination as the emerald, but its
commercial value is considerably less.
The best stones are obtained from
Ceylon, but good ones are also found in
Brazil and Siberia.

Aqua Regia. (Fr. Eau regale, Ger.
Konigswasser, Sp. Agua regia.)

A mixture of nitric acid and hydro-
chloric acid in the proportions of one to
two. Its chief use is to dissolve gold
and platinum. The name was given
to it because it alone would dissolve
gold — the king of metals.

Arabin. (Fr. Arabine, Ger. Arabin,
Sp. Ardbino.)

The principal constituent of gum
arable, in which it occurs mixed with
lime and potash. By the addition of
alcohol to a solution of gum arable in
water, the pure arabin is deposited in
white flocks. It contains large quanti-
ties of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen,
and its composition is similar to that of
starch.

Archill. (Fr. Orseille, Ger. Orseille,
Farberflechte, Sp. Orchilla.)

Sometimes called Orchill. It is a
violet red paste, prepared from various

kinds of dull grey-coloured lichens.
Archill liquor is a product obtained by
the action of ammonia, air, and heat
on a decoction of the lichens. The
colour is developed by putrefaction.
It is soluble in water as well as in
alcohol. It is chiefly employed in
dyeing silken fabrics a rich lilac colour,
the colour being easily acted upon by
the rays of the sun. It is less com
monly used for dyeing cottons and
woollen cloths. Archill is obtained
from the Levant, the Canary Islands,
and Cape Verd Islands.

Areca. (Fr. Arec, Ger. Areca, Sp.
Areca)

A genus of palm. The tree grows in
various parts of the East Indies, and is
cultivated on account of its nuts.
There are two species of areca, and each
of them is remarkable for the purposes
to which its fruit is applied. One is
the Areca catechu, also known as the
Betel-nut palm, which is one of the
most beautiful trees of the East
Indies. The nuts of this palm are
imported into European countries for
the manufacture of tooth powder. The
other is the Areca oleracea, or cabbage
palm, a taU tree of the West Indies.
It is cultivated for the sake of its
leaves, which are sometimes eaten lik?,-
cabbages.

Argil. (Fr. Argile, Ger, Ton, Sp^
ArciUa.) ■;

Otherwise argol. This is the crust
or deposit found in wine casks or vats.
It is a fine crystalline powder, and is
white or red according to the colour
of the wine which has been container,
in the cask. It is an impure bitartrate'
of potash. Argil is largely exported
from Portugal, and is used for dyeing
dark shades. Its chief value in com-
merce, however, is in the preparation
of tartaric acid and cream o
tartar.

Arnica. (Fr. Arnique, Ger. Arnika
Sp. Arnica.)

A plant which is sometimes known
by the French as mountain tobacco.
It was formerly considered to have
peculiar medicinal qualities, being used
as a stimulant in cases of fever, agup
and palsy, but latterly it has bee
neglected. A tincture is still obtaine,
from its flowers, which is applied t
wounds and bruises. The plant ak
yields quantities of tannin, resin, .

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[Asb

volatile oil, and an alkaloid called
amicin.

Aromatics. (Fr. Aromates, Ger.
Gewurze, Aromas, Sp. Espeoias.)

Substances which possess an agree-
able odour, and are prized on that
account. Many of them are the
sources of perfumery. Their properties
are due to the presence of the essential
oils. In chemistry the term aromatic
series is applied to a large, number
of chemical compounds, which occur
in balsams and other substances having
an agreeable odour.

Aromatic Vinegar. (Fr. Vinaigre
aromatique, Ger. Gewiirzessig, Sp.
Vinagre aromaiico.)

A perfume which is compounded of
strong acetic acid and various essences.
It is a refreshing and stimulating
preparation and is valuable in cases
of headache.

Arrowroot. (Fr. Arrow-root, herbe A
la fliche, Ger. Marantastdrhe, Pfeilwurz,
Sp. Almidon.)

A species of starch which is obtained
by grinding and washing the tubers of
various plants. The best kind is
derived from the Maranta arundinacea,
the Canna, and the Tacca. The West
India Islands are the principal source
>f the supply of arrowroot, and the
dst prized is obtained from the
Srmudas. When prepared it is a
ight, opaque, white powder, and
crackles when rubbed. Although it is
absolutely without odour when it is
dry, it possesses a pecuUar smell on
^eing dissolved in boiling water.
Aimense quantities are imported into
Great Britain, mainly from the Bermu-
das. Arrowroot has long been much
valued as a delicacy, and as an
easily digested food for children and
mvalids.

" Arsenic. (Fr. Arsenic, Ger. Arsenik,
•). Arsenica.)

^'A. chemical element that is used in
.he arts for the purposes of hardening
jfther metals, and also in medicine.
*n certain forms, however, it is a most
deadly poison. It sometimes occurs
4ee in nature, but it is most frequently
■%ind in combination with sulphur and
•ft metals, from which it is obtained by
"^listing the ore. Arsenic is a brittle,
v^staUine substance of a steel-grey
'Aovx, and has metallic lustre. In
%ot-making a small portion of arsenic

is always mixed with the lead to give
it hardness.

Arsenious Acid. (Fr. Acide arsen-
ieux, arsenic blanc, Ger. Arsenige Saure,
Giftmehl, Sp. Acido Arsenical.)

This is the most familiar of all the
compounds of arsenic, and is commonly
known as white arsenic. It is of
importance on account of its uses in
medicine and the arts. In some coun-
tries arsenious acid is taken medicinally
for the purpose of allaying malarial
fever and also for clearing the com-
plexion. When given in small doses to
horses it has the efEect of improving
the appearance of their skins, and
making them bright and glossy.

Artichoke. (Fr. Artichaut, Ger.
Artischocke, Sp. Alcachofa.)

An edible legume derived from the
thistle-Eke plant Cynara scolymus.
The plant is a native of Barbary, but
is now grown largely in the south of
Europe. It is the flower-head of the
plant which is the article of commerce,
immense quantities of the heads being
exported to all parts of the world.
The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus
iuberosus) is a totally different plant,
the tuber being the most valuable part
and the article of commerec.
Artificial Fuel.
(See Briquette.)

Asafoetida. (Fr . Assafoetida, Ger.
Stinkender Asant, Sp. Asafetida.)

Or Assafoetida. A gum resinous
exudation obtained from the milky
juice of the Ferula asajcetida and the
Ferula narthex. It is a product of
Persia and Afghanistan, and is useful
in medicine on account of its stimulating
and antispasmodic properties. It is
also usefully employed in cases of
hysteria, flatulence, and chronic
catarrh. In India, asafoetida enters
into the preparation of curries and con-
diments. Its smell is somewhat dis-
gusting, much resembling that of garlic,
and owing to this fact its use is not
Ukely to he common at any time.

Asbestos. (Fr. Asbeste, amiante,
Ger. Asbest, Amianth, Sp. Asbesto,
amianto, alumbre de pluma.)

This is a mineralogical term, used
rather to denote a pecuUar form as-
sumed by several minerals, than to
designate any particular species of
mineral. It is, however, generally
applied to varieties of hornblende,

s— :i484)

17

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world's commercial products.

[Bab

or pyroxene, which occur in long
slender crystals, placed side by side,
so as to produce a flexible fibrous
mass. Its chief constituents then
are silica, magnesia, lime, and oxide
of iron. In colour it is white or green,
and possesses a silky or glossy lustre.
The finest variety of asbestos is called
Amianthus, a, word signifying " un-
polluted," because cloth made from it
was cleansed by passing through fire.
The meaning of the word asbestos is
" indestructible," and its most re-
markable property is resistance to
flame. For that reason it has recently
come into general use in the con-
struction of gas fire stoves. From very
early times it has been employed in the
manufacture of fire-proof cloth, and it
is now a, most valuable substance for
many engineering and mechanical pur-
poses. In various forms it is used for
the making of steam joints, for filling
the stufiing boxes of engines, for
chemical filters, for covering steam
pipes, for rendering buildings fire-
proof, for lining the engine-rooms of
steamships — since it is a non-conductor
— and for covering the wires used in
electric lighting. The best amianthus
is obtained in various parts of Corsica,
in Cornwall, and also in certain districts
of Scotland. The ordinary article of
commerce, however, is mainly obtained
from Canada, Italy, New South Wales,
and Tasmania. There is no doubt that
the use of asbestos is capable of great
extension as its valuable properties
become better known.

Asparagus. (Fr. Asperge, Get.
Spargel, Sp. Espdrrago.)

A genus oiLiliacece, of which there are
some sixty or seventy species. The
most widely diffused is the common
asparagus {Asparagus officinaHs)which
is a native of Europe, and is cultivated
as a garden vegetable. It is raised
from seed, which is sown in spring, and
flourishes best in a rich, fresh, sandy
soU. Great care is reqTiired in the
cultivation, and at times the price of
the article is very high. Although
asparagus is grown in England to a
considerable extent, large quantities
are imported from France which is a
greater centre of cultivation.

Asphalte. (Fr. Asphalts, goudron
mineral, Ger. Asphalt, Sp. Asfalto.)

A composition of pitch, earthy.

iS

elastic, and compact, used for paving
roadways, for cementing roofs, and as
a Ening for cisterns and iron pipes. It
is a fossil hydrocarbon, and is obtained
from mines, being found either on the
surface or imbedded in the earth.
Immense quantities are imported into
Great Britain, mainly from Trinidad.
It is the principal ingredient in Japan
varnish. Asphalte is supposed to be
a product of the distillation of carbon-
ised vegetable matter by the action of
subterranean heat and moisture in the
absence of atmospheric air.

Attar of Roses.

(See Otto of Roses.)

Ava. (Fr., Ava, Ger. Awa, Sp. Ava.)

Also called Arva, Yava, and Kava.
This is a shrubby plant of the order
Piperaceae, a native of the South Sea
Islands. From it a fermented liquor
is prepared by maceration in water,
which has a most intoxicating effect
upon those who take it, the results
being very much like those caused by
opium. Like cocaine, it serves the
purpose of a local anjesthetic.

Aventurine. (Fr. Aventurine, Ger.
Aventurine, Aventurinstein, Sp. Ven-
turina.)

A mineral studded with gold spots,
sometimes used for jewellery. It is a
vitreous variety of quartz, and reflects
Ught with great brilliancy, but is not
so valuable as the finer lands of ame-
thyst. Aventurine is found in various
parts of Europe and Asia, but the chief
supply is obtained from the Ural
Mountains.

Avocado Pear.

The fruit of the Persea gratissima, of
considerable size, some of the pears
weighing as much as 2 lbs. In the West
Indies it is largely consumed and much
prized. From the pulp an excellent
illuminating oil is obtained, and its
seeds give a black dye which is useful
for marking linen.

Azurite. (Fr. Lazulite, outremer,
Ger. Azurblau, Sp. Azul, lapislazuli.)

Blue carbonate of copper, or blue
malachite — a valuable copper ore. It
occurs in very beautiful crystals in the
south of France, and is found in
various parts of England. The name
is also given to lazulite — a compound
of phosphate of alumina and magnesia.

Babool. (Fr., Ger., and Sp. Babool.)

The name given in India to the

Bad]

WORLD S COMMBRCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Ban

Acacia arahica, of which the bark and
the gum are articles of commerce. The
gum very closely resembles gum arable,
and is constantly used as a substitute
for it. The bark and the pods are
valuable in tanning.

Badger. (Fr. Blaireau, Ger. Dachs,
Sp. Tejado.)

A carnivorous animal of the weasel
and otter kind. It is hunted for the
sake of its skin and hair. The former
is used for various purposes, in parti-
cular the covering of trunks, whilst the
wiry hair is valuable for the manu-
facture of brushes. The American
badger is quite distinct from the Euro-
pean. The fur of the former is more
especially prized, owing to its softness
and fineness. In the winter it is
greyish in colour, but in the summer it
turns to a yellowish-brown.

Bael or Bhel Fruit. (Fr. Baele, Ger.
BaH, Sp. Bael.)

The fruit of the ^gle marmelos, or
Bengal quinces, closely allied to the
orange. It has a delicate taste and
fine odour, and is the original source
of marmalade. The rind of the unripe
fruit is astringent, and is used as a
remedy in cases of diarrhoea and
dysentery. A perfume is obtained
from the rind, and also a yellow dye.
Its seeds 3rield a cement.
Baize. (Old Fr. Baies.)
A coarse, woollen fabric with long
nap, mainly used for flooring and for
wrapping materials. It is sometimes
made up into curtains, linings, etc.
Balata. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Balata.)
A gum which is the product of the
Mimusops globosa. It is the milky
juice of the tree which furnishes balata.
In quality it is very like gutta percha
and indiarubber, and is specially suit-
able for belting. The trade in this
article is not very great, and all the
requirements of Great Britain are
supplied by British Guiana. There is
another tree called the balata or bully
tree, which produces very hard timber.
Baleen. (Fr. Baleine, Ger. Fisch-
bein, Sp. Ballena.)

The homy plates which are attached
to the palate of the whalebone whales.
These constitute the whalebone of
commerce. The length of the plates
varies from ten to fourteen feet. There
are about two hundred plates on each
side of the mouth.

Balsams. (Fr.Baumes.GeT.Balsame,
Sp. Balsamos.)

Different species of liquid resins or
saps, of a more or less agreeable odour,
which are derived from various plants.
They are most commonly procured by
incisions being made in the stems or
branches. When first obtained they
are liquid or semi-liquid, glutinous, and
aromatic. By exposure to the air they
become tliick and then solid. Fre-
quently they contain an acid of the
aromatic series. The lands of balsam
are very numerous. Canada balsam
is useful for mounting microscopical
objects. Copaiba balsam is used for lac
varnishes and tracing paper, whilst
others are employed in the manufacture
of perfumes and as expectorants. The
name at one time comprehended all
medicines compounded of resins and
oils. When now used, without any
addition, balsams of Peru and Tolu
are understood.

Bamboo. (Fr. Bambott, Ger. Bam-
busrohr, Sp. Bamboa, cana de Indias.)

The hollow siliceous coated stems of
a gigantic species of grass. These
grasses grow in clumps in the tropics,
and are of many kinds. In the coun-
tries where they are grown the com-
mercial uses of bamboos are most
varied, ranging from the commonest
domestic articles to building purposes.
When split they are made into mats,
sails, masts, pipes, etc. Large impor-
tations are made into Europe from
the tropical parts of both the Old and
the New World, and they are con-
verted into walking and umbrella
sticks, stakes for flowers and for training
fruit trees, and they are further
utilised in the manufacture of fishing
rods and wicker-work.

Banana. (Fr. Banane, Ger. Banane,
Sp. Banana.)

The fruit of the tropical banana tree,
a species of tree allied to the plaintain,
though the fruit itself is sweeter than
that of the plantain. Bananas are
grown most extensively in Central
America, Jamaica, and Trinidad, and
there is an enormous export trade in
them. Jamaica supplies the wants of
the United States, whilst Central
America sends huge quantities to
Europe. The fruit is gathered in
bunches, and must be shipped green,
as it is very perishable when ripe.

E9

Ban]

world's commercial products.

[Bas

There are two kinds — red and yellow
skinned. The largest yellow kind
are obtained from the mainland of
Central America, the small yellow from
Jamaica, and the red from Cuba.

Bancoul Nuts. (Fr. Noix bancouls.
Get. BancoulniXsse, Sp. Nueces de
bancoul.)

The name given to the seeds of the
Aleurites ambinux. From these seeds
an oil is extracted which has medicinal
properties much like those of castor oil.
It is, however, more fluid than castor
oil, and has neither taste nor smell.
The importations from India are small,
and its main use, other than medicinal,
is for the preparation of artists' oil.

Bandana. (Fr. Indienne, Ger. Ge-
druckter Calico, Sp. Bandannn.)

A species of printed handkerchief or
printed cotton goods, originally made
in India, but now extensively made in
Britain, and intended largely for the
Eastern market. The cotton or cloth
used, and the former is the more com-
mon, is first dyed Turkey red, and then
the pattern is made by discharging the
colour with bleaching liquor in a power-
ful Bramah press. The pattern to be
discharged is cut out in two plates of
lead or other metal of the size of the
handkerchief. From twelve to twenty
handkerchiefs are acted upon at the
same time.

Baobab. (Fr. Baobab, Ger. Baobal,
Sp. Baobal.)

A tree of magnificent size, a native of
West Africa, but introduced in modern
times into the East and West Indies.
In tropical countries the leaves are used
for medicinal purposes, especially in
cases of diarrhoea and fever. Its bark
is imported into this country as a
material for making paper, whilst the
fibres of its stems are useful for the
manufacture of ropes.

Bareges. (Fr. Crepe de Bareges, Ger.
Bareges, Sp. Bareges.)

Thin mixed fabrics used for ladies'
dresses intended for summer wear.
The name is derived from the town of
Bareges, in the P5^enees, where the
manufacture was originally carried on.
The best kinds are made of a mixture
of silk and worsted, whilst for the
inferior sorts cotton and worsted are
used. The fabrics vary considerably in
colour, and are often of a Ught tint
with printed patterns.

Barilla. (Fr. Barille, Ger. Barilla,
spanische Soda, Sp. Barilla.)

An impure carbonate of soda. It is
the Spanish name for the alkali or ash
which is left over after burning such
plants as the Salsola soda, cultivated
on the coasts of Spain, France, and
Italy. That prepared in Brittany is
known as varec. Formerly barilla was
the principal source of carbonate of
sodium, an article extensively used in
the manufacture of glass and soap, and
in other industrial arts. Its use has
rapidly declined in recent years owing
to the fact that carbonate of sodium
is now made chiefly from common salt.

Barium. (Fr. Baryte, Ger. Barium.
Baryt, Sp. Bario.)

The metal present in heavy spar
(sulphate of baryta) and baryta. It is
one of the so-called alkaline earths,
other members of which are strontium,
calcium, and magnesium. As yet it
has only been obtained as a powder
which is yellowish in colour. Its
principal use is in the preparation of
oxygen, though in the arts it is often
employed for adulterating white paints.
The carbonate of barium is employed
as a pigment, and in the manufacture
of certain kinds of glass.

Bark. (Fr. Ecorce, Ger. Baumrinde,
Sp. Corteza.)

The outer coating of trees.

Great varieties of barks are used
medicinally and also for the purposes of
tanning. Each of the principal kinds
is noticed under a separate heading.

Barley. (Fr. Orge, Ger. Gerste, Sp.
Cebada. )

The edible seed of one of the cereal
plants (hordeum). There are many
varieties of barley grown, and its culti-
vation is more widely spread than that
of any other grain crop. Large quanti-
ties are raised in the United Kingdom,
especially on the Ughter arable lands
of Norfolk and Suffolk, and there are
considerable imports into this country
from Denmark, Siberia, the United
States, Canada, and Mexico. The
principal demand in Great Britain is
for malting purposes. Pearled barley
is barley which has been husked and
treated by machinery for use in
thickening broth and soups.

Bast. (Fr. Teille, tille, Ger. Bast,
Sp. Baste, corteza.)

The name usually applied to the inner

20

Bat]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Bea

bark of trees, especially to that of the
linden tree. It is employed for making
certain kinds of ropes, the well-known
bast-mats, and the ordinary shoes worn
by the Russian peasants. It also
serves as a useful packing for furniture
and as a covering for tender plants.
Bast and bast mats are almost exclu-
sively exported from Russia, the chief
port carrjdng on the trade being Arch-
angel. In the south of Europe lime
tree bast is also used for making certain
kinds of hats. There is also another
kind of bast obtained in the West In-
dies, principally in Cuba, from the
Paritium elatum. It is used for tying
up bundles of Havana cigars.
Bath Brick.

A yellow brick of siliceous material
made from a mixture of sand and clay,
found in the river Parret, near Bridg-
water, in Somerset. It is mainly used
as a scourer, cleaner, and polisher of
metals, and especially knives. The
bricks are made of an average weight
of 3 lbs., and the total annual manu-
facture amounts to nearly 10,000 tons.
Bath Stone.

A lime stone of a rich creamy colour,
composed of 94J per cent, of carbonate
of lime, and 2 J per cent, of carbonate of
magnesium. It is entirely free from
silica. On account of its beauty, it is
extensively used for building purposes.
It is foundin large quantities in Wiltshire
and Somerset, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of Bath. When taken from
the quarry the stone is somewhat soft,
but it quickly hardens on exposure to
the air. Unfortunately its durability
is not great.

Batiste. (Fr. Batiste, Ger. Batisf,
Sp. Batista.)

The usual French name for cambric,
a commercial article which is com-
posed of a fine texture of linen or
cotton.

Battens. (Fr. Lattes, Ger. Latteti,
Sp. Laias.)

Sawn fir timber of varjdng lengths
and thicknesses. They are used for
flooring, for roofing below slates, and
they are also placed upright on walls
preparatory to laths being fixed for
plastering. The best battens come to
this country from Norway, and are
generally imported in lengths of from
12 to 14 feet, 7 inches broad, and 2J
inches thick.

Bayberry, (Fr. Baie de laurier,
Ger. Lorbeer, Sp. Bay a del laurel.)

The fruit of the sweet bay — Laurus
nobilis. It is used as a tonic in vet-
erinary medicine, and it is likewise
useful in the preparation of certain
condiments. From the fruit a concrete
oil is also obtained.

Bay Rum.

A spirituous perfume made chiefly
in the West Indies. It bears a strong
resemblance to Eau de Cologne. Its
use is mainly confined to toilet pur-
poses, though it is sometimes employed
as a liniment in cases of rheumatism.

Bdellium. (Fr. Bdellium, Ger. Bdel-
lium, Sp. Bedelio.)

A gum resinous exudation, very
much like myrrh, for which it forms a
good substitute. There are two Idnds,
one African, which is translucent, but
has a dull fracture, and the other
Indian, which is opaque. At one time
bdellium was considered to possess
great medicinal qualities as a stimulant,
but it is now rarely used except as an
ingredient in plasters. It has a bitter
taste. The small quantity imported
in Great Britain comes from India and
West Africa.

Beads. (Fr. Perles, Ger. Unechie
Perlen, Sp. Perlas, Cuentas.)

A variety of personal ornament,
usually globular in form, with a hole
through them so that they may be
strung together, and worn as necklaces,
bracelets, etc., or worked on cloth or
some other substance as a kind of
embroidery. They are made of various
materials, such as glass, ivory, porce-
lain, jet, coral, amber, etc. There are
large importations of beads into Great
Britain, chiefly from Italy, Holland,
France, and Germany, and they are
re-shipped to Africa, where they are
bought by the natives. Venice is the
principal seat of the manufacture of
fancy glass beads, whilst Paris does a
considerable trade in imitation gems.
In England plain beads are made in
Birmingham.

Beams. (Fr. Poutres, Ger. Balken,
Sp. Vigas.)

The name given to any long pieces of
wood or iron, made for the purpose of
resisting force or carrying weight.
Iron beams are generally known as
girders. The name has many technical
applications in the arts.

BeaJ

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Bee

Beam Tree. (Fr. AHsier blanc, Ger.
Eberesche, Sp. Serbal bravio.)

A tree very commonly met with in
all parts of Europe, with a straight
erect trunk, and varying in height from
twenty to forty feet. The fruit of the
beam-tree is not of much use, but its
wood is very hard, and has a fine close
grain. It is of a yellowish white colour,
is easily stained, and takes a high
polish. It is useful in turnery, and is
employed for making the handles of
knives and forks, wooden spoons, and
certain parts of musical instruments.
It can even be utilised for the cogs of
wheels in machinery.

Bear Skin. (Fr. Peau d'ours, Ger.
Bdrenfell, Sp. Picl de oso.)

The skins of the black bear, found in
North America, are imported into this
country to the extent of about 8,000
annually. They are used mainly for
harness trimmings, hearthrugs, caps,
etc. There is also a considerable trade
in the skins of the white bear.

Beaver. (Fr. Castor, Ger. Biber,
Sp. Castor.)

The skin of the Castor canadensis.
It is used for the manufacture of muffs,
tippets, hats, etc. The animal is
trapped in North America, and the
imports into Great Britain amount to
200,000 skins every year. The secre-
tion of the gland in the groin of male
beavers has been valued for a long
period on account of its curative
properties.

Bebeerine. (Fr. Bebere, Ger. Beberu,
Sp. Bebero.)

Or Bibirine. An alkaloid which is
obtained from the greenheart tree, or
bibeiru, of British Guiana. It is
identical with buxine, an alkaloid
obtained from the bark and the leaves of
the common box. It was at one time
thought that bebeerine, in the form of
a sulphate, would take the place of
quinine as a tonic and as a useful
medicine in fever cases, but as it has
proved to be less powerful than quinine
its employment is not general.

Beche-de-Mer. (Fr,, Ger., and Sp.
BSche-de-mer.)

Or Trepang. This is a marine slug,
found in the coral reefs of the Pacific.
The commerce in beche-de-mer is
confined almost entirely to the Chinese
market, it bein^ considered a great
delicacy in China in making soups,

etc. There are as many as thirty
different varieties of trepang.

Bedda Nuts.

A species of myrobalan, though
smaller and of a different shape to the
true myrobalan. These nuts are im-
ported in large quantities from the
East Indies into the United Kingdom,
and are useful in tanning. They are
also employed by calico printers for
obtaining a permanent black dye.

Beech. (Fr. Hetre, Ger. Buche, Sp^
Hay a. )

The Fagus sylvatica, one of the
common trees of Europe, cultivated on
account of the usefulness of its wood
for many domestic purposes. The
wood is hard and solid, and because
of its durability under water it is much
in request for making mill sluices.
Amongst the domestic articles which
are manufactured from beech are
chairs, tables, bedsteads, bowls, ladles,
carpenters' planes, and other tools. It
is also in great demand by wheelwrights
and coachbuilders. On the continent
sabots are manufactured out of beech.
There are extensive forests of beech
trees in Denmark. Its fruit is known
as " mast," and is a favourite food for
hogs. An oil is obtained from the mast
which is used as a salad oil in Germany.
Beech mast is commonly employed in
the adulteration of cocoa. The ashes
of beechwood yield potash, and vinegar
is prepared from its shavings.

Beer. (Fr. Biere, Ger. Bier, Sp.
Cerveza. )

The well-known fermented malt
liquor — an article of extensive com-
merce both in the United Kingdom
and on the continents of Europe and
America. Although of considerable
antiquity, the advance of science has
made the present day production
vastly different and very superior to
the beer of a few centuries ago.

Various substances are used in the
manufacture of beer — maize, rye,
millet, and rice. But in Great Britain
barley is the chief source from which
it is produced. The two stages of its
preparation are known as malting and
brewing. In malting the barley is
first steeped in water for a period vary-
ing from two to four days until a
certain amount of moisture has been
absorbed. The water is then drawn
off and the grain is allowed to lie in a

22

BeeJ

world's commercial products.

[Bee

heap, daring which time it becomes
heated, absorbs oxygen, and gives off
carbonic acid gas. Germination com-
mences and in order to assist it the
grain is spread out and constantly
turned over. The length of time re-
quired for the requisite amount of
germination varies with the heat ap-
plied, and when that amount has been
reached kiln-drjdng takes place, that
is, the grain is further spread out and
additional heat supplied. The colour
of the malt depends upon the process
adopted, being either pale, amber,
brown, or black. The first two kinds
are used for the preparation of light
beers, the brown for sweet ales, and the
black for porter.

The subsequent processes are known
as brewing. The malt is gently
crushed, and afterwards mixed with
hot water at a temperature of about
170° Fah. After standing for a few
hours the infusion, or wort, is drawn
off. This is known as mashing.
Sometimes a second and a third mash-
ing takes place. The malt left is
known as draff or brewers' grains, and
is used for feeding cattle. The wort is
then boiled for two hours with a certain
quantity of hops, the latter giving to
the beer its bitter flavour, its tonic
properties, and its keeping quaUties.
When the boiling is complete the liquid
is cooled as rapidly as possible, and
yeast is added for the purpose of fer-
mentation. It is then that the great-
est care is required, for if the fermen-
tation is continued too long acetic acid
may be formed. Fermentationis always
stopped before it is complete, the yeast
is carefully removed, and the resulting
beer is drawn off into casks. A slow
process of fermentation goes on in the
casks, and this causes the beer to
become stronger with lapse of time,
and to be charged with carbonic acid
gas.

The nutritive properties of beer
depend upon the presence of sugar,
dextrine, certain nitrogenous bodies,
and soluble phosphates. It contains
from 3 to 8 per cent, of alcohol. The
percentages of alcohol in the following
beers made in Great Britain are : —

Bass 8'4 Edinburgh . . 4-4

Burton .... 8'2 London Porter 4'1

Guinness . . 6'8 London Beer 3'9

Lager Beer . . 3'2

Beeswax. (Fr. Cire d'abeiUes, Ger.
Bienenwachs, Sp. Cera de las abefas.)

The hard fatty substance secreted
by bees, and employed by them in
forming the walls of their honey-
combs. The wax is not merely the
outcome of what is collected from
plants, but it is a substance really
elaborated within the bodies- of the
bees themselves. It is obtained
from the combs of the bees after the
honey has been removed. Naturally
it is of a yellow colour, and has a sweet
odour, but it is often bleached or
whitened for use. It is an important
article of commerce, and is largely
imported from America and the East.
Beeswax is employed in the manufac-
ture of candles, and wax candles are
still much prized for purposes of
religious worship in spite of the exist-
ence of other illuminating fats. It is
used in surgery and for many artistic
purposes, especially for modelling
fruits and flowers. The price of
bleached beeswax is about £7 per cwt.

Beet. (Fr. Beite, betlerave, Ger.
Runkelrube, Sp. Betarraga.)

The plant which produces the tubers
called beet-root. There are several
varieties of the beet — ^yellow, red, and
the common field beet. The Silesian
beet is that which is most prized, as
being the source of the most extensive
manufacture of sugar. It has been
estimated that one half of the sugar of
the world is made from the Silesian
beet.

Beetroot Sugar. (Fr. Sucre de betler-
ave, Qer. Runkelriibenzucker, S-p.Azitcar
de betarragas.)

The saccharine substance which
exists in the juice of the beet to the
extent of from seven to ten per cent.
Beet-root sugar is identical with cane
sugar. It was first manufactured in
the eighteenth century, but it was not
until the middle of the last century
that the trade in it became of first
class importance, and has since been
so much fostered on the continent,
especially in Germany. In the process
of manufacture the roots of the beet
are first steeped in water and reduced
to a pulp. This pulp is then subjected
to great hydraulic pressure. The juice
obtained is afterwards heated up to
85° C., and milk of lime added to it.
The mixture is raised to near boiling

23

Bei]

world's commercial products.

[Bes

point and all albuminous constituents
are thus removed by the presence of
the Ume. In order to remove other
impurities and the colour the whole
is subjected to filtration. The manu-
facture of beet-root sugar has been
tried in England, but not on a great
scale. No doubt the war will have a
remarkable effect upon the industry
in this country.

Beige. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Beige.)

The French name for undyed serges,
or woollen fabrics of a natural colour.

Belladonna, (Fr. Belladone, Ger.
Belladonna, Sp. Belladama.)

A plant which has narcotic and
poisonous berries, a native of Southern
Europe. The extract of the plant is
used medicinally for soothing irrita-
tion and pain, and by oculists for the
purpose of dilating the pupil during
an examination of the eye, and dimi-
nisliing the sensibility of the retina
to Ught. The activity of belladonna
is owing to the presence of the alkaloid
atropine.

Belts and Belting. (Fr. Courroies,
Ger. Treibriemen, Sp. Correas, cor-
reones.)

The flexible belts used for the
transmission of motion in machinery.
They are made of various substances,
such as leather, india-rubber, cotton,
woven hair, gutta percha, and canvas.
They are of extensive use, and the
manufacture is largely on the increase.
According to statistics the breaking
strains of the several kinds per square
inch are as follows : —
Best leather .... 3,360 lbs.
Superior india-rubber . . 4,000 „
Stout stitched cotton. . 6,800 „
Solid woven cotton . . 10,420 ,,

Benedictine. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Benedictine.)

A favourite Uqueur made principally
at Fecamp, in France. It has long
been a formidable competitor of
Chartreuse. It is a. sweetened spirit,
and, Uke other liqueurs, it owes its
peculiar taste and quaUty to the
presence of various cordials and the
essential oil derived from different kinds
of herbs.

Benzoic Acid. (Fr. Acide benzoique,
Ger. Be.nzoesaure, Sp. Acido benzoico.)

Commonly known as gum Benjamin,
an odoriferous or balsamic gum resin.
It is the exudation from the stem of

the Styrax benzoin, or Styrax officinalis,
found chiefly in Siam and Sumatra.
It is also prepared from the urine of
graminivorous animals. It is of a
yellowish or brownish colour, and
always appears in the form of gUstening
feathery crystals. The chemical
symbol for crystallised benzoic acid
is C^HjCOOH. It has varied uses in
surgery and medicine.

Benzole. (Fr. Benzole, Ger. Benzol,
Sp. Benzol.)

A liquid hydrocarbon, found in a
tarry substance resulting from the
distillation of oil. It is a volatile
substance, lighter than water, of a
peculiar aromatic odour. Its chemical
symbol is CeH^, and it boils at 80° C.
It is prepared mainly from coal tar.
It owes its importance to the fact
that it is the source of aniline and the
aniline colours. It is an excellent
solvent of fats, resins, sulphur, phos-
phorus, and some alkaloids, and
quickly removes grease spots.

Bergamot. (Fr. Bergamote, Ger.
Bergamotte, Sp. Bergamota.)

An essential oil obtained by distil-
lation from the rind of a fragrant
species of orange — the Citrus bergamia.
It is a colourless and thin liquid with
a pleasant odour. Bergamot is ex-
tensively used in the preparation of
pomades, fragrant essences, Eau de
Cologne, Uqueurs, etc. Palermo and
Messina are the principal seats of its
manufacture.

Beryl. (Fr. BSryl, Ger. Beryll, Sp.
Berilo. )

A precious stone of a deep brown
colour, or yellow with a reddish tint.
It is closely alUed to the emerald, but
is not nearly so valuable, the difference
consisting in the absence of the rich
green colour which is so characteristic
of the precious emerald. The finer
varieties of the beryl, which are trans-
parent and beautiful in colour, are
known as aquamarine. The stone is
found in various parts of Europe and
occurs chiefly in veins that traverse
granite or gneiss, or is embedded in
granite.

Bessemer Steel. (Fr. A cier Bessemer,
Ger. Bessemerstahl, Sp. Acero Bessemer.)

Steel made direct from cast iron by
a process patented by Sir Henry
Bessemer in 1856. It is prepared in
England from haematite pig iron. The

24

Bet]

world's commercial products.

[Bit

pig iron, in a molten state, is placed in
a converter and subjected to a blast
of air at high pressure. By means of
this blast the whole of the original carbon
is oxidised, and the requisite quantity
is afterwards re-supplied by pouring
in a measured quantity of spiegeleisen
— a substance which also contains a
smaU quantity of manganese and
silicon. The steel is then run off into
moulds, and subjected to various
processes to make it useful in manu-
factures. Bessemer steel is employed
in the manufacture of heavy articles,
especially rails, tyres, rollers, boiler
plates, ship plates, etc.

Betel. (Fr. Betel, Ger. Betel, Sp. Bael.)

The name given to the Areca
Catechu palm, a tree which produces
the betel nut, much used for chewing in
the East. It is indigenous to the East
Indian archipelago. The nut is capa-
ble of taking a fine polish when cut,
and can be utilised in the manufacture
of buttons ; but it is mainly as a horse
medicine that it finds a market in
England. When calcined and pulver-
ised it is sometimes employed as a
tooth powder.

Bhang. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Bhang.)

The Indian name for the flowering
tops of hemp and hashish, though
generally applied to the intoxicating
preparation made from them. It is
used as a sedative and a narcotic in
medicine, but its great value in the
East is mainly owing to the fact that
the natives smoke bhang more freely
than tobacco.

Bichromate.

(See Chromium.)

Bird Skins. (Fr. Peaux d'oiseaux,
Ger. Vogelfelle, Sp. Pieles de pdjaros.)

From all parts of the tropics there
is a large importation of bird skins to
Europe for the decoration of hats and
bonnets. It is estimated that the
number of skins of small birds im-
ported amounts to more than one
million annually. Humming birds are
the most common, though tanagers
— American birds of the finch and
sparrow species — of various kinds are
scarcely less numerous. Birds of
paradise and Impeyan pheasants from
the East Indies afford a considerable
trade. (See Feathers.)

Biscuit. (Fr. Biscuit, Ger. Zwie-
back, Sp. Biwocho.)

French, " twice-baked." Ahard baked
cake of unfermented flour. Biscuit
making has become an important
industry of itself, and large factories are
erected in various parts of the kingdom
for the manufacture of them. The
varieties of biscuits are very great, and
improvements are being continually
made in their preparation. Meat
biscuits are of American origin and
seemed likely at one time to command
a large market. Owing to the per-
fecting of the preservation of animal
food they have fallen into disuse.
The " perfect food biscuit " is a, late
invention and consists of a cake into
the composition of which the chemical
elements needed for a perfect diet enter.

Bismuth. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Bis-
muth. )

A reddish white, soft, crystalline
metal, often known by the name of
" tin glass." It has a specific gravity
of 9-8, and melts at 264° C. Bismuth
is found in a native state in Cornwall,
France, Peru, Siberia, and very plen-
tifully in Saxony. It unites very
readily with other metals to form
alloys, and these alloys are of the
greatest value in the arts. The best
known is called fusible metal, and
consists of 2 parts of bismuth, 1 of
lead, and 1 of tin. Spoons are made
of this alloy. By the addition of
mercury a still more fusible metal is
obtained, which is used in making
moulds for toilet soaps and taking
casts. Trioxide of bismuth is employed
in porcelain manufacture for the pur-
pose of fixing the gilding. In medicine
bismuth is valuable as a sedative.

Bitters. (Fr. Amers, Ger. Bitter (n),
Sp. Amargos.)

Popular medicines useful as tonics.
They are prepared by infusing some
vegetable substance containing a bitter
principle in water, and afterwards
straining the infusion. Rectified spirit
is then added to prevent the bitters
becoming putrid. Bitters are good
as appetisers and for giving tone to
the system. The best known are
Angostura, Quassia, Gentian, and
Orange.

Bitumen. (Fr. Bitume, Ger. Erd-
pech, Sp. Betun.)

Mineral pitch obtained from France,
Italy, Holland, and Trinidad. Com-
mon pitch is often mixed with sand

35

Bit]

world's commercial products.

[Bli

aiid then used as a substitute. Sup-
posed to be of vegetable origin, bitumen
possesses a strong and peculiar odour,
and is highly inflammable. Under the
name of bitumen are included a series
of widely different substances from
naphtha to glassy asphalt.

Bituminous Coal. (Fr. Charbon
biiumineux, Ger. Harzige-Kohle, Sp.
Carbon bituminoso.)

The name given to coal which
bums brightly owing to the presence
of an excessive quantity of organic,
volatile, or resinous matter. It is
chiefly valuable on account of the
volume of pure gas obtained from it
in distillation.

Blacking. (Fr. Cirage, Ger. Siiefel-
wichse, Sp. Betun.)

The material used for polishing
black leather, and giving it a glazed
shining surface. Different manufac-
turers use difierent articles in the
composition of their blacking, but the
main ingredients are bone-black, and a
mixture of oil, sugar, and sulphuric
acid. A tenacious paste is obtained,
and this paste may be kept in tins or
stone-ware bottles, the latter being
used when the paste is made thinner
by the addition of a httle vinegar.
For cleaning harness a different com-
position is employed, composed in the
main of beeswax softened with turpen-
tine, and then mixed with ivory black,
Prussian blue, and copal varnish.

Blacklead. (Fr. Graphite, Ger. Gra-
phit, Sp. Grafito.)

Graphite, or Plumbago. Though
black lead is the popular name, no
lead enters into the composition of
this mineral. It is one of the forms
in which carbon occurs native. It is
of a grayish-black colour with a
metaUic lead-Uke lustre and a greasy
touch. Blacklead is found in many
parts of the world, especially Ceylon,
Siberia, Bohemia, and Bavaria, but
some of the best is obtained in
Cumberland. The last is valuable, on
account of its fine grain, in the manu-
facture of lead pencils. Blacklead is also
used for the manufacture of crucibles,
for giving a polished surface to cast-
iron, and for counteracting friction.

Bladders. (Fr. Vessies, visicuUs,
Ger. Blasen, Sp. Vejigas.)

The hollow bags of animals for the
reception of urine. When they are

cleaned they are used as receptacles
for lard and other similar substances.
Great Britain imports immense num-
bers of bladders in a salted state from
the continent of Europe and also from
America.

Blankets. (Fr. Couvertures de laine,
Ger. Wollene Decken, Sp. Manias.)

Wrappers or covers, especially for
beds. The best qualities of blankets
are made entirely of wool, though the
most common English ones are a
mixture of wool and cotton — woollen
weft and cotton warp — the cotton
giving strength to the whole. The
best-known varieties of English blank-
ets are Witney, Kersey, Yorkshire, and
Bath. Dewsbury is the principal
centre of the Yorkshire trade. Scotch
blankets are considered to be much
more economical than those manufac-
tured in England. Superior kinds
are made in the United States and
fetch high prices, and still more
delicate specimens are produced at
Mysore.

Bleaching Powder. (Fr. Chloride de
calcium, Ger. Bleichpulver, Chlor-
calcium, Sp. Cloruro de calcio.)

Chloride of lime, valuable and very
important as a disinfectant and also
as a bleaching agent. It is a greyish-
white powder, and has a strong odour
resembling that of chlorine. It is
generally prepared by passing
chlorine over layers of slaked lime
till the gas can be no longer absorbed.
The manufacture of bleaching pow-
der is one of the leading chemical
industries of Great Britain. Its
principal commercial importance
consists in its use for bleaching paper
and linen. It is also much employed
in the manufacture of chloroform.

Blende. (Fr. Blende, Ger. Blende,
Sp. Blenda, sulfureto de zinck.)

The native sulphide of zinc, and
valuable as the ore from which zinc is
obtained. Though the name should
really be confined to zinc sulphide, it
is often given to various other minerals
when found combined with sulphur.
Its ordinary black colour is due to the
presence of iron, and on that account
EngUsh miners call it " Black Jack."
Blende is widely distributed throughout
the world.

Blind Coal.

A popular name for anthracite,
86

Bli]

world's commercial products.

[Bon

Blister Steel. (Fr. Acier pouU, Ger.
Blasenstahl, Sp. Acero de cementacion.)

A peculiar variety of steel of a fine
granulated texture, and marked on the
exterior with blister-like prominences.
It is formed in a furnace in the process
of converting bar-iron into steel. It
is particularly useful for making files
and tools of various descriptions.

Block Tin. (Fr. Etain commun, Ger.
Blockzinn, Sp. Tejo, pedazo de estano
puro, masa de estano como sale de la
ftmdicion).

An alloy of tin containing, in addi-
tion to tin, a mixture of iron, copper,
lead, arsenic, and antimony. This
alloy is what remains after crude tin
has been heated in a furnace, and the
pure or grain tin has fused and run off.

Blubber. (Fr. Lard de baleine, Ger.
Tran, Wallfischfeit, Sp. Grasa [aceite]
de ballena.)

The fat of whales and other marine
animals, but the name is often applied
to the membrane in which the oil or
fat is inclosed before it is boiled down
to extract the train oil.

Blue. (Fr. Bleu, Ger. Blduel, Sp.
Pala.)

The colour used either for purposes
of dyeing, or for tinting paper. As
a powder it is commonly used by
laundresses. Formerly blue was made
by a mixture of various chemical
compounds, but it is now derived from
coal tar as one of the aniline colours.

Blue Stone. (Fr. Vitriol de cuivre,
Ger. Blaustein, Sp. Piedra azul.)

This is the name by which sulphate
of copper is known in commerce. It
is prepared from copper pyrites.

Boards. (Fr. Planches, Ger. Bretter,
Sp. Tablas.)

When timber is sawn there is a
considerable difference in its tluckness.
If the thickness is less than nine inches
the pieces are known as boards ; above
that thickness they are called planks.

Bole. (Fr. Bol, terre bolaire, Ger.
Bolus, Sp. Bol arminico.)

A variety of clay, coloured red,
yellow, or brown, according to the
quantity of iron present. Its most
common constituents are ferric oxide
combined with a certain quantity of
silica, alumina, and water. It is found
in various parts of the world, but
chiefly in Saxony, Bohemia, Silesia,
Styria, and Italy. Bole itself is not

a well-defined mineral, and the name
has been given to various substances.
Armenian bole is of a fine, bright, red
colour ; bole of Blois is yellowish, and
contains carbonate of lime, whilst
French bole is of a pale red colour with
streaks of yellow. Bole was formerly
employed as a tonic, and its medicinal
properties were due to the quantity of
oxide of iron present in it. It is some-
times used in the manufacture of tooth
powder, but its chief use at the present
time is for adulterating various articles
of food, such as anchovies and cocoa,
which have naturally a reddish colour.

Bombazine. (Fr. Alepine, Ger.
Bombasin, Sp. Bombasi.)

A mixed fabric of silk and worsted,
the warp being silk and the weft
worsted. It is generally dyed black.
In make it is very fine and light. At
one time bombazine was used for
mourning, but of recent years it has
not been much worn. The chief seat
of its manufacture was and is Norwich.

Bone Black. (Fr. Charbon, noir
animal, Ger. Knochenkohle, Sp. Negro
de hueso.)

The product obtained from the
destructive distillation of bones. It
consists chiefly of phosphate of Ume
mixed with the carbon of the organic
matter of the bones. The bone black
is obtained by exposing bones placed
in covered pots to a red heat in a fur-
nace or kiln for some hours. It is
valuable in commerce owing to its
remarkable property of removing co-
louring matter from solutions of or-
ganic compounds. For this reason it
is largely employed by sugar refiners.
It is also used as a deoderiser owing to
its power of absorbing gases. When
thoroughly ground and mixed into a
paste with water and afterwards dried,
bone black is employed as a pigment
called " ivory black."

Bone Earth. (Fr. Phosphate de
chaux, Ger. Knochenasche, Sp. Ceniza
de hueso.)

Or bone ash. The mineral matter
remaining after the combustion of
bones. It contains from 70 to 80 per
cent, of calcium phosphate. It is
useful for polishing plate and other
articles, but it is mainly employed as a
constituent of various manures. Bone
earth is extensively imported into the
United Kingdom from South America,

27

Bor]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Bra

Boracic Acid. (Fr. Acide borique,
Get. Borsdure, Sp. Acido hordcico.)

A saline product obtained by
various processes from certain lagoons
in Tuscany. The annual product is
nearly four million pounds in weight.
Boracic acid is employed in the pre-
paration of certain kinds of glass, and
also as an antiseptic dressing for
wounds. Its chief use, however, is in
the making of borax.

Borax. (Fr. Borax, Ger. Borax, Sp.
Atincar, borax.)

A compound of boracic acid and
soda, colourless and crystalline. It
was formerly imported in its crude
state from India, but it also occurs
native in various parts of South
America. At the present time, how-
ever, borax is mainly obtained from
boracic acid. Its chemical symbol
is Na2B40,. To the chemist it is
valuable as a blow-pipe re-agent, and
in the arts and manufactures it is used
for glazing glass, enamel, and porcelain,
as a mordant in calico printing, and
as an ingredient of various toilet
articles. Lately it has been much
employed in the preservation of
meats, etc.

Bert. (Fr. Egrise'e, Ger. Diamanten-
staub, Sp. Polvo diamantino.)

The name given to certain dark
lustreless diamonds found in Brazilian
mines, also known as anthracite dia-
monds. As they possess the hardness
of the precious stone, they are used for
diamond rock-boring drills, and are also
employed by lapidaries in stone cut-
ting.

Boxwood. (Fr. Bois de buis, Ger.
Buchsbaumholz , Sp. Madera de boj.)

The wood of the box tree, which is
now cultivated in many parts of
Europe and Asia. The best kind is
obtained from Turkey in Asia and
Persia, the product of the Buxus
balearica. The wood is fine-grained,
smooth, and remarkably hard and
strong. It has a yellowish colour and
is capable of taking a beautiful polish.
Not only is it much in request by the
wood engraver and the turner, but it
is extremely valuable in the manufac-
ture of musical and mathematical
instruments.

Bran. (Fr. Son, Ger. Kleie, Sp.
Salvado. )

The outer covering or husk of wheat

28

which is obtained after the grain
has been ground and sifted. In
commerce it is generally found in thin,
scaly particles of a, yellowish brown
colour. Its percentage composition

s as follows : starch, 44 ; lignose and
cellulose, 17 ; fibrin, 15 ; water, 14 ;
ash, 6; and fat, 4. Though rich in
nitrogen, it has but slight nutritive
properties, but as it has the power of
converting starch into sugar very
quickly, bran is largely used in making
digestive bread. It is most commonly
employed as a food for cows and pigs,
and in making mash for horses. Calico
printers use it for the purpose of
removing colouring matter from those
parts of the cloth where it has not been
fixed in the fabric by a mordant. In
the practice of medicine bran is a valua-
ble medium for the external applica-
tion of heat.

Brandy. (Fr. Eau de vie, Ger.
Branntwein, Sp. Aguardiente),

The well known and important
alcoholic liquid spirit, distilled from
wine, especially in France and Ger-
many. It is sometimes known as
cognac and fine champagne. The best
qualities are generally distilled from
the white wines, and the inferior
qualities from the red. When ori-
ginally distilled, brandy is clear and
colourless, and remains so if it is kept
in glass vessels. If, however, it is
preserved in casks the spirit dissolves
the colouring matter in the wood, and
becomes yellowish. The brown-
coloured brandy is obtained by the
addition of caramel or burnt sugar. The
peculiar flavour and aroma are caused
by the presence of small quantities of
various ethers. The best brandies are
made in the country near Cognac, in
Charente. Brandy is prepared in
England from grain spirit, which is
flavoured to imitate cognac by the
addition of Hungarian oil or oenanthie
ether. On the continent there is
another preparation derived from
potato spirit, and this is extremely
injurious owing to the presence of fusel
oil. Latterly the beet has been utilised
for making brandy. The Germans
apply the name Branntwein to all
kinds of grain spirit, or spirit distilled
from various fruits — kirschbranntwein
or kirschwasser is derived from cherries
and their kernels. In England cherry

Bra]

world's commercial products.

LBri

brandy is brandy in which cherries
have been steeped and preserved.
The United States manufacture large
quantities of spurious brandies which
are exported to France and then re-
exported.

Brass. (Fr. Airain, bronze, Ger.
Gelbhupfer, Messing, Sp. Alambre.)

A valuable alloy ot copper and zinc,
of a more or less yellow colour. In
addition, the alloy frequently con
tains small quantities of iron, tin, or
lead. But the name brass has now
come to have a wider meaning and
includes not only bronze, but alloys
of copper and lead. Brass is man-
ufactured by combining the copper
and zinc directly, the proportions
in the commonest cases being 64
of the former metal and 36 of the
latter. Its specific gravity is 8-3. It
is easily fusible, very malleable, and
exceedingly ductile, and can be readily
cast into moulds, or rolled or ham-
mered into any shape required. Its
uses are very numerous, and the head-
quarters of the brass industry is
Birmingham.

Special names are given to certain
alloys of the brass kind. The principal
of these are Muntz metal and Gedge's
metal, which are used for sheathing
ships. The hardest of all the alloys is
called Sterro metal, which is composed
of 55 parts of copper, 42'4 of zinc,
0'8 of tin, and 1-8 of iron.
Brattice Cloth.

The name given to strong tarred
cloth or canvas, used in mines and
underground workings as partitions
and for promoting ventilation.

Brazil Nuts. (Fr. Noix de Brisil,
Ger. Bmsilnilsse, Sp. Nueces de
Brasil.)

The well known edible seeds of the
Bertholettia excelsa, a majestic tree
which grows extensively in the forests
on the banks of the Orinoco, and
in tropical America generally. The
seeds, or nuts, are enclosed in a hard
case. The nuts are exported from
Para in Brazil, and also from French
Guiana. Besides being used as a food,
Brazil nuts provide a valuable oil
which is esteemed in cooking and is
sometimes employed by watchmakers
and artists.

Brazil Wood. (Fr. Bois de Brasil,

Ger. Brasilholz, Sp. Madera (ie
Brasil.)

The dye-wood obtained principally
from the Caesalpinia echinata of the
West Indies, though a similar kind
of wood is obtained from Brazil, and
another, sometimes called Saffron
wood, from the East Indies. When
cut the wood is yellowish in colour,
but it soon assumes a deep red tint
after it has been exposed to the air.
The wood itself is very hard and
heavy. A dyeing solution is obtained
by reducing the wood to powder in a
mill, and extracting the colouring
matter by the action of boiling water.
The dye imparts a. bright crimson
colour to wools and silks, but the
colour is not a permanent one. The
solution is also used in the manu-
facture of red ink.

Briar Root. (Fr. Racine de ronce,
Ger. Hagebuttenwurzel, Sp. Raiz de
escaramujo.)

The roots of a climbing plant found
in North America — Smilax rotundi-
lolia. The wood is fine and hard,
and its use is almost confined to the
manufacture of bowls for tobacco
pipes, of which several millions are
turned out annually. Latterly the
laurel root has been largely substituted
for the briar root. Briar roots are also
imported into England from the Py-
renees, from Corsica, and from Al-
geria. These last are, however, the
roots of a species of heath — Erica
arborea.

Bricks. (Fr. Briques, Ger. Ziegel-
steine, Sp. Ladrillos.)

Masses of baked earth or clay,
moulded into regular shapes, and
used for building purposes. The ma-
terials employed are ordinary clay,
loam or sandy clay, and marl or clay
containing a certEiin quantity of lime.
These substances are carefully mixed
together, and the whole baked in kilns.
Although manufacture by hand is still
largely carried on, bricks are now made
in immense quantities by machinery.
They differ considerably in quality
and in their properties according to
the districts in which they are manu-
factured, and the purposes for which
they are required. The most ordinary
distinction, however, is between com-
mon and fire bricks, the latter, as
being required to withstand high

29

Bri]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Bro

temperatures, having as little lime and
magnesia in their composition as pos-
sible. The general size of bricks is
9 inches long, 4 J inches broad, and 3
inches thick. Hard burnt bricks, used
for paving yards and stables, and in
size 6 by 3 by 1 inches, are imported
from Holland and known as Dutch
bricks.

Brick Tea. {Fr.Th^ en briques, Ger.
Tartarentee, Sp. Ti de Tibet.)

The name given to tea which is
compressed into blocks or slabs. There
is a large trade in this tea between
China and Russia, but the article does
not enter into English commerce.

Brie. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Brie.)

The name of a fancy cheese manu-
factured on the continent, and parti-
cularly in France. It has a rough
exterior, and has the appearance of
an ordinary pancake. The price of
brie is. very cheap. It is consumed
very largely on the continent, and the
export trade in the article from France
to England is also considerable.

Brill. (Fr. Barbue, Ger. Heiligbutte,
Sp. Mero.)

A sea fish of the same species as the
turbot, for which it is often substituted,
and a characteristic British food. It
is neither so delicate nor so firm as the
turbot, and it is seldom of more than
8 lbs. in weight. It is caught in large
numbers off the shores of England
and Wales, as well as off the coasts of
northern European countries.

Brimstone. (Fr. Soufre, Ger. Schwe-
fel, Sp. Azufre.)

The commercial name of sulphur,
when made into sticks or rolls. (See
Sulphur.)

Briquettes. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Briquettes.)

Masses of artificial fuel shaped like
common building bricks, though gen-
erally double their size, and weighing
about 10 lbs. each. Briquettes are
made of small coal combined with a
certain proportion of pitch. The coal
is first cleaned, and the combination
with pitch is effected in what are known
as " pug mills." The chief value of
the briquette lies in its smouldering
qualities, which make it particularly
useful for household purposes, and the
heat given out is equal to that of coal.
In burning there is hardly any smell.
Latterly this form of fuel has been

used for heating the boilers of locomo-
tives and marine engines, and it is now
also employed for puddling furnaces.
France, the original seat of the manu-
facture, still turns out briquettes in
great numbers, but there is a large
trade in them in South Wales.

Bristles. (Fr. Soies, Ger. Schweim-
borsten, Sp. Cerdas, Setas.)

The stiff hairs of various mammals,
especially those of the wild boar and the
hog. Bristles are imported in enormous
quantities into England for the pur-
pose of brush-making, and they are
also used by shoemakers and saddlers.
France, Germany, Holland, Belgium,
and China do a large trade in this
commodity, but the best and most
valuable come from Russia in Europe,
and from Siberia. The suppUes ob-
tained from the United States are in-
creasing year by year. The value of
bristles varies from £8 to £G0 per cwt.

Britannia Metal (Fr. Britannia
metal, metal anglais, Ger. Britannia-
metall, Sp. Metal ingles.)

An alloy of a silver-white colour
composed of tin, copper, zinc, antimony
and bismuth (and sometimes lead) in
varying proportions. It is a com-
position which lends itself easily to
what is known as " metal spinning,"
and has long been employed for the
manufacture of jugs, pots, covers,
dishes, spoons, etc. It forms a good
ground for electro-plating with silver,
and is therefore in great demand in
Birmingham and Sheffield.

Broad Cloths.

A fine kind of woollen fulled cloth
used for men's garments. It is manu-
factured in lengths with a width of
about 30 inches.

Brocade. (Fr. Brocart, Ger. Brocat,
Sp. Brocado.)

A species of embroidered silk stuff,
raised and enriched by flowers and
figures, and into which gold or silver
thread is often woven. Modern bro-
cades are frequently manufactured
without the gold or silver thread.
Originally a Chinese manufacture,
the trade in brocade has passed to
Europe, and especially France. Bro-
cades are now mainly used as uphol-
stery cloths for furniture and hangings.

Broccoli. (Fr. Brocoli, Ger. Spargel-
kohl, Sp. Broculi.)

The well-known garden vegetable.

33

Brol

world's commercial products.

[Buc

a variety of cabbage. It resembles
the cauliflower in many respects, but
differs from it in having a coloured
instead of a white head, and also in
having leaves of a deeper tinge. It
is also hardier in its constitution, and
can withstand all but the most severe
winters. The trade in broccoU is very
extensive in the early parts of the year,
and the main suppUes are derived from
the district round Penzance.

Bromine. (Fr. Brome, Ger. Brom,
Sp. Bromo.)

The only chemical element, except
mercury, which is liquid at the ordin-
ary temperature. It is obtained from
sea water and kelp, though it is also
found in certain springs, especially at
Kreuznach and Kissingen, in Germany.
Its specific gravity is 2'9, and it boils
at a temperature of 58° C. Bromine
is a heavy red liquid, possessing a
peculiar and disagreeable smell, and
is an irritating and corrosive poison.
It combines readily with all the
elements, and has a special affinity
for hydrogen. Many of its compounds
are valuable in the arts, and bromide
of silver is in great request in photo-
graphy. Its most important use is in
medicine, in the form of bromide of
potassium, as it acts as a sedative.

Bronze. (Fr. Bronze, Ger. Bronze,
Sp. Bronce.) '

Under the name of bronze all alloys
of copper and tin are generally inclu-
ded, not only the bronze used for
ornaments and coins, but also such
substances as gun metal, bell metal,
and speculum metal. The colour
and the properties of this valu-
able composition differ according to
the proportions of the copper and tin
introduced into its manufacture. It
is extensively used in the arts and
manufactures, and is particularly valu-
able for castings. A peculiar kind of
bronze is known as phosphor bronze,
in which the copper is mixed with tin
phosphide, instead of the ordinary
metal. The compound thus obtained
is more homogeneous, much harder, and
of greater tenacity than common bronze,
and is best suited for engineering and
mechanical works.

Broom Corn.

A species of grass, now largely culti-
vated in North America, especially in
the United States, for the sake of the

tops of its stems and branches, which
are made into whisks and brooms. The
area under cultivation in the United
States is constantly increasing, and the
annual value of the exports to England
exceeds ;i40,000.

Brushes. (Fr. Brasses, Ger. Bursten,
Sp. Cepillos, bruzas.)

Among the commonest of domestic
articles. The manufacture is one of
considerable magnitude, and is exceed-
ingly widespread. The materials used
are very varied ; some are of animal
origin, as hog's bristles, and the hair
of numerous animals, others are of
vegetable origin, as the fibre of the
aloe, the cocoanut, esparto grass, and
the like, and there are also brushes of
steel and brass wire for particular
purposes. All kinds of wood, ivory,
tortoise-shell, and metals are used for
the backs and handles. Brushes are
now mainly made by machinery, hardly
a single process being carried out by
hand.

Brussels Sprouts. (Fr. ■ Choux de
Bruxelles, Ger. Kohlsprossen, Sp. Bre-
tones. )

A hardy winter vegetable, belonging
to the same class as the cabbage. The
sprouts are in the shape of small cab-
bages, which are composed of clusters
of leaves. The cultivation of the vege-
table is carried on chiefly in the district
near Brussels, and large quantities are
imported into the United Kingdom
from Belgium. It is generally sup-
posed that the Brussels sprouts cul-
tivated in the United Kingdom are
much inferior in quaUty to those
grown on the continent.

Buckskin. (Fr. Cuir de biUer, Ger.
Bocksfell, Buckskin, Sp. Piel de cobra.)

The tanned skin of goats, sheep,
and deer. The name is also given to
a species of strong, twilled, woollen
cloth, used for trouserings.

Buckwheat, (Fr. Sarrasin, bU noir,
Ger. Buchweizen, Heidehorn, Sp.
Alforfon.)

The seed of the Fagopyrum escu-
lentum. It is largely grown on the
continent and in the United States,
but only to a slight extent in England.
Here it is of Uttle use except for feed-
ing pheasants, but in other parts of
the world it forms a food stuff, and is
said to be exceedingly nutritious, su-
perior to rice, and only slightly inferior

31

Buf]

world's commercial products.

[But

to wheat. Beer is made from it, and
it is not unknown in gin distilleries.
The husks are sometimes used as a
packing material.

Buffalo Horns. (Fr. Cornes de
buffle. Get. Buffelhorner, Sp. Cuernos
de bufalo.)

The black and heavy horns of the
Indian buffalo, largely imported from
India for making combs.

Buff Leather. (Fr. Buffle, Ger. Buf-
felleder, Sp. Cuero de bufalo.)

Strong oiled leather, made from the
salted and dried hides of South Ameri-
can oxen. It is prepared by a process
of oiUng, without the use of any tan-
ning material. The colour is given
to it by dipping the hides in an infu-
sion of oak bark. The leather is strong
and durable, and at the same time
pliant, and not Uable to crack or rot.
It is largely used for manufacturing
purposes, especially in the making of
army belts, etc.

Butter. (Fr. Beune, Ger. Butter,
Sp. Manteca.)

The solid fat which is obtained
from the milk of all mammals. For
commercial purposes, however, the
only butter which is met with is that
made from the milk of cows. The
fat is contained in very small globules
in new milk, enclosed in a thin sac or
membrane, and these globules rise to
the surface as cream. Generally the
cream is removed and subjected to a
prolonged agitation in a chum. This
agitation ruptures the membranes and
the particles of fat coalesce. Some-
times a Uttle hot water is added to the
cream, or the chum is placed in a hot-
water bath. The fat is then kneaded
and pressed, and butter is the
result. Butter is also prepared from
new milk itself before the cream has
been separated. The chief principles
of butter are stearine, margarine, and
olein, together with small portions of
casein, and butyric and caproic acids,
the last mentioned giving the peculiar
aroma and taste. The colour is either
white or yellow, depending upon the
quality of the milk and cream used,
which quaUty varies with the feeding
of the cows and the districts in which
the butter is prepared. Sometimes, and
especially for inferior kinds of butter,
amotto is employed as a colouring
matter. Owing to the fermentation

of the nitrogenous casein, butter quick-
ly becomes rancid unless it is salted.
The salting is best done by using a
mixture of nitre, sugar, and salt.
Adulteration is common, lard, flour
or potato starch, and other substances
being mixed up with it. To increase
its weight water is often added.

There is an extensive trade carried
on in this article. England is, in pro-
portion to its population, the greatest
consumer of butter in the world, and
in addition to that which is home-
made thousands of tons are annually
imported from France, Denmark,
Holland, and the United States.
Ireland not only supplies the wants of
its own population, but also exports a
considerable quantity.

Butterine is a mixture of animal fats
with a certain amount of butter added.
When well made it is not easy to dis-
tinguish butterine from good butter,
except by chemical analysis; It is sold
as margarine. To prevent the frequent
imposition practised by selUng but-
terine as butter, an Act of ParUament
was passed in 1887 regulating the sale
of this article. It is chiefly imported
from Holland.

Buttermilk is the residue after the
cream or new milk has been churned
in the preparation of butter. Although
the main portion of the fatty sub-
stances in the milk has been removed,
the liquid which remains is a very
nutritious, healthy, and digestive bev-
erage. It is largely drunk in the coun-
try districts of England, but more so
in Scotland and Ireland. It possesses
a slightly acid taste which has been
developed in the churning of the cream.
Button. (Fr. Bouton, Ger. Knopf,
Sp. Boton.)

Buttons used as a fastening or an or-
namentation, have been employed for
ages. They are made from varieties of
materials, and by various processes.
The principal kinds are (1) pearl and
other turned buttons, (2) metal
buttons, (3) covered buttons, and (4)
fancy buttons. The chief seats of
manufacture are Birmingham, Paris,
Lyons, Vienna, and several German
towns. German competition is seri-
ously aflEecting the manufacture in
other countries. In the United States
the manufacture of buttons is carried
on at New York and Philadelphia.

32

But]

WORLD'S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Caj

Butyric Ether. (Fr. lather butyrique,
Ger. Butterdther, Sp. Eter mantecoso.)

A compound formed by the action
of butyric acid on alcohols, but for
commercial purposes it can be made
from butter. The butter is mixed
with potash, the compound dissolved
in alcohol, and afterwards distilled
with sulphuric acid. Its chemical
symbol is CjH5C4H70a. Butyric Ether
possesses the flavour of pine-apples,
and it is sold as Pine-apple Oil. It is
largely used in flavouring sweets and
other confections, and in the manufac-
ture of Hne-Apple Ale. It is also
employed very largely in the prepara-
tion of compound perfumes.

Cabbage. (Fr. Chou, Ger. Kohl, Sp.
Berza, col.)

The well-known plant cultivated
both for cuUnary purposes and for
feeding cattle, not only in Great Britain
but in nearly every temperate region
of the world. By careful cultivation
in good and well manured soils a supply
can be obtained all the year round.
Although extremely pleasant in most
forms cabbage is not a very nutritious
food, every variety, of which there
are numerous, containing nearly 90 per
cent, of water. The principal species
are the Savoy, Cauliflower, Brussels
Sprouts, and Broccoli. Red cabbage
is a distinct variety, chiefly remark-
able for the reddish purple colour of
its leaves. It is chiefly used for pic-
kling. In Germany salted cabbage,
or sauerkraut, is highly esteemed.

Cable. (Fr. Cable, Ger. Kabd,
Schiffstau, Sp. Cable.)

A large rope or a chain of iron Unks,
chiefly employed on ships for the pur-
pose of suspending or retaining anchors.
Rope cables are made of the best hemp,
carefully twisted with the utmost
compactness to give the greatest pos-
sible strength. They vary in thick-
ness according to requirements. Re-
cently wire rope has been coming into
common use as a substitute for hemp
cables, especially for towing purposes.
The wires used are generally twisted
round a hempen core, and have been
galvanised beforehand. Hemp and wire
will probably soon give place almost
entirely to chain cables. These are
made of oval welded links, manufac-
tured from wrought iron, each link
being fitted with a cross piece, or as

3-(u84)

it is commonly called a stud, to pre-
vent the sides being drawn together
by the pull exerted upon the link. By
law all chain cables are required to
be tested before being used. The
length of a hemp cable is 120 fathoms,
that of a chain cable 100 fathoms.

The name is also applied technically
to the metallic core and its insulating
surrounding used in oceanic telegraphy.

Cadmium. (Fr. Cadmium, Ger.
Cadmium, Sp. Cadmio.)

A white metal occurring in small
quantities in certain ores of zinc. In
appearance it bears a strong resemblance
to tin, but is much harder. Soft, mal-
leable, and ductile at ordinary tem-
peratures it is easily melted and tar-
nishes but slightly. When strongly
heated it bums. Its specific gravity
is 8'6. Though cadmium is not itself
used as a metal, several of its com-
pounds are valuable in medicine and
in the arts. Iodide and bromide of
cadmium are employed in photogra-
phy, and sulphide of cadmium (gener-
ally known as cadmium yellow) is of
great value to the artist.
^ Caffeine. (Fr. CafHue, Ger. Kaf-
fe'in, Kaffeestoff, Sp. Cafeina.)

Or Theine. An alkaloid, the active
principle in coffee, tea, mate, or Para-
guayan tea, guarana, and other plants.
It is strongest in coffee, which contains
8 per cent., whereas tea has only a
little over 2 per cent. When isolated,
caffeine forms beautiful white crystals
with silky lustre, which are soluble in
water, ether, and alcohol. It is ex-
tracted either from coffee or tea by
making a decoction in hot water and
adding acetate of lead. The taste is
extremely bitter. Latterly it has
been used medicinally as a powerful
stimulant of the heart's action, whilst
citrate of caffeine is given for the re-
lief of sick headache. Its chemical
symbol is CsH.oN+O'HjO. It is the
presence of caffeine which makes tea
and coffee valuable as articles of diet.

Cajeput. (Fr. Cajeput, Ger. Cafe-
put, Sp. Cayeput.)

A tree of the myrtle order, Mela-
leuca minor, which grows in the East
Indies. It is valuable on account of
its leaves, from which an aromatic,
volatile oil, called Cajeput oil, is ob-
tained by distillation. The colour of
the oil is green, which is partly owing

33

Cal]

WORLD S COMMERCIAI. PRODUCTS.

[Can

to the presence of small quantities
of copper. It is closely akin to euca-
lyptus oil. In the East Cajeput oil is
used as a kind of universal remedy.
In Europe it is employed medicinally
as a stimulant and diaphoretic. The
name Cajeput is sometimes given to a
Califomian tree, Umbellularia Cali-
fornica, the wood of which is valuable
for the manufacture of cabinets.

Calambac. (Fr. Calambac, Ger. Ka-
lambak, Sp. Calambac,)

The Aioexylon agallochum, a tree
of Mexico. The wood of the tree is
extremely odoriferous, and is much
employed in perfumery.

Calcedony. (See Chalcedony.)

Calcium. (Fr. Calcium, Ger. Cal-
cium, Sp. Calcio.)

The metal present in chalk, stucco,
and various compounds of lime. It
is very widely distributed throughout
the globe, though never found pure.
It can be most easily prepared by
passing an electric current , through
fused chloride of calcium, the metal
then separating from the compound.
Calcium is pale yellow in colour, and
can be rolled or hammered into very
thin sheets or plates. Its specific gravity
is r578. Though of no commercial
use alone, the compounds of calcium are
very valuable. The oxide forms lime,
and when water is added slaked lime.
The sulphide is employed in the manu-
facture of luminous paint, whilst the
sulphate is the chief constituent of
gypsum.

Calomel. (Fr. Protochlorure de mer-
cure, calomel, Ger. Kalomel, Sp. Calomel.)

Known also as mild muriate of mer-
cury, and subchloride of mercury.
Calomel is the popular name of this
compound of mercury and chlorine.
It is prepared in various ways, the
simplest being by heating sulphate
of mercury with metallic mercury and
common salt. The calomel is separa-
ted by sublimation, and sulphate of
soda remains. It is a white powder,
insoluble in water and only slightly
soluble in acids. It is the most valu-
able of the mercurial preparations used
in medicine.

Camomile. (Fr. Camomille, Ger.
Kamille, Sp. Magarza.)

A genus of plant belonging to the
family Compositae. There are several
species found in England, and some of

these are valuable in medicine as tonics
and stomachics, the best of all being
known as the Anthemis nobilis which is
cultivated at Mitcham, in Surrey. Its
medicinal properties are owing to the
presence of an essential oil which is
obtained by distillation. Camomile
is sometimes used fraudulently and
illegally instead of hops in the
brewing of ale.

Camphor. (Fr. Camphre, Ger.
Kampher, Sp. Alcanfor.)

A soUd essential oil found in many
plants, but extracted for commercial
purposes from a kind of laurel {Cin-
namomum camphora) which abounds
in China and Japan, and which has
been introduced into Java and also into
the West Indies. To obtain the cam-
phor the wood of the tree is cut into
small pieces and boiled in water, the
camphor rises with the steam and con-
denses at the top of the vessel. In its
rough state it is exported to Europe,
where it is again purified and refined
by heating and condensing the vapour.
When pure, camphor is a white, soft,
semi-transparent body, with a peculi-
arly strong aromatic odour, and a bitter
burning taste. It is slightly lighter
than water and only dissolves in that
liquid to a very small extent, forming
camphor water. It is however, readily
soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and
essential oils. Inflammable, it bums
with a white smoky flame. The wood of
the camphor tree, as it is sometimes
called, is valued by the cabinet
maker.

The chemical symbol of camphor is
CioH.sO. Its medicinal properties have
long been known, and it is used for
external application as well as inter-
nally for various complaints. Owing
to its strong odour it is employed in
the preservation of natural history
specimens for driving off insects. The
fumes of camphor have long been
recognised as of great antiseptic
value.

Canada Balsam. (Fr. Baume du
Canada, Gfer. Canada-Balsam, Sp.
Arbol de Canade.)

This is not really a balsam at all, but
a kind of turpentine which is obtained
from the Pinus balsamea, a native of
Canada and the northern parts of the
United States. It is contained in re-
ceptacles between the bark and the

34

Can]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Can

wood, and flows out when an incision
is made in the tree. Its colour is pale
yellow, its odour agreeable, and its
taste bitter. After a slight exposure
it becomes solid. It consists mainly
of resin and about 20 per cent, of a
volatile oil. Its medicinal value is no
longer recognised, but it is much used
in the arts, for making varnishes, for
mounting objects for the microscope,
and by opticians for cementing glasses.
Its value for the last mentioned purpose
is particularly great, as the balsam is
perfectly transparent and the refractive
power which it possesses is nearly equal
to that of glass.

Canary. (Fr. Serin, Ger. Kanarien-
vogel, Sp. Canario.)

The well-known cage bird. It breeds
freely in England, but there is a
large annual importation of canaries
from the continent, though it is
impossible to ascertain the number.
The bird is found in Madeira and
the Canary Islands, but it is in the
Tyrol that a particular business has
been made of the breeding. Of those
reared in England the hardiest varie-
ties are the Norwich, and the largest
the 'Lancashire Coppies. By means of
variations in feeding, artificial changes
in colour may be effected. The ordi-
nary food for canaries is canary seed,
the small seeds of the Phalaris canari-
ensis, imported from Spain, Portugal,
and Morocco, though a good kind is
obtained from Turkey. Canary seed
is also used for the preparation of a
fine flour which is valuable in finishing
silk fabrics.

Candle. (Fr. Chandelle, bougie,
Ger. Licht, Talglicht, Wachslicht, Sp.
Candela, vela.)

A cylinder or rod of wax, paraffin,
or fatty substances surrounding a
wick, and used for the purpose of
lighting.

Wax candles are manufactured by a
process called basting and rolling,
and not by moulding, the means
used for turning out the commoner
sort made of taUow or paraffin,
since the wax adheres to the moulds.
The wax is poured over a series of
wicks suspended from a ring rotating
horizontally over a cauldron. The
candles are afterwards rolled between
marble slabs into a smooth cylindrical
form ajid trimmed according to taste

by knives. Wax candles are still largely
used in religious worship, but are not
much employed domestically, their
place, as well as that of sperm candles
(which are made from a mixture com-
posed of spermaceti and bees-wax),
having been taken by those made from
stearine. Stearine is the commercial
name for stearic and palmitic acids
and mixtures of them, substances ob-
tained from animal and vegetable fats.
Stearine candles are very common on
the continent.

Common candles are made by dipping
and moulding, though the latter is the
process more generally used. In the
dipping a number of twisted wicks,
attached to a rod, are dipped repeatedly
into a cauldron of melted tallow, and
the tallow taken up allowed to solidify.
The dipping is repeated until the re-
quired thickness has been attained.
In moulding, moulds made of pewter
or glass are arranged in a wooden frame
which shape the candles. The wicks
are stretched along the axes of the
moulds and suspended, and the melted
tallow poured into the moulds.

The paraffin which is now employed
so largely in the manufacture of can-
dles is obtained from bituminous shale
and other mineral substances.

Machinery has been introduced for
the whole process of manufacture, and
the great care and trouble bestowed
upon this industry have given rise to
the production of a large variety of '
these artificial Ughting substances.

Millions of pounds of candles are
exported and imported annually.

Candleberry. (Fr. Baie de laurier,
Ger. Lorbeer, Sp. Bayadel laurel.)

A small tree or shrub which is a na-
tive of the United States, but which
has been naturalised in South Africa.
It is known by various names — Candle-
berry Myrtle, Wax Tree, Wax Myrtle,
Tallow Tree, Bayberry. The berries,
when ripe, are covered with greenish
white wax, which is collected by boil-
ing them, and skimming the surface of
the water in which they have been im-
mersed. The wax is afterwards melted
and refined. It is used sometimes in
the manufacture of candles, which burn
slowly with a small light and little
smoke, and give out an agreeable odour.
Scented soap can also be made from
the wax.

35

Can]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Cap

Cane. (Fr. Canne, Get. liohr, Sp.
Cana.)

The common name used in commerce
for the stems of various grasses and
palms. Bamboo, reed, and sugar
canes are the stems of grasses. Rattan,
Mallaca, and Tobago canes, imported
for walking and umbrella sticks, are
the stems of palms.

Cannel Coal. (See Coal.)

Cantharides. (Fr. Cantharides,
mouches d'Espagne, Ger. Blasenkafer,
Kanthariden, spanische Fliegen, Sp.
Cantaridas.)

The plural form of caniharis. The
name is given to various blistering
beetles. The chief European species
is the green Lytta vesicatoria, commonly-
called " Spanish Fly," and this is the
only one used medicinally. It has an
extremely nauseous odour. Impor-
tations take place from Spain and
Italy, but the greater part comes from
Hungary. The insects are caught and
preserved in well stoppered bottles, a
little acetic acid being put in with them.
When reduced to a fine powder they
can scarcely be detected. Canthari-
dine is the crystalline substance con-
tained in the beetle, and is the chief
ingredient of all blistering fluids and
the constituent of most stimulating
hair-washes. It is exceedingly poison-
ous, and its internal use requires great
care. The other principal species are
the Chinese (Mylabns cichorii) and
the Japanese (Epicauta gorrhami).

Canvas. (Fr. Canevas, Ger. Canevas,
Sp. Cahamaza.)

A strong cloth made of linen, cotton,
or hemp. The name is derived from
the scientific term for hemp — Canna-
bis. The finer is used for needlework,
and the coarser for tent-coverings, sails
of ships, etc. The canvas employed
by artists is primed, or grounded a
neutral grey, before being worked upon.
There are certain recognised sizes of
artists' canvases, as kit-cat, 28 by 36
inches ; three-quarters, 25 by 30
inches ; half length, 40 by 50 inches ;
Bishop's half length, 44 by 56 inches ;
and Bishop's whole length, 58 by 94
inches.

Most of the canvas of commerce is
manufactured in France, especially at
the town of Flers, in the department
of Ome. Canvas for needlework and
tapestry is made at Beauvais and Paris.

Caoutchouc. (Fr. Caoutchouc, Ger.
Kautsckuk, Sp. Resina eldstica.)

An important elastic gum, commonly
known as india-rubber. It is the sap
or juice obtained from a variety of
trees growing in the tropics. When the
sap or juice flows it is like thin cream,
but it gradually thickens upon exposure
to the air. A mould of wood is then
dipped into the juice, and exposed to
the heat and smoke of a wood fire. The
layer obtained coagulates, and this
process is continued until the mass has
attained the requisite thickness. The
mould is then removed, and the india-
rubber or caoutchouc is dried before
being sent into the market. The
principal supplies were formerly ob-
tained from Brazil ; but extensive
plantations have been recently estab-
lished in Asia and Africa, as well as
in northern Australia.

Caoutchouc is a pure hydro-carbon.
When carefully prepared it is white,
but usually it has a brown or brownish-
black colour. It is lighter than water,
and though it does not dissolve in
water it is soluble in essential oil and
other solvents. It is tenacious and
elastic, being very soft and pliant
when gently warmed. It bums with
a bright smoky flame and gives out a
most unpleasant odour.

Vulcanised caoutchouc is a mixture
of caoutchouc and flowers of sulphur,
or sulphide of antimony. The mix-
ture is exposed to a high temperature
for a few hours, when an entirely new
substance is produced. This vulcan-
isation renders the caoutchouc more
elastic and less porous, and especially
valuable for manufacturing purposes.
If the quantity of sulphur is increased
and the temperature raised higher,
a hard black homy substance called
ebonite or vulcanite is the result.

Caoutchouc, either alone or modi-
fied, is used for an immense number
of purposes. Amongst these may be
mentioned springs and buffers, gas
and water pipes, fire hose, door mats,
dolls, machine belting, all sorts of
water -proof coverings, cushions, beds,
etc. Vulcanite or ebonite is employed,
in the manufacture of electrical appli-
ances, combs, chemical apparatus,
stethoscopes, speaking tubes, etc.

Capers. (Fr. Cipres, Ger. Kappern,
Sp. Alcaparas.)

36

Cap]

world's commercial products.

[Car

The flower buds and young berries
of the caper-bush — Capparis spinosa.
The caper-bush bears a strong resem-
blance to the bramble. The buds and
berries are pickled in salted vinegar
as soon as they are gathered, and then
become the capers of commerce. Their
colour is greyish-green, to attain which
a little copper is sometimes added.
Capers are a favourite condiment and
ingredient in sauces, etc. They are
chiefly grown in the south of France
and in Italy, and the principal export
trade is carried on at Toulon, Marseilles,
and Grasse.

Capsicum. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Capsicum. )

The name of a genus of shrubby
bushes of the order Solanaceae, prized
on account of its fruit and seeds. The
fruit is very variable in form, size, and
colour, but red and yellow are its
prevailing colours when ripe. The
seeds are extremely pungent, and are
used for sauces and mixed pickles, the
latter being generally known as Mexi-
can Chillies. When dried and ground
the resulting substance is cayenne
pepper. The properties of capsicum
are owing to capsicine, a thick, light
brown Uquid. The capsicum plants
are common in tropical and sub-tropi-
cal countries.

Caramel. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Cara-
mel.)

The spongy substance produced when
sugar is heated to a temperature of
220° C. It is dark brown in colour,
and is one of the causes of the
colour of porter and of infusions of
coffee. It is also used to colour whisky,
wines, vinegar, etc. The brown pro-
duced on the outside when meat is
roasted is a form of caramel, and this
article is used by cooks to give a darker
appearance to gravy. Caramel is
nearly tasteless, but what slight flavour
it possesses is detected in toast.

Caraway. (Fr. Cumin de pres, Ger.
Kilmmel, Sp. Comino.)

A species of Vmbelliferae. The plant
is valued and largely cultivated in many
parts of Europe for the sake of its seeds.
These seeds are sharp and somewhat
pungent, and their properties are due
to a volatile oil which can be extracted
from them. They are useful to the
cook and confectioner as a flavouring
ingredient, and also to manufacturers

of scented soaps and perfumes. From
the seeds the Uqueur Kiimmelhrannt-
wein is prepared.

Carbolic Acid. (Fr. Acide carho-
lique, phi-nol, Ger. Karbolsdare, Phenol,
Sp. Acido finico.)

Also called Phenol. It is not a true
acid. It is prepared from coal-tar,
being an oily liquid at a high tempera-
ture, and, when pure, a colourless white
crystalUne compound at ordinary tem-
peratures. Its chemical symbol is
CeHjOH. In solution carbolic acid
is an excellent antiseptic and a pre-
ventative of decomposition in animal
and vegetable substances. It acts as
an irritant poison if taken in any quan-
tity. It is the source of various col-
ouring matters.

Cardamom. (Fr. Cardamoms, Ger.
Kardamom, Sp. Cardamomo.)

The name applied to the aromatic
seed fruit of certain plants belonging
to the order Zingiber acecB, which flour-
ish in the East Indies. The seeds are
used for making a pleasant cordial,
and for rendering medicines more pala-
table, their virtue depending upon the
presence of a volatile oil.

Carob. (Fr. Caroube, carouge,
cariobe, Ger. Karobbaum, Johannis-
brodbaum, Sp. Algarrobo.)

This tree is of the order Leguminosae,
and is found near the shores of the
Mediterranean. It is somewhat like
the apple tree in size and appearance.
The pods are known as carob-beans,
and contain a sweet and nutritious
pulp. They are one of the commonest
ingredients of cattle foods. In Spain
and Italy a strong spirit is made from
them, as well as a Uqueur. Other
names of carob-beans are locust pods
or locust beans and St. John's bread.

Carpet. (Fr. Tapis, Ger. Teppich,
Sp. Tapete.)

A woollen, worsted, or mixed fabric
used for the covering of floors. The
manufacture of carpets dates from the
earUest times, Persian and Indian
carpets being specially noted, and
to-day these carpets are highly valued
for their beauty and finish. Persian
pile carpets are made by knotting
tufts of woollen yarn on the warp
threads, the tufts being held in their
place by the woof yarn. The finest
are made in Kurdistan. In India the
industry is very widely spread, and

37

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[Car

Persian influence is clearly shown.
Silk and velvet are also used as mate-
rials for carpet making in India, and
in Bengal and northern India even
cotton enters into their composition.
Turkey carpets were introduced to
western Europe after the Crusades.
These are made much like those of
Persia and India, though the patterns
are different — the most characteristic
being diamond shapes and zigzags.
The arrangement of colours produces a
rich effect. They are made chiefly at
Ushak, near Smyrna, and the exports
from Smyrna to England exceed those
to any other country.

Britain is the great headquarters of
the manufacture of carpets, and besides
those required for home use immense
numbers are exported abroad, the
value exceeding one milUon and a
quarter sterling per annum. The
principal seats of manufacture are
Kidderminster, Halifax, Leeds, Kil-
marnock, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and
Dundee. The following are the chief
kinds : —

1. Kidderminster. This is the old-
est kind of machine made carpet, also
known by the name of Scotch, and
manufactured mainly at Kilmarnock.
The carpets are either two-ply or
three-ply, that is, they consist of two
or three webs interwoven to form one
piece, the weaving being done by the
Jacquard loom. The patterns are
produced by the different coloured
webs.

2. Brussels. In these carpets wool
is the main ingredient, with a back
composed of stout linen thread. The
pattern is produced by a surface of
coloured worsted warp threads being
woven down into the Unen. A variety
of Brussels carpets is the velvet pile
or Wilton carpet, so prepared as to
give the surface a velvet-like appear-
ance.

3. Tapestry. These carpets are
made by printing the warp yarn before
weaving, and so dispensing with the
use of much of the apparatus required
for Brussels carpets.

4. Axminster. The original Ax-
minster carpets were imitations of
Turkey carpets. In 1839, however,
a patent was obtained for the manu-
facture of the most durable of all car-
pets. These have been commonly

used in this country for more than
half a century, and an improvement
has recently been made by the intro-
duction of Royal Axminster.

5. Jute. These are the cheapest of
all carpets, since the fibre of jute is
not very durable, nor is it easily dyed.
They are made principally at Dundee.

Carrageen, (Fr. Mousse d'Irlande,
mousse marine perlee, Ger. Karragheen,
irldndisches Moos, Sp. Carrageen, musco
Irlandes.)

Also called Irish moss, the name of
a species of seaweed — Chondrus cris-
pus. The seaweed is collected and
washed in fresh water, and afterwards
bleached and dried. It is then white
or yellow in colour. When boiled with
milk it forms a stiff jelly, which is valu-
able in cases of consumption and simi-
lar maladies on account of its nutritive
properties. It is also employed for
feeding cattle, and in the manufac-
ture of paper, cloth, felt, straw hats,
and for stuffing mattresses. Though
obtainable off the coasts of Ireland,
carrageen is chiefly imported from
the United States.

Carrara Marble. (Fr. Marbre de
Carrare, Ger. Karrarischer Marmor, Sp.
Marmot del Carrara.)

The beautiful marble obtained from
the numerous quarries in the neigh-
bourhood of Carrara, a small town
near Leghorn, in the north of Italy.
It is a white saccharoid limestone, and
its value to the sculptor consists in
its texture, purity, and durabiUty. It
is estimated that more than 150,000
tons are annually exported, of which
the United States take more than one-
fourth.

Carrot. (Fr. Carotte, Ger. Carotte,
Sp. Zanahoria.)

The well-known vegetable cultivated
for the sake of its root. It is a
biennial plant, and is found in various
parts of the world. It thrives best in
sandy or peaty soils. In colour it is
generally red, though varieties of
an orange or yellowish white are found.
It is not very nutritive, but easy of
digestion. Besides its use as a vege-
table, the carrot is roasted and ground
in Germany and substituted for coffee,
a syrup is sometimes prepared from
it, and even an ardent spirit may be
obtained from it by distillation and
fermentation.

38

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Cascarilla. (Fr. Cascarille, Ger. Cas-
carille, Sp. Cascarilla.)

The Spanish name for " little bark,"
given to the bark of the Croion Elu-
teria, a small tree which grows in the
West Indies. The bark is used for
making incense and pastilles, and is
imported mainly from the Bahama
Islands. In Germany cascarilla bark
is sometimes employed as a substitute
for cinchona.

Cashew Nut. (Fr. Noix d'acajou,
Ger., Acajounuss , Sp. Bellota de acajou.)

The fruit of a tree of the East and
West Indies (Anacardium occidentale),
which gives out a milky j uice of use in
the manufacture of varnishes. It has
a bitter taste, but it is thought to
give a pleasant flavour to Madeira and
other wines. For the same reason it
is sometimes mixed with chocolate.

Cashmere. (Fr. Cachemire, Ger.
Kaschmir, Sp. Cachemira.)

The fancy woollen fabric obtained
from the Cashmere goat. The fur of
the animal consists of an inner coat of
woolly greyish hair, and an outer one
of long, fine, and silky hair. The hair is
spun by women, then dyed, and after-
wards manufactured into the valued
Cashmere shawls. The demand for these
articles has declined during the last
thirty years, though the annual value
of the exports from India still exceeds
;^120,000. In the London market
Cashmere shawls are sold at prices
varying from ;£100 to ;£300 each. Imi-
tations of Cashmere shawls are now
manufactured in Europe, the materials
used being a mixture of Tibet wool,
silk, and cotton.

Cassareep. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Cassareep. )

The juice obtained from the tuber
of the bitter cassava, Jatropha manihoi.
It is prepared mainly in British Gui-
ana, and is used in the manufacture
of various sauces, especially the well-
known West Indian pepperpot. Its
natural poisonous properties can be
driven ofi by heat, and its antiseptic
value is widely recognised in the
tropics.

Cassia Bark. (Fr. Casse en bois,
Ger. Kassiarinde, Sp. Canaftstola.)

Sometimes known as China cinnamon.
It is the aromatic bark of the Cassia
lignea, and is imported from Southern
China. It contains an aromatic essen-

tial oil, similar to oil of cinnamon, and
often used as a substitute for it. The
dried flower buds of the Cassia lignea
are called cassia buds. They resemble
cloves in appearance and are employed
in the manufacture of confectionery.

Cast Iron. (See Iron).

Castoreum. (Fr. Casior^um, Ger.
Bibergeil, Sp. Castoreo).

The secretion obtained from the
reproductive organs of the beaver of
Canada and Siberia. It is a soft brown
substance, having a peculiar smell and
taste, and is now used by perfumers.
Its employment for medicinal purposes
is obsolete. Its value is about £1 a.
pound.

Castor Oil. (Fr. Huile de ricin,
Ger. Rizinusol, Sp. Aceite de ricino.)

The name of the plant Ricinus com-
munis, and also of the oil extracted
from the seeds of the plant. It is a
native of India, but its cultivation is
now very widespread. The seeds are
oval in shape, and mottled brown in
colour. To extract the oil the seeds
are first bruised between heavy rollers
and then squeezed in a hydraulic press.
The exuding oil is collected in vessels
placed for the purpose. The crude oil is
afterwards boiled with water, and the
water allowed to evaporate. The boil-
ing separates the albumen and other
impurities. When pure, castor oil is
thick and viscid, and of a light yellow
colour, but inferior oil has a green or
brown tint. Unless carefully made and
kept it has a disagreeable taste and
smell. Its medicinal properties are well
known and greatly valued. The chief
importation is from Calcutta. Castor
oil is used in India for lamps, a good
soap is made from it, and it is also em-
ployed in the manufacture of pomades
and hair washes.

Catechu. (Fr. Cachou, Ger. Katechu,
Sp. Catechu, tierra del Jap6n.)

A substance prepared from the juice
of different parts of several plants,
used largely for tanning and dyeing,
and also medicinally as an astringent.
The chief plants used are the Acacia
catechu and the Acacia suma, both
natives of the East Indies. Catechu
is obtained by cutting the wood of the
tree into chips, boiling the chips in
water, and adding more and more chips
until the extract is of the thickness
of tar. It is then run into moulds and

39

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allowed to harden. It has a dark
brown colour, is dark and brittle, and
has a shining surface when broken.
It is quite odourless. Its colour is
very permanent. Over 6,000 tons
are annually imported from India into
Great Britain.

Catgut. (Fr. Corde en boyaux, Ger.
Darmsaite, Sp. Cuetda de tripa.)

The material prepared from the
intestines of sheep, and sometimes from
those of the horse, the ass, or the mule
— not from the cat. The intestines
are thoroughly cleansed and steeped
in water for a few days and afterwards
scraped and treated with various
chemicals. The larger are reserved
for the sausage maker, and the smaller
are again chemically treated and
drawn out fine through a machine of
special manufacture. The best catgut
strings are made in Italy, especially at
Naples, and are used for musical instru-
ments, cords for clockmakers, etc. The
annual imports are of the value of more
than ;£3,000. Catgut obtained from
horses and mules is made in France,
and used for driving lathes and other
small machines.

Cauliflower. (Fr. Choufieur, Ger.
Blumenkohl, Sp. CoHflor.)

A variety of the common kale or
cabbage. Its cultivation was not
much attended to in England until
the end of the seventeenth century.
The heads alone are used as a vegeta-
ble. Cauliflower is cultivated for the
supply of Covent Garden by market
gardeners near London, and also by
those of Cornwall, Devonshire, and
the Channel Islands. It is more
tender than broccoh, and can be ob-
tained all the year round, but in
winter time it requires careful protec-
tion from the cold.

Cavendish.

A species of tobacco, softened with
molasses or liquorice juice. It is
pressed into sticks or cakes. A very
common -name for cavendish is
" negro-head." There is a very large
trade done in cavendish tobacco in
England. In addition to that made
for the English market, more than
half a million tons are exported every
year — the greater portion being manu-
factured in bond.

Caviare. (Fr. Caviar, Ger. Kaviar,
Sp. Caviar.)

A condiment prepared from the roes
of various kinds of fish, but particu-
larly from those of the sturgeon. There
are two kinds — ordinary caviare and
pressed caviare. The first is obtained
by pickUng the roes in vinegar, the
other by machine pressing after salting
and subsequent drying. Caviare ob-
tained from the sturgeon is nearly
black, that from the mullet and carp
red. Russia has practically the whole
of the commerce in this article, and
the preparation of caviare is almost
entirely carried on at Astrakhan, the
sturgeon being most plentiful at the
mouth of the Volga. As much as
500,000 lbs. have been made in a single
year. It is a favourite delicacy in the
United States as well as in Russia, but
the consumption in other countries is
not large.

Cayenne. (See Capsicum.)
, Cedar. (Fr. Pin de Libanon, Ger.
Zeder, Sp. Cedro.)

Of the celebrated cedars of Lebanon
but few remain, and the cedar wood of
commerce at the present day is mainly
derived from the Cedrus ausiraiis
and the Cedrus toona, varieties of the
cedar found in the West Indies and
Australia. The wood is generally hard
and red, with a pleasing odour, and is
remarkably free from knots. That of
Havana, largely employed in the
manufacture of cigar boxes, is straight
grained. The wood of the Juniperus
barbadensis, another West Indian
species, is used for casing lead pencils.
Other varieties of cedar are found in,
and the timber exported from, Syria,
Asia Minor, and Cyprus.

Celery. (Fr. Cileri, Ger. Sellerie,
Sp. Apia.)

The common name given to the
Apium graveolens, of which both the
root and the leaves are eaten, cooked
or uncooked. The common celery of
British gardens is the result of culti-
vation and improvement upon a
species that grows wild in ditches and
brooks. It requires a richly-manured
soil, and careful tending about the
roots and branches, in order that a
supply may be provided throughout
the winter. On the continent another
species of celery is grown, the root of
which is somewhat Uke a turnip.

Celestine. (Fr. Cihstine, Ger.
Colestin, Sp. Celestina.)

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A mineral, the native sulphate of
strontium. Its chemical symbol is
SrOSOj. It bears a very strong
resemblance to heavy spar, the crystal-
lisation of both being rhombic, and is
of a beautiful bluish colour — Whence its
name. Celestine is the source of
nitrate of strontia, a substance largely
used in the manufacture of fireworks.
The most beautiful specimens are to
be found in Sicily.

Celluloid. (Fr. Cellulo'ide, fibroH-
thoid, Ger. Celluloid, Sp. Celidoide.)

Also called Parkesine, from Parkes
of Birmingham, who first manufac-
tured it in 1856. It is an ivory-like
compound, consisting chiefly of py-
roxylin (a dried solution of gun cotton)
and oil, though another variety can be
made from pyroxylin and camphor.
The pyroxyUn is obtained by treating
cellulose with a mixture of nitric
and sulphuric acid, and dissolving the
same with some solvent such as nitro-
benzol. The resulting substance is
then mixed with castor oil or cotton
seed oil, and made into a kind of paste
by passing it through hot rollers. At
a temperature of 80° C. the celluloid
is soft and can be moulded into any
form desired. In order to remove
every trace of the solvent, the partly
manufactured article is soaked in
bisulphide of carbon or chloride of
lime. Celluloid is very inflammable
and bums with a yellow smoky flame,
giving off a camphor-like odour. Its
combustible nature may be neutral-
ised by the addition of some non-
combustible chemical, particularly
tungstate of soda.

Celluloid can be made white, as
ivory, or coloured. It is unaffected
either by water or by exposure to the
atmosphere. Its uses in manufacture
are very numerous. Billiard balls,
piano keys, combs, knife handles,
brush backs, napkin rings, buttons,
thimbles, dolls, card cases, and studs
are a few of the articles made from it.
When coloured it is employed as an
imitation of amber, tortoise shell,
malachite, etc.

Cellulose. (Fr. Cellulose, Ger. Pflan-
zenfaserstoff. Cellulose, Sp. Celulosa.)

One of the carbohydrates, made up
in the same proportions as starch.
Its cheiiiical symbol is CeHioOs. It
is the essential constituent of all

vegetable structures; It is found in
a nearly pure state in linen, cotton,
and paper, and may be prepared from
them chemically. Cellulose is valua-
ble on account of the important com-
pounds which are obtained from it
when treated with nitric and sulphuric
acid.

Chalcedony. (Fr. CalcSdoine, Ger.
Chalcedon, Sp. Calcedonia.)

A variety of siUca, but differing
from quartz in having no distinct
crystalline formation. It is of a waxy
lustre, and is usually either colourless
or of a grey or brown shade, but beau-
tiful blue specimens are sometimes met
with. Chalcedony is the whole or
principal part of many agates. It is
much used in jewellery for the manu-
facture of brooches, necklaces, and
ornaments of all kinds. The chalce-
dony received its name from the fact
of its being found in the neighbourhood
of Chalcedon in Bithynia. It is, how-
ever, widely distributed, and many
specimens are obtained in various
parts of England and Scotland.

Chalk. (Fr. Crate, Ger. Kreide, Sp.
Greda, marga.)

A soft earthy variety of limestone,
or carbonate of Ume. It is white, soft,
opaque, and without the sUghtest
appearance of polish in its fracture.
It is often mixed with small quantities
of silica, alumina, and magnesia.
Though generally soft and earthy it
is sometimes so compact as to be
capable of being used as building
stone. When burned it is changed
into lime, and then largely used for
making mortar. Chalk is very valua-
ble in agriculture, for suppl5ring
deficiencies in certain soils, and as a
manure. When pounded and purified
it is known as whiting, and its domestic
uses are very familiar.

Black chalk is quite distinct from
common chalk, and is a peculiar kind
of slate. It is used for drawing, and
as a black colour in printing. It is
a" species of clay found in France,
Spain, and Italy. Red chalk is a
mixture of clay and peroxide of iron.
It is used for colouring by painters,
and occurs in clay-slate in Germany.

Champagne. (Fr. Vin de Cham-
pagne, Ger. Champagner, Champagner-
wein, Sp. Champana, Vino de Chdm-
pana. )

41

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The produce of the vineyards of the
champagne district of France. Cham-
pagnes are either red or white, and
the latter are sub-divided into spark-
ling and still. Sparkling champagne
is the result of special treatment during
the process of fermentation, and bot-
thng before the fermentation is com-
pleted. Carbonic acid gas is thus
generated. Champagne contains more
alcohol than claret, but considerably
less than sherry or port.

The best champagnes are produced
at Rheims and Epemay. Sillery is
the centre of manufacture of the still
wine, and other noted places are Ay,
Dizy, Hautvilliers, Mareuil, and Hevry.
Spurious and adulterated champagnes
are exceedingly common, a simple
method adopted in the manufacture
of such being the charging of light
wines with carbonic acid gas.

It is estimated that France exports
20,000,000 bottles per annum, about
four-fifths of its total production.

Charcoal. (Fr. Charbon de bois, Ger.
Holzkohle. Sp. Carb6n vegetal.)

An impure form of carbon. It is
very rarely found in a pure state in
nature, and must therefore be pre-
pared. The most common method
of preparation is that of heating animal
or vegetable substances in some closed
vessel, so as to avoid contact with air
— the residue being charcoal. The
purest form is that obtained when pure
white sugar is heated in a platinum
vessel. This is the charcoal used in
chemical processes where purity is
essential. When it is manufactured on
a large scale, wood is heated in iron
retorts until the whole of the volatile
products are driven ofi, the quality of
the charcoal depending very largely
upon the kind of wood used. Animal
charcoal or bone black is the residue
when bone has been heated or burned.

Good charcoal is of a pure black
colour and gives neither smoke nor
flame when it is burned. It is
extremely porous, and is insoluble in
any known liquid. Owing to its power
of condensing unwholesome gases
within its pores, it is very useful as a
disinfectant, removing offensive smells,
and as a purifier of water, for which
reason it is often found in filters.
Charcoal is also employed in sugar
refining to remove the brown colour

from unrefined sugar, in the manu-
facture of gunpowder, and for various
purposes in medicine.

Chartreuse. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Chartreuse. )

A favourite hqueur, made by a
secret process from mixed spirits and
cordials, and sweetened. The name is
derived from the monastery of the
Grande Chartreuse, near Grenoble, in
the south of France, where it was
manufactured. It is now made by the
monks in Spain. There are two kinds
which enter into commerce, green and
yellow. A formidable competitor of
chartreuse, as a liqueur, is Benedictine.

Cheese. (Fr. Frontage, Ger. Kdse,
Sp. Queso.)

The food substance made from
compressed and partially dried curd
of milk. There are many kinds of
cheeses, and the process of manu-
facture varies in different localities,
but the main principle is the same.
The milk is first warmed and fer-
mentation set up by the addition
of a small quantity of rennet. This
causes a separation in the form of curd
of the casein and the fatty matter in
the milk. The curd is then broken up
and drained from the whey or watery
part of the milk. The remaining por-
tion of the whey is extracted by means
of a press, and the residue is again
broken up, salted, and turned into the
required shape. It is afterwards dried
in a weU-ventilated room. For the
purposes of colouring annatto is
generally used. The richest cheeses,
Cheddar, Cheshire, Gloucester, and
Somerset, are made from new milk,
and in the manufacture of Stilton '
cream is even added to the new
milk. From being an industry con-
nected with the dairy cheese making
has become a trade which requires
huge factories and many hands.
England imports hundreds of tons
annually, mainly from America. Gru-
ydre is made in the canton of Fri-
bourg, Switzerland. Other highly
prized cheeses are Camembert, Brie,
Lenbury, and Gorgonzola.

Chicory. (Fr. Chicoree, Ger. Zichorie,
Sp. Achicdria.)

Also called Succory. The common
chicory (Cichorium intybus) grows wild
in England and many parts of Europe.
Its root is formed like a carrot, and is

42

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of a brownish colour, but white within.
The herbage of the plant is good food
for cattle, but the plant itself is culti-
vated on account of its root, which is
often used as an adulteration in coffee
and sometimes as a substitute for it.
When the root is pulled up it is washed,
cut, and dried in a kiln. The mass
which remains is then roasted and
ground like coffee, and a small quan-
tity of butter or lard is added to im-
prove its appearance. Chicory con-
tains much sugar, but is not otherwise
a useful article of food. When steeped
in water it imparts a deep brown
colour to the liquid, and on this ac-
count it is used with coffee, so as to
give an appearance of greater strength.
The raw or kiln-dried root is largely
imported from Belgium and the north
of France, and a duty of 14s. 2d. per
cwt. is imposed upon it.

Chillies. (See Capsicum.)

China Clay. (See Kaolin.)

Chinchilla. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Chinchilla.)

The name of a South American
rodent, much resembling a squirrel,
and valued on account of its soft grey
fur. Thousands of these little animals
are killed annually in Chili and Peru,
and the furs are exported for making
up into ladies' muffs, boas, cloak
linings, trimmings, etc.

Chinese White. (Fr. Blanc de Chine.
Ger. Chinesisch-Weiss, Sp. Blanco de
China.

The white oxide of zinc, ZnO. It is
the permanent white pigment used in
the arts, and was substituted a century
ago for white lead, which was a most
unsatisfactory pigment on account of
its change of colour to brown pn expo-
sure to the atmosphere.

Chintz. (Fr. Calencar, calencas, Ger.
Zitz, Sp. Zaraza.)

A variety of highly-glazed calico,
printed with many coloured patterns
on a white ground. Its former use as
a covering for furniture or as bed-
hangings has become obsolete, and in
England it is now chiefly employed as
covering for babies' bassinettes.

Chiretta. (Fr. Cherette, Ger. Cher-
etta, Chiretta, Sp. Cerette.)

Or chirata. An intensely bitter
plant grown in India, and exported
when dried in large quantities to
Europe for the purpose of making

bitters. It is an excellent substitute
for gentian. In India it is used as a
tonic, and in Europe medical practi-
tioners have found it valuable in cases
of fever.

Chittagong Wood. (Fr. Bois de
Chittagong, Ger. Chiitagongholz, Sp.
Madera de Chittagong.)

The beautifully veined and mottled
wood of a species of cedar tree grown
in the district east of Bengal. The
name is given rather widely by cabinet-
makers to various woods of the same
kind. In India it is generally known
as the cedar, and is used there as maho-
gany.

Chloral. (Fr. Chloral, Ger. Chloral,
Sp. Cloral.)

A colourless oily liquid formed when
anhydrous alcohol is acted upon by
dry chlorine. Its odour is powerful
and pungent. The name is often
given incorrectly to the white crystal-
line substance produced by the com-
bination of equal portions of chloral
and water. The principal action of
chloral is to produce sleep, and it is
used, though somewhat uncertainly,
as an anaesthetic. It acts as an
antidote in cases of strychnine poison-
ing. Pure chloroform is obtained from
chloral hydrate and caustic potash.

Chlorate of Potash. (Fr. Chlorate de
Potasse, Ger. Chlorsaures Kalium, Sp.
Potasio cloroso.)

The potassium salt of chloric acid.
It is prepared by the action of chlorine
gas upon a warm solution of chloride
of potassium, in which solution slaked
Ume is suspended. Its uses include the
manufacture of fireworks, of oxygen
for lime light, and of safety matches.
When mixed with charcoal or sulphur
it forms a highly explosive mixture.
It is also of value in medicine, especially
as a remedy for sore throats.

Chlorine. (Fr. Chlore, chlorine, Ger.
Chlor, Sp. Clara, clarino.)

A heavy, yellowish-green, incombus-
tible gas with a suffocating odour, a
bad supporter of combustion It is
always found in combination in
nature, most commonly in salt or
sodium chlorate. The principal uses
of chlorine are the bleaching of cotton
and linen, though it is also combined
with many substances to form com-
pounds of value in the arts and in
medicine.

43

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Chlorodyne. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Chlorodyne. )

A patent medicine of increasing
popularity. It is a mixture of opium,
chloroform, prussic acid, Indian hemp,
sugar, and peppermint. Its use as an
opiate is questioned by many medical
men, though it has been found effective
when other opiates have failed. It is
also drunk for the sake of its stupefying
and intoxicating qualities.

Chloroform. (Fr. Chloroforme, Ger.
Chloroform, Sp. Cloroformo.)

The valuable anaesthetic brought
into general use a Uttle more than hall
a century ago. It is a compound of
carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine, its
chemical symbol being CHCI3. It
is usually prepared from bleaching
powder, alcohol, and water, but further
treatment with sulphuric acid is neces-
sury to secure purity. Chloroform is
itself a colourless, volatile, heavy
liquid. Its odour is peculiar and its
taste sweet. It is never met with in
commerce in its pure state as it ra-
pidly decomposes when exposed to
light. Though its main use is as an
anaesthetic it has other very numerous
medicinal properties.

Chocolate. (Fr. Chocolat, Ger.
Chokolade, Sp. Chocolate.)

A preparation made by grinding the
seeds of the Theobrama cacao to a fine
paste. The unmixed paste is cocoa,
but when flour, sugar, and one or more
flavouring materials have been added
chocolate is obtained. It is an ex-
ceedingly nutritious beverage when
mixed with water or milk, and has
long been in high favour with all
Europeans. It was introduced from
America to Europe after the Spanish
conquests in the early part of the
sixteenth century. The imports into
Great Britain have increased enor-
mously during the last thirty years.
There is a duty of 2d. per lb. imposed
upon it. France is easily the first
country in the world in the manufac-
ture of chocolate.

Chromium. (Fr. Chrome, Ger.
Chrom, Sp. Cromo.)

One of the metals, which, though
not much employed by itself, forms
valuable compounds when mixed with
other metals. In nature it is widely
distributed through Sweden and
Hungary, and also in America, in

combination with iron, and is known as
chrome iron ore. Chromic oxide, other-
wise chrome green, is the colouring
ingredient of the emerald. This oxide
is much used in porcelain painting, and
as a substitute for arsenic green in
wall papers. Chromate of lead, gener-
ally known as chrome yellow, is valua-
ble in the dyeing of calico. Bichro-
mate of potash is another compound
which is largely employed in photo-
graphy, and, when mixed with sulphuric
acid, acts as a bleacher of oils. A
small quantity of chromium added to
steel gives hardness and strength to
chrome steel, and in the manufacture
of projectiles chromium is generally
added to the iron.

Cider. (Fr. Cidre, Ger. Apfelwein,
Obstwein, Sp. Sidra.)

The fermented liquor produced from
the juice of apples. It is produced in
great quantities in several English
counties, notably Worcester, Hereford,
Devonshire, Somerset, and Gloucester,
and also in the United States, Germany,
and France. In the last mentioned
country it comes after wine in the
order of production of liquids, beer
taking the third place.

The apples selected for the manu-
facture of cider are not those which
are fit either for eating or for ordinary
cooking. In fact, the bitter ones are
most preferred. In the English coun-
ties where the beverage is produced
there are special apple orchards.
The fruit is gathered when nearly ripe,
and the apples are ground and crushed
until they are reduced to a pulp. This
is done in mills specially constructed
for the purpose, the mills having
fluted rollers. The pulp is then placed
in coarse canvas bags to be drained,
and the resultant juice put into casks
where it is allowed to ferment. The
fermentation takes place best when
the juice is exposed to the air in the
shade. After the sediment has sub-
sided the liquor is run off and collec-
ted. The excellence of the cider
depends upon the proper time chosen
for running off the liquid.

The best cider is mellow and has
the character of wine — ^it is neither
sweet nor acid. It contains from 5 to
10 per cent, of absolute alcohol. It
requires much care in bottling, only
clear samples being fit for use, and the

44

Cig]

world's commercial products.

[Cit

age should be at least twelve months
before bottling is attempted. The
liquid known as " champagne cider "
is slightly sweet cider wluch is bottled
before fermentation is completed. A
weaker cider is obtained by adding
water to the pressed pulp before fer-
mentation.

Most of the cider produced is con-
sumed in the country where it is
made, but England exports a small
quantity.

Cigars and Cigarettes. (See To-
bacco.)

Cinchona. (Fr. Quinquina, Ger.
Chinarindenbaum, Sp. Quina, Cinchona. )

The name of an important genus of
trees, which yield the bitter alkaloid
quinine and its congeners. The trees
are all evergreen, with laurel-Hke
leaves and panicles of flowers resem-
bUng the Ulac. The flowers are very
fragrant, and are white, pink, rose-
coloured, or purple in colour. For-
merly cinchona was unobtainable
except from South America, but now
its cultivation is fairly wide-spread,
especially in southern India, and the
East and West Indies. The cinchona
bark is variously known as Peruvian
Bark, Jesuits' Bark, China Bark,
Quina, Quinquina, etc.

The cutting and peeUng of the
cinchona trees take place in the dry
season. The trees are cut as near to
the roots as possible. The bark is then
stripped off, dried, and packed.

The bark is valuable, as above sta-
ted, for the quinine which is obtained
from it. The native Indians neither
knew nor valued its properties, and
refuse to use it to the present day.
In Europe, however, if has been largely
employed in medicine for more than
two centuries as a stimulant and a
tonic, and in cases of intermittent fever.
The quantity imported is continually
increasing.

Cinnabar. (Fr. Cinabre, Ger. Zin-
nober, Sp. Cinabrio.)

The ore of mercury, found in nature
and generally known as sulphide of
mercury. It is from cinnabar that
almost the whole of the mercury of
commerce is obtained, the ore contain-
ing about 86 per cent, of mercury and
14 per cent, of sulphur. It occurs
most frequently in rocks of the coal
formation, and is found either fibrous

and amorphous, or crystallised and
massive in six-sided prisms. In the
mass it has a dull red colour, and is
opaque. Its specific gravity is about
8. Until recently cinnabar was ob-
tained almost entirely from Almaden,
in Spain, but there are now very pro-
ductive mines at New Almaden, in
California. There are also mines in
Idria (Austria), Germany, China, and
Japan. Cinnabar, when artificially
prepared, constitutes the pigment
known as vermilion.

Cinnamon. (Fr. Cinnamome, can-
nelle, Ger. Zimmet, Kaneel, Sp. Canela.)

A plant of the laurel order, which
supplies the aromatic bark from which
the cinnamon and cassia bark of com-
merce is obtained. The finest kind
is produced by the Cinnamomum
zeylamicum, which is extensively cul-
tivated in Ceylon, though much is
exported from the East Indies. The
bark is of a greyish-brown colour on
the exterior, but internally it is reddish.
For commercial purposes the bark is
cut ofE the trees, exposed to the sun,
dried, and tied up in bundles of about
88 lbs. in weight. Cinnamon depends
for its aroma and properties upon the
presence of a volatile oil, the oil of
cinnamon. It is largely used by cooks
and confectioners as a condiment,
and it is valued medicinally as an
astringent and a cordial. About three
quarters of the total production of
Ceylon is sent to England, but the
imports have recently been falling ofiE
owing to unremunerative prices.

Citric Acid. (Fr. Acide ciirique, Ger.
Ciironensdure, Sp. Acido citrico.)

The acid contained in the juice of
lemons, oranges, Umes, gooseberries,
and other acid fruits, and to which
they owe their sour taste. Its che-
mical symbol is HjCeHjO,. For
almost all practical purposes it is
prepared entirely from lemon or lime
juice, the juice being treated with chalk
and slaked lime. Then citrate of cal-
cium is formed as a white insoluble
powder, which is collected and decom-
posed by the addition of dilute sul-
phuric acid. A solution of citric acid
is obtained, and the colourless crystal-
line compound is the result of subse-
quent evaporation. Citric acid has
a pleasant acid taste, and is largely
used for domestic purposes. It is

45

Cit]

world's commercial products.

[Clo

also used by calico printers for dis-
charging the mordant from the cloth,
and in the dyeing of silks. In medi-
cine it is frequently employed, and its
salts are known as citrates, the prin-
cipal being citrate of magnesia, citrate
of potash, citrate of ammonia, and
citrate of iron.

Citron. (Fr. Citron, Ger. Citrone,
Limone, Sp. Cidra, Limon.)

The fruit of the Citrus medica, a
species of lemon. By many botanists
the lemon, orange, lime, and bergamot
are considered to be varieties of the
citron. The fruit itself is usually
large, furrowed, and warty, whilst
the rind is extremely thick and spongy,
and the pulp somewhat acid. It is
cultivated in the tropics of both hemi-
spheres, though it is a native of
northern India. It is chiefly valued
for the rind, which is particularly
fragrant and of a fine yellow colour
when ripe, and which is either candied
or used as a preserve. From the citron
oil of citron and oil of cedrate are
obtained, both greatly valued by
perfumers. The principal supplies of
Great Britain are obtained from Italy,
Greece, and Spain. The rind is salted
before it is exported.

Civet. (Fr. Civette, Ger. Zibet, Sp.
Algalia.)

An oily pomade-Uke substance,
yellow when fresh, but gradually
turning to brown by keeping, with
a strong musky odour. When the
quantity is large the odour is very
disagreeable, but in small quantities
the smell is aromatic and exceedingly
pleasant. It is only used in perfumery.
Civet is obtained from the civet cat,
a carnivorous animal which inhabits
the warm countries of Africa, and
especially Abyssinia, where it is do-
mesticated. The substance is secreted
by a double pouch situated under the
abdomen, and close to the tail. As
the animal is too valuable to be killed
on account of its scent pouch, the
secretion is obtained by periodically
scraping the inside of the pouch with
a spoon. It is generally exported in
cow horns, each horn containing from
1 to 3 lbs.

Claret. (Fr. Vin de Bordeaux, Ger.
Bordeauxwein, Sp. Vino de Bordeaux.)
The light French red wines of Medoc,
mostly shipped from Bordeaux. They

are generally shipped in hogsheads
containing about 50 gallons each.
The different kinds of claret vary in
their quality and value, but the name
is ordinarily confined to the cheaper
sort. Some, however, as Chateau
Lafitte, are held in high repute. The
strength of alcohol is about 9 per cent.
The name claret, as used in England,
is unknown in France.

Clay. (Fr. Argile, Ger. Ton, Top-
fererde, Sp. Arcilla.)

The name very generally appUed to
every kind of earth which makes a
paste when water is added to it, and
which is easily moulded and becomes
hard when heated with fire. Clay is
mainly a compound of siUca and alu-
mina, though many other substances
often enter into its composition, es-
pecially Ume and iron. The purest
form of clay is kaoUn, or China clay,
which is used in thfe manufacture of
porcelain. It is obtained by crumb-
ling down felspar, a silicate of alumina
and potash, found in granite rocks.
The Worcester manufacturers draw
their supply of kaoUn from Cornwall.
It is found also in parts of China, Japan,
France, Saxony, and the United States
of America. Other clays are known
as pipe clay, potter's clay, and fire clay.
Common clay, also called loam, is
abundantly distributed, and is used for
the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and
coarse earthenware. It is an import-
ant part of all fertile soils, and is of
the greatest agricultural importance
owing to its absorbent powers.

Cloves. (Fr. Clous de girofle, Ger.
Nelken, Gewiirznelken, Sp. Clavos de
girofle.)

The well known spice, the dried,
unexpanded flower-buds of the Cary-
ophyllus aromaticus. The clove tree
is one of the myrtle order, and is a
native of the Moluccas. The flowers are
odoriferous, and the bark, fruit, leaves,
and roots are of a more or less aromatic
character. The French name clou is
given to the clove on account of the
resemblance of the flower-buds to njiils.
The unripe fruit is called " mother
cloves," and though inferior to ordinary
cloves they are much used in China,
and are sometimes imported into this
country.

The buds are gathered either by
hand, or by beating the bushes with

46

Coa]

world's commercial products.

[Cob

a stick, and are dried by exposure to
the smoke of a wood |ire and then by
the rays of the sun, or by the latter
alone. When they are gathered their
colour is red, but afterwards they
become a deep brown.

The virtue of cloves depends upon
an essential oil — the oil of cloves.
They are used very largely in per-
fumery, and domestically they are
vjilued for the flavour they give to
dessert dishes and articles of confec-
tionery, and for their power in driving
away moths from clothing, furs, etc.
They possess a hot taste and a cha-
racteristic odour. Oil of cloves is
obtained by repeated distillation. Two
oils pass over, one lighter, the other
heavier than water. The oil has a hot
acrid taste, and when pure has a yellow
colour. The less carefully prepared
oil is brown or red. Medicinally oil
of cloves is useful in checking nausea.
It is used by soap makers for scenting
soap, and in various ways by distillers
for imparting flavours.

The best cloves are obtained from
Amboyna, a small Dutch island in
the East Indies. At one time the
Dutch had a monopoly of cloves and
nutmegs, but now the clove tree is
cultivated in Java, Sumatra, Reunion,
Mauritius, Zanzibar, and also in the
West Indies.

Coal. (Fr. Charbon de terre, houiUe,
Ger. Kohle, Sp. Carbon.)

The most important of all fuels.
It consists mainly of carbon with
small quantities of oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen. There is also in addition
a little mineral matter or ash, but this
should not exceed 10 per cent, of the
whole. Coal occurs in beds, the beds
var3dng in thickness from a few inches
to several feet, and often extending
over a considerable area. It is of
vegetable origin, most probably being
the remains of vast forests of the
carboniferous period. Owing to the
enormous pressure of the superincum-
bent matter, the chemical composition
of the original vegetable has undergone
a complete.change, and the vegetable
structure has been completely des-
troyed. The principal varieties of
coal are (1) Brown, an impure sub-
stance, which shows distinct traces of
its vegetable origin ; (2) Bituminous,
a hard and compact coal containing

88 per cent, of carbon, and splitting
up into rough cubical masses ; (3)
Anthracite, containing 95 per cent,
of carbon. This is hard, dense, and
often lustrous, and does not soil the
fingers when touched. The alteration
of the vegetable matter has gone fur-
ther in this kind than in ordinary coal.
It is difficult to ignite, but it bums
with little flame or smoke, and gives
out an intense heat. It is particularly
useful for marine engines, metallurgi-
cal operations, etc. The chief supplies
are obtained in South Wales and the
United States. (4) Cannel, compact
and lustrous, and burns with a highly
luminous flame. It is mostly used
in the manufacture of coal gas.

Coal is found in most parts of the
world, but the chief working of the
mines is in England. The export
trade has increased with amazing
rapidity, and alarm has been felt as to
the probable exhaustion of the supplies.
It has, however, been confidently
asserted that there is still sufficient to
meet all ordinary demands for at least
200 years. Mining is also carried on
extensively in the United States,
Belgium, Prance, Prussia, and Russia.
The great beds of India, China, and
Canada are practically untouched.

Coal Tar. (Fr. Goudron, Ger. Stein-
kohlenteer, Sp. Alquitran,)

This substance, also called gas tar,
is a thick, black, opaque liquid which
comes over when coal or petroleum is
distilled, though it is now generally
obtained in the manufacture of gas.
It is slightly heavier than water and
possesses a strong, disagreeable smell.
Its great value consists in the fact that
it is the source of benzene, and through
benzene of the aniUne dyes.

Cobalt. (Fr. Cobalt, Ger. Kobalt,
Sp. Cobalto.)

A steel-grey metal with a reddish
tinge, hard, brittle, and very rnagnetic.
It is nearly as infusible as iron. It
is rarely found native, and its ores are
sparingly distributed, being generally
combinations with arsenic and
sulphur. Our imports are mainly from
Germany. The metal alone is of
Uttle value, but many cobalt com-
pounds are employed as pigments,
being remarkable for beauty and bril-
liance of colour, and impart a magnifi-
cent blue tint to glass. Smalt, used

47

Coc]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Cod

by paper stainers and others, is glass
coloured by oxide of cobalt and reduced
to a very fine powder. An impure
oxide of cobalt, known commercially as
" za£Ere," is valuable in enamel painting.
Smalt is also used in the production of
the blue colours in porcelain, pottery,
glass, tiles, frescoes, etc.

Coca. (Fr. coca, Ger. Koka, Coca,
Sp. Coca.)

A shrub, Erythroxylon coca, which
grows in many parts of South America.
The leaves furnish a narcotic and sti-
mulant, and are used in Europe in the
manufacture of tonic wines. These
leaves are in high favour with the
Indians, who sometimes make an
infusion from them. They have a
soothing efiect like tobacco, but their
influence is more remarkable, as they
lessen the desire for food and permit
of more sustained exertion. Interest
was first awakened in coca by the
experiments of the pharmacologist
Christison. The active properties of
coca depend upon the presence of an
alkaloid cocaine which is now in
regular use as a local anaesthetic in
dentistry and slight surgical opera-
tions. It is also employed by oculists
for the purpose of dilating the pupils
of the eyes and removing all sensibility.

Cocaine. (See Coca.)

Cochineal. (Fr. Cochenille, Ger.
Cochenille, Sp. Cochinilla.)

The scarlet and crimson dye stuff
obtained from the cochineal insect.
It consists simply of the dried bodies
of the female insect. Coccus cacti, a
name given to it because it feeds upon
plants of the cactus family. When
dried the bodies have thei appearance
of tiny eggs, as many as 70,000 being
required to make up one pound of the
dye stuff. The insect, as well as the
cactus upon which it feeds, is a native
of Mexico, but it is in Guatemala that
the rearing of the cochineal and the
cultivation of the cactus are mainly
carried on. Efforts have been made
to transplant the cactus and to transfer
the insect to other parts of the world.
Success has attended these efforts in
the Canary Islands, Algeria, Java, and
Australia, but in India it has proved a
failure. The cochineal industry, which
was very extensive half a century ago,
has suffered considerably through the
introduction of aniline dyes.

Cocoa. (Fr. Cacao, Ger. Kakao, Sp.
Cacao.)

The seeds of the tropical tree, Theo-
broma cacao, much used in the pre-
paration of a beverage. The trefe is
a native of the West Indies and tro-
pical America, though it is cultivated
also in Asia and Africa. The fruit is
shaped like a cucumber, and within
are the seeds, the cocoa nibs of com-
merce, from which the cocoa is
obtained. To prepare cocoa for use, the
seeds are roasted and bruised to loosen
their skins, and the seed lobes are
crushed and ground between rollers to
reduce them to a pasty consistence. The
sweetened paste, flavoured -with vanilla
or cinnamon, constitutes chocolate.

Cocoa contains the active principle
theobromine, an alkaloid resembUng
caffeine. Owing to the presence of
fatty and nitrogenous matter it forms
an excellent food. The number of
preparations made from cocoa, when
the oily matter called butter of cocoa
has been extracted, is considerable,
the principal being cocoatina, cocoa
essence, and concentrated cocoa.

The chief supplies of Great Britain
are derived from Trinidad and the
states of Central America.

Cocoa Nut. (Fr. Noix de coco, Ger.
Kokosnuss, Sp. Coco.)

The fruit of the palm Cocos nucifera,
which grows near the sea in most tro-
pical countries. The nuts are largely
imported in husk, and sold to fruiter-
ers, the husk being used for coir yarn.
The cocoa-nut is a native of the East
Indian coasts, and the South Sea
Islands, but the cultivation of the tree
has been widely spread, and the nuts
are now much used as food in the
tropics. The kernel of the cocoa-nut
contains a large percentage of fixed
oil called cocoa-nut oil, or cocoa-nut
butter. This oil is commercially valu-
able in the manufacture of stearine
candles and of a marine soap which
fonns a lather with sea-water. In the
East it serves as an oil for lamps and
also as an ointment.

Cod. (Fr. Morue, Ger., Kabeljau,
Stockfisch, Sp. Abadejo, Trttchuela.)

The valuable food fish which belongs
to the family of fishes in which had-
docks, whitings, etc., are included.
The fishery gives employment to a
vast number of hands on the coasts of

48

Cod]

World's commercial PROouctS.

[Cok

the United Kingdom, Holland, Swe-
den, Norway, Iceland, and Newfound-
land. The average length of the cod
is about 3 feet, and the weight about
12 lbs. Besides its value as a food in
either a fresh or a salted condition, it
is the source of the medicinal cod Uver
oil. Cod roes are considered a great
deUcacy.

Cod Liver Oil. (Fr. HuiU de foie de
morue, Ger. Lehertran, Medizinaltran,
Sp. Aceite de abadejo.)

The oil obtained from the livers of
certain fishes of the Gadidae order —
cod, haddock, whiting, etc. It is
produced in Newfoundland and Nor-
way, and is of a white, pale, or brown
colour according to the manner in
which it is prepared. An impure
variety, coarse and unrefined, is also
obtained during the making of the
better oil, and this is known as cod oil.
It is used chiefly by curriers. The
usual method of obtaining cod Uver
oil is to wash the fresh Uver of the fish
so as to remove any trace of gall. The
liver is then heated with boihng water
and the oil which rises to the surface
skimmed off. Any excess of water is
driven off by heat and the resulting
oil strained through cloth bags of
varying fineness in order to remove
solid matter. The best oil is without
taste, smell, or colour, and the dis-
agreeable taste and smell found in
the ordinary cod liver oil is due to the
putrefaction of small matter which the
filtration has failed to remove. Olein,
palmitin, stearin, butyric and acetic
acids, and gaduin are the chief
constituents of cod liver oil. the
nutritive fatty matters making it an
extremely valuable medicine in pul-
monary diseases.

Ccerulein. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Cce-
rulein.)

A recently introduced dye, used for
the purposes of dyeing and caUco
printing. It is obtained by treating
gallein with sulphuric acid. By dis-
solving ccerulein in an alkaUne solu-
tion a beautiful green colour is obtained
which acts as a fast dye in combination
with the mordant alumina. By various
other treatments it is possible to obtain
colours of different hues, some of which
are very valuable in dyeing wools.

Coffee. (Fr. Cafe, Ger. Kaffee, Sp.
CafS.)

4— (1484)

The homy seeds of the coffee tree —
Coffea Arabica. The tree belongs to
the species Rubiaceae or Cinchonaceae,
al which there are 50 or 60 kinds,
but the cofiee tree is the only one which
produces the article of commerce.
A native of Abyssinia, it is now com-
mon throughout the tropical regions
of Asia and America. The value of
coffee consumed is over ^^60, 000,000
per annum.

The berries of the tree are gathered
when ripe, and variously treated in
order to remove all foreign matter.
They are afterwards roasted with the
result that there is a great reduction
in size, and a development of a volatile
oil and a peculiar acid. When used
for domestic purposes chicory is very
frequently added to coffee.

The active principle of coffee is
caffeine, and the physiological effect
of taking it is to stimulate the brain
and produce sleeplessness. It is thus
an antidote to narcotic poisons.

Essence of coffee is a concentrated
infusion of coffee mixed with extract
of chicory and burnt sugar, the
mixture being made as thick as
molasses.

India, Ceylon, Java, Brazil, and
Arabia are the chief exporting coun-
tries.

Cognac. (Fr., Ger., andSp., Cognac.)

The best larandy, so called from the
place of its manufacture, in the district
of Charente, near Rochefort. In France
cognac is often called " fin cham-
pagne."

Coir, (Fr. Fibre de noix de cocos,
Ger. Kokosbast, Sp. Estopa de coco.)

Or cocoa-nut fibre, obtained from
the husks of the cocoa-nut. The
husks are steeped in water for a con-
siderable time, often mouths, before
the fibre can be separated and made
ready for use. It possesses great
strength and is capable of being worn
for a long time, hence its value in the
manufacture of hall mats, etc. Coarse
brushes, ropes, and cables are also
made of the fibre, especially by the
Pacific islanders. The trade in the
article is carried on almost exclusively
by Ceylon, whence the supplies of the
United Kingdom and the United
States are obtained.

Coke. (Fr. Coke, Ger. Koke, Sp.
Coke.)

49

Col]

World s commercial PRODtJcts.

[Con

The residue left when coal has been
deprived of the greater part of its
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. It
bears the same relation to coal that
wood charcoal bears to wood. It is
largely obtained as a bye-product in
the manufacture of gas for illuminating
purposes ; but the best coke is carefully
prepared by heating coal to a high
temperature in a closed vessel or coke-
oven. Coke consists mainly of carbon.
It is difficult to ignite, but it burns
with great heat and without smoke,
and is therefore valuable for metallur-
gical operations. It is hard, brittle,
and porous, possesses a grey metallic
lustre, and does not soil the fingers.

Cola. (Fr. Cola, Ger. Kola, Sp. Cola.)

The ordinary name of the Cola
acumenata, a tree of tropical Africa,
valuable on account of its seeds or nuts,
which are used as a condiment in
Africa and South America, and in
which an extensive trade is carried on.
The nuts have a bitter taste, and
possess qualities resembling those of
cinchona bark.

Colchicum. (Fr. Colchique, Ger.
Zeitlose, Sp. Colquico.)

A plant belonging to the order of the
lily family, and called Colchicum autum-
nale : the only British specimen is the
autumn crocus, otherwise meadow
safEron. The flowers are purple and
the seeds dark, resembling black
mustard seeds. The whole plant is
acrid and somewhat poisonous, and
contains an alkaloid Colchicine or
Colchicia. The seeds are valuable in
medicine, especially in cases of gout
and rheumatism.

Collodion. (Fr. Collodion, Ger.
Collodium, Sp. Collodion.)

A solution of gun cotton or pyroxylin
in a mixture of ether and alcohol. The
best gun cotton for its preparation is
obtained from cotton-wool, nitre, and
sulphuric acid. There are numerous
varieties of collodion depending upon
the method of preparation, and of
these some are extremely useful in
surgery, and others in photography.
Their surgical use is for wounds, the
collodion being mixed with a little
castor oil. A popular corn cure is
salicylated collodion, composed of col-
lodion, salicyUc acid, and Indian hemp.

Colocynth. (Fr. Coloquinte, Ger.
Cologuinte, Sp. Coloquintida.)

The dried and powdered pulp of the
bitter cucumber, a fruit much resem-
bling an orange in appearance, and
growing in immense quantities in N.E.
Africa, Asia Minor, Syria, and Spain.
The chief exports are from Smyrna.
The fruit is collected before it is ripe
and dried artificially. It has been used
as a medicine for centuries, and is
generally administered in the form of
pills combined with aloes, scammony,
and calomel. Colocynth also enters
into the composition of certain moth
powders.

Colophony. (Fr. Colophane, Ger.
Geigenharz, Kolophonium, Sp. Colo-
fonia.)

The name often given to black resin,
the solid substance left when crude
turpentine is distilled. It is generally
rolled up in pieces of paper, and used
for rubbing the strings of violins, etc.

Colza. (Fr. Colza, Ger. Repskohl,
Colza, Sp. Colsa.)

The summer rape, a species of
cabbage extensively grown in France
and the north of Europe. From it an
oil of a yellowish colour, called colza
oil, is obtained by means of crushing
mills. At one time this oil was used
very generally for illuminating pur-
poses, but latterly it has given way to
the cheaper petroleum oils. The resi-
due of the colza, after the extraction
of the oil, is known as rape-seed, and is
used for manure. The oil is chiefly
produced at Marseilles, from which city
there is a considerable export trade.

Comb. (Fr. Peigne, Ger. Kamm,
.Sp. Peine.)

The toothed instrument used for
dressing and fastening the hair by all
nations. The various substances used
in the manufacture of combs include
horn, tortoise-shell, ivory, bone, wood,
metal, indiarubber, and xylonite, the
first named being the most common.
The whole manufacture of combs is
now carried out by machinery, though
much care is necessary in cutting the
various materials used to avoid waste.

Conchs. (Fr.Cotiques.Gei. Schnecken-
muscheln, Sp. Conchas.)

The name given to large shells used
for ornaments or for cutting cameos.
One kind, known as the Strombus gigas,
is of a pink colour, and from it are often
obtained fine pink pearls. The shells
are found chiefly in the Bahamas, and

5°

Con]

world's commercial products.

[Cop

the export trade is of the annual value
of about ;£2,000.

Condurango Bark. (Fr. Ecorce
condurango, Ger. Condurangorinde, Sp.
Corteza de condurango.)

The bark of the Gonolobus Conduran-
go, a climbing shrub of South America.
It contains a drug which is reputed to
be efficacious in cases of venomous
bites, and which gives reUef to patients
suffering from cancer.

Conger. (Fr. Congre, anguille de
mer, Ger. Meeraal., Sp. Congrio.)

Or conger-eel, a fish of the eel family,
widely distributed, though the species
vary considerably. The best known
in England is the common conger, of a
brownish-black colour, which is taken
in large numbers off the coasts of
Devonshire and Cornwall. The flesh,
though coarse, is much eaten, and
the conger is often used for making so-
called turtle soup.

Contrayerva. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Contrayerba.)

A plant of tropical America, the
Dorstenia BrasUiensis. The root was
at one time held in high repute on
account of the drug obtained from it,
which was supposed to be of great value
in cases of low fever, and as a cure from
snake-bites. Its use has greatly de-
clined, but it is still supposed to be of
value as a mild stimulant and as a
diaphoretic.

Copaiba or Copaiva. (Fr. Copahu,
Ger. Kopaiva, Sp. Copaiba.)

This is a valuable drug, sometimes
called balsam of copaiba, consisting
chiefly of a resin and a volatile oil. It
exudes from various trees of tropical
America, in the neighbourhood of the
Amazon, when an incision is made in
the stems. It is of a pale yellowish
colour, rather like honey in consistence,
and possesses an aromatic and agree-
able odour, although its taste is bitter.
As a medicine it is used as a stimulant,
and in cases when it is required to act
powerfully upon the mucous mem-
brane. It is sometimes given in the
form of pills to alleviate coughs.
Copaiba is also employed in the manu-
facture of printers' ink.

Copal. (Fr. Copal, Ger. Kopal, Sp.
Coma copal.)

The name applied to a gum resin
obtained from various tropical trees,
and of considerable value in the arts.

It is exported largely from the East
Indies, South America, and East Africa,
especially Zanzibar. The best African
copal is semi-fossil and found imbedded
in the ground ; it resembles amber in
appearance and in some of its qualities.
It is inflammable, insoluble in water,
but soluble in alcohol and oil of turpen-
tine if it has been previously melted for
a short time. All kinds of copal are
extensively employed in the manu-
facture of varnishes and lacquers of a
pale colour.

Copalchi Bark. (Fr. 6corce de
copalche, Ger. Copalchirinde, Sp.
Corteza de copalchi.)

The bark of the Croton niveus, a
shrub of Central America, much re-
sembling cascariUa in its properties,
and with a flavour slightly resembUng
that of mace. The bark is in quills
about 2 feet in length. It contains a
bitter alkaloid resembling quinine, and
is often used as a substitute for
cinchona.

Copper. (Fr. Cuivre, Ger. Kupfer,
Sp. Cobre.)

The earliest metal known and
worked, and valuable in the manu-
facture of bronze in the remotest ages.
It is rarely found in a pure state, but
the extraction from its ores is not a
difficult process. The principal ores
are copper pyrites, copper glance, and
malachite. These are very widely
distributed, and the smelting works of
Swansea and its neighbourhood — the
greatest centre of the process of smelt-
ing — draw suppUes not only from
Cornwall and Devonshire, but also
from Spain, Portugal, and Australia.
Copper has a reddish colour, takes a
fine poUsh, and possesses a faint
odour. When exposed to moist air
it becomes greenish in colour, and
communicates the same colour to a
flame when held in it. It is hard,
malleable, ductile, and tenacious, and
one of the best known conductors of
heat and electricity. It dissolves in
nitric acid. Its specific gravity is 8'9.

The alloys of copper are of enormous
importance in manufactures. The
best known are bell-metal, brass,
bronze, gun metal, and speculum metal.
Sulphate of copper, formed into large
blue crystals and known as blue vitriol
or bluestone, is used in calico print-
ing and electro plating, and in the

51

Cop]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Cor

manufacture of various pigments.
Acetate of copper is commonly known
as verdigris.

There are great deposits of copper in
the United States.

Copperas. (Fr. Couperose, Vitriol
vert, Ger. Eisenvitriol, Sp. Vitriolo
marcial.)

Sulphate of iron, or green vitriol.
It is used for dyeing black, in the
manufacture of inks, and also as a
dressing for crops.

Copra. (Fr. Coprah, Ger. Koprah,
Sp. Copra.)

The commercial name for the dried
kernel of the cocoa-nut when broken
into small pieces. It is imported,
mainly from Ceylon, for the sake of
the cocoa-nut oil that it contains and
"which is expressed from it. It is an
important ingredient in the manu-
facture of margarine.

Coprolites. (Fr. CoproUthe, Ger.
Koprolit, Sp. Coprolito.)

The fossilised dung of certain extinct
animals, chiefly of the Uzard tribe.
They are found in various strata, and
occur in different shapes. Owing to
the presence of phosphate of Ume,
coprolites have been largely used for
manuring land and also in the prepara-
tion of artificial manures.

Coquilla Nut. (Fr. Noix de co-
quille, Ger. Koquillnuss, Sp. Nuez de
coquille.)

The seed of a South American palm
— the Attalea funifera. These seeds
are largely exported from South
America, the wood being cut and
polished, and then used in the manu-
facture of buttons, umbrella knobs,
etc. The wood is hard, takes a high
poUsh, and has a beautiful brown
mottled appearance.

Coral. (Fr. Corail, Ger. Koralle,
Sp. Coral.)

The name applied to the stony
skeletons of certain marine animals
belonging to the same class as the sea-
anemone. The red coral used for
making beads, necklaces, etc., is found
in the Mediterranean at a considerable
depth. It is capable of taking a high
polish, is very hard, and the finer
qualities command high prices. It is
fished for by means of nets.

Coralline. (Fr. Coralline, Ger. Koral-
lin, Sp. Coralina.)

A red colouring substance resulting

from the action of oxalic and sulphuric
acids upon phenol. A substance, called
aurin, or yellow coraUin, is first pro-
duced, and then peonin, or red corallin,
is obtained by heating aurin with
alcohoUc ammonia. Aurin is used by
paper-stainers, and peonin is employed
for printing fabrics and dyeing wools.
By adding calcined magnesia to a
solution of peonin a rich and durable
turkey red is produced.

Cordite. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Cor-
dite.)

The explosive made principally from
gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine, with
the addition of vaseline. Nitro-glyce-
rine is first mixed with one-sixth its
weight of acetic ether, and gun cotton
is afterwards added, the amount used
being the same as the nitro-glycerine.
The whole is mixed until it has the con-
stitution of jelly. It is then com-
pressed by machinery, cut into desired
lengths, and converted into pliant
threads. Various other processes are
necessary before the cordite is ready
for cartridges. Cordite is uninfluenced
by moisture or by temperature up to
93° C.

Coriander. (Fr. Coriandre, Ger.
Koriander, Sp. Cilantro.)

An annual plant of the Umbelli/erae
order, a native of S.E. Europe and the
Levant, but now widely distributed.
Its seeds are red and aromatic, and a
volatile oil is obtained from them.
The seeds are sometimes used in medi-
cine, and domestically they are em-
ployed for flavouring curries and
spirits, and in the manufacture of
confectionery, etc.

Cork. (Fr. Liege, Ger. Kork, Sp.
Corcho.)

The developed outer bark of the cork
tree, the Quercus suber. This tree is
grown largely in Spain and Portugal,
from which countries the chief supplies
are obtained, and also in Algeria and
Tunis. It is not until the tree is 25
years old that the bark is cut, and fresh
cuttings take place every eight or ten
years, the tree itself living for about
150 years. The usual method of cut-
ting the bark is to make longitudinal
and transverse incisions, which admit
of the cork being removed in semi-
cylindrical pieces by means of a curved
knife. Great care is required in the
cutting so that the inner bark may

52

Cor]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Cot

not be injured. The detached pieces
are soaked in water, pressed fiat,
dried, and superficially charred to
remove any decayed parts and to
conceal blemishes. They are then
packed in bales for the market.
Thousands of tons are annually im-
ported into the United Kingdom.
Besides being used for corking bottles
and casks, cork is used for net floats,
life-belts, and in the construction of
life-boats. As it is impermeable to
water it is employed for the inner soles
of shoes. There is always great waste
in cutting cork, and a use has been
lately found for this waste in the manu-
facture of linoleum.

Corn. (Fr. Bli, grain, Ger. Ge-
treide, Korn, Sp. Grano.)

The general name applied to food
grains. In England the word generally
signifies wheat, and in the United
States maize, but in both countries
rye, barley, and oats are included under
the name com. The different kinds are
noticed under separate headings.

Cornel. (Fr. Cornouille, Ger. Kornel,
Sp. Cornejo.)

The fruit of the Cornus mas, also
called the Cornelian cherry. It is the
size of a small plum, and generally of a
shining red colour. When ripe its
taste resembles that of wine, and the
fruit is used w^hen preserved in the
manufacture of various kinds of con-
fectionery. In Turkey it is employed
in flavouring sherbet. The wood of
the cornel tree is hard and tough, and
in much request by turners, joiners,
and instrument makers.

Coromandel Wood. (Fr. Bois de
Coromandel, Ger. Koromandelholz, Sp.
Madera de Coromandel.)

The wood of the Diospyrus hirsuta,
imported in logs and planks from
India. It is employed in cabinet
making.

Corozo. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Coroza.)

A palm tree, Phyielephas macrocarfa,
which grows in Central and South
America. Its fruit is known as Corozo
nuts, and these nuts contain a milky
liquid which, when condensed, acquires
a hardness almost equal to that of
ivory. On this account the nuts are
often called " vegetable ivory nuts."
The milky substance, when hardened,
is used for the manufacture of buttons,
collar studs, sleeve links, and similar

small articles. Supplies are obtained
principally from Ecuador and Costa
Rica.

Corrosive Sublimate. (Fr. Deuto-
chlorure de mercure, suhlimi corrosif,
Ger. Quecksilberchlorid, Sp. Cloruro de
mercuric. )

The common name for bichloride of
mercury, or mercuric chloride, a com-
pound of chloride and mercury. It is
a deadly poison, but is used- as a
preservative. Its chemical symbol is
HgCl,.

Corundum. (Fr. Corindon, Ger.
Korund, Sp., Corindon.)

The name of a mineral species, in-
cluding a variety of precious stones,
such as the ruby, the sapphire, and the
topaz, but confined commercially to
the crystalline forms of emery. It is
composed essentially of pure alumina,
and is extremely hard, in this respect
being inferior to the diamond alone.
It is in great request for grinding and
polishing machinery, plate glass, etc.
Corundum is found abundantly in Asia
Minor, India, China, and the United
States.

Coto Bark. (Fr. Ecorce de coto, Ger.
Coto-Rinde, Sp. Corteza de Coto.)

A medicinal bark obtained from
certain trees of tropical South America.
Its use is very limited.

Cotton.^ (Fr. Coton, Ger. Baum-
wolle, Sp. Algodon.)

One of the most important of vege-
table fibres, cultivated extensively in
various parts of the world up to the
36th parallel of latitude. It is ob-
tained from the seeds of various species
of Gossypium, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the mallow family, but there are
really not more than three which yield
the cotton of commerce. The plants
vary in size according to climatic
conditions, and the flowers are rich
and showy. The fruit is a 3 or 5 celled
capsule, bursting open when ripe, and
containing numerous seeds which are
covered with the beautiful filaments
known as cotton, generally white in
colour. The seeds are picked and the
fibre is separated from them by a pro-
cess called " ginning." The cotton is
afterwards compressed by a screw or
by a hydraulic press into bales, and
when these have been secured by iron
hoops it is ready for the market. The
bales differ in size, weighing from 300 to

S3

Cot]

world's commercial products.

[Cra

600 lbs. each, according to the country
from which they come. The seeds are
pressed for the purpose of extracting
a bland oil from them, and the resi-
duary cake is useful for feeding cattle.
As cotton is valued according to the
special characteristics it possesses and
its peculiar adaptability to the uses
for which it is required, various classi-
fications have been made. American
cotton is divided into the following
series : (1) fine, (2) good, (3) good fair,
(4) fully fair, (5) middling fair, (6) good
middling, (7) middhng, (8) low mid-
dling, (9) good ordinary, (10) ordinary,
and (11) inferior. Samples of each of
these classes are kept at the ofifices of
the Liverpool Cotton-brokers' Associa-
tion for comparison in case of disputes
arising, and also for reference. Another
division is based upon the places from
which cotton is obtained : —

(1) American cotton. — Sea Island or
Long Georgia supplies the silky,
regular, long staple cotton, the finest
and costliest grown. Upland Georgia
and Mobile is soft and rather short in
the staple. Texas is finer in the staple
than Mobile, but less bright in appear-
ance. Of all the American cottons New
Orleans is the best and most regular.

(2) Brazilian cotton. — Generally this
is harsh in staple and gives a wiry feel to
yams into whose composition it enters.

(3) Egyptian. — The brown is soft and
silky, and the white is generally hard
and harsh.

(4) Turkey and Greece. — These are
harsh in staple and the fibres are
irregularly tjjvisted.

(5) Peruvian. — There are both hard
and soft varieties. The soft is much
like the cotton of New Orleans, and the
hard is usefully mixed with Brazilian.

(6) East Indian. — Of a poor char-
acter, and containing a large quantity
of round and flat fibres.

The principal supply of cotton is
derived from the United States, though
there are very large imports from India.
Among the other countries which
send cotton to the United Kingdom
Egypt is well ahead as regards
quantity.

England has held a pre-eminent
position in the manufacture of cotton
goods ever since the trade was trans-
ferred from India to Europe. The
statistics given by the Board of Trade

show the extent of the work done in
cotton and cotton goods, and this is
about equal to that of the rest of the
world collectively.

The refuse of the mills in the pro-
cesses of cotton manufacture is called
cotton waste. It consists mainly of
the strippings from the carding
machines and the sweepings from the
floors of the card rooms. Millions of
pounds are annually used in the manu-
facture of counterpanes, common
carpets, cotton wicks, wadding, and
twine. The waste suppUed by the
mills in England is insufficient for all
demands, and a considerable quantity
is imported every year.

Cowslip. (Fr. Primevere, Ger.
SchUisselblume, Sp. Primula de jar din.)

A common plant in many parts of
England, and in other parts of Europe.
Its flowers are somewhat like those of
the primrose. These flowers are used
in the manufacture of cowslip wine,
when they are fermented with sugar.

Crab. (Fr. Crabe, icrevisse, Ger.
Krebs, Sp. Cangrejo.)

The well-known edible shell fish,
belonging to the same family as the
lobster and the cray fish. The crab is
littoral in its habits, and several mil-
Uons are taken annually off the coasts
of England and Wales.

Cranberry. (Fr. Canneberge, Ger.
Moosbeere, Preiselbeere, Sp. Arandano
rojo.)

The name of a small, slender, creep-
ing evergreen shrub, belonging to the
order of plants known as Vacciniaceae.
There are three species in Europe and
Northern Asia. The cranberry of the
United States and Canada is larger
than the European plant. The berries,
which have a sharp acid taste, are
valuable for the making of tarts and
preserves, and on account of their
anti-scorbutic properties are much used
on board ship. Wine is made from
them in Siberia, and a beverage derived
from them is sold in Russia. Since the
draining of the fens the cranberry has
not been much cultivated in England,
and our chief imports are from Canada.

Crape. (Fr. Crepe, Ger. Crepon,
Krepp, Sp. Cendal, crespon.)

The thin gauze-like fabric made from
raw silk, gummed and twisted at the
mill, and from which all the gloss has
been removed. The nature of its

54

Cre]

world's commercial products.

[Cry

peculiar manufacture has been pre-
served as a close secret by the European
makers. It is usually dyed black, and
is used for mourning. England is the
principal country in which crape is
made, though Lyons has no mean trade
in the article. Chinese and Japanese
crapes are manufactured in a different
manner, and are often white or
coloured. These are then used for
shawls, scarfs, etc.

Cream. (Fr. Creme, Ger. Rahm, Sp.
Crema, nata.)

The fat of milk which exists in
minute globules in new milk. Being
Ughter than the miUc itself the cream
rises to the surface, and overspreads
the whole. It is generally of a yellow-
ish colour. Machines, called cream
separators, have been devised for
dividing the cream from the milk with
greater speed than can be done when
the operation is left to nature, Eind also
for extracting the whole instead of a
part. Cream is the source of butter,
and is a most important article of
commerce. A considerable trade is
carried on in the manufacture of
various kinds of creams, the principal
of which are : —

1. Devonshire cream : This is pre-
pared by heating new milk in wide pans
after it has been allowed to stand for a
day. Care must be taken that the milk
does not boil. After standing again the
cream is skimmed off and sugar added.

2. Whipped cream : This is made
by beating up new milk or cream with
the white of eggs.

3. Vanilla cream : When whipped
cream is sugared and flavoured it is
called Vanilla cream.

4. Cream cheese : Rich cream is
first tied up in a clean wet cloth, kept
in a cool place for several days, then
transferred to a finer cloth, and after-
wards placed in a mould.

Cream of Tartar. (Fr. Creme de
tartre, bitartrate de potasse, Ger. Cre-
mortartari, Kalmmbitarlrat, Sp. Cremor
de tartaro.)

The crystallised bitartrate of potash.
It occurs naturally in grape juice, and
as it is insoluble in alcohol it is
gradually deposited as argol. The
argol is dissolved in boiling water, and
the solution is treated with charcoal
to remove the colouring matter. On
being allowed to cool the cream of

tartar separates in white crystals. Its
chemical symbol is KHC<H406. For
a long time it was difficult to obtain
this substance in anything Uke a pure
state, but that has been overcome by
degrees. Cream of tartar is used
medicinally as a diuretic and purgative.

Creasote. (Fr. Creosote, Ger. Kreosot,
Sp. Creosota.)

The antiseptic oily substance ob-
tained from the destructive distillation
of wood. The creasote of commerce,
however, is obtained from the distilla-
tion of coal tar. It is much used in the
preservation of meats, etc., and it
prevents the rotting of railway sleepers
or other kinds of wood Ukely to be
exposed to an excess of wet.

Cretonne. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Cre-
tonne.)

The name originally appUed to a
particular white cloth of French manu-
facture. It is now used to denote
printed cotton fabrics which are em-
ployed for making curtains and furni-
ture covers, cretonne having taken
the place of chintz.

Croton Oil. (Fr. Huile de croton,
Ger. Purgier-kornerol, Krotonol, Sp.
Olio de croton.)

An extremely powerful purgative
oil expressed from the seeds of the
Croton tiglium, a plant grown in many
parts of the West Indies, and in South
Africa. The oil is of a brownish colour,
and has an extremely rancid and
nauseous odour. Owing to its very
drastic properties, great care is required
in its use. Externally croton oil is
employed as a liniment.

Crowa Fibre.

Prepared in British Guiana from
the wild pineapple plant. It will
probably come into extensive use for
rope-making when the cost of pro-
duction is reduced.

Crown Glass. (See Glass.)

Crucible. (Fr. Creuset, Ger. Schmeh-
tiegel, Sp. Crisol.)

A vessel used for fusing metals, glass,
etc. Crucibles are generally made of
materials capable of being exposed to
high temperatures. The most common
are formed of porcelain or clay, or of a
mixture of plumbago and clay. In
certain cases platinum, gold, silver,
iron, and Ume are used.

Cryolite. (Fr. Cryolithe, Ger. Kryolit,
Sp. CrioUta.)

55

Cub]

world's commercial products.

[Cut

A double fluoride of sodium and
aluminium, occurring in large deposits
in Greenland, and also found in the
Ural Mountains. It was at one time
the principal source of aluminium.
Now it is chiefly valuable on account
of the alum and bicarbonate of soda
obtained from it. Cryolite is also
employed in the manufacture of glass.

Cubebs. (Fr. Cubebes, Ger. Cubeben,
Sp. Cubebas.)

Otherwise cubeb pepper, the dried
berries of the Piper Cubeba, or Cubeba
officinalis, a climljing shrub of the East
Indies. The seeds are about the same
size as those of black pepper, and
possess a peculiar odour and warm
taste like that of camphor. They
contain a volatile oil, a substance
known as cubebin, and various resinous
bodies, one of which is cubebic acid.
Cubebs are again being used medicin-
ally after having been discarded for a
long period. They are valuable in
certain stomachic complaints, and also
in cases of indigestion.

Cucumber. (Fr. Concombre, Ger.
Gurke, Sp. Cohombro, pepino.)

The well-known tender annual table
vegetable, Cucumis sativus, belonging
to the gourd family. In the south of
England and in equally warm localities
it is grown in the open air, but it
requires to be protected and kept in
warmer earth as the latitude increases.
When the fruit is nearly ripe it comes
away from the stalk and gives out its
seed and juice, the latter containing a
powerful drug. The cucumber is largely
used as a salad, whilst the young one,
called gherkins, are pickled. There is
an immense business done in cucumbers
at Sandy, in Bedfordshire.

Cudbear. (Fr. Orseille, couleur vio-
leite, Ger. FarberflecMe, roter Indigo,
Sp. Orchilla.)

A preparation of archil, made in the
form of a brownish red powder. It is
very useful to the wool-dyer, as giving a
brilliant bloom, but it is somewhat
fugitive.

Culilaban Bark. (Fr. Ecorce de
culilabane, Ger. Culildbanrinde, Sp.
Corteza de culilaban.)

An aromatic bark, also called clove
bark, obtained from the Cinnamomum
Culilaban, a tree of the same genus as
the cinnamon. It is obtained from the
East Indies. The odour of the bark

56

resembles that of nutmegs and cloves.
Its medicinal use is confined to cases of
diarrhoea and indigestion.

Cummin. (Fr. Cumin, Ger. Romisch-
er Kiimmel, Sp. Comino.)

A plant resembling the fennel, of the
order Umbelliferae, cultivated in
southern Europe, North Africa, and
India. The cummin seeds are the
fruit of the Cummin cyminum, the
properties of which are similar to those
of the caraway seeds, but somewhat
stronger. The Dutch are said to mix
cummin with their cheese, and in the
north of Europe it is often added to
bread. At one time used as a medicine
it is now employed only by veterinary
surgeons. Morocco is the chief export-
ing country.

Curacoa, (Fr. Curasao, Ger. Ku
rasso, Pomeranzenliqueur , Sp. Curacoa.)

The liqueur manufactured largely in
Holland, principally at Amsterdam,
from the dried rind of the Curacoa
oranges. These oranges are obtained
from the West India Island Curacoa, a
Dutch possession in the Gulf of Mara-
caybo. The rind is steeped in water,
and afterwards distilled with spirit and
water. Sugar and Jamaica rum are
added to the residue. An imitation of
curacoa is obtained from the rind of
bitter oranges and whiskey.

Currants. (Fr. Raisins, raisins de
Corinthe, Ger. Johannisbeeren, Korin-
thenbeeren, Sp. Grosellas, pasas de
Corinto. )

The common name for various
species of plants of the genus Ribes.
The best variety for jellies, wines, and
preserves is the red currant, with its
white variation, though the black
currant is much prized. The grape
currant is the fruit of fhe Corinth vine,
a variety of the ordinary vine culti-
vated in the Ionian Islands. In cer-
tain districts of Greece a very sweet
wine is made from the fruit, but the
grapes are cultivated mainly for ex-
port, Greece possessing practically a
monopoly. The kinds distinguished
in commerce are Cephalonia Gulf,
Patras, Vastizza, and Zante. Great
Britain imposes a customs duty of 2s.
per cwt. on imported currants.

Cutch.

(See Catechu.)

Cutlery. (Fr. Coutellerie, Ger. Mes-
serschmiedwaren, Sp. Cuchilleria. )

Dam]

world's commercial prodccts.

[Dea

The general name for cutting instru-
ments such as knives, forks, scissors,
razors, etc. In the manufacture of
cutlery France and Germany are now
strong competitors with England in
foreign markets, and the trade of
Shef&eld, the centre of the manufacture
in the United Kingdom, has been much
affected. In the United States also,
England has a most formidable com-
petitor. In France the chief towns
engaged in cutlery manufacture are
Thiers, Langres, Nogent, ChS,tellevault,
and Paris. The finest surgical instru-
ments are made in Paris. In Germany
the principal centres are Solingen,
Remscheld, Suhl, and Schmalkalden.
In the manufacture of razors Sweden
has become especially famous.

Damask, (Fr. Damas, Ger. Damast,
Sp. Damasco.)

The name given to certain fabrics,
first worn at Damascus, into which
elaborate patterns are introduced. The
production of the pattern depends upon
the method adopted in weaving, the
Jacquard loom being the machine
employed. There are silk, woollen,
Unen, and cotton damasks, but the
chief are linen, and they are used for
table-covers, napkins, furniture covers,
etc. In Great Britain the principal
seats of the linen manufacture are
Bamsley in England, Dunfermline in
Scotland, and Belfast in Ireland.
Cotton damasks are produced at Man-
chester, Glasgow, and Paisley, and
woollen damasks at Halifax and Brad-
ford. Silk damasks are made in the
neighbourhood of London.

Dammar. (Fr. Dammar, Ger. Dam-
mar, Sp. Dammar.)

Also known as gum cat's eye. The
word is an Eastern one, signifying
resin, but the dammar resin of com-
merce is the produce of certain pine
trees. These trees are found in the
East Indies, New Guinea, and New
Zealand. The gum is obtained by
making incisions in the bark of the
trees, and is beautifully clear and
almost transparent. The resin is also
found in many places in a fossil condi-
tion, and this species is of the greatest
commercial value. Soluble in cold ether,
dammar is largely employed in the
preparation of transparent and rapidly
drying varnishes. Singapore is the
chief exporting town of this article.

Damson. (Fr. Prune de Damas,
Ger. Damaszenerpflaume, Sp. Ciruela
damasquino. )

The small oval variety of the com-
mon plum, much used for making
preserves. The damson tree grows to
a considerable height, and is exceed-
ingly fruitful. The fruit is variously
coloured, dark purple, blue, black,
and yeUow. A native of Damascus,
the damson tree is now found in various
parts of the world.

Dandelion. (Fr. Dent-de-lion, Ger.
Lowenzahn, Sp. A maroon, diente de lean. )

A plant belonging to the natural
order Compositae, common in all
temperate regions. The name, lion's
tooth, is given to it on account of the
formation of its leaves. DandeUon
abounds with a milky juice, of which
the principal constituents are resin,
inuUn. sugar, and a pecuUar crystalline
principle taraxacin. This juice has a
bitter taste, but is valuable medicinally
as a tonic and in hver troubles. The
root, when ground, is often mixed with
coffee and chocolate, and is sometimes
used as a substitute for coffee.

Date Palm. (Fr. Dattier, Ger. Dat-
telpalme, Sp. Palma, palmera.)

A species of palm cultivated in
immense quantities all over northern
Africa, western Asia, and southern
Europe. The fruit is in many in-
stances used as the principal food of
the inhabitants of the countries in
whichit grows, and when dried, thedates
are exported from Egypt, Turkey, and
Morocco. The varieties are exceed-
ingly numerous, depending upon the
shape, size, quality, time of ripening,
etc. From the fibre of the date palm
rope is made, while the sap of the tree
gives an intoxicating beverage known
as lagbi. Sugar is also made from the
sap, and consumed in India.

Date Plum. Fr. Plaqueminier, Ger.
Dattelpflaume, Sp. Palma.

A tropical tree belonging to the
ebony order, valuable on account of its
timber and its fruit. From the fruit,
when pounded, fermented and distilled
beverages are made. The bark is
bitter, and is employed medicinally in
cases of cholera and diarrhoea.

Deals. (Fr. Bois de sapin, Ger.
Tannenbretter, Sp. Tobias.)

The name applied to particular sizes
of pine wood when exported from the

57

Dee]

world's commercial products.

[Dil

Baltic ports, though properly it should
refer to any thicknesses in which timber
is cut up. Deals are 3 inches thick and
9 inches wide. They are sold by the
hundred, each hundred containing 120
pieces. In trade returns, deals are
placed under the head of sawn timber.

Deer. (Fr. Cerfs, Ger. Reh, Rotwild,
Sp. Corzo.)

A family of ruminating mammals
belonging to the order of hoofed quad-
rupeds. They are distinguished from
other ruminants by the nature of their
horns, or antlers, which are bony
throughout, and are annually shed and
reproduced. Deer are very widely
distributed, and very many species are
known, though none are found in
Australia or Africa. The flesh appears
in the market as venison, the horns are
valuable in the manufacture of cutlery
goods, and the skins are employed for
making robes, rugs, and trimmings.
India and South America are the
principal sources from which Great
Britain draws its supplies.

Dextrine. (Fr. Dextrine, Ger. Dex-
trin, Sp. Destrina.)

Also known as British gum. It is
prepared from starch by the action of
dilute acids at a high temperature, and
also by the action of diastase. Its
chemical symbol is QHioOj, and it
closely resembles starch, but it can be
distinguished from that substance by
the fact that it is not turned blue by
iodine. Dextrine is much used as a
substitute for gum arable in caUco
printing, and also as a mucilage for
stiffening fabrics. It serves as a coat-
ing for adhesive stamps, envelopes, etc.

Diamond. (Fr. Diamant, Ger. Dia-
mant, Sp. Diamante.)

The most brilliant of all precious
stones, though less highly valued than
the ruby. It is the natural form of
crystalUsed carbon, and is weU known
by its peculiar lustre. The colourless
stones are generally the most prized,
though a rare colouring may give a
fictitious value to those of inferior
quaUty. Much depends upon the
cutting, and this highly skilled industry
is carried on principally at Amsterdam.

The diamond is harder than any
other mineral, and this hardness is one of
its most distinguishing features. Only a
diamond will readily scratch a rubj"- or
a sapphire. In spite of its hardness.

however, it is exceedingly brittle. Its
specific gravity is 3'5. Since the
chemical composition of this precious
stone is so well known, many efforts
have been made to produce artificial
diamonds, but little success has at-
tended the experiments owing to the
expense and the danger involved,
and the particular experiments of Mr.
Hannay, of Glasgow, made in 1880,
have not been repeated.

India, Brazil, and South Africa,
especially the last named, are the
principal diamond producing countries,
and it is believed that the precious
stones exist in Australia.

An imperfect variety of diamond is
bort, or boart, which is not capable of
being used as an ornament, but is
employed as an abrading agent when
ground. Another variety is carbon-
ado, black and opaque, found only in
Brazil. Its density is less than that
of the crystallised diamond, but its
hardness is greater. Hence it is used
for mounting in the steel heads of
rotary diamond drills for rock-boring.

Diaper. (Fr. Toile ouvree, Ger.
Stangenleinwand, Sp. Lienzo.)

A variety of Unen or other cloth,
generally figured with some pattern.
It is produced by a process of twilling.
Diaper is mainly used for table-linen,
towels, etc.

Digitalis. (Fr. Digitate, Ger. Finger-
hut, Sp. Dedal.)

A genus of plants of the natural
order ^crophulariaceae, natives chiefly
of Europe and the north of Asia. One
species only is found in Britain, the
Digitalis purpurea, or common fox-
glove. The leaves of the plant are
useful in medicine, especially in cases
of heart disease. In large doses it is
poisonous and great care is required in
its administration. The active principle
of the tincture obtained from the
leaves is digitaline.

Dill. (Fr. Anet, Ger. Dillkraut, Sp.
A neto. )

An aromatic plant, common in the
East, in South Africa, and in the
Mediterranean countries. The seeds
are extensively used for flavouring
pickles, sauces, etc., and medicinally
they are employed as a remedy for
flatulence and, in the shape of dill water,
for soothing infants, A volatile oil is

58

Dim]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Dyn

obtained from the seeds by distillation,
which is useful in scenting soaps.

Dimity. (Fr. Basin, Gar. Dimiii,
Barchent, Sp. Fustan.)

A cotton fabric, stout and figured,
used principally for bed-hangings and
window curtains. It owes its name to
the fact that it was originally made at
Damietta, in Egypt. At one time dimity
was white or of a single colour, but
now there are variegated styles invogue.

Dividivi. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Dividivi.)

The twisted pods of the Caesalpinia
coriaria, a great leguminous tree, native
of South America. They are very rich
in tannin, and are extensively imported
into Great Britain from South America,
especially Venezuela, for the use of
tanners and dyers.

Dogs. (Fr. Chiens, Ger. Hunde,
Sp. Perros.)

There is a very large trade carried on
in dogs of various breeds, but it is the
skin of the dog that is chiefly valued
as a commercial product. The skins of
the larger species can be tanned for
boots, shoes, and riding gloves, while
those of the smaller ones are used for
the manufacture of lighter gloves. In
China dogs are reared on a large scale
for the sake of their skins, some of the
long haired ones being turned into
mats, coats, etc. The chief exporting
town is New Chang, the value of the
skins being estimated at about ;^50,000
per annum.

Dogwood. (Fr. Cornouille, Ger. Der
rote Hornstrauch, Sp. Cornejo.)

Also called Dogberry, a species of
cornel tree. The wood is very hard,
and is largely used for making the
handles of tools, cogs for wheels, etc.,
while the young branches are cut to
make skewers. An oil is extracted
from the tree, which resembles olive
oil, while the bark is employed medi-
cinally as a purgative and a febrifuge.
The best charcoal for the manufacture
of gunpowder is produced by burning
dogwood.

Dragon's Blood. (Fr. Sang-dragon,
Ger. Drachenblut, S-p.Sangre de drago.)

Also called gum dragon. The
resinous exudation of different plants,
principally the Pterocarpus draco of
South America, and the red sandal
tree of the East Indies. It is a dark
reddish-brown substance, carmine red

when pulverised, without either taste
or smell. From Sumatra it is exported
in sticks wrapped in palm leaves.
Dragon's blood is soluble in oils and
turpentine, and forms a part of the
most useful varnishes. It is also used
for dyeing horn the colour of tortoise
shell, for staining marble, for making
certain tinctures, and for the manufac-
ture of various kinds of tooth powder.

Dugong. (Fr. Dugong, Ger. Dujung,
Sp. Dugong.)

A marine animal, of the genus
Sirenia, allied in some respects to the
whale. It is found in the Indian and
Pacific Oceans. From its fat an oil is
boiled down, which has the peculiar
virtue of not turning rancid, and which
is medicinally employed as a substitute
for cod-liver oil.

Durra. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Dvrra.)

A genus of grasses, also called durra
millet, Indian millet, and sorgho grass.
They are extensively cultivated in
Africa and the East Indies. The
common durra (Holcus Sorghum) is a
coarse strong grass, having a round
grain, rather larger than a mustard
seed. The produce yielded is very
abundant, even rivalling maize, and
when ground is largely used in Africa
as a substitute for flour in making
bread, and for rice in making puddings,
etc. The leaves of the durra, as well
as the grain, make excellent food for
cattle. The trade in the grain and
the leaves has rapidly declined during
the past half century.

Dye-stuffs. (Fr. Matieres colorantes,
Ger. Farhstoffe, Sp. Tinturas.)

The materials used by dyers for
producing colours upon textiles and
other substances. Those dyes which
produce their effect without the aid of
any other substance are called substan-
tive dyes, while those which require
an adjunct or mordant are called
adjective dyes. The chief mordants
used are the various metallic salts,
especially those of tin and iron. The
principal dye-stuffs are noticed under
separate headings, as well as their prin
cipal sources, animal, vegetable, or
mineral. Artificial dye-stuffs are now
derived from coal-tar, especially the
aniline colours.

Dynamite. (Fr. Dynamite, Ger.
Dynamit, Sp. Dinamita.)

The powerful explosive first made

59

Ear]

world's commercial products.

[Edg

of practical and commercial import-
ance by Mr. Alfred Nobel, in 1867. It
is composed of a mixture of nitro-
glycerine and kieselguhr, a siliceous
infusorial earth found chiefly in Ger-
many. Nitro-glycerine was first ob-
tained in 1846 by dropping glycerine
into a mixture of strong nitric and
sulphuric acids at a low temperature,
but its use was attended with so much
danger that it was valueless until
Nobel's discovery. One part by
weight of kieselguhr is mixed with
three parts of nitro-glycerine, kneaded
into a paste, and passed through a
sieve. When thus prepared dynamite
is a loose powder of a reddish brown
colour. Another method of prepara-
tion is to replace the kieselguhr with
nitrate of potash and carbon, and to
mix the three substances in the follow-
ing proportions : — 71 parts of nitrate
of potash, 18 parts of nitro-glycerine,
and 10 parts of powdered charocal.
One part of paraffin is added to the
whole. The result is a black moist
powder, rather drier than the dynamite
produced by the first method. Dyna-
mite is made up in paper-cased car-
tridges, either for use or for storage.
It can be burned without danger in
small quantities, and gives out a yellow
fiame. When exploded with a deton-
ating fuse it is very violent in its effect.
For this reason it is much employed
in quarrying, in mining, and in all
heavy work where it is necessary to
remove or break up great masses or
weights. The amount of work per-
formed by dynamite is much greater
than that done by either gunpowder or
gun-cotton, and it is now generally
used by the artiUery of the armies of
most countries. It loses very little
of its power when under water, and
for that reason is extensively employed
in submarine operations.

Ear-Shell.

A genus of molluscs, belonging to
the order Haliotidae. The shell is ear-
shaped, and is pierced on the margin
with a. series of holes. On account of
the beautiful tints of their Unings these
shells are much used for inlaying work
and for ornamentation generally. As
many as eighty species are known, the
genus having a very wide distribution
extending from the Channel Islands
southwards.

Earthenware. (Fr. Vaisselle de terre,
Ger. Irdenes Geschirr, Sp. Vaso de
barro. )

A general name for cheap crockery
or ordinary pottery ware. (See Pottery).

Eau de Cologne. (Fr. Eau de Cologne,
Ger. Kolnisches W asset, Sp. Agua de
Cologne.)

The celebrated perfume first pre-
pared by Johann Maria Farina, an
Italian who settled in Cologne in the
early part of the 18th century. For
many years the process of its manu-
facture was kept a profound secret,
but now the article is prepared not
only in Germany, but also in Great
Britain, the difference between the
two preparations being hardly dis-
coverable. Eau de Cologne is made
from the essential oils obtained from
each of the following trees belonging
to the orange tribe, viz., citron, orange,
bergamot, neroU, and rosemary, added
to a certain quantity of rectified
spirits. An extract of geranium
flowers is sometimes added. The
ingredients are well mixed by frequent
agitation, and allowed to stand for
two months. It is then ready to be
put into flasks and, bottles for sale.

Ebonite. (Fr. Ebonite, Ger. Ebonit,
Sp. Ebonita.)

A species of vulcanised rubber, pre-
pared at a very high temperature with
sulphur, exposed to pressure, and
polished. It is used in the manufacture
of various small articles such as toys.

Ebony. (Fr. Ebene, Ger. Ebenholz,
Sp. Ebano.)

A very hard wood, heavy and deep
black in colour. It is obtained from
various trees of the order Ebenaceae.
It is only the heart wood, or the inner
part of the trunk, that yields the black
ebony, the outer part being white and
soft. The logs cut are often as long as
10 feet, and have a thickness of 2 feet.
It is the usual practice to immerse the
wood in water, after it has been cut,
for several months in order to increase
its hardness. The best ebony comes
from Mauritius, and the next in valu--
is exported from Ceylon. It is used
largely by cabinet makers and turners,
and piano keys are often made from
it. Many small articles, such as door-
knobs, knife handles, etc., are likewise
made out of this wood.

Edge Tools. (Fr. Instruments

6o

Eel]

world's commercial products.

[Eme

tranchants, Ger. Schneideinstruinente,
Sp. Instrumentos cortantes.)

The general name applied to cutting
instruments of metal, such as axes,
chisels, knives, etc. The great centres
of the edge tool industry are Sheffield
and Birmingham, but the trade is
now carried on extensively abroad.
In the Board of Trade returns they
are included under the heading " Hard-
ware and Cutlery."

Eel. (Fr. Anguille, Ger. Aal, Sp.
Anguila.)

The soft-finned bony fish, distin-
guished by its serpent-Uke form. Eels
are widely distributed over all the
fresh waters and seas of the temperate
and tropical zones. They are largely
consumed in England, fresh and pic-
kled, and there is a considerable export
trade done by Holland to this country,
most of the fish being brought over in
a Uve state.

Eggs. (Fr. CEufs. Ger. Eier, Sp.
Huevos. )

The ova of birds. The eggs of fowls,
which comprise about 80 per cent, of
those used, enter largely into commerce
and are imported both as an article of
food and for use in manufactures.
Great Britain imports them from most
European countries and from various
of her colonies. The dried white of
eggs, or egg albumen, is a substance
largely used in calico printing and in
photography.

Eider Down. (Fr. idredon, Ger.
Eiderdaunen, Sp. Ederdon.)

The heat feathers obtained from the
nests of the Eider duck, noted for their
softness, lightness, and warmth. The
bird itself is a native of the frozen
coasts of northern Europe and America
and the principal supplies of eider down
are obtained from Greenland, Iceland,
Sweden, and Norway. It is used for
making quilts, and coverlets, and for
padding dressing gowns.

Ejoo Fibre.

The fibre obtained from the Arenga
saccharifera, a species of palm which
grows in the East Indies. It is dark
in colour and like horsehair in texture.
On account of its durabiUty it is often
made into cordage and cables.

Elaterium. (Fr. MaUrine, Ger. Ela-
terin Elaterium, Sp. Elaterio.)

A powerful purgative drug, ob-
tained from the fruit of the squirting

cucumber, a native of the Mediterra-
nean countries. It is prepared by
allowing the juice of the ripe fruit to
stand and afterwards collecting the
sediment. When fresh it is of a pale
green colour, but this colour disappears
after a time. Its activity as a drug
depends upon the presence of elaterin,
the most powerful purgative known.
It acts also as an irritant on the eyes
and fingers of persons handling it.

Elecampane.^ (Fr. Aunee, Ger. Al-
antwurzel, Sp. Enulacampana.)

The bitter and aromatic roots of the
Inula Helenium, a native of damp
meadows in the south of Europe, and
now grown in parts of North America.
The powdered root is used medicinally
as a stimulant, and as it possesses a
pecuhar violet-like odour it is employed
in the manufacture of perfume.

Elemi. (Fr. Resine elemi, Ger.
Elemi, Sp. Elemi.)

A fragrant resinous, substance ob-
tained from different trees of the myrrh
order. At one time there were various
varieties of elemi in use, Mexican,
BraziUan, and Mauritius, but the only
one now in demand comes from
Manilla. This substance, when pure
and fresh, is colourless and has the
consistence of honey, but when mixed
with impurities it has a yellow tint.
It is used in making ointments and
plasters, and on account of its agree-
able odour it enters ipto the composi-
tion of incense.

Elm. {Fr.Orme.GcT.Ulme.S-p.Olmo.)

A genus of trees belonging to the
order Ulmaceae. The trees grow in all
parts of Europe, and there are many
fine varieties in England. The wood
of the EngUsh elm is valuable on ac-
count of its strength, toughness, and
durabiUty. It is not so liable to spUt
as other timber, and resists the action
of water. Hence it is much employed
in shipbuilding and for making founda-
tion piles. The common and the
Cornish elms are considered to give the
best timber.

Emerald. (Fr. Emeraude, Ger.
Smaragd, Sp. Esmerelda.)

A highly valued precious stone, a
variety of the beryl, and differing from
it only in the brilliancy of its colour.
This colour is a velvety green, generally
supposed to be due to the presence
of oxide of chromium, though it is

6i

Erne]

world's commercial products.

[Eth

not accurately known to what it
is ascribable. The emerald is com-
posed of silica, alumina, glucina, and
minute proportions of chromium, mag-
nesia, and carbonate of lime. The
finest specimens have been obtained
from Colombia and Venezuela, while in-
ferior ones are found in various parts of
Europe. When taken from the mine
the emerald is soft, and can be easily
reduced to powder, but it becomes
hard by exposure to the air for a few
days. Emerald copper is a beautiful and
rare emerald-green mineral, sometimes
known as dioptase, found in the Urals.

Emery. (Fr. Emeri, Ger. Schmirgel,
Smirgel, Sp. Esmeril.)

An impure dark-coloured variety of
corundum, the colour being due to the
presence of oxide of iron. It occurs
in large masses in the Grecian Archi-
pelago, in Asia Minor, and in Massa-
chusetts. On account of its hardness
emery is extensively employed for
grinding, cutting, and polishing plate
glass, flint glass, gems, jewels, edge-
tools, etc. Before use it is reduced
to a fine powder. Emery wheels made
for the purposes of grinding, the
main ingredient of which is emery, and
emery cloths are composed of emery
spread over a glued surface of calico
or other substance. For cutting and
polishing in lapidary work emery dust
is laid on the edge of iron and lead
wheels.

Endive. (Fr. Endive, Ger. Endivie,
Sp. Cornezuelo, endibia.)

An annual plant of the same order as
chicory. It is a native of China, but
grows well in EngUsh gardens. Its
leaves are much used as a salad.

Epsom Salts. (See Magnesia.)

Ergot. (Fr. Ergot de seigle, Ger.
MuUerkorn, Sp. Ergoteo.)

A powerful medicinal agent obtained
chiefly from the seed of rye or wheat
by the action of a fungus which changes
the appearance and constitution of the
grain. The ergot producing fungus
is found in other grasses, but it does
not produce such characteristic efiects
as upon rye. Its activity is ascribed
to the presence of a fixed oil, ergotine.
The chief exporting countries are
Germany and Russia.

Ermine. (Fr. Hermine, Ger. Her-
melin, Sp. Armino.)

The name of a carnivorous mammal

belonging to the weasel family. The
animal is about 10 inches long and has
a tail of 3 or 4 inches in length. Its
colour in summer is pale brown with a
reddish tint, but in winter its fur
changes to a beautiful white. This
white fur has long been used for trim-
ming the robes of state dignitaries.
The ermine is widely distributed
through the northern parts of Europe,
Asia, and America, and the skins are
imported from Norway, Lapland,
Siberia, and the Hudson Bay terri-
tories.

Esparto. (Fr. Sparie, Ger. Esparto,
Spartogras, Sp. Esparto.)

A species of grasses found in the
various countries bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea. They have long
been used for the manufacture of car-
pets, baskets, ropes, nets, etc., but their
chief application in modem times has
been for paper-making. There are
very large exports from Algiers to
Great Britain, and it is estimated that
this country takes altogether over
150,000 tons per annum. The grass
grows wild, and does not require much
rain. Owing to waste and destruction
in cutting and pulling up the plant,
governmental regulations have recently
been issued both in Algiers £ind Spain
as to its cultivation and treatment.

Essential Oils.

(See Oils.)

Ether. (Fr. kther, Ger. Ather, Sp.
Eter.)

A colourless and very volatile liquid,
composed of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen. Its chemical symbol is
(CjHjjsO. It is prepared by heating
alcohol with sulphuric acid in the
following manner. The alcohol is
placed in a retort, and an equal volume
of sulphuric acid is added. The
mixture of the liquids develops heat,
and when the temperature is further
raised ether vapour passes over with
a proportion of alcohol. By increasing
the amount of alcohol and subsequent
distillation ether is produced.

Ether possesses an agreeable odour
and a somewhat fiery taste. It is
highly inflammable, and when its
vapour is mixed with air an explosive
mixture is formed. It volatilises
spontaneously when unconfined, and
this action -takes place so rapidly that
intense cold is produced. Hence its

«2

Euc]

world's commercial products.

[Fan

common use in freezing mixtures and
freezing machines. It is one of the
best solvents of fats, resins, alkaloids,
etc., and is much employed in chemical
analysis for the solution and separation
of oils from other organic matters.
When inhaled it produces temporary
insensibility, and is often used as an
anaesthetic, being sometimes preferred
to chloroform owing to the absence of
any of the ill-efiects produced by the
latter.

When imported into Great Britain,
chiefly from Germany, acetic ether
pays a duty of 2s. 7d. per lb., butjnric
ether £\ Is. lOd. per gallon, and
sulphuric ether £1 16s. 6d. per gallon.

Eucalyptus. (Fr. Eucalypte, Ger.
Eucalyptus, Sp. Eucalypte.)

A genus of plants belonging to the
myrtle family, of which there are about
150 species. They form the most
characteristic vegetation of Australia,
the trees being remarkable for their
great height. The cultivation has
been introduced into Africa and Central
America. They possess an aromatic
odour of a peculiar character, and this
is their main peculiarity. A resinous
exudation is obtained from the eucalyp-
tus tree, and this is used medicinally as
an antiseptic, its camphor-like smell
giving it a virtue of its own. A volatile
oil is obtained from several species by
distillation with water. This oil is
now manufactured on a large scale in
Australia, and has become a prominent
article of commerce. It is used in soap
manufactories and also in the prepara-
tion of various perfumes. The timber
is soft and easily worked, but after a
time it hardens and is valued for its
durability. The bark is used for
tannin.

Euphorbium. (Fr. Euphorbe, Ger.
Euphorbiumharz, Sp. Euforbio.)

An excessively acrid gum-resin ob-
tained from various species of the
spurge family, in northern Africa,
Arabia, the East Indies, and the
Canary Islands. It is of a dirty yellow
colour, and exudes from the bark of the
trees when an incision is made. Its use
is now chiefly confined to veterinary
medicine, though it is sometimes mixed
with Burgundy pitch for making plas-
ters for affections of the joints. In its
powdered state, when mixed with
starch or flour, it has been used in

cases of affection of the eyes and
ears.

Everlasting Flower. (Fr. Immor-
telle, Ger. Ruhrkraut, Sp. Verba.)

The popular name of certain plants
of the order Compositae, which have the
peculiar property of retaining their
colour and appearance for a long period
after they have been gathered. This
property is owing to their dry firm
structure, and the practical absence of
moisture. The most common species
is the Helichrysum bracteatum, which
is largely cultivated in the south of
France, in Italy, and southern Ger-
many. A very extensive trade is now
carried on by these countries in growing
and preserving everlasting flowers.
The principal importing countries are
Great Britain and the United States.

Extract of Meat. (Fr. Extrait de
viande, Ger. Fleischextract, Sp. Extracto
de came.)

A preparation obtained by separat-
ing all the nutritious elements from
animal food and condensing the same
into small bulk. It is generally ob-
tained by the action of water upon
finely chopped meat, and heating the
same until one-eighth of the meat is
dissolved. The Uquid is then con-
densed and the extract is preserved in
hermetically sealed vessels. There are
many manufactories in South America
where cattle are killed wholesale for
the sake of their flesh as well as their
hides. The best known makers, how-
ever, are English and German firms,
and their advertisements appear in all
parts of the world.

Faience. (Fr. Faience, Ger. Fai-
ence, feine Topferware, Sp. Loza.)

A name formerly given to all kinds of
glazed earthenware, derived from the
town of Faenza, where it was manu-
factured. It is a term now confined
to the finer kinds of pottery.

Fan. (Fr. Eventail, Ger. Fdcher,
Sp. Abanico.)

An instrument manufactured for the
purpose of creating a current of air.
Large fans used in mechanical opera-
tions and for ventilating purposes are
generally made of various metals in the
form of blades, and the current is kept
up continuously by rotation. The ordi-
nary fan is made of any light flat ex-
panded substance, and the current is
set up by the backward and forward

63

Faf]

world's commercial products.

[Fev

movements of the hand. The huge
fans used in India for ventilating rooms
are called punkahs. Fan-making is a
very considerable industry of China,
and the value of the fans annually
exported exceeds ;£600,000. Japan
also does a large trade in the same
articles. Ornamental fans, made of
feathers, ivory, silk, tortoiseshell and
other delicate and costly materials are
chiefly manufactured in Paris, this
industry forming one of the special
trades of the French capital.

Farina. (Fr. Farine, Ger. Mehl, Sp.
Harina.)

The general name applied to many
substances wliich are like flour or other
starchy materials. In South America
the meal of the cassara is called farina.
Commercially the name is confined to
the starch obtained from potatoes, and
this article is prepared, for the purposes
of adulteration, with arrow-root,
tapioca, butter, and various other
articles of food. A peculiar prepara-
tion, known as French sago, is em-
ployed in the manufacture of starch
sugar, and as a thickener in calico
printing. Foods specially prepared
from various kinds of meal are known
as farinaceous.

Feathers. (Fr. Plumes, Ger. Federn,
Sp. Plumas.)

The plumage of birds of various kinds
in which a large trade is done by many
countries, and of which Great Britain
annually imports a quantity valued at
over ;£2,000,000. They are used both
for upholstery work and for ornamenta-
tion. For the former the" feathers and
down of the eider-duck are most valued
after which come those of swans, geese,
ducks, and fowls. For the latter the
feathers most favoured are those of
the ostrich, the bird of paradise, the
humming-bird, the albatross, and the
penguin.

Felt. (Fr. Feutre, Ger. Fih, Sp.
Fieltro. )

A fabric formed without either spin-
ning or weaving. It depends for its
structure upon the natural tendency of
woollen fibres and certain kinds of hair
to combine with each other. The
general process of manufacture is to
card waste wool, moisten it with steam,
and then pass it through a felting
machine in which it is beaten in such
a manner that a compact cloth is

formed. Felt is largely used for
making carpets and covers of various
kinds, and in many cases a printed
pattern ornaments it. A peculiar
coarse felt is the material out of which
the Russian peasantry make their
mnter garments, and especially boots
and shoes, as it alone is capable of
resisting the intense cold of Siberia.
Gun-wads and pianoforte hammers are
other uses to which felt is put. The
property of felting is taken advantage
of in the manufacture of felt hats for
which the hair of various animals can
be used. Roofing felt is coarse felt
saturated with pitch, coal-tar, or
asphalt, and is employed for covering
roofs, vessels, and iron buildings. The
manufacture is widely distributed
throughout Europe and the United
States.

Fennel. (Fr. Fenouil, Ger. Fenchel,
Sp. Hinojo.)

A plant of the umbeUiferous order,
rather like the dill, but distinguished
from it by the nature of its fruit. It is
very widely distributed throughout
Europe and Asia. The seeds have an
agreeable odour and flavour, and are
used as a condiment, especially in
the preparation of macaroni by the
Italians. They are rich in an essential
oil containing anethol, and this oil is
of value in medicine as a stimulant
and narcotic. The leaves of the
fennel are sometimes served as a
salad.

Fenugreek. (Fr. Fenugrec, Ger.
Griechisoher Heusamen , Sp. Semilla de
heno.)

A genus of plants of the same class
as the clover. It was used as fodder
for cattle by the Greeks — hence its
name. Owing to its smell it must be
mixed with other plants. The seeds
of the common fenugreek are largely
used as a condiment in India, and in
the manufacture of curry powder. An
oil is extracted from them which enters
into the composition of certain oint-
ments, especially diachylon.

Feverfew. (Fr. Pyrethre, Ger. Span
ische Kamille, Sp. Magarza.)

A plant of the Compositae order,
somewhat resembling the chrysanthe-
mum, and closely alUed to the camo-
mile. It is commonly found in corn-
fields and hedgerows. Owing to the
popular belief in its properties, feverfew

64

Fib]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Fla

was long used as a remedy in cases
of fever, but its employment and value
are now very slight.

Fibre. (Fr. Fibre, Ger. Fiber, Faser,
Sp. Fibra, hebra.)

Properly the name fibre is applied to
all substances which are employed to
make cordage or to be woven into webs,
whether animal, vegetable, or mineral.
Commercially, however, the term is
used only for those animal or vegetable
substances which are suitable for
textile manufactures. Of the animal
ones the chief are silk, wool, and hair,
and of the vegetable the principal are
cotton, flax, jute, hemp, and esparto.
Each of these is noticed under a
separate heading. The leaves of certain
palm trees yield fibrous materials of
considerable value in such work as
basket-making, and the stalk of many
grasses, including wheat straw, are
employed in hat and mat maldng.

Fig. Fr. Figue, Ger. Feige, Sp.
Higo.)

The fruit of the Ficus canca, a plant
belonging to the nettle order, but
sometimes included in the mulberry
order. It is a native of the East, but
it is now successfully cultivated in
many sub-tropical countries, and
especially in the south of Europe. The
fruit is eaten either fresh or dried, but
it is in the latter state that it forms an
important article of food in the coun-
tries where it grows and an extensive
subject of commerce. The drying
takes place either in the sun or in
specially constructed ovens. Enor-
mous quantities are annually imported
by Great Britain from Mediterranean
countries. The best come from
Smyrna, of which there are three quali-
ties, Eleme, Erbeli, and Aidin. They
are packed in small oblong boxes,
round drums, or baskets. Portugal,
Greece, and Italy are next in order as
to exports. A spirit is sometimes
distilled from fermented figs, and
ground figs are frequently mixed with
coffee. A customs duty of 7s. per cwt.
is imposed on all figs imported into
Great Britain.

Filberts. (See Hazel.)

Fir. (Fr. Sapin, Ger. Fickle, Tanne,
Sp. Pino.)

A comprehensive name for many
species of trees belonging to the order
. Coniferae. For the most part they are

65

lofty and hardy, and their leaves are
evergreen. One of the best known is
the Norway spruce, which penetrates
within the Arctic circle. It yields
various products, such as resin, tur-
pentine, tar, and lampblack. The
resin is called frankincense. The
timber is largely exported under the
name of " white deal." Another
species is the Canadian fir, from which
" Canada balsam " is obtained, and an
extract employed in the manufacture
of spruce beer. The California pine
also gives excellent timber. The only
pine now native in Britain is the Scotch
fir, and this yields the wood known as
yellow deal, and tar by distillation.

Fireclay. (Fr. Argile rifractaire,
Ger. Feuerfester Ton, Sp. Tierra refrac-
taria.)

A variety of clay used in the manu-
facture of retorts, crucibles, etc., which
can be heated to a very high tempera-
ture without fusing or softening. It
is usually found in districts where coal
is mined. It is obtained in Belgium,
Germany, France, Sweden, and the
United States as well as in Great
Britain, the principal deposits in this
country being near Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Stourbridge, and Glasgow. There is
a consideralale export trade in Stour-
bridge clay. The main components of
this clay are silica and alumina.

Flagstones. (Fr. Dalles, Ger. Flie-
sen, Sp. Ladtillos, baldosas.)

Stones used for paving, cisterns, etc.
They are generally composed of sand-
stones combined with argillaceous or
calcareous matter, and split easily into
large flat slabs. The flagstones ob-
tained from Festiniog in North Wales
are remarkable for their even grain,
those of Yorkshire for their hardness,
and those of Caithness for their
durability.

Flannel. (Fr. Flanelle, Ger. Flanell,
Sp. Franela.)

Woven woollen fabric, loose in
texture, much used for underclotliing
on account of its warmth. The process
of manufacture is very similar to that
employed for woollen cloth. Wales
early gained a great reputation for its
flannel, and that made from the wool
of its mountain sheep still commands
the best prices. Lancashire takes the
second place and Yorkshire the third
place both as to the extent and the

Fla]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Flo

value of the flannel manufactured. The
chief towns in Wales engaged in the
manufacture of flannel are Newtown,
Welshpool, and Llangollen, in Lan-
cashire, Bury and Rochdale, and in
Yorkshire, Leeds and Halifax. Flannel
shirtings are made at Auchterarder, in
Scotland. There is now a large trade
done by the United States in special
flannels, and France produces fine dyed
varieties.

Flavine. (Fr. Flavine, Ger. Flavin,
Sp. Flavine.)

A yellow dye-stuff, the concentrated
preparation of quercitron bark, ob-
tained from a species of oak, imported
from the United States, and used for
dyeing wool. Like most other dye
stuffs its use has declined since the
introduction of the aniline colours.

Flax. (Fr. Lin, Ger. Lein, Flachs,
Sp. Lino.)

The fibre obtained from plants of
the order Linaceae. The best known
of the many species of the plant, as
well as the most important, is the
annual common flax, Linum usitatissi-
mum. It grows largely in Russia,
Saxony, Belgium, Holland, Italy, and
the north of France. In the United
Kingdom its growth has declined,
though there are still considerable
crops raised in Ireland. For our linen
manufactures, therefore, we are almost
entirely dependent upon the flax im-
ported from various continental coun-
tries, the largest supply coming from
Russia.

In the preparation of flax for manu-
facture into cloth, or flax-dressing, as
it is called, the following method is
adopted. The stems of the plant are
either cut or puUed up by the roots and
allowed to dry. After the seeds have
been removed by a process known as
rippUng, the flax is subjected to what
is called retting. The stalks or stems
are steeped in water and fermentation
sets in, the result being that the fibres
are freed from the woody matter, and
the gummy and glutinous matter is
removed. This part of the work is now
generally carried out by a special pro-
cess known as Pownall's. After being
removed from the vats and allowed to
dry in the open air, the flax is scutched,
that is, placed in a machine called a
scutching machine, when the work of
complete separation of the fibre from

66

the woody matter is completed. The
fibre is then ready for being made into
linen. It is from the finest flax that
the well-known Brussels lace is made.
The seeds of the common flax plant
are used for the manufacture of linseed
oil, and the crushed seeds are made
into oil-cake and Unseed meal. When
linseed oil is mixed with boiling water
carron oil is obtained, a substance often
used for treating bums.

The New Zealand flax is very differ-
ent from and superior to the European
flax, its fibre being beautifully fine,
strong, and silky. Owing to the
presence of a large amount of gummy
and resinous matter it is not easy to
prepare it for commercial usage.

Flocks. (Fr. Bourre, Ger. Flocken,
Sp. Copos, vedijas.).

The refuse of wool, the ends of waste
feathers, the husks of old cotton, and
various other substances of the same
kind, used for filling cheap mattresses
and cushions. There is an export
trade done in them by Great Britain to
the extent of over ^^500,000 per annum.
Floor cloth. (Fr. Toile cirie, Ger.
Fussbodendecke, Wachstuch, Sp. Ence-
rddo, hule.)

The name applied to various kinds
of carpets, matting, and other cover-
ings for the floors of rooms. In trade,
however, a floor-cloth generally signi-
fied a strong thick canvas, oiled and
painted, though it has been extended
to linoleum and other substances in
which cork is the chief article used.
Oilcloths made of canvas are largely
manufactured in Dundee and London,
and the annual value of the quantity
exported by Great Britain is little
short of ;£1,000,000. Linoleum is made
by processes founded upon patents
taken out in 1860 and 1863. Canvas
is the ground work of this kind of
floor-cloth also, but the surface is
created with a preparation of pul-
verised cork and linseed oil. Kamptu-
licon is made of cork and indiarubber,
but it is now little used. A new kind
of floor-cloth, known as cork carpet, is
coming into use, and is supposed to be
an improvement upon linoleum, the
cork being more carefully prepared and
better treated.

Flour. (Fr. Farine, Ger. Mehl, Sp.
Harina.)

The meal of corn, especially wheat.

Flo]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

finely ground and sifted. When ex-
ported from most countries it is
ordinarily sent out in sacks, each sack
containing 280 lbs., but from America
flour comes in barrels containing 196
lbs. each. The United States, Canada,
Germany, and Austria are the countries
from which we import most of our
flour.

Flowers, Artificial. (Fr. Fleurs
artificielles, Ger. Nachgemachle Blutnen,
Sp. Floras artificiales.)

Imitations of flowers extensively used
for ornamentation and decoration.
Ov/ing to changes of fashion the
industry is subject to great fluctua-
tions. At one time the trade was
almost exclusively a French one, and
Paris was especially noted for the
beauty of its productions. Even now
France manufactures more than the
rest of the world put together, and her
export trade exceeds ^1,000,000 per
annum. The making of wax flowers,
which is a completely distinct trade,
is almost exclusively carried on in
England.

Fluor Spar. (Fr. Spath fluor, Ger.
Flussspat, Sp. Espato fusible, castina.)

A mineral of very frequent occurrence
in Derbyshire, and on that account
often known as Derbyshire spar. It
is usually found in veins with other
ores in the shape of cubical crystals.
It is really fluoride of calcium. This
mineral is hard, brittle, and trans-
parent. Its most common colours are
green, violet blue, and yellow, but
many other varieties are met with.
Besides its use for ornamental pur-
poses, such as the manufacture of
vases, etc., fluor spar is a valuable flux
in the reduction of metallic ores.
When heated with sulphuric add
hydrofluoric acid is formed, a substance
oi great use in the etching on glass.

Fox. (Fr. Renard, Ger. Fuchs, Sp.
Zorra.)

The well-know carnivorous animal
valuable in commerce, however, only
on account of its fur. Of the numerous
species the principal are • —

(1) Blue fox, found in N. America.
Its fur is of a brownish-blue colour, or
slate when at its est. Between 3,000
and 4,000 skins are imported annually
by Great Britain, the price paid for a
skin being sometimes as high as ;^10.

(2) Cross fox, in Russia. Its skin

[Fuc

is about half eis valuable as that of the
blue fox.

(3) Grey fox, in the United States.
This animal is very common, and the
price of a skin is seldom more than
five shillings.

(4) Red fox, in Siberia and N.
America. Nearly 100,000 skins are
exported annually, the prices being
from five shillings to twenty-five
shillings a skin.

(5) Silver Fox. The fur of this fox is
the most valuable of all, and as much as
;^200 has been given for a single skin.
The animal is found in Alaska, British
Columbia, and the Hudson Bay Terri-
tory. The principal buyer is Russia.

(6) White fox, in N. America.
Nearly 20,000 skins are annually im-
ported by Great Britian, the prices ob-
tained having an extremely wide range.

Frankincense. (Fr. Encens, oliban,
Ger. Weihrauch, Sp. Incienso, olibano.)

A species of resin, soft, tough, and
yellowish in colour, possessing an
agreeable odour when burned. It is
not fully ascertained what are the trees
or shrubs from which the resin exudes,
but they are certain species of firs and
pines. The best frankincense is obtained
from India, that of Arabia being much
inferior in quality. It is used in the
religious rites and ceremonies of many
churches on account of its smeU, and
in medicine it is employed in the
preparation of certain kinds of plasters.

Fuchsine. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Fuch-
sine. )

One of the aniUne colours. It gives
all the various tints of red, magenta,
etc., to silk and wool. In France this
dye is much used not only in the manu-
facture of light tissues, but also in the
making and colouring of artificial
flowers.

Fucus. |Fr. Fucus, Ger. Tang, Sp.
Algas.)

The name given to various species of
sea weed, which form the principal
vegetation of rocky shores between the
marks of high and low tides. It is
found abundantly on the northern
shores of Europe, Asia, and America.
In extreme cases it serves as fodder
for cattle, but its main use is for manur
ing land, its value depending upon the
presence of a large proportion of ash.
It is also employed in the preparation
of iodine.

67

Ful]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Fus

Fuller's Earth. (Fr. Terre A. foulon,
Ger. Walkererde, Sp. Arcilla de cimolis.)

A soft, greasy, earthy clay, deriving
its name from the fact that it is much
used by the fuller in cleaning woollen
cloth from grease. It is an hydrous
bisilicate of alumina with a sUght
admixture of various impurities, such
as oxide of iron, Ume, magnesia, and
soda. In colour it is generally brown
or of a slate-blue colour, though
greenish varieties are not unknown.
On the application of heat fuller's earth
melts, and unlike clay, it falls to powder
in water with a hissing sound, and does
not form a plastic mass. Fuller's earth
is found is many localities in Englajid,
but the greatest quantities are obtained
from Nutfield, near Reigate, in Surrey,
and from the neighbourhood of Bath.
The annual consumption is over
10,000 tons.

Fulminates. (Fr. Fulminates, Ger.
Knallpulver, Sp. Pblvora fulminante.)

The name of explosive compounds
of which there are many varieties.
They are formed by the action of
alcohol on the nitrate of a metal in the
presence of free nitric acid. The
principal fulminates are those of mer-
cury and silver. The former is pre-
pared by heating mercury with alcohol
and nitric acid. After purification it
is obtained in white crystals, which are
soluble in water. The crystals are
safe to handle when moist, but when
dry they explode violently if struck
by a hard substance or if brought
into contact with a light. When
mixed with sulphur and nitre, ful-
minate of mercury is largely used in
the manufacture of percussion caps.
Fulminate of silver is obtained in the
same manner, silver being substituted
for mercury. It forms small white
needles which have a bitter taste and
poisonous properties. Great care is
required in its manufacture as it
explodes more easily than fulminate of
mercury. Its employment is almost
entirely confined to making crackers
and detonating toys.

Fur, (Fr. Fourrure, Ger. Peh, Sp.
Piel.)

The short, fine, soft hair of certain
animals, growing thick upon the skin,
and distinguished from hair, the longer
and stiffer material. The term is
applied, however, to all skins which are

covered with hair. As fur is one of
the most perfect non-conductors of
heat, it has been used by mankind as
the warmest kind of clothing. The
furs of the larger kinds are chiefly
obtained from Siberia and North
America, and of the smaller from
various parts of Europe. The princi-
pal animals which are fur-producing
are noticed under separate headings.

Fusel Oil. (Fr. Alcool amylique,
Ger. Amyl-Alkohol, Fuselbl, Sp. Aguar-
diente malo.)

Also known as Potato Spirit. The
name fusel oil is given to the less
volatile products separated during
the distillation of various alcoholic
liquors. It consists chiefly of amylic
alcohol — chemical symbol CsHiaO —
but it sometimes contains propylic,
butylic, and hexylic alcohols, as well
as several fatty acids, the principal
of which is capric acid. It is a colourless
Uquid possessing a strong odour and
a burning taste. It is often used in
the adulteration of whiskey, the milky
appearance of the spirit when mixed
with three or four times its quantity of
water being directly ascribable to its
presence. Its efiect upon the human
system is particularly bad. Fusel oil
is also employed in the manufacture
of essential oils and of certain var-
nishes.

Fusible Metal. (Fr. Mdtal fusible.
Ger. Schmelzbares Metall, Sp. Metal
fusible.)

An alloy composed of the three
metals bismuth, lead, and tin, with the
addition in some cases of a small
amount of cadmium. This alloy is
known as fusible metal on account of
the fact that it melts at a temperature
below that of boiling water. As it
expands upon solidifying, the metal
is useful in stereotyping, and in
taking casts of medals, etc. It was
formerly much used in making safety
plugs for steam boilers, as the metal
melted when the pressure became too
great. It was discovered, however,
that a change took place if there was a
long exposure to heat, and that the
metal could not be relied upon in all
cases.

Fustian. (Fr., Futaine, Ger. Bar-
chent, Sp. Fustan.)

A thick fabric made of twilled cotton,
but including moleskin, velveteen,

68

Fus]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Gal

corduroy, and various other varieties.
Manchester is the great centre of the
industry. The substance is chiefly
used for making up into male apparel.

Fustic. (Fr. Bois jaune, fustet, Ger.
Gelbholz, Fustikhoiz, Sp. Fustele.)

The wood of a tree known as Morus
tinctoria, which flourishes in India and
in certain parts of tropical America.
A yellow colour is obtained from it
which is used in dyeing wool. Fustic
has held its own against the aniline
colours longer than any other vegetable
dye. There is another fustic, known
as the Zante or young fustic, found in
southern Europe, which also gives a
yellow dye, but this is more fugitive
than the former. The twigs and
leaves of the Zante fustic are useful in
tanning.

Galam Butter.

The name of a fatty substance ob-
tained by boiling the roots of a species
of Bassia, a native of the East Indies.
It is of lard-like consistence, with a
taste resembling that of cocoa. Medi-
cinally it is used as a lubricant in cases
of rheumatism, and in the manufacture
of Up salve. The seeds of the Bassia
yield an oil which is employed for
illuminating purposes and for making
soap.

Galangal. (Fr. Galanga, Ger. Galgant,
Sp. Galanga.)

The Alpinia galanga, a tree of the
ginger order. The rhizome forms the
bulk of the preserved ginger exported
from China. The root of the lesser
galangal, Alpinia officinarium, which
is met with in European commerce,
has a pungent odour and taste, re-
sembling those of the grains of para-
dise. China does a large trade in
galangal, mainly with India.

Galbanum. (Fr. Galbanum, Ger.
Galbanum, Mutterhaz, Sp. Galbano.)

A gum resin of a disagreeable odour
and sharp taste obtained from the
Persian Ferula galbaniflua. In its
medicinal properties it is very similar
to asafoetida, though not so powerful.
When taken internally it is supposed to
alleviate rheumatic pains; externally
it is applied as a plaster in cases of
indolent swellings. There is very little
commerce in this article.

Galena. (Fr. Galine, Ger. Schwefel-
blei, Bhiglanz, Sp. Galena.)

Also called Lead Glance. This

mineral is massive sulphide of lead,
consisting of 86-6 parts of lead and
13 "4 parts of sulphur. It is heavy
and opaque, has a greyish colour,
possesses metallic lustre, and occurs
crystallised in veins in granites, sand-
stones, limestones, etc. Sometimes
other metals are combined with it, as
zinc, silver, copper, iron, and antimony.
Almost all the lead of commerce is
obtained from galena. It is abun-
dantly distributed not only in Great
Britain, but also in most of the
European countries and in the United
States.

Gallic Acid. (Fr. Acide gallique, Ger.
Gallussriure, Sp. Acido agallico.)

An acid occurring in small quantities
in gall-nuts, sumach, dividivi, and
other plants. It is generally prepared
however, from gall-nuts alone. For
tliis purpose the nuts are immersed in
water for some weeks until fermenta-
tion sets in. The action will take
place more quickly if sulphuric acid is
added to the water. When pure it
forms slender colourless crystals with
a. silky lustre, and a sour taste. The
presence of salts, particularly iron
salts, produces a, dark blue colour,
which finally becomes black on ex-
posure to the air. Commercially it is
used in the manufacture of inks.
Medicinally it acts as an astringent,
and owing to its peculiar properties it
has been found very efficacious in
cases of Bright's disease. Its chemical
symbol is HCjHsOjH^O.

Galls. (Fr. Galles, Ger Gallapfel,
Sp. Agallas.)

Also known as Gall-nuts and Oak
apples. They are the abnormal
excrescences formed upon the leaves
and stalks of certain trees, especially
species of oak trees, by gall insects
which introduce their eggs and leave
the la.rvae to develop. The best galls
are obtained from Aleppo. They are
useful by reason of the presence of
large quantities of gallic and tannic
acids, substances of value in the manu-
facture of ink and in tanning. Large
imports are made by Great Britain
from Greece, Italy, and Algiers, beside
Asiatic Turkey.

Galvanised Iron. (Fr. Fer galvanise,
Ger. Galvanisiertes Eisen, Sp. Hierro
galvanizado.)

Iron coated with zinc to prevent its

69

Gam]

world's commercial products.

[Gel

rusting by the oxidising action of air
and water. There is no galvanic pro-
cess in the matter. The iron is cleaned
as perfectly as possible and then dipped
into molten zinc, when a thin layer of
the zinc adheres to the iron. Galvan-
ised iron was first used for cooking
vessels, but afterwards became very
common for roofing purposes, and
making buckets, telegraph wire, bolts
for ships, etc. It is also used for water
pipes, but it is unsuitable for steam
pipes as when exposed to steam the
galvanised iron rapidly decomposes
and holes make their appearance. A
vessel made of this substance must not
be used for acids. When galvanised
iron is wrinkled it is termed corrugated
iron.

Gambier. (Fr. Gambier, Ger. Gam-
bir, Sp. Catecu y tierra del Japdn.)

An extract obtained from the leaves
of the shrubs Uncaria gambir and
Uncaria acida, which grow extensively
in the East Indies. The leaves are
boiled in water, and the hquid obtained
evaporated until a thick glue-like
substance remains, which is afterwards
allowed to dry in the form of cakes
previous to being exported. Gambier
is of a brownish colour. Medicinally
it is sometimes used as an astringent,
but it is chiefly valuable in tanning and
dyeing. It is exported almost exclu-
sively from Singapore.

Gamboge. (Fr. Gnmmegutte, Ger.
Gummigutli, Sp. Gomaguta, guta-
gamba. )

An acrid, yellowish gum resin, the
product of various trees which grow in
the East Indies. The best gamboge
comes from Siam, and is obtained from
the Garcinia cambogia. When the bark
of the tree is cut the resin comes out
as a thick yellow juice, but hardens
rapidly when exposed to the atmos-
phere. When exported it is generally
in the form of a pipe or roll, or in
cylindrical masses. Medicinally it is
used in conjunction with various drugs,
as its purgative properties are ex-
tremely violent. In the arts it is
employed in water-colour painting, in
staining wood, and in coating brass-
work.

Garancine. (Fr. Garancine, Ger.
Garancin, Sp. Garancina.)

A dye stuff prepared from the
madder root by treating it with

sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The
madder is boiled in acidulated water
for several hours, after which it is
washed with pure water and then
dried, pressed, and ground into a
powder. The powder is the garancine
of commerce. It was at one time very
largely used in calico-printing, but the
introduction of aniline dyes has
affected this as well as other dye-stuffs.

Garnet. (Fr. Grenat, Ger. Granat-
stein, Sp. Granate.)

The name rather of a group of
minerals which crystallise in peculiar
forms, the most common being the
dodecahedron, than of any one parti-
cular stone. Garnets are of various
colours, though brownish red is the
most ordinary, the stone being then
composed of a silicate of iron and
aluminium. They have, in general, a
resinous lustre. The garnet of com-
merce is obtained from Bohemia,
Ceylon, Brazil, and Pegu, the best
coming from the last mentioned place.

Gasolene. (Fr. Gasoline, Ger. Gaso-
lin, Sp. Gasoline.)

A highly volatile distillate obtained
from rectified petroleum. It is used
for gas-engines, motor cars, etc.

Gauze. (Fr. Ga^e, Ger. Gaze, Sp.
Gasa.)

A thin, delicate, transparent texture
woven of very fine fibre. Its name
is said to have been derived from Gaza,
in Palestine, where it was first made.
Originally, it was a silken fabric, and
large quantities are now produced by
France and Switzerland. It is the
result of a peculiar kind of weaving,
the object being to keep the threads
as far apart as possible. Gauze is used
for dress purposes and also by millers
for flour sifting. At one time the
industry was very considerable in the
west of Scotland, but few traces now
remain. Owing to the development
of the cotton trade cheap textiles of
the nature of gauze have become
exceedingly common.

Gelatine. (Fr. Gelatine, Ger. Gela-
tine, Sp. Gelatina.)

The name applied commercially to
the product obtained from various
animal tissues, and used for human
food or in the arts according to its
source and method of preparation.
Gelatine proper is chiefly obtained from
the softer parts of the hides and skins

70

Gen]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Gin

of oxen, calves, and sheep. Various
processes have been devised for its
extraction, and these have now at-
tained a high state of perfection. The
purest forms only are used for food, in
the manufacture of confectionery, and
medicinally for coating pills of nau-
seous taste. Other forms of gelatine
have many and varied uses, especially
in photography and in the manufacture
of glue.

Gentian. (Fr. Gentiane, Ger. Enzian,
Sp. Genciana.)

A plant of the order Gentianaceae, of
which there are over one hundred
species. The best known is the
Gentiana lutea, which is gathered in
many parts of the mountainous dis-
tricts of southern Europe. The active
bitter principle is obtained from the
dried root of the plant. It is an ex-
cellent bitter and stomachic, and is
much used in cases of general debility
of the digestive organs and where a
general tonic for the system is required.

Geranium Oil. (Fr. Huile de gera-
nium, Ger. Geraniumol, Sp. Oleo de
geranio.)

The name of several kinds of essential
oil which enter into commerce on ac-
count of their rose-like odour, and
which are consequently used as a cheap
substitute for oil of roses. The true
oil is obtained from the Pelargonium
radula by distillation of the leaves and
flowers with water. Practically the
whole of this substance is obtained from
Algiers.

German Silver. (Fr. Argent d'Alle-
magne, Ger. Nickelmetall, Neusilber, Sp.
Cobre bianco, plata blanca deAlemania.)

This metal is sometimes called nickel
silver. It is a hard, silvery white com-
pound, being an alloy of copper, nickel,
and zinc. The three are mixed in
various proportions. Two qualities
are used for casting. In the first, equal
portions of nickel and zinc are com-
bined and the same weight of copper is
added. This alloy, however, is very
difi&cult to work. The second quality
is composed of copper, nickel, and zinc
in the following proportions : 62'5, 12'5
and 25. For rolling the proportions
are : 57-1, 23-9 and 19. The metal is
remarkable for its hardness and wear-
resisting power. It has entirely super-
seded copper as the foundation of
electro-plated goods, and its use has

become more common since it has been
discovered that it can be spun as well as
Britannia metal. Formerly it could only
be stamped or hammered. Many articles
are made of German silver without
any coating of silver, such as spoons,
forks, etc. Since the metal is easily
attacked by acids, scrupulous cleanli-
ness is necessary in the use of such
articles. Various other substances
have lately come into use which are
closely allied to German silver, such as
silveroid, argentoid, navoline, and
nickeUne. The change is produced by
the introduction of other metals such as
tin, cadmium, etc. It has lately been
asserted that a. process of plating
aluminium has been discovered. If
this is true the manufacture of German
silver may rapidly decUne.

Ghee. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Ghee.)

Or Ghi. A species of fluid butter
made from the milk of the buffalo. It
is very largely used in Asia, as much as
300,000 tons being annually consumed
in Indian alone, but is little known in
Europe, and is not much relished by
those Europeans who are acquainted
with it. The milk is boiled for some
time before the butter is formed, and
then cooled and churned. Curdled
milk and salt are afterwards added
before the substance is packed in jars.
It is employed by the Hindoos not only
in cooking, but also in the maldng of
sweetmeats.

Gherkins.

(See Cucumber.)

Gin. (Fr. Genieure, Ger. Genever,
Sp. Nebrina de Holanda. )

A distilled spirit prepared from malt
or from raw grain, and. then flavoured
with juniper berries. The name is
derived from the French name for
juniper, genievre. The manufacture
of the best gin is pecuUarly a Dutch
industry, the principal town engaged
being Schiedam. Hence the names
Schiedam and Hollands. It is ex-
ported in pecuUarly shaped bottles,
and the principal customers of the
Dutch are Great Britain and the United
States. Pure gin has considerable
medicinal value owing to the presence
of the essential oil of juniper. There
is a large business done in the
manufacture of gin in the United
Kingdom. It was at one time alleged
that British gin was vastly inferior to

71

Gin]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Gla

Dutch gin owing to adulteration — it
being asserted that a fictitious strength
was given to the spirit by the addition
of turpentine, common salt, potato
spirit, and sulphuric acid. There
appears to be no truth in this allega-
tion, British gin being so deUcate that
the spirit used in its manufacture must
be perfectly pure.

Ginger. (Fr. Gingembre, Ger. In-
gwer, Ingber, Sp. Gengibre.)

The well-knowin spice, the product
of the herbaceous tropical plant
Zingiber officinale. The chief supplies
of ginger are obtained from the West
Indies and Africa, though a certain
amount comes from the Far East.
The best of all is imported from
Jamaica. In commerce two principal
kinds are met with, black ginger, which
is obtained from the roots of the plant
by peeling and drying in the sun, and
white ginger which is prepared by
scalding the roots and afterwards dry-
ing them in an oven. In addition to
starch and gum, the ginger root con-
tains an essential oil to which are
ascribed its peculiar flavour and pun-
gency. Preserved ginger, which con-
sists of the roots of the plant preserved
in syrup, is largely imported from the
East Indies and China. There are
many preparations in general use.
Essence and sjnrup of ginger are used
for flavouring, ginger beer and ginger
wine depend upon it for their qualities,
and ginger and other spices enter into
the composition of gingerbread. Ginger
grass oil is a volatile oil obtained from
the leaves of the Andropogon schaenan-
thus. In Egypt it is known as Idris
oil, and it is largely used for the pur-
pose of adulterating otto of roses. A
customs duty of 3s. per cent, is im-
posed on preserved ginger.

Gingham. (Fr. Guingan, Ger. Gin-
gang, Sp. Guingan.)

A cotton fabric used for making
dresses which was originally manu-
factured in India, but afterwards
introduced into Europe. It is either
of Ught or of medium weight. It
differs from calico in this respect, that
its colours are not produced by printing
the cloth, but by dyeing the yam of
which it is made. It is now essentially
a British manufacture, Manchester
and Glasgow being the principal
centres. There are various other

materials of a somewhat similar kind
in the market, the chief of which are
known as zephyrs and chambreys.

Ginseng. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Gin-
seng.)

The root of the Panax Ginseng. The
Hindoos, Chinese, and Japanese attri-
bute most extraordinary medicinal
properties to this root ; it is, in fact, a
kind of powerful tonic and universal
panacea — a sort of eUxir of Ufe. The
root is prepared for use by being dried
over a charcoal fire, and afterwards
steamed in an earthenware vessel pro-
vided with holes. Though its odour is not
disagreeable.itstasteis somewhat bitter.
The largest trade in ginseng is done be-
tween Korea and China, but there are
considerable imports of a species of the
plant into China from the United States.

Girasol. (Fr. Girasol, Ger. Katzen-
auge, Sp. Girasol.)

A precious stone remarkable for its
beautiful reflections of red and yellow
under the influence of a strong light.
It is a variety of quartz or rock crystal,
having the appearance of the opal or
the calcedony. The finest specimens
have been found in Brazil and Mexico,
but good varieties are also obtained in
Hungary and Siberia. Imitations of
girasol are made by adding a small
quantity of oxide of tin to glass.

Girder. (Fr. Traverse, Ger. Balken,
Sp. Cuarton.)

A beam supported at both ends and
used for the purpose of carrjfing loads
placed between the points of support.
They are made of cast or wrought iron
and steel. For buildings cast iron is
found to be most suitable, wrought iron
being mainly employed in the con-
struction of bridges. There are now
many combinations of girders used by
engineers. Britain suffers severely in
tlie making of girders through foreign
competition, especially that of Belgium.

Glass. (Fr. Verre, Ger. Glas, Sp.
Vidrio.)

The mineral product, generally
transparent, formed by the fusion of
certain siliceous and alkaline matters,
the mixture varying according to the
requirements of the substance. The
principal kinds of glass are the follow-
ing : — (1) Flint glass, sometimes called
crystal or crystal glass, composed of
potash, silica, and oxide of lead ; (2)
Window glass, including crown, sheet,

72

Gla]

world's commercial products.

[Glu

and plate, composed of soda, silica, and
lime ; (3) Bohemian glajs, composed
of potash, silica, and Ume ; and (4)
Bottle glass, or common glass, com-
posed of soda, silica, and lime, with
small quantities of potash, soda, iron,
manganese, and baryta. It is to the
presence of iron that the green colour
of the last is owing, and in the manu-
facture of all the best kinds the greatest
care must be taken to have all the
materials absolutely free from iron, or
the green colour must be neutralised
by adding oxide of manganese. The
materials required for the manufacture
of glass are first carefully mixed, and
then strongly heated in special pots
and furnaces, expressly made for the
purpose. The after processes depend
upon special circumstances. Glass is
largely made in England, especially
at St. Helen's, in Lancashire. Belgium
is also noted for its trade in this
article, and the glass manufactures of
Venice are known all over the world.
Jena is celebrated for its glass made
specially for optical instruments.

Glauber's Salt. (Fr. Sel de Glauber,
sulfate de soude, Ger. Glaubersalz,
schwefelsaures Natrium, Sp. Sal de
Glauber. )

Sulphate of soda, formed of compact,
white, massive crystals, which effervesce
rapidly. Its chemical composition is
represented by Na,S04 + 10 H2O, but
on exposure to the air the crystals
lose all their water and are resolved
into a white powder. The powder has
a bitter and saltish taste, and it enters
into the composition of several mineral
waters, such as those at Carlsbad
and Cheltenham. It is also found
in certeiin lakes in the United States.
Glauber's salt is prepared from common
salt and sulphuric acid, for the purpose
of being used in the manufacture of
carbonate of soda. For medical pur-
poses a purer preparation is required,
and carbonate of lime must be added.
It is employed medicinally in cases of
fever and inflammation.

Gloves. (Fr. Gant^, Ger. Hand-
schuhe, Sp. Guantes.)

Gloves are either woven and knitted,
and made of cotton, silk, or wool, or
cut out from leather and afterwards
stitched. The first is a part of the
hosiery trade. In England, Derby and
Nottingham have a large trade in

cotton gloves, whilst Leicester sends
out great quantities of woollen gloves.
On the Continent of Europe, Berlin and
various towns in Saxony are the
chief centres of the thread and
cloth glove trade. In the manu-
facture of leather gloves, the skins
of deer, sheep, lambs, goats, and kids
are used, the skins being first of all
tanned. For particular kinds of
gloves other skins are often used,
especially when great wear-resisting
power is necessary. For military
gloves chamois leather is found most
suitable, whilst the celebrated Engli.sh
dog-skin gloves are made from the
skins of the Cape sheep. Kid gloves
are generally made of sheep leather,
and the different kinds of these, glace
and sufede, depend upon the manner
in which the leather is finished and
dressed. France has long been re-
nowned for the finish of its gloves.
The best of the kid are made at Paris
and Grenoble, whilst Vendome is cele-
brated for its miUtary gloves. Bel-
gium and Denmark both export largely,
Copenhagen having a very considerable
trade. In England the chief seats of
the manufacture of leather gloves are
Worcester, Yeovil, Ludlow, and Lon-
don. The English dog-skin gloves,
mentioned above, are without a rival
in the market.

Glucose. (Fr. Sucre de raisin, Ger.
Traubenzucker , Sp. Glucosa.)

The name of a variety of substances
prepared from animal or vegetable
products, but closely resembling each
other in their properties. The ordi-
nary glucose, also called dextrose or
grape-sugar, occurs in the juices of
ripe fruits, but it is generally obtained
as a saccharine product from maize,
potatoes, or other starchy substance
by the action of sulphuric acid. It is
imported into the United Kingdom in
liquid and solid form from Germany,
France, and the United States, es-
pecially for the use of brewers. There
is a customs duty imposed of 3s. 3d.
per cwt. on solid, and 2s. 6d. per cwt.
on liquid glucose.

Glue. (Fr. Colle, Ger. Leim, Sp.
Cola.)

An impure gelatinous substance ob-
tained from a large number of animal
products, and useful for its adhesive
properties. Though known under

73

Gly]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Gol

various names there are three principal
kinds of glue^skin, or leather glue,
bone glue, and fish glue. The first is
prepared from the refuse of tan yards.
This refuse is first treated with quick-
lime and water, then exposed to the
air and dried, and afterwards boiled.
The gelatinous part of the whole
dissolves out, the water evaporates,
and the glue remains like a j elly. Much
care is required in the drying process,
or the substance is quite valueless.
Many thousands of tons are made and
used annually in the United Kingdom,
the best being manufactured in Scot-
land, in fact, Scotch glue is accounted
the best in the world. Bone glue is
made in France and Germany, and is
obtained as a by-product in the
manufacture of bone charcoal.

Marine glue is a substance used by
shipbuilders for cementing purposes,
though containing no gelatine at all.
Ordinary glue would be dissolved by
the action of water. A substitute is
found in marine glue which is india-
rubber dissolved in naphtha with the
addition of a certain quantity of
powdered shellac.

Glycerine. (Fr. GlycMne, Ger.
Glyzerin, Sp. Glicerina.)

A colourless, syrupy liquid with a
pure sweet taste. It belongs to the
series of alcohols, and is a compound
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Its
chemical symbol is C3H5(OH)3. Its
specific gravity is 1'26. Glycerine
exists in combination with fatty acids
in animal and vegetable fats, and in
certain fixed oils. It is most easily
prepared by heating fats in a current of
super-heated steam, and this is found
as a by-product in soap and candle
works. On a small scale glycerine can
be prepared from olive oil treated with
oxide of lead and mixed with water.
The uses to which this substance is put
are enormous. It acts as a preserva-
tive and an antiseptic, as a cosmetic
and an emolUent, in the manufacture
of soap and perfumery, as a substitute
for cod-liver oil, and in the preparation
of nitro-glycerine, dynamite, and other
explosives. It is further employed in
caUco-printing, in the preparation of
leather, and for the purposes of
improving the quaUty of wine
and of imparting keeping power to
beer.

Goats. (Fr. Chevres, Ger. Ziegen,
Sp. Cobras; chivas.)

Animals found in many parts of the
world, and reared on account of their
flesh, their skin, and their hair. In
Europe the largest numbers are reared
in Spain, and the fewest in England
where the species is not considered of
great value. The Angora and other
Eastern goats are best known and are
most highly prized. The skins of
goats are tanned and employed in the
manufacture •of gloves and various
kinds of leather. The United King-
dom imports the products of the goat
from all parts of the world, the skins
coming mainly from N. Africa and
India.

Gold. (Fr. Or, Ger. Gold, Sp. Oro.)

The beautiful yellow precious metal,
which is largely imported as ore,
bullion, and coin, and which is em-
ployed for coinage, ornaments, plate,
and jewellery. It was formerly ob-
tained in small quantities in various
parts of Europe, in South America,
and in India, but for the last half
century Australia and California, and
lately South Africa especially, have
supplied the demands of the world.
The valley of the Yukon, in Alaska,
promises well in the future. Gold
is always found mixed with other
minerals and takes the form of grains
or nuggets. As the former it is
found in alluvial deposits derived
from crystalline rocks. In order to
separate it, the sand or gravel is
carefully washed in running water,
the lighter gravel is washed away and
the heavier gravel and the gold left
behind. In California and Australia
the metal is found interspersed through
quartz. The rock is crushed by
machinery, and treated with mercury
or fused with lead by which means
the pure gold is separated. With
the exception of platinum and iri-
dium, gold is the heaviest metal in
general use, its specific gravity being
19'3. It is the most malleable and
ductile of metals ; it can be beaten
into leaves so fine that Ught can be
transmitted through them, and drawn
out into wire so fine that 15 grains will
give a length of more than 2,000 yards.
It is too soft to be worked alone, and
when in use it is found necessary to
have an alloy of copper or silver. Pure

74

Gol]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Gra

gold is said to be of the fineness of 24
carats. For the gold coinage of Great
Britain an alloy of 22 parts gold and
2 parts copper is used, and this is said
to be 22 carat gold. In jewellery there
are various standards, the most usual
being 18, 15, and 9 carats. The metal
is not attacked by any ordinary acid —
sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric — but
it dissolves readily in aqua regia, a
mixture of the two last mentioned
acids. As it does not combine with
oxygen there is no tarnishing by
exposure to the atmosphere, and this
is one of the reasons why gold is so
highly prized. It is an excellent (?bn-
ductor of heat and electricity, and only
melts at an exceedingly high tempera-
ture. Of its compounds the most
important is chloride of gold, used for
toning photographs. This last men-
tioned substance is obtained by dissolv-
ing gold in aqua regia and evaporating
a portion of the acid.

Gold-beater's Skin. (Fr. Baudruche,
GeT.Goldschldgerhdutchen, Sp. Pelicula.)

The thin but tough membrane pre-
pared from the outer coat of the great
intestine of the ox. It is obtained by
immersing the intestine in a weak
solution of potash, scraping it with a
knife, beating, soaking in water, and
stretching. Each strip is then treated
by peculiar processes with alum water,
isinglass, and the white of eggs. The
membrane is afterwards cut into
squares. These squares are placed by
gold beaters between the leaves of
beaten gold. Another application of
the skin is the dressing of slight
wounds. The trade in this substance
is very limited.

Gold Leaf. (Fr. Or en feuille, Ger.
Goldschlag, Goldblatt, Sp. Hoya de oro.)

The thin leaf of gold, pure or alloyed,
obtained by hammering. The best
gold leaf is made from 23 carat gold.
The metal is cast into a thin ingot, and
rolled out into a leaf until its thickness
is B Ju of an inch. After being softened
this is carefully divided into pieces an
inch square. As many as 150 of these
squares, with as many pieces of vellum
or tough paper 4 inches square, are
piled so as to form a " cutch," and are
beaten until the gold is as large as the
paper or vellum. Further cuttings
into pieces an inch square are made,
and the leaves are placed between gold

beaters* skin, and again hammered.
This process is continued until the
thickness is reduced to ubsSb!! of an
inch. The finished leaves are trimmed
and generally made up into books of
25 leaves. They are employed for
gilding.

Gold-beating was mainly carried on
in Florence in the middle ages. France,
Belgium, and Germany entered largely
into competition during the last half
of the 19th century, and the last men-
tioned country now makes a large
quantity of inferior gold leaf. England
imports much gold leaf from France,
but the gold beater's art is carried on
in most of the large towns of the United
Kingdom, London being the chief
centre.

Gold Plate. (See Plate.)

Gooseberry. (Fr. Groseille & maque-
reau, Ger. Siachelbeere, Sp. Uva espina,
grosella.)

The fruit of the Ribes Grossularia, a
prickly shrub with small, greenish
flowers. The fruit is well-known, and
is sold in enormous quantities in the
northern parts of Europe and America.
In the south of Europe it is very Uttle
known. There are many varieties,
and the cultivation is rapidly extend-
ing. The best gooseberries in England
are produced in Lancashire. Besides
its wholesomeness and pleasantness as
a fruit, and its employment in making
preserves, the gooseberry is used for the
manufacture of certain wines, especially
a spurious champagne, and vinegar.

Gourd. (Fr. Gourde, Ger. Kurbiss,
Sp. Calabaza.)

A genus of plants of the order Cucur-
bita, found in many parts of Europe,
Asia, and North America. In the
tropics the fruit attains a great size,
and is used as a food, both for mankind
and for cattle. In English gardens
there are various species of gourd to be
found, especially the common pump-
kin and the vegetable marrow. The
fruit of one kind of gourd, known as
the bottle gourd, has a hard outer
covering which is used as a vessel for
holding fluid. The fruit of another
kind, the torrel gourd, contains a
fibre which is sometimes used as
wadding for guns.

Grains of Paradise. (Fr. Graines
de paradis, Ger. Paradieskorner, Sp.
Malaguetas, granas del paraiso.)

7S

Gra]

world's commercial products.

[Gre

Otherwise known as Malaguetta
pepper. The name given to the seeds
of the Amomum Grana Paradisi, a
plant of the Ginger order, which grows
in Madagascar, Ceylon, and Guinea.
The imports into Britain, which
amount to a few tons a year, are from
the last named place. By the natives
these seeds are used as a spice and a
condiment, but in Europe their legiti-
mate employment is confined to
veterinary medicines. Pungency is
given to both fermented and spirituous
liquors by the addition of these seeds,
and so serious did the evil of adultera-
tion become a century ago that an Act
of Parliament (56 Geo. III. c. 58) was
passed prohibiting, under a heavy
penalty, brewers and beer dealers
having grains of paradise in their
possession. The drug obtained from
the seeds is a favourite adulterating
agent of gin.

Gram. (Fr. Pais chiche, Ger. Kicher-
erbse, Sp. Garbanzo.)

Or Chick-pea. The name given in
India to various kinds of pulse belong-
ing to the order Leguminosae. It is
somewhat extensively cultivated in
the south of Europe and in India for
the sake of its seeds, which are eaten
by the natives of the latter country.
Between 10,000 and 15,000 tons are
annually exported from India for horse
and cattle food. Oxalic acid can be
extracted from the leaves and stems
of some of the plants.

Granite. (Fr. Granit, Ger. Granit,
Sp. Granito.)

The well-known and easily recog-
nised rock, of igneous origin, composed
of felspar, mica, and quartz in varying
proportions, though felpsar is the main
ingredient, seldom forming less than
one half of the whole. The felspar
is of a pinkish colour and occurs in
crystals of varied sizes, the mica, which
is of a yellowish tint, occurs in thin
plates irregularly distributed through-
out the rock, while the quartz is in
glassy masses. The texture and colour
of granites naturally differ according
to the colour and proportion of their
constituents. The principal colours
are red, grey, and white. Granite
usually occurs in great bosses or amor-
phous masses, and often forms the
heart of the great primitive mountain
chains. The most durable kind is used

76

in the making of bridges, in great
engineering works, and also in the
building of public halls. Owing to
the fact that it is much more difl&cult
to cut and to work than ordinary build
ing stone it is an expensive substance
to use, but its great durability more
than counterbalances the extra ex-
penditure. The best British granites
are the grey Aberdeen and the red
Peterhead. The latter is much ad-
mired when polished and is especially
used for columns in public buildings
arid for ornamental grave stones. On
the continent, Sweden, Italy, Switzer-
land supply most of the granite
required, and the rock is extensively
worked for home use in the United
States and Canada.

Grape. (See Wine.)

Grape Sugar. (See Sugar.)

Graphite.

(See Black Lead.)

Grass Cloth. (Fr. Batiste de Canton,
Ger. Grasleinen, Sp. Batista de Cantdn )

The fine soft fabric woven in China,
and made from the fibre of a species of
nettle — the Boehmeria nivea. The
plant is often wrongly called China
grass. It is estimated that nearly
2,000 cwt. of this material are annually
exported from China.

Grass Oil. (Fr. Huile d'herbe, Ger.
Grasol, Sp. Oleo de yerba.)

The name applied to a certain num-
ber of volatile oils, derived from differ-
ent plants. That obtained from the
leaves of the Andropogon warancusa is
useful in cases of rheumatism, and is
sometimes used as a stimulant, its
effect being similar to that of cajeput
oil. Ginger-grass oil and Geranium
oil have already been noticed under
separate headings. Lemon grass-oil,
also known as Citronella oil, is obtained
from the same plant at Ginger-grass
oil. Its odour resembles that of citron,
and it is used for scenting soap.
Cyperus-grass oil, the product of the
Cyperus esculentus, is employed as a
table oil as well as in the manufacture
of soap. The last mentioned plant is
grown widely in southern Europe.

Grease. (Fr. Graisse, Ger. Fett, Sp.
Gordura, grasa.)

The general name for any kind of
unctuous refuse, more especially animal
fat. It has, however, been frequently
confined to those fatty matters which

Gre]

world's commercial products.

[Gua

possess a certain amount of solidity,
and which are deteriorated by impuri-
ties to such an extent that they cannot
be used for such purposes as candle-
making. Grease is extensively used as
a lubricant, and is in great demand for
certain processes, such as currying
leather. Currier's grease is a mixture
of tallow and cod oil. That used for
the axles of wagons and carts is made
of tallow, palm-oil, common soda, and
water. Sometimes a little tar is added,
and the proportions of the ingredients
differ in summer and winter.

Greasy Wool. (Fr. Laine graisseuse,
Ger. Fettwolle, Sp. Lana grasa.)

The wool or fleece of sheep when
shorn and still unsecured. A great
portion of the wool which comes from
Australia and the Cape is in this condi-
tion, and greasy.

Greengage. (Fr. Prune de Reine
Claude, Ger. Die Reine-Claude, Sp.
Reine-Claude.)

A cultivated variety of the common
plum, its round fruit being green in
colour. By the French it is esteemed
as one of the finest varieties in cultiva-
tion, and known by them under the
name of " Reine Claude." Large
quantities are grown in England, but
there is a considerable import trade,
from France particularly.

Greenheart. (Fr. Laurier, Ger. Lor-
beerbaum, Sp. Laurel.)

A large tree of the laurel order, a
native of Guiana. The name green-
heart is derived from the colour of the
wood. The timber itself is of consider-
able value, being very hard and
durable, and heavier than water. It
is much used for shipbuilding and for
turning. It is also employed in large
engineering works where great strength
is required. The bark supplies a
medicine of which is used in cases of
fever and is known as bebeeru.

Grindstones. (Fr. Meules, pierres a
aiguiser, Ger. Miihlsteine, Schleifsteine,
Sp. Piedras amoladeras.)

Cylindrical shaped sharp sandstone
or gritstone employed for grinding and
giving an edge to cutlery, tools, etc.
In the trade they are commonly known
as " foots." They are secured to an
axle and turned by means of steam
power. There is great variation in
their diameter, thickness, solidity,
and texture. The best natural stones

are obtained in Staffordshire. Artifi-
cial stones, made by combining grains
of sand with silicate of lifne, are now
largely superseding natural stones.

Groats. (Fr. Gruau d'avoine, Ger.
Hafergrutze, Sp. Harina de avena
mondada.)

Oats which have been shelled and
deprived of their husks. When ground
they are known as Embden groats.

Ground Nuts. (Fr. Noix de terre,
Ger. Erdnusse, Erdeicheln, Sp. Castatlas
de tierra.)

The product of the Arachis hypogeea,
a plant belonging to the order Legumin-
osae. The plant is a native of Africa,
though it is cultivated in the West
Indies and in India. It is remarkable
from the fact that the pods of nuts are
first formed in the air, and are after-
wards forced into the ground as they
increase in size and there ripen. Ground
nuts are valuable as a food in the
regions where they abound, and enter
largely into commerce on account of
the oil which they contain. They are
imported into France in large numbers,
mostly from the west coast of Africa
to Marseilles. The fixed sweet oil
obtained resembles olive oil and is often
used as a substitute for it. On the
Continent the oil is sometimes used for
culinary purposes, in this country only
as a lubricant.

Gruyere. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Grur
yire.)

The name of a famous cheese manu-
factured at the town of the same name
and in the whole canton of Freiburg, in
Switzerland.

Guaiacum. (Fr. Rhine gaiac, Ger.
Guajakharz, Sp. Guayaco.)

The resinous product ,of a West
Indian tree, Guaiacum officinale, which
flows spontaneously from the stem. It
is of a greenish colour, has an agreeable
odour, and possesses a sweetish taste.
Medicinally it is used in the prepara-
tion of various powders, pills, and
tinctures — its best known use being in
the compounding of Plummer's Pills.
Its action is stimulating, and the resin
has been advantageously employed in
cases of rheumatism. The wood of
the guaiacum tree is remarkable for the
direction of its fibres, its hardness, and
its durability. It is used in the
manufacture of ships' blocks, rulers,
pestles, bowls, etc.

77

Gua]

world's commercial products.

[Gun

Guano. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Guano.)

The accumulated dry excrement of
animals, especially of sea-fowl, found
in enormous quantities in many of the
islands of the Pacific and ofE the coast
of Bolivia. The preservation of the
excrement is largely due to the fact
that the districts in which it is found
are practically rainless, and the guano
has remained dry. Being rich in phos-
phates and nitrogenous compounds,
guano is a most important manure.
Its use was almost unknown until 1840.
After that date the imports into Great
Britain were enormous, and the decline
in the trade is only due to the fact that
the supplies are becoming exhausted.
Besides the guano deposits above men-
tioned, there are extensive deposits of
bats' guano in Texas, Arkansas, and the
Bahama islands. Fish guano, now
largely obtained from Norway and
much in request as a manure, is the
dried refuse of fish ground to a powder.
Artificial manures are now rapidly dis-
placing the natural ones.

Guava. (Fr. Guave, Ger. Guafava,
Sp. Guaydba.)

The pulpy many-seeded fruit of a
species of Psidium, a tree belonging to
the Myrtle family. There are many
varieties of the plant, the best known
being the large yellow guava of the
West Indies and Brazil, which is now
grown somewhat extensively also in
the East Indies. The fruit has an
aromatic taste and it is used in the
preparation of various confections,
the principal being guava jelly and
guava cheese. The wood of the guava
tree is hard and strong, and is much
valued by turners.

Guiana Bark. (Fr. Ecorce de Gui-
ane, Ger. Guianarinde, Sp. Corteza de
Guiana.)

The bark of a species of cinchona
tree, extensively grown in French
Guiana, the only country from which
the bark is exported. This bark is
medicinally valuable as a powerful
febrifuge. It is the chief component
of the well-known Warburg's Fever
Drops.

Gum. (Fr. Gomme, Ger. Gummi,
Sp. Goma.)

The general trade name for various
exudations from plants and trees grow-
ing in the tropics. Many of the so-
called gums are, in fact, resins. The

principal gums are noticed under
separate headings. They difier widely
in their characters and properties, but
generally speaking gums may be
divided into three classes, those con-
taining arabin, those containing bas-
sorin, and gum-resins. The chief im-
ports are obtained from the West Coast
of Africa and from India. In recent
times many substitutes for gums have
been manufactured on a large scale
from various kinds of starch, the
starch being first converted into dex-
trine. These are extensively used
for dressing caHcoes and other fabrics,
and for gumming paper.

Gun Cotton. (Fr. Poudre colon,
fulmicoton, Ger. Schiessbaumwolle, Sp.
Algodon pdlvora, fulmicoton]

The powerful explosive used in
mining and other operations when a
great rending or shattering effect is
desired. For many years after its
discovery the manufacture and storage
of this substance were attended with
great danger, but the method of manu-
facture is now perfectly safe and gun-
cotton may be stored without fear.
In England the substance is generally
obtained in the following manner.
Cotton waste, thoroughly freed from
grease by boiling with alkalies, is care-
fully picked, and the fibre separated
by passing the waste through what is
called a teasing machine. It is then
dried, cut into specified lengths, and
prepared for dipping into a mixture
of sulphuric and nitric acids, the
mixture consisting of three parts of the
former and two of the latter. Any
excess of acid is washed off, and the
residue is reduced to a pulp, pressed
hydraulically to one-third of its bulk,
and moulded into various shapes and
sizes for storing. Among the great
advantages possessed by gun-cotton
over gunpowder are the absence of
smoke in combustion, the rapidity of
action, and the fact that it is unim-
paired by moisture. It is for the last-
named reason that it is used in sub-
marine mining and for charging torpe-
does. The best method of exploding
gun cotton is by detonation. The
chemical symbol of this substance is
C6H70,3(N03).

Gunjah. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Gunjah.)

A narcotic drug akin to bhang and
hashish, obtained from the flowering

78

Gun]

world's commercial products.

[Gut

tops of the Indian hemp plant. This
substance, when the resin called guaza
has not been removed from it, is
extensively smoked in India, and its
consumption does not diminish even
with the increased excise duty imposed
by the Indian Government. The
cultivation is almost entirely confined
to a small tract in Bengal, called
Rajshahye, and the amount produced
is about 1,000,000 lbs. per annum.

Gunny Bags. (Fr. Sacs de teille,
Ger. Basisdcke, Sp. Sacas de corteza.)

Sacks woven from the coarse fibre of
the jute plant. The name gunny is
also applied to the coarse strong sack-
ing manufactured from the same fibre.
The bags and the sacking are largely
exported from India, especially Bengal,
to the United States, Australia, the
Straits Settlements, and other coun-
tries. The trade is scarcely twenty -five
years old, but so enormous has become
the demand that twenty steam facto-
ries are now engaged in the manu-
facture in India. The gunny bags are
mainly used for wool packs, and as
sacks for grain, seed, and salt. Bags
and cloth of a similar kind are now
being made in Dundee.

Gunpowder. (Fr. Poudre a, canon,
Ger. Schiesspulver, Sp. Polvora.)

The well-known explosive used for
firearms, blasting, and in the manu-
facture of fireworks. It is a mechani-
cal mixture of nitre, charcoal, and
sulphur. The ingredients are mixed
in different proportions in different
countries, but in England the three
are in the ratio of 75, 15,10. When the
gunpowder is required for sporting
purposes the ratios are 77, 14, and 9.
The nitre and the charcoal form the
explosive mixture, and the sulphur is
only added for the purpose of aiding
the combination at a lower tempera-
ture. When blasting powder is made
the nitre is less in quantity and the
charcoal more. It is most essential
that the nitre, charcoal, and sulphur
should be carefully freed from all
impurities if a satisfactory powder is
to be obtained. The nitre is imported
mainly from India, the sulphur from
Sicily, and the charcoal is mostly ob-
tained from Holland and Germany,
the wood used in its preparation being
dogwood, alder, or willow. The three
are separately ground to a fine powder

and sifted ; the whole is then mixed
in a revolving drum, water is added, a
paste formed, the paste is ground and
blended, a cake is formed, and this is
afterwards granulated by various pro-
cesses, according to requirements.
When ready for use it is stored in
barrels containing not more than 100
lbs. each. There is little external
trade in gunpowder, each country
making its own. Great Britain, how-
ever, does a certain export trade,
mainly to the Colonies.

Gurjun Balsam. (Fr. Baume de
copahu d'Inde, Ger. Gurjunbaham,
Sp. BaUamo de India.)

Also called Wood Oil. This is an
oleo-resinous substance which resembles
copaiba in its appearance and medicinal
properties. It is procured from
various trees in Bengal by incisions and
heating the trees with fire. In the
East gurjun has been much used in
skin diseases, and latterly it has found
favour in England for cases of eczema
and lupus. In tropical Asia it is also
used as a varnish for boots, and for
resisting the attacks of ants upon
timber.

Gutta-percha. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Gutta-percha.)

A substance resembling indiarubber
in many respects, and often confounded
with it in the public mind. The great
difference between the two consists in
the fact that gutta - percha is non-
elastic, while indiarubber is elastic.
Gutta-percha is the exudation of many
species of trees, though the principal
one is the Isonandra Gutta, which grows
extensively in Sumatra, Borneo, and
other East Indian Islands, and whence
the whole supply of gutta-percha is
obtained. The milky juice which
comes from the tree hardens very
quickly on exposure to the air. It is
then of a brownish-red colour, though
this is owing mainly to the presence of
various impurities, for purified gutta-
percha is of a greyish-white colour.
At ordinary temperatures it is hard
and tough as wood, but as the tem-
perature rises it becomes softer and can
be spread out into cakes. Before being
used in manufactures it is purified and
kneaded by powerful machinery with
the aid of hot water and bleaching
powder. It is a hydrocarbon and
soluble in benzine and bisulphide of

79

Gyp]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Hal

carbon. Its uses are exceedingly
numerous. Being a non-conductor of
electricity it is extensively employed
as a. covering for telegraph wires and
for other insulating processes. Un-
fortunately it is not a very lasting
substance, and a substitute of greater
stability is being sought for. It is used
for belting for machinery, pump-
buckets, tubing, golf balls, and as a
cheap substitute for leather in the
making and mending of boots. On
account of its plasticity it is useful for
taking impressions of seals, medals,
coins, and moulds generally. When
dissolved in bisulphide of carbon it
forms a useful cement.

The amount of the imports and the
price of gutta-percha vary enormously,
and difficulty is occasioned by the
wasteful cutting of the trees by the
natives.

Gypsum. (Fr. Gypse. Ger. Gips,
Gyps, Sp. Yeso.)

A widely distributed and abundant
mineral, usually white, but often with
a yellowish or brownish tint. It is
composed of sulphate of lime and water.
The marble-like variety is called
alabaster, the transparent and crystal-
lised selenite, and the fibrous satin
spar. G5rpsum is used for ornamental
purposes, though its liability to be
scratched, on account of its softness,
has not made its employment very
extensive. When crushed, gypsum is
used as a manure, especially in North
America. When it is burned and
rendered anhydrous and afterwards
ground to powder, plaster of Paris is
obtained. This powder, when mixed
with an equal bulk of water, sets
immediately into a fine white solid.

Haberdashery. (Fr. Mercerie, Ger.
Kurzwaren, Sp. Quincalla.)

The general trade name for threads,
tapes, fringes, trimmings, and small
wares of the same nature. The haber-
dashery trade is generally combined
with the woollen drapery trade, and in
the expor. returns it is classed with
millinery, embroidery, and needle-
work.

Haddock. (Fr. Cabillaud, Ger.
Schellfisch, Sp. Merluza.)

The small fish, Gadus isglefinus, of
the same genus as the cod-fish, which
enters largely into commerce, both in
its fresh and dried state. It is almost

entirely confined to the coasts of
Britain, and when dried and smoked
is exported, especially to the countries
of S. Europe, in large quantities.

Hsmatite. (Fr. Hematite, Ger. Blut-
eisenstein, Sp. Hematites.)

One of the principal ores of iron. It
is so called on account of the blood-red
colour of one variety, a sesquioxide of
iron, which occurs in large kidney-
shaped masses in different parts of
Great Britain, but especially in North
Lancashire and Cumberland. Red
hasmatite is also found in many parts
of Europe and North America. In
France there is another variety known
as brown haematite, which is of great
importance. Haematite is generally
very free from impurities, such as sul-
phur and phosphorus, and is valuable
in the preparation of the purest form
of iron. Its value has risen consider-
ably since the introduction of the
Bessemer process for manufacturing
steel.

Hair. (Fr. Cheveux, poils, Ger.
Haar, Sp. Cabello, pelo.)

Besides the hair of various animals
used in the manufacture of implements
and for the purposes of stuffing, etc.,
human hair is an article of commerce
of no inconsiderable dimensions. The
supplies of Great Britain are obtained
chiefly from France, Germany, India,
and China. That imported from France
is dark in colour, whilst that which
comes from Germany is light. It is used
for making up into wigs. The hair im-
ported from Asia is of a coarser
description and this is worked up into
watch guards, brooches, bracelets, etc.
It is impossible to obtain anything like
an accurate estimate of the trade done
in human hair alone.

Hake. (Fr. Merluche, Ger. Stock-
fisch, Sp. Pejepalo.)

A genus of fish of the cod family
found in the seas off the English and
North American coasts. It is an
important article of food and com-
merce, both in its fresh and in its
dried state. It is dried in the same
manner as cod and Ung. The exports
from England are to southern Europe.

Halibut. (Fr. FUtan, Ger. Heil-
butte, Sp. Hipogloso.)

A large flat fish, and somewhat like
the turbot. It is common in the
northern seas, though it is rarely found

80

Ham]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Hay

in latitudes lower than the English
Channel. It is much prized in Green-
land, and is not only used as an article
of food, but as the source of a valuable
oil. When dried it is sent, like so
much other dried fish, to the countries
of southern Europe.

Ham. (Fr. Jambon, Ger. Schinken,
Sp. Jamon.)

The cured hind legs of pigs, though
the name is not infrequently applied
to the preserved flesh of other animals,
especially to mutton and beef. In the
preparation of ham, the general process
followed is to rub the meat with a
mixture of salt and saltpetre, and to
steep it for some weeks in brine. It is
afterwards drained and hung up to
dry in a cool place. If the ham is
hung over a fire made of non-resinous
wood the flavour of the meat is im-
proved and it is said to be smoked.
Beef ham is similarly prepared, though
spices are sometimes added to the
brine. Mutton ham is cured in the
same way as pork ham, but requires less
time in the process. The best hams
are obtained from Belfast and West-
phalia. There is a great amount of
curing done in Great Britain, especially
in Wiltshire, but there are enormous
imports from the United States to
supply the demands of this country.
Clucago is the chief centre of the pork
trade.

Hardware. (Fr. Quincaille, quin-
caillerie, Ger. Metallwaren, Eisenhram,
Sp. Cuchilleria ^ruesa, quinquilleria.)

The general trade name for all kinds
of articles manufactured from iron,
steel, copper, brass, etc., especially
ironmongery, cutlery, and implements.
In England the chief centres of manu-
facture are Birmingham, Sheffield, and
Wolverhampton. The hardware trade
of Germany and the United States
competes very severely with that of
England.

Hare. (Fr. Lievre, Ger. Hase, Sp.
I.iebre.)

The well-known rodent, valuable on
account of its flesh and its fur. There
are several varieties of the animal to
be found in North America, and it is
from the United States and Canada
that large supplies of sMns are annu-
ally obtained.

Harmonium. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Harmonium.)

6-(hH)

A keyed musical instrument, gener-
ally of a compass of five octaves, in
which the sounds are produced by a
current of air passing through vibrat-
ing reeds, the air being supplied from
bellows worked by the feet of the
performer. The French excel in the
manufacture of this instrument, though
large numbers are made every year in
England. The numerous improve-
ments of late years have brought the
harmonium into greater favour, and
the fact that it is not affected in tone
by a damp atmosphere has made it
an instrument of value in those cli-
mates where a piano cannot be kept.

Hartshorn. (Fr. Come de cerf, Ger.
Hirschhorn, Sp. Cuerna de ciervo.)

The filings of the antlers of the red
deer. The products derived on dis-
tillation are known as oil of hartshorn,
salt of hartshorn, spirits of hartshorn,
etc. Spirits of hartshorn is a name
still commonly applied to designate
a solution of ammonia.

Hat. (Fr. Chapeau, Ger. Hut, Sp.
Sombrero.)

The covering of the head, made of
innumerable varieties of material when
intended for women, and of straw,
cloth, felt, or silk when intended for
men. In the felt-hat trade the fur of
rabbits and beavers is mostly used,
but the commonest felt hats are made
of sheep's wool. For the finest felt hats
camels' hair is the article in demand.
Ingenious mechanical contrivances have
come into use for carrying out felting
operations. In the manufacture of
silk hats the body is first prepared and
covered with a kind of varnish, and
the silk plush afterwards added.
There are extensive exports of hats
from Great Britain, particularly of
straw and felt. The felt-hat trade is
principally carried on in the small
towns around Manchester.

Hay. (Fr. Foin, Ger. Heu, Sp.
Heno.)

Dried grass, often mixed with clover
and other allied plants, used as fodder
for horses and cattle. In England
meadow grass is that used for the
preparation of hay. In order to obtain
hay in perfection the grass must be cut
at a time when it contains the greatest
quantity of nutritive matter, and dried
in such a manner as to retain it. The
weather, naturally, is a most important

8i

Haz]

world's commercial products.

[Her

factor to be considered. After being
stacked, hay is generally cut into
bundles or trusses of 56 lbs. each, a
load of hay consisting of 36 trusses.
Great Britain imports a vast quantity
from the continent, particularly from
Holland.

Hazel Nuts. (Fr. Noiseiies, Ger.
Haselnusse, Lamhertsniisse, Sp. Avel
lanas.)

The edible fruit of the Corylus
Avellana, a small tree grown in Britain
and in the temperate parts of Europe,
Asia, and America. Different species
are known as filberts and cob-nuts.
The Spanish or Barcelona nuts are
another species of hazel nuts, and a
still further variety is found in and
exported from Turkey. Imports into
Britain are obtained chiefly from Terra-
gona, the quantity being about 400,000
bushels per annum. An oil is ex-
tracted from the nuts which is used
by painters on account of its drying
properties, and by perfumers in the
manufacture of fragrant oils. From
the bark of the hazel tree another oil
is obtained which is sometimes used
medicinally as a vermifuge.

Hellebore. (Fr. EllAore, Ger. Nies-
wurz, Sp. Eliboro.)

The name of two distinct plants,
Veratrum album and Veratrum viride,
the roots of which are sometimes used
in medicine on account of their power-
ful effects in cases of mania, epilepsy,
and dropsy. These roots are imported
into England from Marseilles and
Hamburg.

Hematite. (See Haematite.)

Hemp. (Fr. Chanvre, Ger. Hanf,
Sp. Cdnamo.)

The name applied to various vegeta-
ble substances cultivated on account
of their fibre, but principally to the
Cannabis sativa, a native of central
Asia, though now widely distributed
over Asia, Europe, and Africa. The
hemp fibre is obtained from the bark
after long steeping in water. Hemp,
dressed and undressed, is a most im-
portant article of commerce, and there
are very large exports to various parts
of the world from Russia, Germany,
and Italy. The finest hemp is pro-
duced by the last mentioned country.
It is specially employed for the weav-
ing of cloth and the manufacture of
thread, rope, and cordage. In India

hemp is grown not so much on account
of its fibre, but for the narcotic obtained
from a resinous secretion. From hemp
seed an illuminating oil can be ex-
tracted by pressure. The oil is used
by the Russian peasantry. It is also
employed in the manufacture of
paints, varnishes, and some kinds of
soft soap. The residue obtained after
the extraction of the oil is compressed
into an oil-cake for the feeding of cattle,
while the grain itself is a food for birds.

Henbane. (Fr. Jusquiame, Ger. Bil-
senkraut, Sp. Beleno.)

A plant belonging to the same order
as the potato, tobacco, deadly night-
shade, etc. It grows spontaneously
in Great Britain in waste places, and
also in many parts of Europe. Though
containing a poisonous alkaloid of
great power, henbane can often be
usefully employed medicinally, both
externally and internally, the dry
leaves being the valuable part of the
plant. As a narcotic it has peculiar
advantages over laudanum and opium.
It forms a good substitute for bella-
donna.

Henna. (Fr. Henni, Ger. and Sp.,
Henna).

The leaves of a small shrub cultiva-
ted in N. Africa and S. Asia, sometimes
known as Egyptian privet or Jamaica
mignonette. From the leaves a co-
louring matter is obtained which, when
dried, powdered, and made into a
paste with water and catechu, is used
throughout the East to stain the nails
and tips of the fingers. It is also
employed to dye skins and leather
a reddish-yellow colour. There are
considerable exports from Persia and
Egypt, especially to Turkey, and in
Germany powdered henna leaves are
used for dyeing furs and various kinds
of leather.

Herring. (Fr. Hareng, Ger. Hering,
Sp. Arenque.)

The well known fish, Clupea harengus,
caught in great shoals for food. The
fishery is largely carried on off the
coasts of Great Britain, Norway, and
Newfoundland. The shoals visit the
east coast of Britain in June, appearing
first at Wick, and they gradually move
southwards, reaching Kent before the
end of the year. As a food, herrings
are eaten either fresh or salted and
cured. The home consumption cannot

82

Hid]

world's commercial products.

[Hor

be estimated, but the export trade is
gradually increasing, the best custom-
ers of England being Russia and Ger-
many. Grimsby and Yarmouth are the
important centres of the herring fishery
in England, while Stornoway, Wick,
Fraserburgh, Peterhead, and Aberdeen
are the principal Scotch towns engaged.

Hides. (Fr. Peaux, cuirs, Ger.
Haute, Felle, Sp. Pieles, cueros.)

The skins of large animals. They
enter into commerce either as market
hides, delivered direct from slaughter
houses, or salted and dried hides im-
ported from pastoral countries abroad
in bundles or bales. They are divided
into four grades — ^heavy, light extra,
seconds, thirds. The slaughter houses
of Great Britain supply about 3,000,000
hides per annum, but the numbers
imported are much greater. Russia,
Holland, Belgium, and Italy are the
principal European exporters, but
most cow hides are obtained from
South America and Australasia.
Buffalo hides are imported into this
country from India, horse hides from
the River P'ate, and a few heavy thick
skins from Africa. They are used
almost exclusively for the manufac-
ture of leather and leather goods.

Hock. (Fr. Hock, vin du Rhin,
Ger. Hochheimer, Sp. Hock, vino anejo
del Rin.)

A Ught German wine, either still or
sparkUng, the name generally applied
to those wines which come from the
Rhine provinces. Hock is a contrac-
tion of Hochheim, a town in the
province of Hessen Nassau, the centre
of the manufacture of Rhine wines.

Honey. (Fr. Miel, Ger. Honig, Sp.
Miel.)

The thick saccharine liquid sub-
stance secreted by bees, and deposited
by them in the combs of their hives.
The two principal kinds are yellow and
white, though there are great differ-
ences in the taste owing to the locality
in which the bees are reared, the age
of the hives, and other circumstances.
Honey consists mainly of glucose, cane-
sugar, gummy matter,' and essential
odorous oils, together with minute
quantities of various mineral matters.
Little attention is paid to the rearing
of bees in England, though it is
not an inconsiderable industry in
Ireland and the honey of Scotland is

celebrated. The most celebrated conti-
nental honey comes from Narbonne and
Chamounix, and the greatest quantity
is imported from America, especially
from CaUfomia. The honey is extracted
by straining the comb in a very gentle
heat. Honey is used in the preparation
of the fermented liquor mead.

Hoofs. (Fr. Ongles, Ger. Hufe, Sp.
Unas. )

The horny protection of the feet of
many domestic animals, which are
imported for the manufacture of combs
and buttons. In the Board of Trade
returns they are included under the
head of horns, and the value of the
annual imports can only be roughly
estimated at from ;£5,000 to jflO.OOO.
Hoofs are also employed in the manu-
facture of prussiate of potash and of
artificial manures.

Hop. (Fr. Houblon, Ger. Hopfen,
Sp. Liipulo.)

The hop is a plant with twining
stems, of luxuriant growth and abun-
dant foliage. To botanists it is known
as the Humulus lupulus, and is allied
to the hemp and the nettle. It is
cultivated on account of its catkins
or strobiles which, when powdered,
contain a substance called lupuline,
of a golden yeUow colour. The cat-
kins are extensively used for brewing,
the lupuline giving the bitter flavour
to the beer. In brewing, lib. of hops
is added to one bushel of malt. Medi-
cinally hops are employed on account
of their narcotic properties. Hop-
growing is now carried on chiefly in
Kent, Sussex, Worcester, and Hereford
in England, but the English crop falls
far short of what is required. The
deficiency is made up by imports
from America and various countries
of Europe, some for use and the rest
for exportation, principally to British
colonies.

Horns. (Fr. Comes, Ger. Horner,
Sp. Cuernos.)

The hard pointed excrescences grow-
ing on the heads of various animals,
especially oxen, sheep, and goats.
Tiie antlers of the various kinds of
deer are not horn. Besides the horns
obtained in this country Great Britain
imports over 5,000 tons per annum,
valued at more than ;^150,000. The
largest supply is obtained from India,
South America and the Cape being

83

Hor]

world's commercial products.

[Hyd

next in order. Horn is employed,
according to its size, in the manufac-
ture of a vast number of articles, or-
namental and otherwise, cups, carvers,
knife-handles, and umbrella handles
being amongst the most common.

Hornbeam. (Fr. Charme, charmille,
. Ger. Hornbaum, Sp. Ojaranzo.)

The Carpinus hetulus, a tree quite
common in Europe, and valued on
account of its wood, which is white,
compact, hard, and tough. The wood
is much used for making the cogs of
mill-wheels, and in the manufacture of
agricultural implements. When burned
it produces good charcoal.

Horse Hair. (Fr. Crin de cheval,
Ger. Rosshaar, Sp. Crin de caballo.)

About 25,000 cwts. of horse hair
are imported annually, the fifth of the
whole coming from Russia. The hair
combed from the tails of horses is
the most valuable, that obtained from
the manes being much inferior in
quality. Horsehair is first sorted,
and then washed in warm soapy
water to which lime and potash have
been added. If necessary the hair
is then dyed. Short hair is used for
stuffing couches, mattresses, etc.,
and long hair is employed in the
manufacture of hair seating, sacking,
gloves, brushes, etc.

Horse-Radish. (Fr. Raifort, rave
sauvage, Ger. Meerrettig, Sp. Rabano.)

The root of the Cochlearia A rmoracia,
a. plant cultivated in Britain and in
many other parts of Europe, and
which is exported from Germany in
considerable quantities. This root is
highly stimulating, owing its virtues
to the presence of a volatile oil similair
to that of mustard, an oil which con-
tains about 30 per cent, of sulphur.
It is most frequently used when
scraped as a condiment with roast-beef.
Medicinally it is valuable as being the
most powerful antiscorbutic known.
Another tree, a native of India,
called the Horse-Radish Tree, produces
seeds called ben-nuts from which oil
of ben, used by watchmakers, is
extracted.

Horses. (Fr. Chevaux, Ger. Pferde,
Sp. Cabalhs.)

A large export and import trade is
done by the United Kingdom in live
animals, about 25,000 being annually
imported and 20,000 exported under

84

normal conditions. The largest num-
ber of animals comes from Germany.
The hides, grease, and hair of horses
are commercial articles of vast
importance, and more than 150,000
hides are received annually, principally
for the manufacture of leather. The
greater portion come from South
America.

Hosiery. (Fr. Bonneterie, Ger.
Strumpfwaren, Sp. Medias.)

The name originally applied to
stockings, but now extended so as to
comprise under garments generally,
made either of cotton, wool, or silk.
The centres of manufacture in England
are Nottingham, and Leicester, and in
Scotland, Hawick. Hosiery is one of
the most important exports of Great
Britain.

Huckaback. (Fr. Toile ouvree, Ger.
Koper, Damastgewebe, Sp. Arpillera.)

A coarse hemp fabric, sometimes
figured like damask. It is commonly
used for the manufacture of table-
cloths and towels.

Hydrochloric Acid. (Fr. Acide chlor-
hydrique, Ger. Salzsaure, Sp. Acido
muriatico.)

One of the most important com-
pounds in inorganic chemistry. Its
chemical symbol is HCl. Under or-
dinary conditions it is a gas, and is
easily prepared from common salt by
the action of sulphuric acid, the other
product of the reaction being sulphate
of soda. It is very soluble in water,
and the aqueous solution has been
long known in the arts as spirits of
salt or muriatic acid, and is sold as
such. Its uses are very extensive
in dyeing, calico-printing, bleaching,
etc. Medicinally, hydrochloric acid
in a very dilute form acts as an anti-
septic and a tonic, and is sometimes
used in cases of throat affection.

Hydrocyanic Acid. (Fr. Acide hy-
drocyanique, acide prussique, Ger.
Blausdure, Sp. Acido prusico. )

Otherwise prussic acid, a compound
of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
Its chemical symbol is HCN or HCy.
1 1 is prepared by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen over dry cyanide of mercury.
This is a most deadly and violent
poison, and remarkably rapid in its
action. Medicinally it is used in a
very diluted form as an ingredient
of lotions to diminish itching in skin

Hyd]

world's Commercial pftpDucTS.

[Ind

diseases, and internally, it is taken
in small quantities to relieve pains
of the stomach, vomiting, and func-
tional palpitation of the heart. It
acts powerfully upon the nervous
system, any excessive quantity paralyz-
ing the whole.

Hydrogen Peroxide. (Fr. Deutoxyde
d'hydrogine, eau oxygenee, Ger. Wasser-
stoffhyperoxyd Sp. Agua oxidulada.)

A thick, transparent, colourless
liquid, whose chemical symbol is HjOj.
It has no smell, but possesses a bitter
taste. It bleaches the majority of
vegetable colours, and is much used
for the hair. In dilute solution it is
frequently employed for the restoration
of oil paintings.

Hyssop. (Fr. Hysope, Ger. Isop,
Sp. Hisopo.)

A plant of the order Labiatae, of
which there are but few species.
Common hyssop, Hyssopus officinalis,
is a native of southern Europe, espe-
cially of the Alps and Austria, but it
now grows extensively in the East.
It has an agreeable aromatic odour.
The leaves and the young shoots of the
plant are sometimes used as a season-
ing for culinary purposes. In a dried
state they act as a carminative and
a stomachic. The medicinal qualities
are due to the presence of a volatile
oil. Syrup made from hyssop is
recommended for colds.

Ice. (Fr. Glace, Ger. Eis, Sp. Hielo.)

An enormous quantity of ice is
now produced artificially by freezing
machines and freezing mixtures.
These are of various kinds, but in the
main, the manufacture of ice is carried
on through the abstraction of heat
from water, by the vaporisation of
liquid ammonia or ether. But in
addition there is a large amount of
natural ice imported annually into
Great Britain. In the middle of the
last century the Wenham Lake Ice
Company did the largest trade in the
world in this substance. Now almost
the whole of the supply for Great
Britain is derived from Drobak, a
small town near Christiania, in
Norway. Naturally the trade varies
enormously owing to the difference of
the seasons.

Iceland Moss. (Fr. Mousse d'Islande,
Ger. Isldndisches Moos, Sp. Musgo de
Islandia.)

A leafy lichen, the Cetraria islandica,
found in northern latitudes generally,
and valued for its nutritive and
medicinal qualities. It contains about
80 per cent, of farinaceous food.
Naturally it has a bitterness of taste,
but this bitterness is removed by
steeping in water. It forms an excel-
lent food for invalids, and medicinally
it is used in cases of lung disease.

Iceland Spar. (Fr. Spath d'Islande,
Ger. Islandischer Spat, Sp. Esparavan.)

A glassy mineral, otherwise known
as calcite or calc-spar. Its chemical
symbol is CaC03. It is frequently
found associated with metallic ores,
and often in connection with limestone
and other rocks. It has the peculiar
phenomenon of double refraction, and
is therefore used in the construction
of polarising instruments.

Ignatius Beans.

The seeds of the Ignatia amara, a
tree closely allied to the Nux vomica,
and a native of the Philippine Islands.
They contain a large quantity of strych-
nia, and at one time were considered
a specific against cholera.

Immortelles.

(See Everlasting Flowers.)

Indian Corn.

(See Maize.)

Indian Ink.

(See Ink.)

india-rubber.

(See Caoutchouc.)

Indigo. (Fr. Indigo, Ger. Indigo,
Sp. Aiiil, indigo.)

The important dark-blue dye-stuff is
obtained from many species of plants
which grow in the tropics and at the
Cape. The chief source, however, of
commercial indigo is the Isatis tinc-
toria, a plant of Bengal, where the
best indigo is prepared, and whence
it is sliipped. Other kinds of the
substance, diflfering greatly in quality,
appearance, and value, are obtained
from Java, Central America, and West
Africa. Indigo is the result of the
fermentation to which the indigo
plants are subjected. Fresh leaves
are thrown into tanks and covered
with water. After about twelve hours
fermentation is set up, and the liquid
is drawn off as soon as sufficient colour
has been extracted. This liquid is
then subjected to a, process called
beating or splashing, and the result is a

85

Ink]

world's commercial products.

[Iri

change of colour from yellow to dark
brown. It is afterwards allowed to
rest, and the precipitate, in the form
of a powder, is taken away, and pressed
into blocks. It owes its value as a
dyeing agent to the presence of
indigotin, the chemical symbol of
which is Cs H5 NO. Indigo is the best
substance for dyeing woollen cloth
and for calico printing. Latterly
artificial indigo has been obtained from
a coal tar product, and Germany now
supplies her own wants from this
source. It is doubtful whether Bengal
growers will be able to compete for any
length of time with the artificial
manufacturers.

Ink. (Fr. Encre, Ger. Tinte, Sp.
Tinta.)

The substance used for writing and
printing, the former kind being fluid
and the latter thick or viscous. There
are many methods of manufacturing
writing inks, but the best black con-
sists of a solution of ferrous sulphate,
or copperas, added to an infusion of
gall nuts together with a small quan-
tity of gum. For inferior inks shumac
takes the place of gall nuts. To prevent
mouldiness setting in creasote or
carbolic add may be employed in addi-
tion to the above. A very good black
ink may also be obtained from an
infusion of logwood to which a little
chrome alum and gum arable has been
added. Coloured inks are obtained
by the addition of vegetable dyes or
aniline solutions. In the manufacture
of copying ink, sugar and gum or
glycerine are mixed with ordinary ink.
This addition prevents the ink drying
and allows an impression to be made.
Printer's ink is a greasy or oily com-
pound, the commonest kind being a
mixture of oils made from parafi&n and
resin and ordinary lampblack.. For
the better sort lampblack, or other
mineral colouring matter, is mixed
with special oils or varnishes, and the
compound varies according to the
rapidity with which the printing work
has to be executed. The manufacture
of coloured printer's ink is a difficult
and complicated matter. Marking ink
consists of a. solution of nitrate of
silver, gum, carbonate of soda, and
ammonia. By the combined action
of heat and light the silver is reduced
to a metallic state and deposited in the

86

fibre of the cloth, producing a firmly
fixed black mark.

Iodine. (Fr. lode, Ger. Jod, Sp.
lodo.)

One of the chemical non-metallic
elements which is very widely dis-
tributed over the world in combination
with other substances. It was at one
time lEirgely prepared from kelp or sea-
weed ash, but more recently it has
been obtained from the salines of
France and England, and in South
America it is prepared from the iodate
of sodium, a substance which is associa-
ted with nitrate of sodium in native
Chili saltpetre. At ordinary tempera-
tures iodine occurs in solid dark scales,
though it sometimes crystallises in
rhombic octahedra. In its purest
state it is black, and has a specific
gravity of 4"9. Its odour is peculiar,
and its taste is bitter. Iodine is
extensively used in photography, and
some of its compounds are most im-
portant in medicine, iodine of potas-
sium having a, prominent position in
the pharmacopoeia.

Ipecacuanha. (Fr. Ipecacuana, Ger.
Ipecacuanha, Brechwurzel, Sp. Ipeca-
cuana.)

The valuable medicine derived from
the creeping herbaceous plant Cephaelis
Ipecacuanha, a member of the Peruvian
bark family. It is a native of Brazil,
and the dried root is exported from
Rio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, and other
South American ports. Recently the
cultivation of the plant has been
introduced into India and Ceylon. It
is simply the root that is valuable, and
in its bark exists the active principle
emetine, which renders ipecacuanha of
service in medicine. The colour of
the root is generally brown or red.
The cases in which ipecacuanha is used
are mainly dysentery, asthma, and
coughs.

Iridium. (Fr. and Ger. Iridium,
Sp. Iridio.)

A- rare and expensive metal, found
native in the Ural Mountains, and also
combined with osmium. It is very
hard, white, and brittle, and is not
acted upon by any acid, though as an
alloy it dissolves in -aqua regia. On
account of its hardness iridium is used
for pen nibs, for the wearing points of
scientific instruments, and for contact
points in telegraphy.

Iri]

world's commercial products.

[Iro

Irish Moss.

{See Carrageen.)

Iron. (Fr. Fer. Ger. Eisen, Sp. Hierro. )
The most important of all minerals.
There is hardly a region of any extent
on the face of the earth where it does
not occur in one form or another, and
there are some regions which yield it
in vast quantities. Iron occurs native
almost exclusively in meteorites, where
it is usually associated with nickel, and
in certain volcanic rocks, such as the
basalts of Greenland, in which it is
scattered about in grains and nodules.
The iron of commerce is obtained ex-
clusively from ores of the metal ; and,
in by far the greater quantity, from the
oxides of iron. The total production
of iron has risen rapidly during recent
years. Of the total amount the United
States produced about two-fifths, Ger-
many one-fifth, and Great Britain
one-eighth. Spain and France followed
next in order. The most important
ore of iron is the red oxide, known
as hematite, which occurs in a
variety of forms. It has a brownish
black, reddish, or black colour, hence
its name, which means blood-stone.
Its hardness is such that it can just be
scratched by the blade of a knife, but,
on the firmer poUshed forms, no cut is
possible. Its specific gravity is slightly
over five. Some of the blacker forms of
haematite possess an exceedingly high
polish, reflecting hght as if from a
mirror or speculum, hence the name
specular iron. In other specimens the
lustrous parts are exceedingly minute
and scaly, and barely distinguishable
from the mineral mica, or micaceous
iron. One of the early forms of hstmatite
is the pigment red ochre.

Con.siderably less important than
haematite, but yet very important in
itself, is the yellow oxide of iron, or
limonite. In some of its forms it has
much the appearance of haematite, but
it can generally be distinguished by its
brown colour, yellow streak, and
yellow powder. It is largely a bog
deposit, hence the name bog iron ore,
and it is frequently even used as an ore
for manufacturing purposes, in a
crumbly earthy condition. Brown and
yellow ochre pigments are manufac-
tured from limonite.

A third oxide of iron is magnetite.

which, as the name suggests, has the
quality of being attracted by a magnet.
One variety, known as lodestone, is
a true magnet in itself. This impor-
tant ore or iron occurs in large, one
might almost say, mountain masses.
A frequent, but less serviceable form,
is that of octahedral crystals of both
large and small size, dispersed through
other rocks. A mineral much resem-
bling magnetite, but with much feebler
magnetic qualities, and having both
zinc and manganese in its composition,
in addition to iron, is franklinite.

The ore known as spathic iron is
obtained from the carbonate of that
metal, forming the mineral siderite.
It occurs in yellowish-brown rhom-
bohedral crystals, having a specific
gravity of less than four. Yellow and
green chrome pigments are obtained
from chromite, or chromic iron.

One of the most familiar of all iron
ores, but of no service for the extrac-
tion of the metal itself, is the sulphur
ore, or iron pyrites. The beautiful
and highly lustrous crystals of this
mineral are likely to occur in almost
any kind of rock. The crystals are
cubes or modifications of the cube,
of a brass-yellow colour, and usually
so hard as completely to resist the
impression of a knife. This fact should
readily distinguish it from gold, with
which it is frequently confounded by
over-zealous searchers after the pre-
cious metal. Its greater hardness and
lighter colour also serve to distinguish
it from copper pyrites, another form
of which is known as fool's gold. Al-
most the only service to which pyrites
are put to-day in the arts is the making
of sulphur and sulphuric acid. An-
other sulphur ore of iron is known as
pyrrhotite, or magnetic pyrites. Its
reddish or bronze colour readily serves
to distinguish it from ordinary pyrites,
and its frequent association with nickel
makes it one of the most valuable ores
of that metal.

Iron is obtained from its ores
by smelting with coal or coke in blast
furnaces. The exact process followed
depends to a large extent upon
the nature of the ore. The various
kinds of iron are named cast-
iron, steel, and wrought iron, depend-
ing upon the amount of carbon con-
tained in it.

87

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WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Ivo

When pure, iron is white. It is a
most tenacious metal and very difficult
of fusion. Its specific gravity is 7'8.
It is strongly magnetic, but some of
its magnetism is lost when the metal
is heated. Though iron does not
oxidise at ordinary temperatures, it
is quickly covered with a black coat
when heated to redness, and rust is
produced when dampness is present.

The uses to which iron is put in
various manufactures are too numerous
to mention. It is of the utmost im-
portance in chemistry, and gives rise
to two series of salts, known as the
ferrous and the ferric. In medicine
it is valuable, being used as a tonic
in various combinations. It is very
frequently prescribed in cases of'
anaemia and general debiUty. Iron
also enters into many natural mineral
waters, and these are frequently pre-
scribed when a patient is unable to
take iron in its ordinary medicinal
form.

Iron Wood. (Fr. Bois de fer, Ger.
Eisenhoh, Sp. Madera de Indias muy
dura.)

The name given to the timber of
various trees, on account of its hard-
ness and weight. The timber in almost
every case is exceedingly close grained,
and sinks in water. The trees from
which the timber is obtained are almost
entirely Asiatic or African. One, the
Metrosideros vera, belonging to the
myrtle order, is found in the East
Indies, and is much prized in China
and Japan. The wood of the Vepris
undulata, which grows in South Africa,
is known as white ironwood It is
largely used for axles, ploughs, and
other agricultural implements. Other
ironwoods of South Africa, used both
for agricultural implements and for
furniture, are the timber of the Olea
laurifolia and of the Olea capensis.

Isinglass. (Fr. Colle de poisson, Ger.
Hausenblase in BlMtern, Sp. Cola de
pescado. )

A variety of gelatine, prepared from
the air bags or sounds of certain fishes
Originally the sturgeon alone was the
source from which isinglass was ob-
tained, and the whole trade in the
substance was practically in the hands
of Russia, and mainly carried on
through Astrakan. The demands of
commerce, however, have led to the

88

discovery that good isinglass can be
obtained from fish other than the
sturgeon, and an inferior sort is even
derived from cod-sounds. Brazil does
a considerable trade in the substance,
Maranham being the exporting town.
Other supplies are obtained from the
United States, Canada, and the East
Indies. It appears in various forms
and shapes, most frequently as a cake,
and is largely employed in the manu-
facture of glues, plasters, diamond
cement, jeUies, and confectionery, in
refining wines and hqnors, and in giving
a gloss to silk ribbons.

Istle. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Istle.)

The fibre obtained from the Bromelia
sylvestris, a. tree of Mexico, and valua-
ble for brush making. It is commonly
known as Mexican grass, and is
remarkable for its strength and
flexibility.

Ivory. (Fr. Tvoire, Ger. Elfenbein.
Sp. Marfil.)

The general name for the white
dentine in the teeth and tusks of cer-
tain large animals, such as the elephant,
narwhal, walrus, and hippopotamus.
The ivory of commerce is chiefly ob-
tained from the tusks of elephants, and
is shipped mainly from Zanzibar and
Pemba. Immense numbers of ele-
phants have to be killed annually in
Central Africa in order to supply the
demand of the European markets.
Asiatic ivory, obtained in India, Fur-
ther India, and in the Eastern Archi-
pelago, is used in the regions where it is
obtained, and very little is exported.
African ivory is preferred to Asiatic,
as its texture is closer, and it takes
a much finer poUsh. Asiatic ivory is
very white when fresh, but becomes
yellow on exposure to the air. A small
quantity of ivory is obtained from
Siberia, being the tusks of the extinct
mammoth. Ivory has always been a
favourite substance for making orna-
ments, and it is in great demand for
handles, pianoforte keys, billiard balls,
carved figures, etc. The principal seat
of the carved ivory trade is Dieppe, but
nearly one half of the ivory used in
manufacture is taken by England.

The value of ivory depends upon the
size and quality of the tusks of the
animals. In the trade they are
classed according to weight. Large
tusks are graded thus, those weighing

Ivo]

world's commercial products.

[Jal

over GO lbs., those between 60 and 40
lbs., and those between 40 and 20 lbs.
When the weight is less than 20 lbs.
the tusks are called scrivelloes, and
these are further divided as cut points
and hollows. The price of ivory has
been rising for many years, and it
seems likely to become prohibitive at
no distant date. For many purposes of
manufacture celluloid is now coming
into extensive use as a substitute for
ivory.

Ivory Black. (Fr. Noir d'ivoire,
Ger. Beinschwarz, Sp. Negro de
hueso.)

An animal charcoal, obtained by
heating the shavings of ivory in a
closed iron cylinder. (See Charcoal.)

Ivory, Vegetable. (Fr. Ivoire vege-
tal, Ger. Holzelferibein, Sp. Madera
de marfil.)

The product of a species of palm-
tree, the Phytelephas macrocarpa, which
grows in the Andean plains and along
the banks of the Magdalena. The
so-called ivory is obtained from the
nuts of the palm, and are known also
as Corozo nuts in commerce. The
kernels of these nnts contain a sub-
stance which becomes very hard and
white when the nuts are ripe, and
wliich very closely resembles ivory in
appearance. Several millions of the
nuts are annually imported into Great
Britain from Ecuador and the United
States of Colombia, and are used in
the manufacture of buttons, umbrella
handles, knobs for doors, toys, etc.
and for inla}ring. The chief demand
for vegetable ivory is by the turners of
London and Birmingham.

Jaborandi. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
JcAorandi.)

The name of certain drugs obtained
from various plants in South America.
The name in Europe, however, is not
given except to the drug extracted
from the leaves of the Pilocarpus
pennaii folium , and which is used medi-
cinally for its diaphoretic properties,
its value depending upon the presence
of the alkaloid pilocarpine. Jaborandi
is sometimes employed by oculists,
and it is considered efficacious in cases
of Bright's disease.

Jacaranda. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Jacaranda.)

A general name in Brazil for many
species of rosewood which are grown

there. The wood itself is very hard,
heavy, and brown, and has a faint,
agreeable, rose-like smell. It is ex-
tensively used by joiners and cabinet
makers, and the whole supply is
obtained from South America.

Jaconet. (Fr. Jaconas, Ger. Jaconet,
Sp. Chacond.)

The name of a species of light soft
muslin of an open texture, used for
dresses, neck cloths, frills, rufiSes, etc.

Jade. (Fr. Jade, Nephrite, Ger.
Nierenstein, Nephrit, Sp. Piedra
nefritica.)

A hard, compact, translucent mi-
neral, of different shades of colour,
white, yellow, green, etc., much prized
in China, where it is found in consi-
derable quantities. It is also found
in Burmah and New Zealand. True
jade, or nephrite, is a native silicate
of calcium and magnesium, and has
a specific gravity of 2"9. The Chinese
work up this mineral into most beau-
tiful ornaments, and there is a special
jade market in Canton. Necklaces
of green jade beads have been valued
as highly as ;£1,000, and a single
button often costs at least ;£10.

Jaggery. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Jaggery.)

The name used in India for a
variety of crude sugar obtained from
the palm. The flowering shoot of the
palm is bruised and the exuding juice
collected. When boiled down this
juice yields the brown sugar called
jaggery. Toddy is prepared from the
same juice, and in distillation arrack
is obtained.

Jalap. (Fr. Racine de jalap, Ger.
JalappenhnoUen, Sp. Jalapa.)

The well known purgative, obtained
from the dried tubers of the Ipomcea
purga, a native of Mexico. It derives
its name from the city of Jalapa, where
it is found in great plenty. The jalap
used in medicine consists of the tubers
reduced to a fine powder. The odour
is faint and disagreeable, and the taste
very unpleasant. The main ingre-
dients of the jalap root are starch,
sugar, lignin, and a substance known
as jalap resin, the value of the root
mainly depending upon the presence
of the last-named. Jalap is sometimes
administered alone, but more fre-
quently in combination with calomel
or cream of tartar.

89

Jam]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Jea

Jamaica Pepper. (See Pimento.)

Jamun.

The fruit of the Syzygium Jambolana,
an Indian plant. It is a species of long
dark-coloured plum and about the size
of a large date. Its taste is sharp, but
it makes an excellent preserve, the
flavour of which resembles the flavour
of black currant jelly. Large quanti-
ties ol the fruit are sent from India
to England, and besides its use as a
substitute for black currant jam it is
employed to flavour other jams. A
coarse liquor is obtained from the
distilled fruit.

Japan Wax. (Ft. Cire du Japan,
Ger. Japanisches Wacks, Sp. Cera
del Japdn.)

The vegetable wax obtained from
the leaves, branches, and small berry
fruit of the Rhus succedanea, a Japan-
ese plant. It is extracted by boiling
the parts of the plant in water, and
forms masses or blocks of a whitish
colour, though with a yellowish green
tint. Its odour is somewhat un-
pleasant, resembling that of tallow.
It has a bitter taste and afiects the
throat. Japan wax is more unctuous
than ordinary beeswax, but it is more
easily worked. Although it is an article
of commerce the amount imported
into Great Britain is very slight.

Japanned Wares. (Fr. Marchandises
japonaises, Ger. Japanische Waren,
Sp. Mercaderias faponesas.)

Articles of wood, metal, and papier
machfe coated with varnish or lacquer
and hardened by heat. The art of
japanning is carried to perfection in
Japan, hence its name. A good
brown japan, as it is called, is prepared
by heating separately equal propor-
tions of amber or copal resin and as-
phaltum, and adding to each one half
of the quantity by weight of boiled
linseed oil. The compounds are then
mixed together. Japanning is most
largely carried on with tinned iron
goods. -For these brown and black
colours are mostly used, but both are
obtained by the use of brown japan,
the metal receiving a preliminary
coating of black paint when black is
required. Cheap goods are only coated
once, but for better class goods two or
three coatings are applied. After
coating, the articles are heated in an
oven for about twelve hours. The

surface is then successively rubbed
with ground pumice stone, rotten-
stone, and the palm of the hand. The
decorative work is afterwards carried
out, gold or bronze being generally
added. Japanned wares are turned out
in large quantities at Birmingham, the
commonest kinds being tea-trays, coal-
boxes, canisters, etc. White japan
is often used to give the internal finish
to portable baths. When papier
mache wares are japanned it is usual
to work shell or metal inlaying into the
japan.

Jarrah. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Jarrah.)

A valuable timber obtained from the
Eucalyptus rostrata and the Eucalyptus
marginata, trees which grow somewhat
extensively in Western Australia.
When the wood is sound and the trees
are felled at the proper season, jarrah
is of great value for use as wharf
piles, railway sleepers, and telegraph
posts, owing to the presence of a pun-
gent acid which repels certain des-
tructive insects. It is also employed
for the parts of ships below the water
line, and the use of jarrah planks
dispenses with the necessity for copper
sheathing. The timber has long been
used as a kind of mahogany in Western
Australia, and it is now being exported
in large quantities to the other parts
of the Australian Commonwealth and
to India.

Jasmine. (Fr. Jasmin, Ger. Jasmin,
Sp. Jazmin.)

A name oi several species of shrubs
or climbing plants, highly prized on
account of their fragrant flowers.
They are chiefly found in sub-tropical
countries. From the flowers an oil is
extracted which is valuable in the
preparation' of a number of perfumes,
and is sometimes used medicinally for
a variety of children's complaints.
The commercial oil of jasmine, how-
ever, is generally oil of ben or some
similar substance flavoured with jas-
mine.

Jean. (Fr. Coutil sating, Ger. Bar-
chent, Sp. Bombasi, fustan.)

Cloth made of twilled cotton, and
sent in large quantities from Manches-
ter and the surrounding district to
China. Satin jean is a jean woven
smooth and glossy after the manner of
satin.

90

Jer]

world's commercial products.

[Jow.

Jerked Beef.

Salted or sun-dried meat, prepared
in South America, Mexico, and Texas.
It is probably of Chilian origin, and its
South American name is " chorqui."
In Mexico it is known as " tasago."
About 50,000 tons are annually used in
Brazil and the West Indies as food
for negroes. At one time Uruquay
sent a large quantity of jerked beef
to Great Britain, but neither here nor
on the continent of Europe did it find
much favour, and frozen meat has
practically ousted it from European
commerce.

Jesuits' Bark. (See Cinchona.)

Jet. (Fr. Jais, Ger. Gagat, Sp.
Azabache.)

A lustrous mineral, a species of pit
coal resembling cannel coal, of a deep
brown or velvety black colour. Its
structure, chemical composition, and
origin have not yet been fully inves-
tigated. The largest supplies are
obtained at Whitby, in Yorkshire,
where it forms part of a thick bed of
lignite, and where some 40,000 or
50,000 lbs. are annually worked in
making ornaments and mourning jewel-
lery, the value of which exceeds
;£100,000. In other parts of the world
jet is found in small, thin, detached
layers in bituminous shales, principally
in Bohemia, the Baltic provinces, and
Spain. In the last named country
the centre of the jet industry is Oviedo.
The substance is valued as being light,
capable of being easily worked, and of
taking a high polish. It is, however,
somewhat brittle. Until recently
Whitby had almost a monopoly of the
jet trade, but it. is now feeling the
effects of foreign competition. Imi-
tations of jet ornaments are made of
hardened india-rubber called vulcan-
ite or ebonite, and also of a species of

Jewellery. (Fr. Bijouterie, Ger.
Juwelen, Juwelierwaren, Sp. Joyas.)

Articles manufactured in precious
metals, precious stones, and other
valuable materials, used for the pur-
poses of personal adornment. The
principal materials used are gold,
silver, diamonds, emeralds, rubies,
garnets, amethysts, pearls, coral, to-
pazes, cairngorms, and agates. The
work upon each of these constitutes a
special industry, and is carried on in

various parts of the world. Amster-
dam is the centre of the diamond cut-
ting trade, while Paris, Vienna, and
New York produce novelties in jewel-
lery in rapid succession. In England,
Birmingham is the city in which most
of the cheaper jewellery is made, and
almost all the imitation jewellery in
general use. In the better classes of
jewellery the manufacturers of Clerk-
enwell, in London, have the liighest
repute in the United^ Kingdom.

Jew's Ear. (Fr. Eponge (pezize) de
sureau, Ger. Holhmderschwamm, Judas-
ohr, Sp. Esponja de sauco.)

The name given to a species of
fungus, Excidium auricula Judae, which
grows on the decaying parts of Uving
trees, especially elders. The dried fungus
was formerly much used in medicine as
an astringent. Another species serves
as a food in China and Japan.

Job's Tears. (Fr. Larnies de Job,
Ger. Hiobstranen, Sp. Lagrimas de Job.)

The hard, shining, grey- seeds of
the Coix lachyma, a grass of India,
which grows to the height of about
8 feet, and somewhat resembles maize.
The seeds are edible, and are also re-
puted to have certain medicinal
value, but they are mainly prized for
maldng ear-rings, necklaces, and
bracelets, and for adorning the dresses
of the Indian natives. The plant
has been introduced into Spain and
Portugal, and the seeds have been em-
ployed in the manufacture of rosaries
and other ornaments. The name is
derived from the shape of the seeds,
which resemble heavy tear-drops.

Jonquil. (Fr. Jonquille, Ger. Jon-
quille, Sp. Junquillo.)

A species of narcissus or daffodil, with
rush-hke leaves. It is an exceedingly
common garden plant. An essential oil
is extracted from the flowers of the
Narcissus Jonquilla, and the Narcissus
odorus, which is extensively used in the
preparation of a perfume. The oil is
obtained by steeping the flowers in
ether, and is yellow in colour.

Jowarri. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Jo-
uiarri.)

The Indian name for the large seeded
millet. Sorghum vulgare, used as a
food by the natives, and exported for
feeding cattle. The exports from
India exceeds half a million hundred-
weights per annum.

91

Jun]

world's commercial products.

[Kai

Juniper. (Fr. Genievre, Ger. Wach-
holder, Sp. Junipero, enebro.)

The name of several evergreen trees
or shrubs belonging to the natural
order Coniferae. The berries or fruit
of the common jumper, which is quite
common in Europe, Asia, and North
America, are of a bluish colour, and
are used for flavouring gin. The
name gin is, in fact, derived from the
French name of the juniper. From the'
berries an essential oil is obtained by
distilling the unripe fruit with water.
This oil is a limpid and almost colour-
less substance. If the berries are
ripe the oil becomes rancid and has
the flavour of spirits of turpentine.
The tree known as the Virginia Juni-
per is valuable on account of its beauti-
ful reddish wood. This wood is
much employed in the manufacture
of cigar boxes and lead pencils owing
to the scarcity of the Bermuda Cedar.
The timber of another juniper, which
flourishes in the Himalayas, is exten-
sively used in India by turners and
cabinet makers.

Junk. (Fr. Vieux cordage, bouts de
cdble, Ger. Altes Tauwerh, Sp. Trozo.)

Old pieces of hemp, rope, and cor-
dage, cut into short lengths, and used
for making rope mats, ship sack.",
oakum, and thick brown paper.

Jute. (Fr. Jute, ckanvre de I'Inde, Ger.
Jute, Jutehanf. Sp. Caiiamo de las Indias. )

Jute is an important Indian fibre,
obtained mainly in Calcutta from
two very similar species of plants
Corchorus capsularis and Corchorus
olitorius. The fibre is the inner bark
of the plant, and is separated from the
woody stalk by steeping in water.
Sometimes the jute is placed in rivers,
but more generally in tanks or stagnant
pools. Previous to steeping, the
stalks are stacked for a few days in
order to allow the leaves to decay.
After the separation the fibre is washed
in water, then dried in the sun, and
afterwards done up in small bundles.
In Calcutta it is pressed into bales for
exportation, and shipped in enormous
quantities to Dundee. The best quali-
ties of jute have a brownish yellow tint
and a silky lustre. This colour is only
discharged with great difficulty by
bleaching. The fibre takes brilliant
dye colours readily, but they are some-
what fugitive.

It is only within the last half century
that jute has become so important an
article of commerce. In India the
fibre had long been used for the manu-
facture of gunny bags(j.u.) and native
clothing, but in Europe it was not
much in favour until the great improve-
ment in the spinning machinery made
its working easy. Since 1850 Dundee,
outside India, has had the greatest
trade in the article. It is believed
that if some better method could be
discovered of separating the fibre from
the stalk the quality of the jute manu-
factures would be vastly improved.

In Dundee the most common fabrics
made from jute are Hessians, sackings,
mattings, tarpaulins, floorcloths, and
inferior classes of carpets. Millions of
small, brightly-dyed prayer carpets for
Mahometans are exported from Dundee.
On account of its glossy nature, jute
has been much used in adulterating or
imitating silk textures. It is also
eniployed in the manufacture of stage
wigs, tresses, and ladies' hair pads.

The processes of preparing, spinning,
and weaving jute are very similar to
those used for flax, but the machinery
required is of a heavier description.

Juvia. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Juvia.)

A local name for the Braril nut of
commerce.

Kaat. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Kaat.)

The name given to Abyssinian tea,
the leaves of the Catha eduUs and the
Catha spinosa. By the natives of
Abyssinia and Arabia these leaves are
chewed as a stimulant and exhilarant,
as they produce the same effects as
coffee. The two species of kaat are
known as Subbari and Muktare,
according to the districts from which
they are obtained. There is practi-
cally no European commerce in this
substance, though the trade done at
Aden is not inconsiderable.

Kaffir Corn.

The name given in South Africa to
the grain of a species of Davia

Kainite. (Fr. Kdinite, Ger. Ka'init,
Sp. Kainite.)

A mineral found in the Strassburg
deposits of Germany. It is a hydrated
compound of the chlorides and sul-
phates ot magnesium and potassium.
It is used to a considerable extent as
a manure.

92

Kal]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Kel

Kale. (Fr. Chou, Gcr. Kohl, Sp.
Berza, col.)

An open-leaved variety of the
cabbage plant known as Brassica
oleracea. It is cultivated as a winter
and spring vegetable. Sea kale is the
blanched stems of the Crambe maritima,
and considered a choice vegetable.

Kali. (Fr. Kali, Ger. Kali, Sp.
Cali.)

A name often applied to a soluble
tartrate of potash.

Kamala. (Fr. Kamala, Ger. Ka-
mala, Wurus, Sp. Kamala.)

Also known as wurrus. A fine
orange coloured powder obtained from
the minute glands which cover the
seed capsules or ripe fruit of an Indian
tree known as Mallotus philippensis.
The powder is used in India as a dye
for silk, to which substance it imparts
a fine orange colour. It has also some
medical value as a purgative. The
imports into Great Britain from India
are small in quantity.

Kangaroos. (Fr. Kanguroos, Ger.
Kdnguruhe, Sp. Kangaroos.)

About 500,000 kangaroo skins are
annually exported from Australia to
Great Britain and the United States.
The leather made from the skins is
suitable for strong light boots, and for
the manufacture of gloves. The flesh
of some kinds of kangaroos makes
excellent food, and kangaroo tail soup
is largely manufactured for use on
shipboard. The furs of the smaller
animals are valued in certain markets.

Kaolin. (Fr. Kaolin, Ger. Kaolin,
Porzellanerde, Sp. Caolin.)

A, very pure white clay, commonly
known as China clay. Its name is
derived from KauUng, a hill in China
where the substance was first found,
and near which it was first used in the
manufacture of porcelain. Kaolin is
the result of the decomposition of
felspar, water replacing the potash and
part of the silica. On account of its
purity it is valuable in the manufacture
of china and the finest kinds of porce-
lain, and it is also used by paper
makers. For a long period the only
supplies were obtained from China and
Japan, but in 1755 kaolin was dis-
covered in Cornwall. The chief
British supplies are now derived from
that county, about 30,000 tons being
used annually. There are deposits

near Limoges in France, and in
Nebraska, in the United States.
Kapok. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Kapok.)
The Dutch name for a species of
short silky cotton stuff surrounding
the seeds of the Bombax malaharicum.
The tree grows in the Dutch East
Indies, and many hundreds of bales
of kapok are annually exported to Hoi-
land for upholstery purposes, fillius;
beds, pillows, coverlets, etc.

Kauri. (Fr., Ger., and Sp. , Kauri. )
The native name for the pine tree,
Dammara ausiralis. which flourishes in
New Zealand. The tree is of great size
and beauty, sometimes rising to the
height of 150 feet. The timber is
white or straw-coloured, close-grained,
durable, and very easily worked. It
is valuable for masts, yards, and
planks, and is largely exported. There
are several species of a similar tree in
the Pacific Islands. The kauri pine
yields a resin, sometimes also known
as Kauri gum, which is valuable in the
manufacture of varnishes. One half of
the exports from Auckland are sent
direct to Great Britain, the greater
portion of the remainder going direct
to the United States.

Kekune Oil. (Fr. Huile de kekune,
Ger. Kekuneol, Sp. Oleo de kekune.)

The fixed oil, thin, odourless, and
tasteless, obtained from the seeds of
the Aleurites trihola, by boiling them
in water. It is used medicinally as a
mild purgative.

Kelp. (Fr. Caillotis, varech, Ger.
Aschensalz, Tangasche, Sp. Cenizas de
una especie 'de alga marina. )

The ash of burnt seaweed from
which at one time soda was obtained
in large quantities, but which is now
valuable as the source of iodine and
bromine. The substance consists of
sulphates, potassium, and magnesium,
and contains small quantities of iodine
and bromine in combination with
sodium and magnesium. The prepara-
tion of kelp was once a great industry
on the west coast of Scotland, but the
present production does not amount
to 10,000 tons per annum in Great
Britain, to obtain which some 200,000
tons of seaweed are required. The
value of kelp is about £i per ton. A
considerable quantity is also obtained
in N.W. France. The iodine and
bromine are obtained from the mother

93

Ker]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Kit

liquor which remains after kelp has
been dissolved in water and the sul-
phates, carbonates, and chlorides have
been separated by evaporation and
crystallisation.

Kermes. (Fr. Kermis, Ger. Kermes-
korner, Scharlachbeeren, Sp. Quhnies,
coscoja.)

Also known as Alkermes. The name
of a dye stuff obtained from the dried
bodies of certain female insects which
live on a species of oak, Quercus cocci-
fera, abounding in Southern Europe.
Kermes is a brilliant scarlet dye,
closely resembling cochineal, and has
been in use from very remote times.
Its use is now confined to the districts
where the insect is found owing to the
introduction of aniline dyes. The
name kermes, or kermesite, is also
given to a cherry-red mineral, not very
commonly found in Central Europe.
It consists of a mixture of sesquioxide
and sesquisulphide of antimony. When
ground into powder this mineral is
sometimes used as a, veterinary
medicine.

Kerosene. (Fr. Kdrosine, Ger. Ke-
rosin, Sp. Kerosina.)

The general name applied to mineral
oils, whether petroleum, paraffin, or
shale oils, which are used in various
countries for burning in lamps. In
America the name kerosene is most
generally applied to petroleum oil re-
fined for domestic use. It is exported
from America, Russia, and Great
Britain, principally to India and China.
It is a dangerous substance, as ordinary
kerosene emits an inflammable vapour
at 86'' Fahr.

Kid Skins. (Fr. Peaux de chevreau,
Ger. Ziegenhdute, Sp. Pieles de cobra.)

The skins of young goats which are
valuable in the manufacture of gloves.

Kidderminster.

The name of a species of carpets, so
called from the town where they were
first made. (See Carpets.)

Kimmei. (Fr. Kimmel, Ger. Kilm-
mel, Sp. Kimmel.)

Or Kiimmel. A continental liqueur.
It is made from brandy flavoured with
cummin or coriander seed.

Kimmeridge Clay. (Fr. Marne
argileuse, Ger. Kimmeridge-Ton, Sp.
Marga arcillosa.)

A dark, bluish-gray, shaly clay,
found chiefly at Kimmeridge in the

Isle of Purbeck, rich in bituminous
matter and sometimes used as fuel.
Kinderscout Grit.

Coarse grits and flagstones which are
quarried at Eyam, in Derbyshire, and
used for engine-beds, foundations, and
reservoir works. They occur towards
the base of the Millstone Grit which
forms the tableland of the Peak district.
Kingwood. (Fr. Bois royal, Ger.
Konigsholz, Sp. Madera de rey.)

A beautiful cabinet wood, obtained
from a species of Dalbergia. It is im-
ported from Brazil in trimmed logs of
from two to seven inches in diameter.
Kingwood is sometimes known as
violet wood because of the streaked
tints of that colour with which it is
marked.

Kino. (Fr. Gomme de Gambie, Kino,
Ger. Kino, Sp. Quino.)

The astringent red or brown resin
obtained from several species of trees
which are found in Africa, India, and
Australia. The best is derived from
the exuding sap of the Pterocarpus
marsupium, of Madras and Ceylon.
On exposure to the air the sap hardens,
and then dries in angular pea-like
grains. It contains about 75 per cent,
of tannic acid. The Bengal kino,
obtained from the Butea frondosa, is
used by the natives for tanning leather.
Medicinally it is used much as catechu,
and is valuable in cases of diarrhoea
and chronic dysentery. It is also
employed in India as a yellowisli brown
cotton dye.

Kirschwasser. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Kirschwasser.)

Also known as Kirsch and Kirschen-
wasser. A liqueur manufactured on
the Continent, especially in Germany,
Holland, and Denmark, made from
cherries. The juice of cherries is
mixed with strong spirit, sweetened
with sugar, and often flavoured with
the essential oil of bitter almonds and
other aromatics. Another method of
obtaining the liqueur is by distillation
from the cherries crushed with their
kernels and allowing the liquid to
ferment. The name signifies cherry
water

Kitt Fox.

The name of the smallest of all the
American foxes, of which between
5,000 and 10,000 skins are annually
imported into Great Britain.

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Kittool.

Otherwise known as Indian gut. It
is a. fibre obtained from the leaf of a
Ceylon palm tree, the Caryota ureas.
It is used in Great Britain for making
fishing lines, and also for brush making.
Kohl Rabi.

A curious variety of cabbage, having
a staUc resembling that of a turnip.
It is used extensively as a cattle food,
and forms a very common field crop
in Sweden. It is not much cultivated
in Great Britain.

Kokra Wood. (Fr. Bois de Kokra,
Ger. Kokraholz, Sp. Madera de Kokra.)
Or Cocus Wood. The wood of a
certain species of elder tree which
grows in many districts of India. It
is exceedingly hard and of a rich deep
brown colour. In the East it is used
for many purposes by wood turners,
and in Europe it is employed in the
manufacture of various musical instru-
ments, especially flutes. It is im-
ported from India in logs of from 6 to 8
inches in diameter.
Kokum Butter.

The fat extracted from the seeds of
the Garcinia purpurea, an Indian
plant. It is a semi-solid substance,
and is used medicinally in the making
of ointments, etc.

Kola Nuts. (Fr. Noix de kola, Ger.
Kolanusse, Sp. Nueces de kola.)

The seeds or fruit of the StercuUa
acuminata, a. much prized tree which
grows extensively in tropical Africa.
The nuts are also known as Guru nuts.
By the natives of West Africa these
nuts are chewed on account of the
alkaloid they contain, the alkaloid
being identical with that found in tea
and coffee. They are useful in allaying
the pangs of hunger and thirst, and
are considered to give great sustaining
powers to those who use them.
Medicinally the nuts are employed in
cases of diarrhoea and affections of the
liver. Large supplies are shipped
from the Gambia to France and Ger-
many, where they are used to adulter-
ate cocoa and chocolate.

Kolinski. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
KoUnski.)

The skins of the Tartar sable, ob-
tained in Siberia and sent to various
European markets for the purpose of
being made into cloaks and muffs.
The largest trade in these skins is done

at Leipsic. The hair of the tail of this
sable is used for making paint brushes.
Koumiss. (Fr. Koumiss, Ger.
Kumiss, Sp. Koumiss.)

A fermented liquor made in Russia
from mare's milk. A spirit, called
rack, is distilled from it. In England
an artificial koumiss has been manu-
factured from ass's milk, and it is
supposed to be efficacious in cases of
consumption.

Kukui Oil. CPt. Huile de kukui,
Ger. Kukuol, Sp. Oleo de kukui.)

The oil obtained from the candle nut,
Aleuriies tribboa, a tree of the Pacific
Islands. The oil is used by the island-
ers for illuminating purposes, and it is
imported in small quantities for its
drying qualities when mixed with
various colours.

Kundah Oil. (Fr. Huile de kundah,
Ger. Kundahol, Sp. Oleo de kundah.)

The concrete oil obtained from the
seeds of the Carapa guineensis, a species
of tree found in West Africa. Besides
its native use for lighting it is some-
times used medicinally as a purgative.
Kuskus.

The fibrous roots of the Andropagon
muricatus, a grass grown in the East
Indies. The roots are useful as a
perfume and for driving away moths.
An oil known as vetiver is obtained
from the root, and is used in the manu-
facture of various perfumes.

Labdanum, or Ladanum. (Fr., Ger.,
and Sp., Labdanum.)

A black- brown, soft, and delicately
scented gum, the exudation of the
Cistus creticus, growing in Crete,
Cyprus, and Asia Minor. In medicine
it was once used as a stimulant and
expectorant, but it is now simply
employed in perfumery, being held in
much esteem in Turkey. It is an
article rarely met with in England.

Lac. (Fr. Laque, Ger. Lack, Sp.
Laca.)

A resinous incrustation found on
certain trees in India, especiallv trees
of the ftcus genus. It is formed by the
insect Coccus lacca. The twigs upon
which the deposit is formed are some-
times covered to the thickness of a
quarter of an inch, and the lac has the
appearance of an irregular outer layer
of bark with a rough surface. In its
natural state it is known as stick-lac.
After having been removed from the

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trees upon which it is found, stick -lac is
placed in tubs of water and beaten. It
is then called seed lac. The water is
coloured red by the bodies of the insects
enclosed in the incrustation, and after
evaporation lac dye is obtained, a sub-
stance used for dyeing silk and leather.
Good lac dye contains about 50 per
cent, of colouring matter and 25 per
cent, of resin. The seed lac is melted in
cotton bags before a charcoal fire, and
by various treatment the shellac of
commerce is obtained.

Lac has many important uses. It
is largely employed in the manufacture
of polishes and varnishes, for stiffening
the calico frames of silk hats, and for
making the best sealing-wax. In the
East it is made up into various orna-
ments, and used as a coating for
wooden toys. In China it is exten-
sively used to decorate the surfaces of
boxes, trays, vases, and other similar
articles.

Lace. (Fr. Dentelle, Ger. Spitze,
Sp. Encaje.)

The open ornamental fabric of linen,
cotton, silk, or goli and silver threads,
constructed by looping, twisting, or
plaiting the threads into definite
patterns. There are three distinct
varieties of lace known, as point lace,
pillow lace, and machine lace. The
first two are mad"! by hand, another
name for point lace being needle lace,
which is closely allied to embroidery.
Pillow lace is so called because it is
manufactured with the aid of a large
stuffed cushion into which pins are
placed according to the pattern desired,
and round which pins the lace thread
is plaited from a number of small
bobbins.

The manufacture of hand-made lace
is an extremely delicate and complex
operation. It is carried on at various
places in France and Belgium and the
varieties are known as Valenciennes,
Lille, Mechlin, Cluny, and Brussels.
The best point or needle lace is point
d'Alenfon, and some of the Brussels
lace, which is also needle-made, is
distinguished as point a I'aiguille. The
greater portion, however, of Brussels
lace is a piUow made fabric. Other
well-known varieties of hand-made
lace are Maltese and Honiton.

There is a large business done in the
manufacture of machine-made lace in

England, Nottingham being the centre
of the trade. The imitation of hand-
made lace is excellent, and lace-making
machines are among the greatest
triumphs of mechanical ingenuity.
The lace made is almost exclusively
for home consumption, the exports
being inconsiderable.

Lacquer. (Fr. Laque vernis, Ger.
Lackfirnis, Sp. Barniz de la China.)

A varnish prepared by dissolving
seed lac or shellac in alcohol, with the
addition of small quantities of one or
more gum-resins, such as sandarach,
amber, etc. The yellow or orange
colouring matter is supplied by gam-
boge, dragon's blood, and other
substances. The varnish is applied to
brass and gilded articles so as to
heighten their colour and to prevent
tarnishing, and the process of lacquer-
ing is very much like that of japanning.
The brass or other object which is to
be lacquered is first coated when cold.
It is then heated in a stove, after which
a second coating is applied. When
black lacquering is needed, the brass is
bronzed and coated with black lead
before the lacquer is applied.

The lacquer ware of Japan is made
in a different manner. Their lacquer
is the sap of the lacquer varnish tree,
the Rhus vernicifera, and it is applied
almost exclusively to wooden articles.
Unlike the European lacquer this coat-
ing will bear the application of great
heat without injury. The Japanese
have attained great renown for their
skill in this sort of work, and the
specimens of cabinets, trays, boxes,
etc., are often of exceptional beauty
and elaborate finish.

Lamb Skins. (Fr. Peaux d'agneau,
Ger. Lammerfelle, Sp. Pieles de
cordero.)

Included in the returns of imports
under sheep skins. The skins of lambs
are now < xtensively used as a substi-
tute for kid skins in the manufacture of
gloves. The best supplies are derived
from Hungary, Greece, and Southern
Russia, the black varieties coming
from the last named, especially from
the Crimea and Astrakan.

Lametta. (Fr., Ger., andSp., Lametta.)

An Italian name for foil or wire made
from copper or Irom the precious metals.

Lamp Black. (Fr. Noir de fumee, Ger.
Lampenruss, Sp. Hollin, negro de humo. )

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tLau

The intensely black pigment formed
of the soot or amorphous carbon
obtained by burning such substances
as resin, petroleum, or tar. The best
is obtained from the combustion of
camphor. In the United States lamp
black has also been made by the im-
perfect combustion of natural gas.
This pigment is useful for artists in oil
and water colour. The commonest
kind is used by house painters. It is
a most important substance in the
preparation of printing ink, Indian ink,
and carbon paper. Some curriers
employ it in the preparation of certain
kinds of leather.

Lancewood. (Fr. Bois de lance, Get.
Lanzenholz, Sp. Madera de lama.)

A strong, light, and elastic wood
obtained from two species' of trees
which grow in the West Indies, mainly
in Jamaica. The valuable part of the
tree is the main trunk, which is remark-
ably straight, and seldom more than
9 inches in diameter. Lancewood is
principally used by coach-builders for
shafts and carriage poles. It is also
employed in the manufacture of billiard
cues and archers' bows. Owing to its
limited supply the prices charged for
this wood are exceedingly high.

Lanoline. (Fr. LanoUne, Ger. Lano-
lin, Sp. Lanoline.)

An unctuous substance obtained in
the washing of wool. It is a mixture
of the ethers of cholesterin with fatty
add, and is used as the basis of oint-
ments and in the manufacture of the
cheaper kinds of soap.

Lapis Lazuli. (Fr. Lapis-lazuli, Ger.
Lasurstein, Sp. Lapis-lazuli.)

A mineral of beautiful blue colour,
consisting principally of silica and
alumina, with the addition of a small
quantity of sulphuric acid, soda, and
lime. It is generally found massive,
and associated with crystalline lime-
stone, the finest specimens being
obtained from Bokhara. It is much
employed in ornamental and mosaic
work, and for church ornamentation,
especially altars. When powdered it
constitutes the beautiful colour known
as ultramarine. The cost, however, of
obtaining ultramarine from this mineral
is so great that the colour is now
prepared artificially.

Larch. (Fr. MeUze, Ger. Ldrchen-
baum, Sp. Ahrce.)

7— (1484)

A kind of fir tree, grown exten-
sively in most parts of Europe, and
valuable for its timber, which is
exceedingly durable, not liable to rot
on exposure, and free from insect
destruction. Larch bark is used for
tanning. One species of the tree,
found in Siberia, yields a kind of gum
which is employed in the manufacture
of numerous cements.

Lard. (Fr. Saindoux, Ger. Schweine-
schmalz, Sp. Sain de puerco. )

The congested fat of the pig, gener-
ally mixed with a small quantity of
salt in order to improve its keeping
qualities. This substance is exported
in enormous quantities from America,
in bladders, kegs, and barrels. Be-
sides its use for culinary purposes and
for making ointments, recently dis-
covered processes have rendered it
possible for stearine and oleine to be
extracted from lard when it is pressed
at a low temperature. The former is
valuable in the manufacture of candles,
and the latter, under the name of lard
oil, has come to be recognised as a
useful lubricant for machinery.

Lastings.

A common name for certain plain or
figured fabrics, made either in wool or
cotton.

Latakia. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Latakia.)

The name of a Turkish tobacco, the
product of the Nicotiana rustica, which
grows in the hilly districts behind
Latakia, in North Syria.

Laths. (Fr. Lattes, Ger. Latten, Sp.
Latas.)

Thin strips of wood, from 3 to 6 feet
long, 1 inch broad, and i inch thick.
They are used by builders for walls
and ciilings to retain the covering of
plaster.

Latten. (Fr. Fer-blanc, itain en
feuitte, cuivre jaune fin, Ger. Messing-
blech, Sp. Ldmina de laton.)

The name given to brass or bronze
used for crosses, and also to tin rolled
out into plates.

Laudanum. (Fr. Laudanum, Ger.
Laudanum, Opiumtinhtur , Sp. Laudano.)

The commonest of all the prepara-
tions of opium, and often called
tincture of opium. It is a liquid of a
darkish red colour. Laudanum is
obtained by steeping opium, sliced or
powdered, in dilute spirit and filtering

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the whole after it has been allowed to
stand for a period of time, varying with
the strength required. It is a powerful
anodyne and soporific, but except in
very small doses it may act as a
dangerous poison.

Lavender. (Fr. Lavande, Ger. La-
vendel, Sp. Alhuzema, espliego.)

The flower-heads of the Lavendula
vera, from which, as well as from the
stalks, an essential oil is obtained by
distillation. Though the plant is
grown in Great Britain, the French oil
is that which chiefly enters into com-
merce as it can be prepared more
cheaply in France than in England.
The oil is used as a tonic in medicine,
and it is very frequently mixed with
other medicines. The flowers are
often put into wardrobes to drive away
moths, and they are also used in the
manufacture of perfumes, especially
lavender water, which is composed of
oil of lavender, rectified spirits of wine,
and a few additional essences. From
a particular species of lavender, known
as broad-leaved lavender, and found in
the south of Europe, an oil known as
spike oil is obtained, which is employed
by painters on porcelain aiid in the
manufacture of varnishes.

Lawn. (Fr. Linon, Ger. Battist,
Linon, Sp. Lino.)

A fine kind of cambric, made chiefly
at Belfast. (See Linen.)

Lead. (Fr. Plomb. Ger. Blei, Sp.
Plomo.)

One of the most useful of metals,
used very extensively as sheet lead,
for piping, for the manufacture of
DuUets, etc. It is a bluish grey metal,
remarkable for its softness and fusi-
bility. Its specific garvity is ir36.
When freshly cut it possesses a bright
metallic lustre, but it quickly tarnishes
on exposure to the atmosphere. It is
not a good conductor either of heat or
electricity.

The chief source of lead is the ore
galena, a sulphide of lead found in
several European countries. In Great
Britain the chief lead supply is ob-
tained from the mines of Cumberland,
but there is a considerable amount of
galena imported from Spain. The
galena is crushed and washed to
remove earthy impurities, and then
melted with proper fluxes in a rever-
beratory furnace. Owing to the

presence of small quantities of other
metals, there are several special addi-
tional processes necessary in order to
obtain the lead pure.

Lead enters into the composition of
several useful alloys, of which the most
important are type metal, stereo metal,
plumbers' solder, pewter, and shot
metal. An oxide of lead, known as
red lead or minium, is much used in the
manufacture of flint glass, as a cement,
and as a pigment. A mixture of lead
oxide and antimony, known as yellow
lead, is employed as a pigment for
giving a yellow colour to earthenware.
White lead, a substance extensively
employed as a pigment and for pottery
glazes, is a carbonate of lead. It is
obtained by subjecting thin sheets of
the metal to the simultaneous action
of acetic acid and carbonic acid gas.

Leather. (Fr. Cuir, Ger. Leder, Sp.
Cuero.)

The skins or hides of animals,
especially the larger mammals, pre-
pared by certain chemical processes so
as to preserve them from decomposi-
tion and putrefaction, and to give them
increased strength, toughness, and
pliancy, together with insolubility in
water. There are several distinct
methods of preparing leather, but all
depend upon the combination of the
tannic acid of some tannin material
with the gelatinous substance of which
the skins or hides are largely com-
posed. The skins of all animals can
be made into leather, but in practice
only a limited number are utilised.
Besides those skins and hides obtained
from local slaughter-houses there are
enormous annual supplies imported
from Australia, South Africa, and South
America. Buffalo hides are exported
by the East Indies, horse hides are
obtained from South America, and
goat skins and kid skins from the Cape,
Switzerland, and Asia Minor.

In the preparation of leather the
hides are first steeped in water, and
allowed to soak for some time, so as to
get rid of all blood, salt, and other
extraneous substances. The hair is
next loosened and removed, and what-
ever fat remains is taken away by the
action of limewater and sulphide of
sodium. In America a plan of sweat-
ing the hides is adopted instead of
steeping them in pits. The next

98

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process is to stretch the hides so as to
open the pores and make the material
capable of absorbing the tannin. They
are then placed in a solution containing
the tanning substance to be used,
which is made stronger and stronger as
time goes on. After remaining some
weeks thus steeped, the hides are care-
fully drained and dried. The drjring
process is one that needs the utmost
care, as the quality of the leather
depends so much upon it. The finish-
ing touches are now supplied by very
efficient machinery, especially graining
and smoothing.

Of the various special kinds of
leather, Morocco leather is the name
applied to the skins of goats tanned
with sumach. Roan leather is pre-
pared from sheep skins treated in the
same way as Morocco leather. Russia
leather is "smooth finished leather,
impregnated with the oil of birch bark,
from which it derives its peculiar odour.
Chamois leather, originally made from
the skin of the chamois, is a kind of
soft leather prepared from sheep skins
by treatment with oil alone. The skin
is not tanned at all.

The uses to which leather is put are
very numerous — boots, shoes, gloves,
saddlery, etc. The manufacture of
leather and leather goods is a most
important British industry, and the
value of the unwrought leather im-
ported, and of the finished leather
goods exported, has grown enor-
mously in recent years. There
are one or two public sales of
leather in London every month, and
there are quarterly leather fairs at
Leeds in January, April, July, and
October.

Leather cloth is a textile fabric,
which somewhat resembles leather, but
is a material having unbleached calico
for its background, and being coated
with boiled oil, dark pigments, and
other ingredients so mixed as to be
capable of being uniformly spread over
the cloth by roUers. It is often known
as American cloth. It is often used
as a covering for chairs, sofas, desks,
etc., and a thicker kind is employed
for covering coaches.

Leek. (Fr. Poireau, porreau, Ger.
Lauch, Sp. Puerro.)

A cultivated variety of the Allium
Ampeloprasum, a member of the onion

family, much valued for culinary pur-
poses. It is very generally cultivated
in Scotland and Wales, and grows to a
considerable size if planted in a deep
soil with a dry bottom.

Lemon. (Fr. Citron, limon, Ger.
Zitrone, Sp. Limon, cidra.)

The fruit of the Citrus Limonum, a
small tree commonly found in the
south of Europe. The supplies of
northern Europe are entirely obtained
from Mediterranean ports. The
peculiar and pleasant flavour of the
lemon is due to the citric acid contained
in the juice of the fruit. The lemon
juice is obtained by pressing the fruit,
and it has become of great value in
medicine owing to its anti-scorbutic
properties. Sicily does a large trade
in this article. The peel of the lemon
produces a volatile oil and is also used
as a condiment. The oil has the same
composition as turpentine, C,oH,6, but
it contains a small quantity of other
oils. Besides its use as a flavouring
substance it is employed in the manu-
facture of various perfumes, especially
Eau de Cologne. Lemonade is an
aerated water flavoured with sugar and
essence of lemons.

Lemon Grass. (Fr. SchSnanthe, jonc
odorant, Ger. Zitronenhraut , Sp. Melisa. )

A perennial grass, cultivated in
Ceylon and the Straits Settlements,
with a lemon-like fragrance, from
which a. volatile oil, sometimes called
oil of verbena, is extracted. This oil
is used in the manufacture of per-
fumes.

Lentils. (Fr. Lentilles, Ger. Linsen,
Sp. Lentefas.)

A leguminous plant closely related
to the vetch. It is extensively culti-
vated in Egypt, Syria, and southern
Europe generally. From the seeds a
palatable and nutritious food is
obtained. In the East they are cooked
as a sort of porridge. In Great
Britain the lentil seeds are used for the
preparation of invalids' food, especially
the food known as Revalenta Arabica,
and in the Usts of imports they are
included with tares. The principal
exporting country is Egypt. The cul-
tivation of the plant in England has
been frequently suggested, but the
attempts have not been successful
owing to the absence of sufficient
warmth.

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Leopard Skins. (Fr. Peaux de Uo-
pard, Ger. Leopardenfelle, Sp. Pieles de
leopardo.)

Used for rugs. About 1,000 skins
are annually imported from India.

Letter Wood. (Fr. Bois de Uopard,
Ger. Leopardenholz, Sp. Madera de
leopardo.)

Also called leopard wood and smoke
wood. It is procured from a large tree
belonging to the bread fruit, a native
of British Guiana and Trinidad. The
wood is beautifully mottled and
streaked with black spots, and is very
effective when polished. It is used for
making cabinets, for fine veneering,
and for inlaying work. Owing to the
small supply the price is high.

Lettuce. (Fr. Laitue, Ger. Lattich,
Sp. Lechuga.)

The well-known garden vegetable
used in the preparation of salads. It
is a plant belonging to the order
Compositae, the cultivation of which is
widespread. The garden lettuce is
the result of long cultivation. There
are two principal varieties, the cabbage
and the cos, the former having round
leaves and a growth somewhat like a
small cabbage, the latter possessing
upright oblong leaves.

Lign Aloes. (Fr. Bois d'alois, Ger.
Aloehoh, Sp. Lena de aloe.)

The wood of the Aquilaria agallocha,
otherwise called garrow wood. Li has
a fragrant odour when burned, some-
what resembling patchouli. It is ob-
tained and most valued in Further India.
Lignite. (Fr. Lignite, Ger. Lignit,
Braunhohlen, Sp. Berza roja.)

The name applied to a mineral
substance of vegetable origin, and
sometimes called brown coal. It is
considered to be wood in a state of
fossilisation, intermediate between
peat and coal. A variety of lignite is
jet. The mineral is not found in any
great quantities in England, but there
are deposits oi great thickness in Ger-
many. In the last named country it
is burned as fuel, and it is likewise used
as a source of paraffin oil, the oil being
obtained by distillation.

Lignum Vitae. (Fr. Bois de gdiac,
Ger. Pockhoh, Sp. Madera de guayaco.)
The hard, heavy, close-grained wood
of the Guaiacum officinale, a tree which
grows extensively in the West Indies.
It has a greenish colour, and is much

used in the manufacture of blocks,
pulleys, rollers in machinery, pestles,
etc. From the tree is also obtained
the Guaiac resin.

Lima Wood. (Fr. Bois de Lima,
Ger. Limaholz, Sp. Madera de Lima.)

The dye wood used for the pro-
duction of various tints of red, orange,
and peach colour. It is obtained from
the Caesalpinia echinata, a tree which
is found in Brazil and Central
America. Lima wood is also known
as Pernambuco wood and Nicaragua
wood.

Lime. (Fr. Citron, Ger. Lime, Li-
mone, Sp. Lima, limon.)

The fruit of the Citrus limetta, a tree
which flourishes in the South of
Europe, and in both the East and West
Indies. There are many varieties of
the fruit, and its uses are in the main
the same as those of the lemon. Lime
juice is extensively exported from
Jamaica. Its value depends upon the
presence of citric acid.

Lime. (Fr. Tilleul, Ger. Lirtde, Sp.
Tila, tilo.)

The popular name of the tilia, other-
wise the Unden tree. It grows in many
parts of Europe, but especially in
Germany and Russia. Its wood is
light and soft, and much used for
carving and turning. The charcoal
obtained from burning the wood of the
lime tree is considered to be the best
for the manufacture of gunpowder. It
is also much used medicinally, and for
making tooth powders. By steeping
the wood in water the fibrous portion
of the bark can be separated and
utilised for the manufacture of ropes,
mats and plaited work generally. (See
Bast.) This business is mainly carried
on in Russia. From the sap of the tree
sugar may be evaporated.

Lime. (Fr. Chaux, Ger. Calcium-
oxyd, Kalk, Sp. Cal.)

The oxide of calcium, one of the
alkaline earths. Its chemical symbol
is C^O, and its specific gravity .3-08.
It is obtained by heating carbonate of
lime, or limestone, in a furnace or kiln.
The carbonic acid is burned out and
lime remains. This residue is com-
monly known as the quicklime of com-
merce. Lime is largely employed in the
manufacture of mortar, and as a manure.
Amongst its other uses are the purifi-
cation of coal-gas, the preparation of

Lim]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

LLiq

hides for tanning, the manufacture of
stearic acid for candle-making, and the
smelting of various metals. The
various compounds of lime are noticed
under separate headings.

Limestone. (Fr. Pierre calcaire,
pierre a chaux, Ger. Kalksiein, Fluss-
spath, Sp. Piedra caliza.)

The common name for a, species of
rock of a yellowish white colour com-
posed mainly of carbonate of lime. It
is very widely distributed, in fact lime-
stone rocks occur in every geological
system. There are many different
varieties, peculiar to certain forma-
tions. Compact limestone is hard,
smooth, and fine-grained, and can be
polished and made into ornaments.
Crystalline limestone is another variety,
sometimes known as statuary marble.
Limestone is, however, principally
valuable as Iseing the source from
which lime is obtained.

Linen. (Fr. Toile de lin, Ger. Lein-
wand, Leinen, Sp. Lienzo, tela de lino.)

The fabric manufactured from the
fibres of flax and hemp. The industry
is one of the most important of the
United Kingdom, and finds its centres
at Belfast in Ireland, Leeds in England,
and Dundee in Scotland. Other large
towns in the last named country
engaged in linen manufacture are
Arbroath, Kirkcaldy, and Dunferm-
Una. The different linen textures
extend over a wide range, and include
fine lawns and cambrics, damasks,
diapers, shirtings, as well as heavier
fabrics, such as sail cloths and canvas.
The exports from the United Kingdom
are very large, and take the form of
manufactured goods, Unen yarn,
thread, sail cloths, etc.

Ling. (Fr. Morue longue, Ger. Leng,
Klippfisch, Sp. Bacallao, merluza.)

A variety of 'cod fish, taken in large
quantities off the British coasts. It
is eaten both fresh and salted, and in
the latter state is exported to southern
Europe. From the Ever of the ling an
oil, similar to cod Uver oil, is extracted.
This oil is used as an illuminant in the
Shetland Isles.

Linoleum. (Fr. Linoleum, Ger. Li-
noleum, Korkteppich, Sp. Linoleum.)

The name of a kind of floor cloth.
It is made by incorporating ground
cork with india-rubber, and rolling the
mass into sheets and drying the same.

It is easily stained for receiving
patterns. It is waterproof and wears
well, being also superior to ordinary
oilcloth. An inferior kind of linoleum
is made by combining linseed oil, saw-
dust, peat, chalk, pitch, and other
substances, and treating the mixture
in the same way.

Linseed. (Fr. Graines de lin, Ger.
Leinsamen, Sp. Linaza, simiente del
lino.)

The seed of the flax plant, Linum
usitaiissimum, an important o;l seed
exported largely from India, the East
Indies, and Russia. For the extraction
of the oil the seeds are crushed and
ground, and then subjected to enor-
mous pressure. The oil, when quite
pure, is colourless, but in commerce it
is generally of an amber colour, and
has a disagreeable odour and taste.
It is much used in the manufacture of
paints, varnishes, printing ink, oil-
cloths, etc., on acocunt of its drying
qualities. The cake left after the
expression of the oil is valuable as a
cattle food. Linseed meal, which is
composed of the flour of the ground
flax seed or crushed oilcake, is useful
for poultices on account of its powerful
emollient properties. An infusion of
linseed is employed in cases of colds
and bronchial affections.

Lint. (Fr. Charpie, Ger. Scharpie,
Charpie, Sp. Hila.)

The soft woolly material used for
surgical dressing and soaking up dis-
charges. It was at one time made by
scraping or tearing down old Unen
cloth or rags. Now, however, the lint
used is specially prepared by machinery
from a soft linen texture woven for the
purpose, having one side soft and
fluffy.

Liqueurs. (Fr. Liqueurs, Ger. Li-
queurs, Likore, Sp. Licores.)

The name for a variety of alcoholic
preparations which are flavoured and
sweetened. They differ widely in
their composition and qualities.
Chartreuse is made by a secret process
and derives its name from the monas-
tery where it was manufactured.
There are two kinds — green and yellow.
Benedictine is another well-known
liqueur, made at Fecamp, which enters
into competition with Chartreuse.
Others which enter into British com-
merce are anisette, clove cordial.

Liq]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Log

curagoa, kirschwasser, kummel, maras-
chino, noyau, and peppermint. Ab-
sinthe is not a liqueur, but belongs to
the class of bitters and unsweetened
spirits.

Liquidambar. (Fr. Ambre liquide,
Ger. Flussiger Amber, Sp. Liquidambar.)

A genus of trees of the balsam order.
Several species yield a resinous
substance, when incisions are made in
the bark, from which benzoic acid is
obtained. From one species, found in
the Levant, liquid storax is extracted.
This substance is used for scenting
tobacco, and driving moths from
woollen clothing. The ordinary bal-
sam is collected in the United States
and Mexico, and is exported thence for
commercial purposes.

Liquorice. (Fr. Reglisse, Ger. La-
kritze, Sussholz, Sp. Orozuz, regalicia.)

An herbaceous perennial, largely
cultivated in the south of Europe, and
valuable on account of its root, which
contains a substance called glycyrrh-
izine, allied to sugar, soluble both in
water and alcohol. The root is long,
round, succulent, and flexible, and
externally its colour is greyish-brown.
Internally it is yellow. It is odourless
and has a slight acid taste. Liquorice
is used in the manufacture of sweet
tobacco, and is also employed by
brewers to give " body " to porter.
In medicine ii is considered of value in
certain catarrhal affections. The
roots of liquorice are imported in rolls
or sticks, and the chief supplies are
obtained from Spain and Turkey.

Litharge. (Fr. Litharge, Ger. Blei-
glaite, Silberglatte, Sp. Litargirio.)

The fused monoxide of lead. It is
known as massicit when pure, and
enters into the composition of flint
glass. It is also used by painters.

Lithium. (Fr. and Ger. Lithium,
Sp. Litio.)

A rare metal, silver white in colour,
which tarnishes quickly on exposure
to the air. It is harder than sodium
or potassium, but is softer than lead,
and can be readily drawn into wire.
It is the lightest known solid. When
thrown upon water it oxidises with
great rapidity. The oxide of lithium,
known as lithia, is valuable in the
formation of a series of salts which are
medicinally used as diuretics. The
carbonate and citrate of lithia are used

as solvents of uric acid, and are there-
fore most frequently prescribed in
cases of rheumatism and gout.
Lithium is found in combination with
various minerals in Sweden.

Lithographic Stone. (Fr. Pierre li-
thographique, Ger. Lithographierstein,
Sp. Piedra litogrdfica.)

The fine, hard, close grained stones
used for taking impressions in litho-
graphic work. They are generally
prepared from thin slabs of a variety of
limestone, or stones composed of lime,
clay, and siliceous earths. The grey-
coloured stones are considered the best,
and the principal supplies are derived
from the quarries of Solenhofen,
Bavaria. Stones of an inferior quality
are obtained in Italy and France. The
stones are cut and afterwards polished
to prepare for use. Artificial stones,
made of zinc, with thin coatings, have
been recently substituted for the
natural ones.

Litmus. (Fr. Tournesol, Ger. Lack-
mus, Sp. Tornasol.)

A blue colouring or dyeing material
obtained from various species of
lichens, like archil, and cudbear. It
difiers, however, from them in being
prepared with potash or soda, and in
being moulded into cakes. It is turned
red by the presence of acids, and conse-
quently litmus is a valuable test in the
chemical laboratory..

Lobsters. (Fr. Ecrevisses de^mer,
homards, Ger. Hummer, Seekrebse, Sp.
Cabrajos.)

The well-known crustaceans, found
on the coasts of many European
countries. The numbers taken in
England and Wales amount to about
one million a year. The largest sup-
pUes for European markets are'Job-
tained from Norway, the fish being
shipped alive. There is an enormous
business done in canning lobsters for
the markets of the world in Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, and New-
foundland.

Locust Beans. (See Carob.)

Logwood. (Fr. Campiche, Ger.
Kampeschenholz, Farbholz, Sp. Palo de
Campeche.)

The heart wood of the Hcematoxylon
campechianum, a tree of the jWest
Indies, Central America, and the
northern parts of South America.
The wood is hard, close-grained, very

Lon]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Mad

durable, takes a high polish, and is
heavier than water. The chief sup-
plies are obtained from Jamaica and
Honduras, whence the timber is
exported in logs. The logs are cut
into chips and ground for the use of
dyers, and the colouring matter, or
haematicin, for which the wood is
valuable, is dissolved out by immersion
in hot water. Extracts of logwood are
made for dyeing purposes, especially
silk and wool, and for calico printing.
The best colours are deep brown and
black, though other shades are ob-
tainable by the use of suitable mor-
dants. Logwood is also used in the
manufacture of ink, both black and
red. As a medicine it is sometimes
given in cases of chronic diarrhoea.

Longan. (Fr. , Ger. , and Sp. , Longan. )

The product of the Nephelium Long-
anum, one of the most delicious and
pleasing fruits of China and the Malay
Archipelago. The fruit is of about
the same size as the walnut, and is either
red or green. It is largely used for
making preserves, and in a dried «tate
is exported from China to Great
Britain.

Lucifer Matches.

(See Matches.)

Luminous Paint. (Fr. Couleur lu-
mineuse, Ger. Letlchtfarbe, Sp. Color
luciente.)

A powder such as sulphide or
oxysulphide of calcium ground up with
a colourless varnish or other similar
substance and used as a paint. The
object painted is visible in the dark.

Lunkah. (Fr., Cer., and Sp., Lun-
kah.)

The name of a kind of tobacco grown
on the rich soils of Ceylon and on the
banks of the Godavery. Owing to the
presence of a large quantity of nicotine,
this tobacco has a bad effect upon the
nervous system, but it is milder than
Trincinopoly.

Lycopodium. (Fr. Lycopode, Ger.
Lycopodium, Bdrlapp, Sp., Licopodio.)

A kind of vegetable sulphur, the
spores of a fern Lycopodium clavatum.
It is used for coating pills, for flash
lights in firework displays, and for
theatrical imitation of lightning. A
considerable quantity of this substance
is annually exported from Russia.

Lynx. (Fr. Lynx, Ger. Luchs, Sp.
Lince.)

The furs of the lynx are used for
rugs, muffs, etc., and are easily dyed.
Though the animal is fairly wide
spread it is the Canadian species which
supplies the furs of commerce. Be-
tween 30,000 and 40,000 skins are
annually exported from Canada.

Macaroni. (Fr. Macaroni, Ger. Ma-
caroni, Fadennudeln, Sp. Macarrones.)

A preparation made from the ground
meal of wheat when mixed into a stiff
paste with water, and formed into
slender pipes, like quills. When the
apertures of the pipes are very small
the substance is called vermicelli.
The wheaten paste is also formed into
cakes and fancy shapes, called Italian
pastes. The drying of the various
preparations is done either artificially
or in the sun, the latter method giving
the better result. Macaroni is quite
a natural food in Italy, and besides
the quantity required for home con-
sumption there is a very large export
trade in macaroni and vermicelli.
The principal town of production is
Genoa, though Cagliari in Sardinia has
a wide reputation for the quality of its
output. Recently the trade has spread
to Marseilles and various other towns
in the south of France.

Mace. (Fr. Mads, Ger. Macis, Mus-
katblute, Sp. Macis.)

The net-like inner covering of the
nutmeg. When fresh it is of a scarlet
colour, but when dried it becomes
yellow and is so found in commerce.
Mace is used as a cheap spice, and as a
substitute for nutmegs. An oil of
mace is extracted from certain small
unsaleable nutmegs. The chief sup-
plies of mace are obtained from Penang
and Singapore.

Mackerel. (Fr. Maquereau, Ger.
Makrele, Sp. Escombro.)

The well-known fish, taken in great
quantities every year off the coasts of
the British Isles. The mackerel is
generally eaten fresh, but the salted
and smoked fish occasionally enter into
commerce, though not to the same
extent as other varieties. The North
American mackerel is of a species
totally distinct from the British fish.

Madder. (Fr. Garance, Ger. Krapp,
Fdrberrote, Sp. Rubia.)

The root of the Rubia tinctorum, a
perennial shrub which grows in the
South of Europe. From the root is

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extracted the colouring matter for
dyeing Turkey red. This was, until
a few years ago, the most important
of all dye stuffs, and was largely used
for dyeing cotton and ordinary woollen
goods. The chief supplies are obtained
from the Levant, Asia Minor, and
France. AniHne dyes have almost
entirely superseded all others, and the
cultivation of the madder root is
rapidly declining.

Madeira Wines. (Fr. Vins de Ma-
dere, Ger. Madeiraweine, Sp. Vinos de
Madera.)

The name of various kinds of wine
made in the Madeira Islands. Those
most appreciated are Baal, Malmsey,
Palhetinho, Sercial, and Tinto. Though
naturally containing a large quantity
of alcohol the wines sent to Great
Britain have brandy added to them,
and consequently are stronger in this
country than on the continent. Good
Madeira wines are improved by keep-
ing, heat, and shaking, and on tWs
account cargoes are frequently sent to
the East Indies and brought back again,
the East Indian Madeira being con-
sidered a special luxury.

Magnesia. (Fr. Magnesie, Ger. Mag-
nesia, Bittererde, Talherde, Sp. Mag-
nesia. )

The only oxide of the metallic
element magnesium. It is a fine white
powder, obtained by the combustion of
the metal, but often prepared by heat-
ing the carbonate. When calcined
magnesia is mixed with water a, com-
pact mass is formed, much resembling
plaster of Paris, and sometimes used
as a. substitute for that article. Car-
bonate of magnesia is an essential
constituent of dolomite which forms
the backbone of whole mountain
chains. Citrate of magnesia is a
medicinal compound of which the
component parts are carbonate of
magnesia, citric acid, syrup of lemons,
bicarbonate of potash, and water. It
acts as a mild aperient. The stronger
aperient, Epsom salts, is the sulphate
of magnesia.

Magnesium. (Fr. Magnhium, Ger.
Magnesium, Sp. Magnesia.)

A metal usually grouped with the
metals of the alkaline earths, but hav-
ing many properties resembling those
of zinc. It is obtained by fusing
chloride of magnesium, one of the main

constituents of sea-water, with sodium.
It is brilhantly white and resembles
silver in appearance. When drawn
out into wire or ribbon it burns with
a brilliant light, and is largely used for
photography in dark places.

Mahaleb. (Fi.Mahaleb, Ger. Mahaleb,
Steinweichsel, Sp. Mahaleb.)

The Cerasus Mahaleb, a cherry tree
cultivated extensively in the state of
Baden. Its fruit yields a violet dye,
and from the cherries much of the
kirschwasser of Germany is prepared
The wood of the tree is used for making
walking sticks and pipe stems.

Mahogany. (Fr. Acajou, mahogon,
Ger. Mahagoniholz, Sp. Caoba.)

A very valuable and beautiful tim-
ber, obtained from the Swietenia
mahogani, a tall and beautiful tree of
the West Indies and Central America.
The wood is of a close texture, reddish
brown in colour, and takes a fine polish.
It is also free from warping. The value
of the wood varies according to its
colour and markings. It is mainly used
in the manufacture of furniture, though
the bark of the tree has medicinal pro-
perties and is employed as a febrifuge,
and the wood contains the astnngent
principle catechin, present in catechu.
The largest supplies are obtained from
Honduras, Campeachy, and the West
India Islands generally. That of
Honduras and Campeachy is known
as bay wood, that of Cuba and Hayti
as Spanish mahogany. The value of
the exports is nearly ;£500,000 per
annum. Another kind of mahogany
is obtained from the East Indies, and
this is valuable for making cabinets.
The timber was formerly used for
shipbuilding, but in recent years it has
not been so employed except for ships'
fittings.

Maize. (Fr. Mais, bU de Turquie,
Ger. Mais, Tiirkischer Weizen, Sp.
Maiz.)

The well known cereal, the produce
of the Zea mays, a species of grass.
It is very commonly known as Indian
com, and is one of the most important
grain crops of the world, next in im-
portance to rice. It is grown chiefly
in the United States, but its cultiva-
tion is now very widespread. In
Britain, however, it only thrives in
favourable summers. The grains are
arranged in compressed parallel rows

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along a central axis, the whole being
called a cob. There are many varie-
ties of maize, depending upon the
cUmate, soil, and mode of cultivation.
From the grass, sugar, treacle, and
vinegar can be obtained. From the
flour of the grain, corn-flour, maizena
and Buego flour are prepared. * The
straw is used for making writing and
printing paper.

Malacca Canes. (Fr. Cannes de
Malacca, Ger. Malahka-Stocke, Sp.
Caiias de Malaca.)

Walking sticks, obtained from a
tree called Calamus Scipionum, which
grows in Sumatra. The value of the
canes varies according to the length
of the spaces between the joints.

Malachite. (Fr. Malachite, Ger. Ma
lachit, Sp. Malaquita.)

An ornamental green mineral, com-
posed of carbonate of copper. It
occurs most frequently amidst copper
ores, and is found in the greatest
abundance in Siberia. It is also ob-
tained in Cornwall and in South
Australia. It is capable of taking a
fine polish and is employed for maHng
ornaments and in inlaying work.

Malaga Wines. (Fr. Vins de Malaga,
Ger. Malagaweine, Sp. Vinos de Malaga. )

The sweet rich wines obtained from
Malaga, a Mediterranean seaport of
Spain. There are several varieties
exported, but generally they are divi-
ded into two classes, the red and the
white, Ximenes, being considered the
best of the former, and Lagrima the
best of the latter.

Malaguetta Pepper.

(See Grains of Paradise.)

Malt. (Fr. Dreche, malt, Ger. Mah,
Sp. Malta.)

Bajrley or other grain prepared for
the purpose of brewing beer. The
best malt used is made from the finest
barley. The grain is steeped in water
for about two days and thoroughly
saturated. It is then drained, and
placed upon a floor in heaps. Ger-
mination commences and a rise in tem-
perature takes place. The grain is
then spread out in layers in a specially
prepared malt-house, a building kept
dimly lighted and at a constant tem-
perature of 60° Fah. The germination
continues, and when it is sufficiently
advanced the malt is dried in a kiln,
the heat being carefully moderated.

The whole process of making malt is
one requiring great skill and judgment
as well as incessant care. An extract
of malt, called maltine, is used me-
dicinally as a cure for scorbutic
complaints.

Mandarin Oranges. (Fr. Manda-
rines, Ger. Mandarinenorangen, Sp.
Mandarinas. )

A variety of oranges, both large and
small, grown in Sicily. One of the
best known is the Tangerine. The
fruit is most deUcately flavoured, and
the rind is exceedingly thin. There is
a very large export trade from Palermo.

Manganese. (Fr. Manganese, Ger.
Mangan, Sp. Manganeso.)

A black, metallic ore, rarely found
pure in nature, but widely spread in
combination with other minerals. In
its chemical and physical properties it
somewhat resembles iron. It forms
six compounds with oxygen, the perox-
ide, or black oxide of manganese, being
the most common. Manganese is
largely imported into this country,
particularly from Sweden, for use in
glass manufacture, for glazing black
earthenware, and for giving colour
to enamels. It occurs in many mineral
waters, and is used to a certain extent
in medicine. Permanganate of potash
is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant
Fluid.

Mango. (Fr. Mangue, Ger. Mango,
Muskatmelone, Sp. Mango.)

The fruit of the Mangifera indica,
a tree wiiich attains a considerable
height in India. It is about the same
size as a pear and shaped Uke a kidney.
The mango is eaten as a fruit in India,
and also in the West Indies, where the
cultivation has been successfully intro-
duced. If gathered before ripening
an excellent pickle can be made, and
it is chiefly as a pickle that the mango
is known in Europe. A spirit is ex-
tracted from the juice of the fruit,
and a gum is obtained from the stem
and branches of the tree.

Mangold-Wurzel. (Fr. Beiterave,
Ger. Mangoldwurzel, Sp. Acelga.)

Or Mangold, the general name used
in Great Britain and America to
describe the varieties of the field beet
cultivated for feeding cattle. The
method of cultivation is, in the main,
the same as that of the turnip, but the
mangold has an advantage over the

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turnip as it yields a much larger
produce, is not affected by varying
temperatures, and is not liable to be
attacked by insects or disease. The
mangold, as a field beet, is larger in all
its parts, and coarser than the garden
beet. It was not until 1786 that the
mangold was cultivated in Great
Britain, but its importance was
quickly recognised, and the area under
cultivation has continually increased.

Mangosteen. (Fr. Mangouste, Ger.
Mangostan, Sp. Mangouste.)

The fruit of the Garcinia man-
gostana, a tree found in most of the
East India Islands. It is generally
considered to be one of the most
delicious fruits known. It is about
the size of a small orange, white and
juicy. The rind is tough and purple
in colour, contains valuable tannin,
and is used as an astringent in cases of
dysentery and diarrhoea.

Mangrove Bark, (Fr. Ecorce de
manglier, Ger. Mangelbaumrinde, Sp.
Corteza de mangle.)

The bark of a large variety of trees,
Rhizophora, which grow in marshy
districts in South America. It is
particularly rich in tannin and dye
stuffs, and is exported from South
America to Great Britain, France, and
Germany.

Manilla Hemp. (Fr. Chanvre de
Manille, Ger. Manillahanf, Sp. Abaca.)

The name used in commerce to
describe the fibre of the wild plantains
of the East Indies and the Philippine
Islands.

Manillas.

The trade name for cigars and che-
roots made in and exported from the
Philippine Islands.

Manioc. (Fr. Manioc, Ger. Maniok,
Sp. Cazahe, yuca de casave.)

Also called Mandioc and Cassava.
It is the name of a certain species of
Manihot, a shrub extensively cultiva-
ted in tropical America, especially
Brazil, on account of the roots. These
roots are of immense size, black in
colour, and contain a large amount
of starchy matter. A milky juice
pervades the whole plant and this acts
as a deadly poison owing to the pre-
sence of hydrocyanic acid. This juice
is removed by washing, and the result-
ing substance forms an important
article of food. The juice itself, when

thickened by boiling, loses its poison-
ous qualities and is made into the
sauce Casareep. From the starch of
manioc, separated in the ordinary
manner from the fibre of the shrub
and known as Brazilian arrowroot,
tapioca is made.

Manna. (Fr. Manne, Ger. Manna,
Sp. Mana.)

A sweet exudation obtained from
the bark of the Manna ash — Fraxinus
Omits. The tree was formerly culti-
vated very considerably in Calabria,
but it is now mainly found in Sicily,
and it is from Palermo that the manna
of commerce is obtained. In order to
obtain this substance the tree is cut
and the manna oozes out. It hardens
in lumps or flakes and is removed by
the collectors. Manna is light and
porous, yellowish in colour, and pos-
sesses a honey-Uke odour. It is used
medicinally as a gentle purgative for
children. Another species of manna
is obtained in Arabia and Kurdistan
from the leaves of the dwarf oak,
Vamarisk, and other plants. Its use
is entirely local, and it never enters
into commerce.

Manure. (Fr. Engrais, Ger. Diinger,
Mist, Sp. Fiemo, estihcol.)

The name for all substances which
are used to maintain or increase the
fertility of soils. The common farm
yard manure has been supplemented
by a number of natural and artificial
manures, the principal of which are
noticed under separate headings. The
most common artificial manure is
made from bones, of which more than
50,000 tons are imported every year.
The natural manures include guano,
superphosphates, sulphate of ammonia,
nitrate of soda, potash salts, etc.

Maple. (Fr. Erahle, Ger. Ahorn, Sp.
Arce, meple.)

A genus of trees growing in the
temperate regions of the world, of
which there are more than fifty species.
The common maple has close grained,
beautifully marked wood, capable of
taking a high poUsh, and valuable for
making cabinets. The wood of the
sycamore maple is firm without being
hard, and is much used by turners and
musical instrument makers. The
white maple of North America supplies
a wood which is sometimes used for
street planking. Other varieties are

1 06

Mar]

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[Mas

less valuable. From most kinds of
maple sugar can be extracted, but this
substance does not enter into commerce.

Maraschino. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Maraschino.)

A delicate liqueur, distilled from
the bruised fruit of the Marasca cherry,
a tree cultivated in Dalmatia and
some parts of Italy. After distilla-
tion the Uqueur is, like other liqueurs,
sweetened and flavoured with various
cordials. The finest Maraschino is
obtained from Zara. When imported,
it comes in wickered bottles or flasks.

Marble. (Fr. Marbrr, Ger. Marmor,
Sp. Marmol.)

A rock composed principally of
carbonate of Ume, but the name is
popularly given to any limestone which
is sufficiently compact to admit of
being polished. There are certain
kinds of dark coloured marbles ob-
tained in various parts of England,
but the finest qualities, used in sta-
tuary and architecture, are obtained
from different parts of the continent.
The best is the white marble of Carrara,
in Italy. This is employed almost
exclusively for statuary and ornamen-
tal work. Coloured varieties of marble
are obtained from various countries
of Europe, France, Spain, Portugal,
and Greece. Its use in architecture
is extensive, as the stone is durable and
specially suitable for building purposes.
Among the best known marbles are
the following : — Rosso antico, deep
blood red in colour with white dots,
obtained from Libya ; Giallo antico,
yellow with black rings, obtained from
Milos ; Brocatello, yellow with purple
veins, from Simla ; Portor, deep black
veined with yellow, from Genoa ; and
Paragone, also fine black, from Ber-
gamo. The name of marbUng has
been given to the art of applying
various patterns to paper.

Margarine. (Fr. Margarine, Ger.
Margarin, Kunstbutter, Sp. Margarine. )

An artificial substitute for butter,
often known as Oleomargarine, and
also as butterine. It was formerly
chiefly manufactured in and exported
from Holland ; but owing to the
shortage of butter during the war,
the trade in it has considerably
extended. (See Butter.)

Marjoram. (Fr. Marjolaine, Ger.
Majoran, Sp. Mejorana.)

A genus of the plants of the order
Labiatae, of which there are about
twenty species. The common mar-
joram is a pot herb, and yields an
essential oil which is valued by far-
riers as a stimulating liniment. The
dry leaves and young tops are used
for seasoning soups and for other
culinary purposes.

Marking Ink. (See Ink.)
Marmalade. (Fr. Marmelade, Ger.
Marmeladc, Sp. Mermelada.)

A preserve made by boiling the rind
of oranges, quinces, etc., to syrup
until it is soft, and afterwards reboiling
the same, together with the juice of
the fruit and a quantity of sugar
equal in weight to that of the rind and
juice combined. The process is con-
tinued until the whole has the con-
sistence of jelly. The best kind ol
marmalade is made from bitter or
Seville oranges. The largest factories
are at Dundee, from which it is esti-
mated that about three million pounds
are sent out every year. Marmalade
is also made on a considerable scale in
London, Glasgow, and Paisley.

Marsala. (Fr. Vin de Marsala, Ger.
Marsala-W ein, Sp. Vino de Marsala.)
A SiciUan wine, so called from
Marsala, the city whence it is exported.
It resembles sherry and has been
popular in England for more than a
century. The wine is produced in
very large quantities in Sicily, the
chief customers being England and the
West Indies.

Marten. (Fr. Martre, marte, Ger.
Marder, Sp. Marta.)

An animal belonging to the weasel
family, dark brown in colour, and
highly valued for its fur, which when
well dressed is often substituted for
sable. Nearly 100,000 skins are ex-
ported annually from North America.
Mastic. (Fr. Mastic, Ger. Mastix,
Harzkitt, Sp. Almaciga.)

A gum resin obtained from the
mastic tree, Pistacia letitiscus, which
grows in the Greek Archipelago. The
gum oozes from the tree when an inci-
sion is made in the bark, and hardens
on the stem when exposed to the air.
It is used in the manufacture of varnish
for varnishing prints, maps, drawings,
etc., the mastic being first dissolved in
turpentine. Mastic is also used by
dentists for stopping teeth.

107

Mat]

world's commercial products.

[Mea

Matches. (Fr. AUumettes, Ger.
Schwefelhohchen, Streichhdlzchen, Zund-
holzchen, Sp. Pajuelas.)

The name formerly applied to
VEirious substances used for firing
mines, etc., but now most generally
signifying lucifer matches. The manu-
facture of matches is carried on at
the present time exclusively by
machinery. The wood employed is
generally white pine, and this is cut
into spUnts, each splint being long
enough to make two matches. These
spUnts are fixed by the middle in
frames, and the ends are slightly
charred and then dipped in paraffin.
They are then ready for dipping in the
necessary inflammable paste. The
composition of this paste varies, as
each manufacturer has his own secret
process. It generally consists, how-
ever, of a combination of phosphorus,
chlorate of potash or saltpetre, and
red lead or black oxide of manganese,
the whole being mixed with glue and
some colouring matter. The paste
is spread out on a warm hollow dish
to the necessary thickness, and the
splints are dipped in it and afterwards
dried. They are then cut in two and
the completed matches are packed in
boxes. As a precaution against fire,
safety matches have recently come
into vogue. The paste in which the
splints are dipped contains no phos-
phorus, but is a mixture of chlorate
of potash, sulphide of antimony, and
glue. Ignition is only possible by
rubbing on the surface of the box
which is coated with a composition of
amorphous phosphorus, black oxide
of manganese or sulphide of antimony,
and glue. The most recent develop-
ment in the match trade has taken
place in Sweden and Norway, from
which countries enormous quantities
are annually exported. The centre
of the trade is Jonkoping in Sweden.
There are also a large number of
factories in Austria and Germany,
Vienna being at one time the principal
manufacturing city in Europe. In
France the manufacture of matches is
a government monopoly, and in the
United States it is controlled by a
combination. Besides the large number
imported, it is estimated that the value
of the matches made annually in Great
Britain exceeds ;£2,000,000.

I08

Mat^. (Fr. Mate, Ger. Matebawn,
Sp. Mate, ii del Paraguay. )

The leaves of the IlexParaguariensis,
a shrub growing extensively in South
America. In Brazil and other South
American countries the leaves are
used as a substitute for tea, and mat6
is often known as Paraguay tea. Its
stimulating efEect is derived from the
presence of theine, the principle found
in tea and coffee. Although it is a
considerable article of commerce in
Brazil and Paraquay, mate does not
find a place in European commerce, in
spite of the various efforts made to
introduce its use into France.

Matico. (Fr. Matico, Ger. Matico-
blditer, Sp. Matico.)

The rough leaves of two plants, the
Artanthe elongata and the Eupatorium
glutinosum, natives of Peru, which are
covered with a fine hair. They are
valuable medicinally for their styptic
properties, being used for stanching
wounds.

Matting. (Fr. Paillasson, naite,
Ger. Matten, Sp. Estera.)

The principal substances used for
the manufacture of mats are noticed
under their separate headings.

Maw Seed. (Fr. Graine de pavot, Ger.
Mohnsame, Sp. Simiente de adormidera.)

Also called Poppy Seed. The seeds
of a variety of the Papaver somniferum,
possessing an ant-Uke flavour, imported
from Russia as a food for cage-birds.
In Poland the seeds are sometimes used
as human food.

Mead. (Fr. Hydromel, Ger. Honig-
wein, Sp. Aguamiel.)

The fermented liquor made from
honey and water. The honey used is
that which remains in the combs after
the main portion has been extracted.
The liquor has a wine-like flavour,
and has been a common beverage in
northern Europe from the earliest times.

Meat Extract. (Fr. Extrait de viande,
Ger. Fleischextract, Sp. Extracto de
carne.)

The concentrated essence of meat
obtained by boihng down the carcases
of oxen. A large number of these
extracts are made in South America,
and there are many well - known
extracts made in Europe by peculiar
processes, which are the secrets of their
manufacturers. The trade in these
substances is rapidly increasing.

Med]

world's commercial products.

[Mer

Medlar. (Fr. Nifle. Ger. Mispel,
Sp. Nispera.)

The fruit of a species of apple tree,
widely cultivated in southern Europe,
and western Africa. The common
medlar is found in parts of England.
The fruit is about the size of a small
apple, pulpy and sweet. The golden
yellow variety is most prized and is
used for making jellies and preserves.

M^doc. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Midoc.)

The wine of some of the most prized
clarets of the Gironde, shipped from
Bordeaux. The principal of these are
Chateau Maryaux, Chateau Lafite, and
Chd.teau Latour.

Meerschaum. (Fr. Ecume de mer,
Ger. Meerschaum, Sp. Espuma de mar.)

Also called SepioUte. It is a fine-
grained, soft, compact mineral, gener-
ally white in colour, though sometimes
possessing a yellowish or pinkish tinge.
It is a hydrated silicate of magnesium,
and its composition is siUca 60'9 parts,
magnesium 26'1, and water 13. Meer-
schaum occurs in beds in Asia Minor,
Greece, Morocco, and Spain. When
freshly dug, it is quite soft, absorbs
grease, and makes a lather. For this
reason it is often used as a soap in
Turkey. In Spain it is sometimes
employed for building. But the
greater portion obtained is made into
pipes, in the manufacture of which
Vienna has long held the most pro-
minent position, drawing its chief
supplies from Smyrna. Fancy meer-
schaum pipes are also made in France.
Owing to the large demand, much
artificial meerschaum is now in the
market.

Melon. (Fr. Melon, Ger. Melone,
Sp. Melon.)

The fruit of the Cucumis melo, a spe-
cies of cucumber plant, widely culti-
vated in the south of Europe. There
are many varieties, the principal,
however, being the musk melon and
the water melon, and the latter is the
fruit most valued. The colour of the
flesh of the fruit is white, green, salmon-
coloured, red, etc. The melon is juicy
and watery, and is mostly eaten in
warm climates. The principal British
suppUes are obtained from Malaga, in
Spain, and from various parts of
Portugal.

Melton.

A kind of broadcloch. It has a soft

and pliable finish, but is manufactured
without any gloss.

Menhaden. (Fr. and Sp., Menhaden,
Ger. Maifisch.)

A fish of the herring family, taken
in large quantities ofi the eastern
shores of the United States. Its flesh
is not used for food, but the fish itself
makes excellent manure and yields an
oil which is employed in leather dress-
ing, in the manufacture of rope, and in
mixing colours.

Menthol. (Fr. Menthol, Ger. Men-
thol, Sp. Menthol.)

A kind of camphor obtained from
oil of peppermint by cooling. It is,
however, generally prepared from the
Mentha arvensis purpurescens , which
is more productive of menthol than
peppermint. It is made into the form
of cones or pencils and is a household
remedy in various nervous complaints,
such as headache, neuralgia, toothache,
etc. Its effectiveness is caused by the
rapid evaporation of the menthol after
rubbing the part affected. It is some-
times prescribed in cases of diphtheria.

Mercury. (Fr. Mercure, Ger. Mercur,
Quecksilber, Sp. Azogue, mercurio.)

The chemical name for quicksilver.
It is the only metal liquid at ordinary
temperatures. It is rarely found na-
tive, and practically the whole of the
mercury of commerce is obtained from
its only important ore, sulphide of
mercury, or cinnabar. Formerly the
principal source of supply was Almaden
in Spain, and certain districts in Italy
and Austria, but now California has
the leading place in the export of the
ore. Cinnabar is a crystalline mineral
of a bright red colour, and when roasted
the sulphur burns away, the mercury
being left behind as vapour which is
condensed. When pure, mercury is
of a silvery brightness, which is
unaltered by exposure to the air. It
boils at 675° Fah., and freezes at -40°
Fah. Its specific gravity is 13-6. Its
uses in the laboratory and in the arts
are very numerous. Owing to its
affinity for other metals it is exten-
sively used in separating such metals
as gold and silver from their ores. One
of its amalgams, with tin, is used for
silvering glass mirrors, and another,
with copper or cadmium, is employed
in dentistry for stopping teeth. It is
also valuable in the construction of

I ©9

Mer]

world's commercial products.

[Mil

barometers, thermometers, and other
philosophical instruments. Mercury
is largely used in medicine, especially
is the form of ointments and plasters.
It is also the source of the pigment
vermilion. Chloride of mercury is a
valuable agent for the preservation of
anatomical specimens.

Merino. (Merinos, Ger. Merinoschaf,
Sp. Merino.)

The name of a choice breed of Span-
ish sheep, celebrated for their long fine
wool. The merino has, however, been
introduced into Australia and South
America, which now produce the chief
supplies of wool.

Methylated Spirit. (Fr. Esprit
pyroxylique, Ger. Methylalkohol, Sp.
Alcohol metilico.)

A mixture of strong alcohol with
about ten per cent, of impure wood
naphtha or methylic alcohol. The
addition of the wood naphtha, which
has a disagreeable odour and taste,
renders the liquid unfit for drinking,
though it does not interfere with its
application in many processes in arts
and manufactures. It is largely em-
ployed as a solvent in the preparation
of varnish, and it is useful for the
preservation of specimens in museums.

Mica. (Fr. Mica, Ger. Marienglas,
Glimmer, Sp. Espejuelo.)

The name of several minerals, made
up of silica, alumina, magnesia, and
potash, together with smaU quantities
of lime, the oxides of iron and mangan-
ese and soda. Ordinary mica, also
called muscovite, occurs in thin plates
of varying sizes in different parts of
the globe. It is found in Cornwall, in
Sweden and Norway, and in Siberia.
The plates are generally transparent,
and consequently mica is sometimes
used instead of glass for lanterns, and
also for the fronts of stoves, as it is not
liable to crack through sudden changes
of temperature.

Milk. (Fr.iart, Gei. Milch,S^.Leche.)

The opaque white fluid secretion
with which animals sustain their
young. The milk which enters into
commerce is the product of the cow.
Besides its daily use as a beverage and
for innumerable domestic purposes, it
is in vast demand for the manufacture
of butter and cheese. As milk in its
ordinary state quickly becomes sour,
a large trade in condensed milk has

grown up within very recent times.
It is prepared from the milk of the cow
sweetened with cane sugar. The whole
is then boiled until about five sixths
of the sweetened milk has evaporated,
and the residue is poured into tins
while it is hot and the tins are her-
metically sealed. Switzerland takes
a prominent place in the manufacture
and exportation of condensed milk.
Much, however, is made in Holland,
France, and North America.

Millboards. (Fr. Cartons, Ger. Papp-
deckel, dicke Pappen, Sp. Cartones.)

Strong flexible boards, so called
because they are milled under heavy
rollers to give them sohdity and a
smooth surface. They are manufac-
tured out of the waste of various
substances — old sacks, old rope, straw,
jute, cardboard, etc., which are reduced
to a pulp, though not treated so care-
fully as when paper is made. The
whole process is done by machinery.
Millboards are of various thicknesses,
and are used for binding books, making
trunks, and various miscellaneous
purposes. They were formerly em-
ployed for joining flanged pipes and
for other engineering work, but their
place has been taken by asbestos.

Millet. (Fr. Millet, Ger. Hirse, Sp.
Mijo.)

The small grained seed of various
cereals, the principal of which are the
Panicum and Setaria. These are na-
tives of the East Indies, but the com-
mon millet, Panicum miliaceum, is now
extensively cultivated in southern
Europe and the warmer parts of Africa
and America. The grain is exceed-
ingly nutritious, and is used as a food-
stuff in various countries. In Eng-
land, however, the seeds are only em-
ployed as a food for poultry and cage
birds, the small supplies required for
consumption being imported mainly
from Italy.

Millinery. (Fr. Modes, parures de
femme, Ger. Modewaren, Sp. Articulos
de moda.)

Light articles of dress, worn mainly
by women and children.

Millstones. (Fr. Pierres meulieres,
Ger. Miihlsteine, Sp. Piedras de molino. )

Circular rollers manufactured from
buhr stones, a hard silicate. The best
stone is obtained from the valley of the
Seine. The use of millstones has been

Mim]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Moi

almost entirely superseded by the intro-
duction of iron rollers.

Mimosa Bark. (Fr. icorce d' acacia,
Ger. Akazienrinde, Sp. Corteza de
acacia. )

The bark of different species of
acacia, found in Africa, Asia, and
Australia. The Australian mimosa is
the best known, and is commercially
useful for the tannin contained in the
bark. The tree itself 3delds gum in
very large quantities. The exports
of the bark from Adelaide have in-
creased very rapidly during the last
twenty years.

Mineral Oils.

(See Naphtha. Paraffin, Petroleum.)

Mineral Waters. (Fr. Eaux mini-
rales, Ger. Mineralwasser, Sp. Aguas
minerales.)

The natural waters supplied by
various springs in different parts of the
world. Some of these are bottled and
exported from the countries in which
they are found. The name is also
given to the numerous artificially pre-
pared aerated waters and effervescing
drinks, such as soda water, seltzer,
potash, lithia water, lemonade, ginger-
beer, ginger ale, etc. These are manu-
factured by impregnating the water
used with an excess of carbonic acid
gas or other gaseous substances.

Minium. (Fr. Minium, Ger. Men-
nig, Sp. Minio.)

The commercial name for red oxide
of lead. The oxide is chiefly found in
Germany, and our supplies are entirely
derived from that country.

Mink. (Fr. Vison, Ger. Mink,
Norz, Sp. Mink.)

A small carnivorous animal, a
species of weasel, valuable on account
of its fur. It is found in the northern
parts of America, Europe, and Asia.
The best furs are obtained from North
America, and of these about 100,000
are exported every year. The skin
of the Russian mink is smaller than that
of the American, and much inferior in
quality. The fur is used for cloaks,
muffs, and other articles of ladies' attire.

Mint. (Fr. Menthe, Ger. Krause-
minze, Sp. Menta crespa.)

The well-known genus of useful
herbs, of which there are many varie-
ties. The most important species are
Spearmint, Peppermint, and Penny
royal. The first of these is the her-

chiefly used for culinary purposes, and
has a very agreeable odour. Pepper-
mint resembles spearmint in appear-
ance, but has a pungent odour and taste
peculiar to itself. From it an essential
aromatic oil is obtained which is of
considerable medical value in gastric
complaints. The oil is also used for
flavouring lozenges. Pennyroyal also
contains an essential oil, which is used
when a milder remedy than pepper-
mint is required.

Mirbane. (Fr. Mirhane, Ger. Nitro-
benzol, Sp. Mirbane.)

An artificial oil of almonds. It is
a yellowish liquid, and is often pre-
pared by treating benzole, a bye pro-
duct of petroleum, with nitric acid.
The product is used in immense quan-
tities in the manufacture of soap.

Mohair. (Fr. Poil de chevre, Ger.
Mohairzeug, Haartuch, Sp. Tamiz,*pelo
de cabra.)

The commercial name for the long,
soft, curly hair of the Angora and other
Eastern goats, animals once peculiar
to Asia Minor, but now acclimatised in
Australia, South Africa, and California.
Mohair is white in colour and silky in
lustre. Imported into England mainly
from Australia and South Africa, it is
spun at Bradford and other towns of
the West Riding of Yorkshire.

Mohira Flowers.

The flowers of the Bassia latifolia,
an Indian plant. The flowers contain
much sugar, and are used as a food
and also distilled into spirit. Consi-
derable quantities of the dried flowers
have been recently imported into
Europe for the use of distillers.

Moire. (Fr. Moire, Ger. Gewas-
serter Seidensioff, Sp. Materia de seda. )

A term applied to silks figured by
a peculiar process known as watering.
The silk, which must be carefully se-
lected, is well damped and carefully
folded, so that the threads of the fabric
all lie in the same direction, and do
not cross each other, except in the
ordinary way of the web and the warp.
The folded material is then subjected
to enormous pressure. By means of
this pressure the air is expelled and the
moisture is drawn in waved lines.
These lines leave the permanent marks
known as waterrings. The watered
portions reflect the light and are then
displayed to advantage. The best

Mol]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCIS.

[Mun

kinds of moire are known as "moire
antique," as resembling the silks worn
in olden times.

Molasses. (Fr. Milasse, Gr. Melasse,
Sp. Melaza.)

The sweet syrup which drains from
raw sugar, used for making rum. (See
Sugar.)

Mora. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Mora.)

The valuable timber obtained from
the gigantic Mora excelsa, a tree of
British Guiana and Trinidad. The
timber is hard and close-grained, and
specially adapted for ship-building,
for which purpose it is largely ex-
ported from Demarara. The bark is
astringent and very suitable for
tanning.

Morocco Leather. (Fr. Maroquin,
Ger. Maroquin, Maroquinleder, Saffian,
Sp. Marroqui, Tafilete.)

The leather of goat skins tanned
with sumach, dyed, and grained.
Originally made in North Africa it is
now imitated in Europe, and made
from sheep skins.

Morphia. (Fr. Morphine, Ger, Reims
Morphin, Sp.Morfina.)

Also called morphine. It is the
most important alkaloid of opium,
and is obtained from opium by means
of calcium chloride and ammonia. It
forms small white crystals which are
slightly soluble in water. The chemical
symbol for morphia is C,, H,, NO3 Ha O.
The chief features of this alkaloid
are its bitter taste, its alkaline reac-
tion, and its narcotic poisonous pro-
perties. In medicine it is used as an
anodyne, and is prescribed to be
taken internally, or by h3rperdermic
injection. The hydrochlorate of mor-
phia is occasionally used in the manu-
facture of cough lozenges.

Mosaic Gold. (Fr. Or mosaique,
Ger. Musivgold, Sp. Oro de mosdico.)

An alloy of copper and zinc.

Moselle. (Fr. Vin de Moselle, Ger.
Moselwein, Sp. Vino de Mosela.)

The wine made from the grapes
grown in the valley of the Moselle, an
affluent of the Rhine. It is prepared
either still or sparkling. The still wine
in its natural state is mild, but a flavour
is added to it by the admixture of a
tincture of elder flowers. The spark-
ling wine, which is made chiefly at
Coblenz, is also flavoured in a similar
manner. The tincture not only gives

a flavour, but adds to the alcoholic
properties of the wine.

Mother of Pearl. (Fr. Nacre de
perle, Ger. Perlenmutter, Sp. Nacar.)

The brilliant internal layer of cer-
tain shells belonging to the oyster
family. Various kinds are obtained
from the Philippine Islands, the Sand-
wich Islands, Singapore, and Western
AustraUa. This substance is used for
inlajdng and for the manufacture of
knife handles, studs, buttons, and
other ornamental articles.

Mouldings. (Fr. Moulures, pan-
neaux, Ger. Simswerke, Sp. Molduras.)

The carved and plane borders or
edges for doors, panels, picture frames,
etc. The commoner kinds of mould-
ings are extensively made in Sweden,
and exported thence to the various
countries of Europe.

Mudar Bark. (Fr. tlcorce de mudar,
Ger. Mudarrinde, Sp. Corteza de mudar. )

The inner bark of the Calotropis
gigantea, an Indian shrub. The bark
yields a valuable fibre which is equal
to hemp in its strength, and the shrub
supphes a milky juice which hardens
into a substance resembling gutta
percha. Its powdered bark is used
medicinally as a substitute for ipe-
cacuanha in cases of dysentery.

Mulberry. (Fr. Mure, Ger. Maul-
heere, Sp. Mora.)

The fruit of the Morus alba and
Morus nigra, eaten in India both fresh
and dried. The leaves of the mulberry
tree form the main food of silkworms.
Another species of the tree is the Paper
Mulberry of China and Japan, from the
best of which a textile fabric and paper
are made.

Mum. {Ft.Biiredefromertt,muomme,
Ger. Mumme, Sp. Cerveza de trigo.)

A peculiar kind of beer made from
wheat meal. Some brewers add bean
meal and oatmeal to the wheat meal.
Though once brewed in England it is
now made exclusively in Germany.
The imports of mum from Germany
into England are not very consider-
able, averaging about 2,000 barrels
per annum.

Mundic. (Fr. Pyrite de fer, Ger.
Schwefelkies , Sp. Pirita de hierro.)

The name given in Cornwall to
iron pyrites, a compound of iron and
sulphur.

Mungo. (Fr. Dichets d'iloffe de laine.

Munj

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Mya

Ger. LumpenwoUe , Sp. Fragmentos de
lana.)

The waste produced in a woollen
mill from hard spun or felted cloth, or
from tearing up old clothes, and used
for the manufacture of cheap cloth or
shoddy. (See Shoddy.)

Muntz's Metal. (Fr. MHal de Muntz,
Ger. Milnzmetall, Sp. Metal de MunU.)

An alloy of copper and zinc, largely
used for sheathing ships' bottoms. The
compound is cheaper than copper and
equally serviceable for this particular
purpose. England exports consider-
able quantities of this metal.

Muscatels. (Fr. Raisins muscats,
vins muscats, Ger. Muskattrauhen,
Muskatweine, Sp. Moscateles, mos-
queruelas, vinos moscateles.)

A variety of white and black grapes,
extensively grown in the vineyards of
France, Italy, and Spain. The dried
grapes are exported as raisins for
dessert use. The name is also given
to certain strong sweet French and
Italian wines which are made from
the grapes. In the manufacture of
these wines the grapes are allowed to
dry before the syrupy juice is extracted
from them. Amongst the best known
of the French wines are the white
Rivesalteo and the red Bagnol from
Roussillon, and the yellow Frontignan,
so called from the town of the same
name, situated near Cette, on the
Mediterranean. Of the Italian wines
the Lacr3miae Christi of Naples is the
most celebrated.

Mushrooms. (Fr. Champignons,
Gr. Erdschwamme, Pilze, Triiffeln, Sp.
Criadillas.)

Edible fungi, a species of Agaricus.
They are valuable as a food delicacy.

Musk. (Fr. Muse, Ger. Moschus,
Sp. Almizcle.)

A strong perfume obtained from
the powder secreted in a pouch of the
abdomen of the male musk deer. The
musk pouch is cut from the animal
immediately after it is killed. The
powder is largely imported into Eng-
land from India and China, and is used
by perfumers. Artificial musk is also
obtained as a coal-tar product and is
manufactured in Germany.

Muslin. (Fr. Mousseline, Ger. Mus-
selin, Sp. Muselina.)

A fine cotton fabric, deriving its
name from Mosel, in Mesopotomia,

where it was first made. Some of the
finest muslins are made in India, but
Manchester and the surrounding dis-
trict supply various kinds of muslin
for all parts of the world. Figured
muslins of a special quality are made
at St. Quentin, in France.

Musquash. (Fr. Rat a muse, Ger.
Bisamratte, Sp. Raton almizclado de
las Antillas.)

A fur-bearing animal of North Ame-
rica — the Fiber zibethicus. The skins of
this animal are black or brown, and are
exported, though in declining numbers
from North America to England
and other European countries. The
fur is made into muffs, capes, caps,
etc., and is used as a good imitation of
beaver fur.

Mussels. (Fr. Moules, Ger. Mu-
scheln, Sp. Mariscos.)

A mollusc or shell-fish taken off the
coas';s of Great Britain, France, Hol-
land and the Atlantic seaboard of the
United States. In England and
France mussels are used as food and in
Scotland as a bait. To a certain
extent they are also used as a manure
in England and the United States.
Large supplies are sent annually from
Holland to England to meet the in
creasing demand.

Mustard. (Fr. Moutarde, Ger. Sen],
Sp. Mostaza.)

The name of several species of the
plant Sinapis, though there are three
only which contribute their seeds to
the manufacture of mustard — the
black, the white, and the wild. The
first has deep brown seeds, and the
seeds of the second are yellow. The
condiment is made from these seeds.
The black is used on the continent,
and is the most pungent. In England
the white is preferred, and the great
bulk of that which is required is
grown in the Eastern Counties. There
are, however, considerable imports from
India. The pungent properties of
mustard are due to an acrid volatile
oil, the action of which is similar to
the action of oil of bitter almonds.

Myall Wood. (Fr. Bois d' acacia, Ger.
Akazienholz, Sp. Madera de acacia.)

The fragrant violet scented wood of
several species of acacia which grow
in Australia. The wood is valuable
for the manufacture of pipes and whip
handles.

f— (1484)

113

Myr]

World's commercial products.

tNep

Myrobalans. (Fr. Myrobolans, Ger.
Myrobalanen, Sp. Mirabolanos.)

The fruit of the Terminalia chebula
and the Terminalia belerica, natives of
India. The fruit resembles a nutmeg,
and from it is extracted an oil which is
used as a hair restorer. The ground
nut is also employed in calico printing,
tanning, and the manufacture of ink.

Myrrh. (Fr. Myrrhe, Ger. Myrrhe,
Sp. Mirra.)

The gum-resin obtained from the
BaUamodendron myrrha, a tree growing
in Arabia and Abyssinia. The resin
exudes from the bark as light-coloured
drops. When exposed to the air the
drops harden and change in colour to
dark brown. It is composed of resin,
gum, and an essential oil with a small
quantity of mineral matter. It has
a smell resembling that of balsam, and
its taste is bitter. From the earliest
times m5rrrh has been used for burning
as incense, and it is still used for
religious purposes. Medicinally it is
now employed as a stimulating tonic,
and as an ingredient in the manu-
facture of dentifrices.

Myrtle Wax. (Fr. Cire de myrte,
Ger. Myrienwachs, Sp. Cera de mirto.)

A vegetable wax obtained from the
Myrica cerifera by boiUng the berries of
the tree. The wax is one of the
commercial products of South Africa
sind the western States of Aiiieiica.
It is used for the manufacture of
candles.

Nails. (Fr. Clous, Ger. Nagcl, Sp.
Clavos.)

Small metal spikes used as fasteners
by carpenters, joiners, and others.
They are now manufactured almost
entirely by machinery, and are made
of various metals. The centres of the
industry in England are Birmingham
and Dudley, and the nails made, in
addition to fulfilling the requirements
of domestic consumption, are exported
to India and the Colonies.

Nankeen. (Fr. and Ger., Nankin,
Sp. Nanguin.)

A cotton cloth made of buff coloured
or yellow calico, formerly exported by
China, but now manufactured in
Europe. The colour is produced
artificially by dyeing white calico with
a tanning solution.

Naphtha. (Fr. Naphte, Ger. Naph-
tha, Steinol, ErdSl, Sp. Nafta.)

The name once applied very widely
to liquid hydrocarbons exuding from
the ground, but now signifying the in-
flammable distillates of crude mineral
oils and coal-tar. Paraffin and petro-
leum are not now included in the list.
But the term does include the distil-
lates of india-rubber, bones, wood,
peat, etc. The forms of naphtha are
very different in their chemical
construction, but all are highly in-
flammable and exceedingly volatile.
Their uses in the arts are also widely
different, but it is mainly as solvents
that they are of commercial import-
ance. The use of one kind of naphtha,
viz. benzoUne, for small lamps has dis-
appeared owing to the cheap pro-
duction of paraffin.

Naples Yellow. (Fr. Jaune de Naples,
Ger.Neapelgelb,Sp.Amarillo de Ndpoles.)
This is the name of a valuable pig-
ment, yellow in colour, which is much
used in oil painting and enamel paint-
ing. It is likewise employed for enamel
colouring. The basis of the pigment
is antimony. It is a good substitute
for chrome yellow.

Natron. (Fr. Natron, sonde natu-
relle, Ger. Natron, natilrliche Soda, Sp.
Natron. )

The native sesquicarbonate of soda
obtained from the lakes of Egypt and
from the borders of the Caspian Sea.
It always contains sulphate of soda
and chloride of sodium. Supplies of
natron, which is also known as trona,
are also obtained from Virginia and
Venezuela.

Neat's Foot Oil. (Fr. Huile de
pattes de bceuf, Ger. Klauenfett, Kno-
chenol, Sp. Aceite de pie de vaca.)

An oil obtained by boiling down the
spUt feet of oxen, or by treating the
feet with superheated steam in a closed
cylinder. This product is exported very
largely from South America, and it is
used to a considerable extent for soften-
ing and dressing leather.

Needles. (Fr. Aiguilles, Ger. Na-
deln, Sp. Agujas.)

These well-known steel articles g,re
now made exclusively by machinery.
The centre of the manufacture in Eng-
land is at Redditch, near Birmingham.
Nephrite. (Fr. Nephrite, Ger. Ne-
phrit, Nierenstein, Sp. Nefritica.)

A mineral found in Turkestan and
Siberia. It consists of an anhydrous

114

Ner]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Nit

silicate of lime and magnesia, and is
very hard, tough, and translucent.
It varies in colour from dark green to
milky white. In China and Japan
nephrite is highly valued for orna-
mental purposes, and elaborate vases
are carved out of it. Quite recently
the mineral has been found in British
Columbia and New Zealand.

Neroli Oil. (Fr. Huile de neroli,
Ger. PomeranzenbliHenol, Sp. Esencia
de azahar.)

The commercial name for the
fragrant volatile oil obtained from
orange flowers by distillation. It is
one of the principal ingredients in the
manufacture of Eau de Cologne and
other perfumes.

New Zealand Hemp. (Fr. Chanvre
de la Nouvelle ZHande, Ger. Neusee-
land-Hanf, Sp. Canamo de la Nueva
Zelanda.)

The fibre obtained from the Phor-
mium tenax, the hemp plant of New
Zealand. It has recently become an
article of importance in commerce
owing to the advancing prices of
Manilla hemp. It is used for rope-
making in England and to some extent
in France.

Nicaragua Wood. (Fr. Bois de
Nicaragua, Ger. Niharaguahoh, Sp.
Madera de Nicaragua.)

The product of the Caesalpinia
echinata, a tree of Central America and
the tropical parts of South America.
It is used as a red and black dye. The
best wood is obtained from Peru. It
is also known as Peachwood.

Nickel. (Fr. Nickel, Ger. Nickel,
Sp. Niquel.)

A greyish white metal which was at
one time chiefly prized as being a
valuable alloy, but is now used
independently for many industrial
and domestic purposes. It is not
found native, and its most important
ore is Kupper-nickel (false copper), a
metal with a copper-like appearance,
and composed of nickel and arsenic.
This ore is fairly abundant in Germany,
Hungary, France, and the United
States. In the smelting of the
arsenical ore a product called " speiss' '
is first obtained, and from this the
ordinary metal is extracted. The
principal compound for which nickel
is used is German silver, composed of
50 parts of copper, 30 of zinc, and 20

of nickel. Tliis substance is in great
demand for making the base of silver
plated goods. Some of the salts are
used medicinally. Sulphate of nickel
is prescribed in cases of severe head-
ache.

Nitre. (Fr. Nitre, Ger. Salpeter, Sp.
Nitro, saliire.)

Also commonly known as nitrate of
potash and saltpetre. Its chemical
symbol is KNO3. Nitre is a white salt
occurring either in the form of
prismatic crystals or as a crystalline
powder. It is found naturally as an
incrustation on the surface of the soil
of tropical countries, especially in
Bengal and Oude ; and it is prepared
artificially by the action of nitric acid
upon potash. In France nitre is pre-
pared from animal refuse — hides,
entrails, etc. The animal matter,
mixed with lime rubbish and ashes, is
exposed to the air and kept moist with
stable drainage. The greater portion,
however, of the nitre of commerce is
made from Chilian nitrate of soda by
double decomposition. Nitre has a
cooling saline taste, and dissolves
readily in water. It contains a large
proportion of oxygen and burns very
readily and rapidly. It is a very
important ingredient in the manu-
facture of gunpowder, fireworks, etc.
It is also used in the preparation of
sulphuric and nitric acids. Medicin-
ally it is employed for numerous pur-
poses, especially in cases of rheumatism
and sore throat.

Cubic nitre, or nitrate of soda, is
sometimes known as Chili saltpetre.
Its chemical symbol is N^NOj. It
occurs as an incrustation of the soil in
Bolivia, Peru, and Chili, and derives
its name from the cube-Uke form of its
crystals. It is a white salt-like nitre,
and the properties of the two substances
are much the same. But cubic nitre
is unsuitable for the manufacture of
gunpowder. It is, however, of great
value as a manure.

Nitre, Sweet. (Fr. Alcool nitrique
Ahiri, Ger. Salpetergeist, Sp. Bspiritu
de nitro.)

A hquid having a smell of ether and
a sharp taste, prepared by distilling
alcohol with a mixture of nitric and
sulphuric acid and metallic copper.
In reality it is a liquid composed of
alcohol and nitrate of ethyl. It is a

"5

Nit]

World's coMMfiRctAL products.

[Oak

remedy often administered in cases of
colds, etc. , when it is desired to produce
or promote perspiration. Its chemical
symbol is C2H5NO2.

Nitric Acid. (Fr. Acide nitrique, Ger.
Salpetersdure, Sp. Acido niirico.)

A colourless liquid when pure, but
commercially a yellowish liquid, highly
corrosive, much used in the arts and
prepared by distilling nitrate of sodium
with sulphuric acid. Its chemical
symbol is HNO3. It is a powerful
oxidising agent and attacks nearly all
organic substances. It dissolves many
metals, and a mixture of hydrochloric
acid and nitric acid, known as aqua
regia, will dissolve gold and platinum.
The uses of nitric acid, both in chemical
processes and in the arts, are exceed-
ingly numerous, and medicinally it is
prescribed in a diluted form in con-
junction with bitter infusions for cases
of biliousness.

Nitro-Glycerine. (Fr. Nitro-glyce-
rine, Ger. Nitroglycerin, Sp. Nitro-
glicerina. )

The oily liquid prepared by dis-
solving glycerine in equal parts of
strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The
solution is poured into water and the
nitro-glycerine is precipitated. It is
a violent explosive compound, and
detonates when struck by a hammer.
When slowly heated it decomposes
quietly and bums without any explo-
sion. The danger connected with the
storage and conveyance of nitro-
glycerine caused its use to be checked
until the discovery of dynamite and
gun cotton. (See Dynamite, Giin-
cotton.)

Nitrous Ether.

(See Nitre, Sweet.)

Noyau. (Fr. Crime de noyau, Ger.
Nussliqueur, Sp. Noyau.)

Also called Crfeme de noyau. It is
a favourite liqueur of which there are
several varieties. It owes its
characteristic flavour to the presence
of a small proportion of the essential
oil of bitter almonds, or to the oil
derived from the kernel of the apricot
and the peach. Flavouring ingre-
dients are also added, and as in the case
of other liqueurs the whole preparation
is sweetened with fine sugar.

Nut-galls. (See Galls.)

Nutmeg. (Fr. Noix muscade, Ger.
Muskatmiss, Sp. Nuez moscada.)

The albuminous kernel of the seed
of the Myristica officinalis, a tree of the
Dutch East Indies. For many years the
Dutch had a monopoly of the supply
of nutmegs, and at the present day the
largest exports are from Java and other
Dutch Colonies. Nutmegs vary much
in size and shape, the most valuable
being those which are round and about
one ounce in weight. They have a nar-
cotic aroma and are used as a spice and
also as a stimulating medicine. From
the nutmeg kernel mace is obtained,
and from the nutmeg itself a solid oil
is expressed.

Nutria Skins. (Fr. Peaux de nutria,
Ger. Nutriafelle, Sp. Pieles de nutria.)

The name of the skins obtained from
a South American rodent, commonly
called the Coypu rat. Immense num-
bers are imported annually from the
Argentine RepubUc. The fur, when
unhaired, is a cheap substitute for
the skin of the beaver.

Nuts. (Fr. Noisettes, Ger. Niisse,
Sp. Nueces.)

The principal nuts of commerce are
noticed under separate headings.

Nux Vomica. (Fr. Noix vomique,
Ger. Brechnuss, Sp. Nuez vomica.)

The seeds of the Strychnos Nux
Vomica, a straggling tree of India,
Cochin China, and the East Indies.
The fruit of the tree is a large berry,
much like a small orange, and in it
the seeds are laid flat. Their taste, is
exceedingly bitter, and from them the
two alkaloids strychnine and brucine
are obtained. The seeds are mainly
exported from India, and their only
value is for the extraction of the
alkaloids which are used in medicine.

Oak. (Fr. Chene, Ger. Eiche, Sp.
Encina.)

The timber of several species of
Quercus. There are between 250 and
300 species of this tree growing widely
within the tropics and the temperate
zone. In England the principal of
these is the common oak. The timber
is remarkable for its strength and
durability, and as it is impervious to
water it is admirably adapted for
shipbuilding. Large supplies are now
obtained from foreign countries
especially America, where the tree in
greatest esteem is the white oak. The
bark is admirably adapted for tanning
purposes, and is the principal substance

116

Oak]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Oil

used by curriers in Great Britain. Oak
bark is also used medicinally a^ an
astringent. To supply the English
requirements large quantities of bark
are imported from Belgium.

Oakum. (Fr. ^toupe, Ger. Werg,
Sp. &stopa.)

A waste substance made from old
rope by untwisting the strands and
rubbing the fibres free from each other.
It is principally used for caulking the
seams of ships. The tearing of oakum
is one of the main occupations of
prisoners undergoing hard labour.

Oatmeal. (Fr. Gruau d'avoine, fa-
rine d'avoine, Ger. Hafermehl, Hafer-
griitze, Sp. Harina de avena.)

The flour obtained by grinding oats.
For the preparation of this substance
the oats are first kiln-dried. By the
process of milling the husks of the
grain are removed, and it is the subse-
quent grinding which leaves the whole
in the state in which oatmeal is found
as an article of commerce. Oatmeal
made into porridge or baked into cakes
was once the staple food of the Scotch.
It is highly nutritious, and contains
greater proportions of albuminoid or
nitrogenous matter than wheaten
flour, but less starch and water.

Oats. (Fr. Avoines, Ger. Hafer, Sp.
Avenas.)

The well known cereal Avena saliva.
There are more than 40 species of
avena, and these are widely distributed
over the temperate and cold regions of
the globe. The area of cultivation is
wider than that of wheat, and in the
United Kingdom oats are cultivated to
double the extent of wheat. Scotch-
grown oats are superior to EngHsh-
grown. The deficiency of the British
supplies is made up by imports from
northern Europe generally, and
especially from Russia. The grain
itself is principally used as a horse
food, but it is a valuable human food
stuff when ground into meal for the
purpose of making porridge and cakes.

Ochre. (Fr. Ocre, Ger. Ocher, Ocker,
Sp. Ocre.)

Compact earth or clay composed
chiefly of silica and alumina together
with the oxides of various metals.
The principal ochres are the yellow
and the red, the colouring matter of
the former being hydrated oxide of
iron, and that of the latter hydrated

sesquioxide. Another ochre, com-
monly known as amber, is coloured
by the presence of manganese in addi-
tion to the oxide of iron. Ochres are
used as painters' and artists' pigments,
and are remarkable for their stability,
as may be seen by the pictures of the
old masters. TJie natural product is
obtained in several English counties,
notably Somerset, Devonshire, and
Anglesea. There are also deposits of
considerable value in Holland and
France, those of Vierzon in the latter
country being much esteemed on
account of their rich yellow colour.
The imports are inconsiderable, the
home supply being nearly sufficient
for all ordinary demands.

Oil Cake. (Fr. Tourteau, Ger. 01-
kuchen, Sp. Torta de orujo.)

Cake left or made out of the solid
residue after the extraction of oil from
various seeds, the principal being those
of the linseed, the rape, the poppy, the
cotton, and the palm nut. The cake
possesses highly nutritious value as re-
taining a part of the oil and the whole
of the nitrogenous and essential con-
stituents. Oil cake is used principally
for feeding sheep and cattle. By means
of the ordinary presses about 90 per
cent, of the oil of the various seeds is
extracted, the cake thus retaining 10
per cent, of oil. If, however, the seeds
are treated with bisulphide of carbon
the whole of the oil may be drawn
away. The cake is then less valuable as
a feeder, but may be used as a manure.
Oil cake is produced^at home in large
quantities, but Great Britain is com-
pelled to import very largely '^to supply
her requirements.

Oil, Palm. (Fr. Palmier oleagineux,
Ger. Olpalme, Sp. Palmera oleaginosa.)

A tree belonging to the palm order,
of which the Guinea oil palm is the
most important as yielding the palm
oil of commerce. It is a low-grooving
species abounding in tropical West
Africa. The fruits from which the oil
is obtained are borne in dense heads,
and the seeds are enclosed in a hard
bone-like shell of a yellow colour. The
fruits are first boiled and then crushed
in mortars. They are then placed in
large vats filled with water, and the oil
is trodden out and comes to the surface.
After collecting and boiling to get rid
of some of the water the oil is ready for

.'■7

Oil]

world's commercial products.

[Oii

exportation. The best palm oil has
the consistence of butter, and is yellow
in colour. When fresh its smell is
exceedingy agreeable. In Africa the
natives used the substance for culinary
purposes. In Europe palm oil is
employed very extensively in the
manufacture of candles and soap, and
for greasing the axles of railway
carriage wheels. The export of palm
oil is perhaps the greatest of the West
African industries.

Oils. (Fr. Huiles, Ger. Ole, Sp. Oleos,
aceites. )

The name applied generally to all
fluid substances of whatever nature
which flow with a certain degree of
viscosity. They are divided into two
main groups, fixed oils and volatile or
essential oils. The latter are generally
obtained by distilling the leaves,
flowers, etc., of plants with water.
Their principal ingredients are hydro-
carbon closely allied to turpentine,
together with small quantities of
oxidised products and resins. They
are inflammable, leave a greasy mark
on paper, which is removed by warm-
ing, feel harsh when rubbed on the
skin, and may be distilled without
undergoing much change. Most essen-
tial oils have a powerful odour which
varies acocrding to the nature of the
plant from which it is obtained.
Among the principal oils of this class
are those of lemon, orange, juniper,
peppermint, and cloves. Fixed oils
cannot be distilled without undergoing
decomposition. They are inflammable,
leave a permanent stain on paper, and
have an oily feel when applied to the
skin. They are divided into the two
classes of animal and vegetable oils,
according to their origin. The former
are obtained from various animal fats
by pressure and heat or by allowing
the oil to drain away ; the latter are
obtained from seeds by powerful
pressure. Both classes consist largely
of glycerides, that is, compounds of
glycerine with stearic, palmitic, oleic,
and similar acids, and undergo saponi-
fication when treated with an alkali.
Another further division of fixed oils is
into thoseof dryingand non-drying oils.
The former become solid when exposed
to the air, the latter do not. Drying oils
are mainly used for mixing painters'
colours, the principal of these being

118

linseed, poppy, hemp, grape-seed,
honesty, castor, cotton seed, and
croton. The non-drying are employed
for the purposes of illuminating and
soap making, and the chief of these are
olive, almond, ben, laurel, rape, palm,
spurge, and candle-nut. The drying
of the drying oils is due to the absorp-
tion of oxygen, and the formation of
oxidised products. The other uses of
oils are very numerous, and many of
these are noticed under separate heads.

Oleomargarine.

(See Butter and Margarine.)

Oleo Oil. (Fr. OlHne, Ger. Oleinol,
Sp. Aceite de oleo.)

A compound of oleic acid and
glycerine, extracted from beef suet.
It is exported from the United States
in very large quantities, Holland and
Germany taking the greater portion.
In both countries the oil is used in the
manufacture of margarine.

Olibanum. (Fr. Oliban, Ger. Weih-
rauch, Weihrauchkorner, Sp. Olibano.)

The gum resin obtained from several
species of BoswelUa, especially the
Boswellia <^«W/e;'a, anativeof India, but
which is now also found in the south of
Arabia or in Somali Land. The resin
flows from incisions made in the bark
of the tree in the form of tears about
an inch long, and hardens on exposure
to the air. The pieces of olibanum
vary in colour from light yellow to
dark green, but some are colourless.
It is now used chiefly as a fumigant,
and as an incense in religious worship,
possessing a beautiful aromatic odour
when burned. It was much employed
at one time medicinally as an ingredient
in the manufacture of stimulating
plasters, but its use has become practi-
cally obsolete. The greater portion of
the trade in olibanum is done by Aden.

Olive. (Fr. Olive, Ger. Olbaum,
Olivenbaum, Sp. Oliva.)

A genus of trees or shrubs of which
there are about 30 species widely
distributed over the warmer temperate
regions of the globe. The common
olive, Olea europaa, is a native of Syria,
but it is found in all parts of Southern
Europe. The unripe fruit, is pickled
and consumed both in the countries
where the olive is found and abroad.
The best pickled oUves imported by
Great Britain are obtained from Genoa
and Marseilles, but good qualities are

Oni]

world's commercial products.

[Opo

sent out from Leghorn and Naples.
The wood of the olive is used by
cabinet makers. The most important
product of the olive is oUve oil. This
substance is the cream and butter of
Italy and Spain. The oil is contained
in the fleshy part of the fruit and is
extracted by pressure. There are
three qualities. For the first the fruit
is placed in woollen bags and a slight
pressure applied. The oil thus ob-
tained is the virgin olive oil, and is of
the finest quality. The remaining
pulp is moistened with water and by
repeating the pressure, though to a
greater extent, the second class of
olive oil is obtained. A third steeping
in water and a further pressure gives
the third class of oil. The first two are
useful and fit for domestic purposes,
the third only for manufacturing pro-
cesses. The best olive oil is obtained
in Tuscany, and Italy is the chief
exporting country.

Onions. (Fr. Oignons, Ger. Zwiebeln,
Sp. Cebollas.)

The well-known edible bulb, the
product of the Allium cepa, largely
cultivated in the United Kingdom, and
imported from Holland, Belgium,
Spain, Portugal, Malta, and Egjrpt.
The uses to which onions are applied
are very numerous. When young they
are made into salads, when mature
they are an important cuUnary article.
Smaller onions are pickled. The
Spanish and Portuguese varieties are
remarkable for their size and flavour,
and are in great demand. Welsh
onions never form a bulb, but are used
for making spring salads. The strong
taste and smell of onions are due to
the presence of a volatile oil rich in
sulphur, which is said to induce sleep.

Opal. (Fr. Opale, Ger. Opal, Sp.
Opalo.)

A precious stone, a modified form of
quartz. It consists mainly of silica,
but other constituents are present,
especially alumina and oxide of iron.
It has a vitreous lustre, inclining to the
resinous, but no crystalline structure.
Its colour varies from white to red,
green, or grey, but it is often darker ^
owing to the presence of certain
impurities. There are many varieties
of the opal, the finest kind being the
precious or oriental opal. This is semi-
transparent, and exhibits a beautiful

play of brilliant colours, commonly
knov/n as opalescence. In other
specimens the colour varies according
to the angle at which the light strikes
the mineral. Opals are used as
jewellery for setting in rings and
brooches. The finest stones are ob-
tained from Hungary, but precious
opals aire also found in Saxony, Queens-
land, and South America.

Opium. (Fr. Opium, Ger. Opium,
Mohnsaft, Sp. Opio.)

One of the most valuable medicinal
drugs. It consists of the dried juice
of the unripe heads of a species of white
poppy, the Papaver somniferum, grown
in Turkey, Persia, India, and China.
The cultivation of the poppy for the
sake of the opium is mainly carried on
in Bengal and Oude. It is exported
from India to Claina in enormous
quantities. Great Britain derives its
supply of opium to a large extent from
Persia and Turkey. In the former
country it is prepared at Ispahan,
Shiraz, and Yezd, that coming from
the last named town being considered
the best. To procure opium the unripe
capsules or poppy heads are scratched
with a peculiar kind of knife, and the
exuding juice is collected in earthen-
ware vessels on the day after the
incision has been made. The thick
Uquid is subjected to various kinds of
treatment and the opium is made up
into cakes or bulbs and left on racks to
dry. Much care is required both in the
manufacture and in the drying, and the
quality of the drug depends upon the
peculiar treatment it receives. The
best varieties of opium are soft dark
brown orreddish brown masses, possess-
ing a peculiarly disagreeable odour and
a persistent acrid taste. Its medicinal
value is owing to the fact of the
presence of so many different alkaloids,
the most important of wliich are mor-
phine, narcotine, codeine, narcine,
thebaine, and papaverine. Opium is
a valuable sedative and anodyne, and
a stimulant when taken in small quan-
tities. Its abuse may lead to grave
results. Laudanum is a tincture of
opium. It is composed of opium
dissolved in dilute alcohol.

Opodeldoc. (Fr. Baume opodeldooh,
Ger. Opodeldok, Sp. Linimento sapon-
ceo.)

Anotlier name for soap liniment, a

119

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[Orm

compound of hard soap, camphor, oil
of rosemary, rectified spirit, and dis-
tilled water. It is sometimes used as
an embrocation in cases of external
injuries. Arnica opodeldoc is prepared
from white soap, rectified spirits,
camphor, and tincture of arnica.

Opopanax. (Fr. Opopanax, Ger.
Opopanax, Panaxgummi, Sp. Opopo-
naco. )

A gum resin obtained from the
Opopanax chironium, a species of
parsnip found in Southern Europe and
also in Persia. It is an opaque
substance found in tears and has a
balsamic odour resembling that of
myrrh. It is sometimes used medicin-
ally as an antispasmodic. What Uttle
of opopanax comes to England is
imported from Persia.

Opossum. (Fr. Opossum, sarigue,
Ger. Opossum, Sp. Didelfo.)

A pouch-bearing animal found in
various parts of America, from the
United States to the Argentine
Republic. The animal is hunted for
the sake of its fur. Opossum skins
are imported in great quantities, over
one million being sold at a single sale in
London some years ago. The skins are
generally made into chest protectors.
Another industry in which they are
employed is glove making.

Orange. (Fr. Orange, Ger. Orange,
Apfelsine, Sp. Naranja.)

The edible fruit of a species of citrus,
much prized for its delicacy and whole-
some quaUties. The common orange
tree is an evergreen and bears white
flowers. It is extensively cultivated
in Southern Europe, and in every other
part of the world where the climate is
suitable. Two well-known varieties of
the common orange are the St. Mi-
chael's, with thin yellow rind and sweet
seedless pulp, and the Malta or blood,
with the pulp streaked with crimson.
Other varieties are the Mandarin,
introduced from China, the fruit small
and flattened, the Bergamot, globose or
pear-shaped, and the bitter or Seville.
The last named are grown in large
orchards in Spain, not only for the sake
of their fruit, but also for the flowers
from which the essential oil of oranges,
used for making Eau de Cologne, is ob-
tained. The rind of the Seville oranges
is used for the manufacture of candied
peel, and for the best marmalade.

Orange essences are often used medi-
cinally as an addition to infusions
and decoctions. In England an orange
wine is made which contains about 12
per cent, of alcohol and some free acid.
The supplies required by Great Britain
are derived from the various Mediterra-
nean countries and from the United
States.

Orchids. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Or-
chis.)

A very large family of curious plants,
of which some thousands of varieties
are known, mostly indigenous to
tropical regions. The rare specimens
command exceedingly high prices, and
a very large trade is done by collectors
and growers.

Orchil, (See Archil.)

Ores. (Fr. Minerais, Ger. Erze, Sp.
Quijos.)

The crude mineral sources of metals,
or the natural form in which they are
found, and from which they are ex-
tracted by various processes of smelt-
ing, etc. To constitute the substance
an ore, the mineral must not only
contain the metal, but must contain it
in such a form that the process of
extraction can be carried out with
profit. Thus iron pyrites are not used
as an iron ore owing to the difficulty
of obtaining the iron separate from
the sulphur. The most important
ores are oxides, in the case of iron,
copper, and tin ; sulphides, in the case
of lead, zinc, and antimony ; and car-
bonates in the case of iron, zinc, and
lead. The principal ores of the chief
metals are noticed under separate
headings, together with their characterT
istics and places of origin.

Organzine. (Fr. Organsin, Ger, Or-
gansin, Sp. Organsino.)

A variety of thrown silk. When
reel threads of silk are twisted they are
called "singles," but when two or more
of these singles are twisted together in
contrary directions the result is known
as organzine.

Ormolu. (Fr. Ormolu, Ger. Maler-
gold, Sp. Ore molido.)

The name of a mixture of copper and
zinc, which is made to resemble gold in
colour. The meaning of the word is
beaten gold. The yellow colour is
sometimes increased by the addition
of a Uttle sulphuric acid. Ormolu is
used for casting into ornaments.

Orp]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Ova

Orpiment. (Fr. Orpiment, Ger.)
Operment, Rauschgelb, Sp. Oropimenio.)

A sulphide of arsenic, a brilliant
yellow pigment, known as king's
yellow. The finest qualities are
derived from Persia, where it occurs
in its natural state as a mineral. Arti-
ficial orpiment is made by heating a
mixture of wliite arsenic and sulphur.

Orris Root. (Fr. Racine d'iris, Ger.
Veilchenwurzel, Sp. Rais de violeta.)

The root of the Iris florentina, a
plant extensively grown in Tuscany.
At one time it was used medicinally
as a stimulant, but its chief use at the
present day is in perfumery. The
dried root is ground into a powder, and
when mixed with wheat starch forms
the violet powder of commerce. It
has the pleasant smell of violets, and
is employed in scenting hair and tooth
powders. It is also used for flavouring
liqueurs. The whole supply of orris
root is obtained from Leghorn.

Osiers. (Fr. Osiers, Ger. Korbwei-
den, Sp. Mimbyes.)

The twigs or shoots of a species of
willow used for basket making and
wicker-work. The common osier,
Salix viminalis, is found in Britain and
many parts of Europe. It is estimated
that nearly 10,000 acres are devoted
to the cultivation of the osier in this
country, but the demands of Great
Britain have to be met by large import-
ations from Holland, Belgium, and
France. After the osiers are cut they
must be carefully stacked and kept dry
and cool, otherwise they are Uable to
rot and to become worthless for manu-
facturing purposes.

Osmium. (Fr. and Ger., Osmium,
Sp. Osmio.)

A very rare metal, always found
associated with platinum and al-
loyed with other metals, especially
iridium. It is the most infusible of all
metals, and is the heaviest substance
known, its specific gravity being 22'5.
It forms a poisonous volatile oxide of
irritating odour, an aqueous solution of
which rapidly hardens animal tissues.
For this reason the oxide is used in
the preparation of such tissues for
microscopical examination.

Osnaburg.

A species of coarse linen fabric or
kind of canvas, manufactured for
negro clothing. Its name is derived

from the fact that it was originally
manufactured at Osnaburg, in Ger-
many.

Ostrich Feathers. (Fr. Plumes d'au-
truche, Ger. Straussfedern, Sp. Plumas
de avestruz.)

The long plumes of the ostrich,
which have been valued for centuries
for ornamental purposes. They are
obtained from the wing and the tail,
each wing giving about 25 good
feathers and the tail about a dozen.
They are divided into many classes in
commerce according to their colour
and length, and the prices vary to a
considerable extent. The principal
supplies are obtained from South
Africa where the ostrich is domesti-
cated for the sake of the feathers.
Efforts have been made, with some
success, to extend the farming to
Algiers, Egjrpt, West Africa, Australia,
and California. The American ostrich,
however, is of a genus totally distinct
from the African ostrich.

Oswego Corn. (Fr. Farine de mats,
Ger. Maismehl, Sp. Harina de maiz.)

The flour made from Indian corn,
the manufacture of which is carried
on at Oswego, a town of the United
States, situated on Lake Ontario.

Otter Skins. (Fr. Peaux de loutre,
Ger. Otterfelh, Sp. Pieles de vibora.)

The skins of two distinct animals,
the land otter and the sea otter. More
than 10,000 of these skins are annually
imported into Great Britain from North
America, those of the sea otter being
among the choicest furs of commerce.
They are used for the manufacture of
mufis, gloves, and trimmings.

Otto of Roses, (Fr. Huile (essence)
de rose, Ger. Roseiiol, Sp. Aceite rosado.)

Also called Attar of roses. It is a
volatile oil obtained by distilUng the
flowers of the cabbage and damask
roses. It is a colourless or Ught
yellow solid at temperatures below
80° F. Otto of roses is used for making
preparations for the hair and for
various perfumes. The suppUes of
this substance are obtained from the
East, the cultivation of roses for its
preparation being carried on in Rou-
melia, Syria, Persia, and India ; and
the perfume itself, which is very costly,
is exported in small vials.

Ova. (Fi\ Frai, Ger. Laich, Ro^en,
Sp. Freza.)

li?l

Oxa]

world's commercial products.

[Pap

The proper meaning of this word is
eggs, but it is generally applied to the
spawn .of fish. In the endeavours to
introduce and acclimatise food fishes
into various parts of the world, large
quantities of ova of salmon and other
fish are sent out and form no incon-
siderable article of commerce. Salmon
spawn is sent chiefly to Australia and
New Zealand.

Oxalic Acid. (Fr. Acide oxalique,
Ger. Oxalsaure, Sauerkleesiiure, Sp.
Acido oxalico.)

An extremely poisonous acid, the
salts of which occur abundantly in the
vegetable kingdom. It is produced by
the oxidation of many organic com-
pounds, but its manufacture is con-
ducted on a large scale by oxidising
saw-dust with a mixture of the
hydrates of potash and soda, the
mixture being in the proportion of one
to two. Another mode of preparation
is the oxidation of starch or sugar by
nitric acid. Its chemical symbol is
H,QO + 2H^O. Oxalic acid is em-
ployed to a considerable extent in
cotton printing, straw bleaching, etc.

Ox Tongues. (Fr. Langues de boeuf,
Ger. Ochsenzungen, Sp. Lenguas de
buey.)

The tongues of oxen prepared and
tinned in South America. Enormous
quantities are shipped annually from
Uruguay, the most prized being
obtained from Paysandu.

Oysters. (Fr. Huitres, Ger. Austern,
Sp. Ostras.)

The well-known edible mollusc, that
most used for culinary purposes being
the common oyster. Naturally oysters
are found on banks several fathoms
deep, and the spawning takes place in
the early summer. The spawn, known
as spats, is extensively collected and
transferred to artificial grounds in very
shallow water. The oysters thus
cultivated are called natives. The
chief home supply is obtained from
Colchester, where oysters have been a
staple product for centuries. Large
quantities, however, are imported
from France, Holland, and the United
States, the trade ■\vith the last named
country having developed with great
rapidity. The pearl oyster belongs to
a genus totally different from that of
the common oyster.

Ozokerit. (Fr. Ozokirite, cire tnin&ale,

Ger. Ozokerit, Erdwachs, Sp. Ozo-
kerita, cera mineral.)

A kind of earth-wax or solid paraffin
found naturally in Galicia and Molda-
via. The best kind is green or yellow
in colour and transparent, the inferior
being dark brown and almost opaque.
It is soft in character and can be easily
kneaded in the hand. Pure ozokerit
has a high melting point and excellent
illuminating power. It is in conse-
quence much employed for the manu-
facture of candles.

Palisander Wood. (Fr. Palissandre,
Ger. Palisanderholz, Sp. Palisandro.)

The timber oiseveral Brazilian trees,
especially the Dalbergia nigra, used for
making furniture. The name is some-
times given to rosewood, striped ebony,
and violet wood.

Palladium. (Fr. and Ger., Palladium,
Sp. Paladio.)

One of the noble metals, resembling
platinum in many respects, and
generally associated in its ores with
platinum. It is white and hard, and
does not tarnish when exposed to the
atmosphere. For these reasons it is
especially suitable for the construction
of philosophical instruments, but its
cost is too great to allow of its common
use. Palladium is sometimes used for
the construction of small weights, and
in commerce it is met with as foil or
wire.

Palm Oil.

(See Oil Palm.)

Panama Hats. (Fr. Chapeaux de
Panama, Ger. Panamahiite, Sp. Som-
breros de Panama.)

Light straw hats, made from the
finely plaited leaves of the Carludorica
palmata, a screw pine tree of South
and Central America. These hats are
much prized in the tropics on account
of their lightness, durability, and
flexibility. They are not spoiled by
rain, the freshness of their colour being
easily reproduced by the application
of soap and water. The plaiting of
the straw is a very tedious and difficult
process, and consequently good
Panama hats are sold at high prices.
The principal supplies are obtained
from Ecuador and Colombia in South
America. There is now an extensive
trade done in imitation Panama hats.
Paper. (Fr. Papier, Ger. Papier, Sp.
Papel.)

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[Par

At one time, paper was manu-
factured from the papyrus, (whence
its name,) or from the paper mulberry.
Now it can be made from numerous
vegetable substances, but those avail-
able in Europe at a reasonably low
price are few in number, the principal
being linen, rags, esparto grass, coarse
straw, wood pulp, and elephant grass,
the last-named being derived from
Uganda. The vegetable fibres used are
first treated chemically to get them as
clean as possible, and then beaten to
pulp under water to obtain consist-
ency in the material. As the quality
of the paper to be made depends upon
the careful preparation of the pulp,
this process is one of the utmost im-
portance. The manufacture of all
kinds of paper is now carried out by
machinery. The pulp is deposited in
a vat whence it flows to a band of wire
gauze which is kept in constant motion.
The water in the pulp drains away
during the process, and the pulp itself is
dried by passing through sheets of felt
and heated rollers. The paper comes out
at the end of the machine opposite to
that in which the pulp is introduced in
one continuous sheet of great length.
Coloured paper is made by colouring
matter being added to the pulp before
leaving the vat. The weight and
body of paper are increased by the
addition of various mineral substances,
notably plaster of Paris. Blotting
paper has a certain amount of wool in
its constitution.

Papier-ni4che. (Fr. Papier-mdche,
Gee. PapiermachS, Pappe, Sp. Papier-
tndchi.)

The hard, light, and durable sub-
stance prepared by compressing paper
pulp into moulds in various forms, or
by pasting sheets of paper together
and subjecting them to high pressure.
It is much used for making small boxes,
cabinets, trays, etc., and for the
architectural decoration of interior
walls and roofs. Unless intended for
architectural ornament, papier-mach6
is generally varnished or japanned,
gilded, and inlaid. The inlaying is
often done with mother-of-pearl shell.
The trade is an important Birmingham
industry, and imitations of the lacquer
work of Japan and China are largely
produced. A special papier mdchfi is
that known as ceramic, a soft substance

which can be easily worked into any
required form. It is a mixture com-
posed of paper-pulp, resin, glue, drying
oil, and sugar of lead.

Paraffin. (Fr. Paraffine, Ger. Pa-
raffin, Sp. Parafma.)

Paraffins are a series of hydro-
carbons, occurring as fases, liquids, or
soUds, according to the proportion of
carbon present in them. They are pre-
pared by the destructive distillation of
bituminous shale, or as a bye-product in
the manufacture of coal gas. The shale
is broken into small pieces and heated
in retorts, when inflammable gases, oil,
and water distil over. The oil is col-
lected and subjected to a second distil-
lation, from which the paraffin oil of
commerce is obtained. The heavier
oil obtained is used for lubricating
purposes. The residue on this second
distillation is solid paraffin, and when
purified forms the paraffin wax of
commerce. Solid paraffin is an odour-
less and tasteless substance, nearly as
hard as beeswax, melting at a tempera-
ture of 100° to 140° Fahr. Its principal
use is for making candles, a certain
amount of stearin being added to the
paraffin. It is also used in the manu-
facture of Inciter matches as a substi-
tute for sulphur, and it can be utilised
as a substitute for wax in modelling
flowers and fruits. The natural oils
of America and Russia, sometimes
included under paraffins, are more
commonly known as petroleum.

Paraguay Tea. (See Mate.)

Parchment. (Fr. Parchemin, Ger.
Pergament, Sp. Pergamino.)

The prepared skins of various
animals, used for the purpose of writing
upon, especially by lawyers for deeds.
Ordinary parchment is made from the
skins of sheep and goats_; vellum, a
fine variety of parchment, from the
skins of young calves, kids, or lambs.
A parchment used by bookbinders is
prepared from pigskin. The parch-
ment used for drums is made from
asses' skins. The preparation of this
substance resembles that of leather in
its early stages. The hair and ad-
hering pieces of flesh are carefully
removecl from the skins, which are
then stretched tightly over a frame.
The skins are variously treated with
special tools, and afterwards rubbed
with lime and pumice stone. Still

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[Pea

stretched they are allowed to dry, and
any roughness is removed during the
drying process by fresh scraping and
rubbing. A curious substance known
as vegetable parchment is prepared
by dipping ordinary paper into a
mixture of sulphuric acid and water,
and removing the acid after a few
seconds' immersion. The paper under-
goes a remarkable change, and be-
comes about five times as strong as
ordinary paper. It is not so useful as
true parchment, but its strength
renders it a valuable material for
tracing designs, plans, etc.

Parsley. (Fr. Persil, Ger. Petersilie,
Sp. Perejil.)

The well-known culinary herb,
found in most parts of Europe. A
peculiar variety, with white carrot-like
roots, is imported into England from
Hamburg. Parsley is well adapted
for giving flavour to soups and stews.

Parsnip. (Fr. Panais, Ger. Pasti-
nake, Sp. Pastinaca.)

A genus of plant of the same natural
order as parsley, cultivated on account
of its root, which is, like the carrot, a
palatable and nutritious vegetable.
In colour it is white. The parsnip is
grown in all parts of Europe, and in
the north of Asia. Besides being used
as a vegetable, a fermented liquor is
made from it in Ireland, and in
England parsnip wine is manufactured
from it. A spirit similar to potato
spirit can be extracted from the root.

Partridge Wood. (Fr. Bois de per-
drix, Ger. Rebhuhnholz, Sp. Madera de
perdiz.)

The trade name for various kinds of
wood imported into Europe from
South America and the West Indies,
having a red colour, and streaked in
the same manner as the partridge.
One of the most valued of the trees
from which the timber is obtained is
the Andira inermis. The wood is used
by cabinet makers, and it is likewise
employed for making walking sticks,
parasol handles, and similar fancy
articles.

Patchouli. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Patchouli.)

A substance used as a perfume,
prepared from the dried branches of a
species of Pogostemon, a native of the
East Indies, and grown also in India
and Ceylon. The odour of patchouli

is very powerful and resembles that
of sandalwood. The perfume has been
known in England for rather more
than half a century, but previous to
that time it was used for imparting a
scent-like smell to Cashmere shawls.
In India it is used as an ingredient
in the manufacture of fancy tobaccos,
and also for a hair perfume. Before
use in Europe it is greatly diluted.

Peach. (Fr. Peche, Ger. Pfirsiche,
Sp. Alb^rchigo, abridor.)

The velvety edible fruit of a species
of trees belonging to the same genus
as the almond, of the natural order
Rosaceae. The growth of peaches is
widespread throughout the temperate
regions of the world, and the fruit is
much prized as a peculiar delicacy.
There are no less than 200 varieties of
the fruit. One of the divisions of
peaches is into clingstones and free-
stones, according as the pulp clings to
or is easily detached from the stone.
The cultivation is most extensive in the
United States, whence peaches are
exported both fresh and tinned. The
flowers and the leaves of the peach tree
have the smell of bitter almonds, and
a preparation known as peach water is
prepared by distilling the bruised
leaves. The smooth variety of the
peach is called nectarine. The wood
of the peach tree is sometimes used
by turners and cabinet makers, and
is valued for its compactness and
smoothness.

Pear. (Fr. Poire, Ger. Birne, Sp.
Pera.)

The well-known fruit of the Pyrus
communis, a tree widely distributed
through Europe and Asia. It is
extensively cultivated in England,
especially in some of the western coun-
ties, where there are extensive orchards
devoted to the purpose. Besides its.
common use as a dessert fruit, the pear
is the source of perry. (See Perry.)

Pearl. (Fr. Perle, Ger. Perle, Sp.
Perla.)

The substance formed by several
shell-bearing molluscs, which are pro-
vided with a secretion with which they
line their shells. The secretion is laid
in thin semi-transparent films, and
gives rise, by reason of the arrange-
ment, to a beautiful iridescence. The
pearls of commerce, which consist of
rounded secretions of g, substance

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world's COtlMERCtAL PRODUCTS.

[Pet

called nacre, are the result of accident.
The nucleus of the pearl is a grain of
sand or other particle of solid matter
which becomes coated over with the
nacreous secretion. The principal
source from which pearls are obtained
is the pearl oyster. The chief fisheries
are off Ceylon, but others exist in the
Persian Gulf, the West Indies, and
Australia. Pearls are of various
colours, white, black, and pink, and
their value depends upon their size
and purity. Excellent imitations are
manufactured for necklaces and
decorative purposes, the French being
very clever in this peculiar industry.
(See Mother of Pearl.)

Pemmican. (Fr. Pemmican, Ger.
Pemmikan, Sp. Pemmican.)

A preparation consisting mainly of
animal food compressed into the
smallest possible space. It was
originally used by the North American
Indians exclusively, but was after-
wards introduced into the British Navy
for the purpose of supplying an easily
preserved food for those who were to
take part in Arctic expeditions. The
Indians made use of the lean parts of
venison, which was first dried, after-
wards pounded into paste, and then
tightly pressed into cakes. In other
cases lean beef is mainly used, with the
addition of various ingredients for the
sake of flavouring. The preparation
will remain unimpaired for a very long
period of time.

Pennytoyal. (Fr. PouUot, Ger. Polei-
minze, Sp. Poleo.)

A species of mint, Mentha pulegium,
distinguished from other varieties by
the size of its leaves. It is found in
most countries of Europe and Western
Asia. It is much used as a flavouring
condiment by the poorer classes of the
community, and an essential oil is ob-
tained from its leaves which is largely
used in medicine.

Pepper. (Fr. Poivre, Ger. Pfeffer,
Sp. Pimienta.)

The fruit of various plants of the
natural order Piperaceae. The princi-
pal of these plants is the common or
black pepper which is cultivated in
most tropical countries. The fruit or
com, which is about the size of a pea,
is gathered when red. It is dried in
the sun, and then becomes the black
pepper of commerce. White pepper

is the same fruit freed from its outer
covering by being soaked in water, and
afterwards rubbed. This so-called
white pepper is of a whitish grey
colour, and is often bleached with
chlorine. Pepper is a well-known
condiment and possesses pungent,
acrid, and aromatic properties. The
black is more pungent than the white,
as the essential qualities of the fruit
are found more plentifully in the outer
parts of the corn than in the seed.
The best black pepper is obtained from
the Malabar coast, and the finest
qualities of white pepper are derived
from Penang. The name pepper is
given to various substances which have
a pungency similar to pepper, though
derived from different plants, such as
cayenne, pimento, and Malaguetta
pepper.

Peppermint. (Fr. Menthe poivrde,
Ger. Pfefferminze, Pfefferminzkraut,
Sp. Menta piperita, yerba buena.)

The aromatic plant, Mentha piperita.-
It is largely cultivated in England in
the counties of Surrey, Cambridge, and
Lincoln. The aromatic oil is derived
from its leaves when in a dried state.
There are, however, considerable im-
ports from Japan and the United
States. (See Mint.)

Pepsine. (Fr. Pepsine, Ger. Pepsin,
Sp. Pepsine.)

An albuminous substance, one of the
principal constituents of gastric juice.
It is a medicinal food digestive, pre-
pared from the walls of the stomach
of calves, sheep, and pigs, that derived
from the pig being considered the best.
Its chemical constitution is not accu-
rately known. Pepsine appears in
commerce in the form of an essence,
powder, or wine, and it is an important
element in all preparations which are
manufactured to aid digestion.

Perfumes. (Fr. Parfums, Ger. Par-
fiime, Sp. Perfumes.)

The principal perfumes are noticed
under separate headings.

Perry. (Fr. Poire, Ger. Birnmoit,
Sp. Bebida de peras.)

A fermented liquor made from pears
in exactly the same manner as cider
is prepared from apples. When bot-
tled it makes a very good imitation
champagne, containing from 5 to 9
per cent, of alcohol. The chief coun-
ties in which the business of perry

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world's commercial products.

[Pho

making is carried on in England are
Worcester, Gloucester, Hereford, and
Devonshire.

Persian Berries. (Fr. Grains pcr-
sans, Ger. Persiscke Gelbbeeren, Sp.
Granos persianos.)

Tlie product of a Persian tree
Rhannus cotharticus. Tliey are of a
yellow colour and are used as a dye
in calico printing.

Persian Powder. (Fr. Poudre per-
sane, Ger. Persisches Pulver, Sp.
Polvos persos.)

The powdered flowers of the Pyre-
thrum carneum and the Pyreihrum
roseum, wild plants growing in Persia
and the Caucasus. The powder is
useful as an insect destroyer.

Persimmon. (Fr. Dattier de Virgi-
nie, Ger. Virginiendaitel, Sp. Datil de
Virginia. )

The Virginian date plum, a tree
which attains a height of 50 or 60 feet,
and produces hard and elastic wood.
Its fruit is the same as that of the
ordinary date plum, and its bark is
used medicinally as a febrifuge, and in
cases of diarrhoea and cholera. (See
Hate Plum.)

Peru Balsam. (Fr. Baume de P^rou,
Ger. Perubalsam, Sp. Balsamo de Peru.)

The exudation of several species of
trees, especially the Toluifera, found
in South America. It is odoriferous
and has the colour and consistence of
dark molasses. The exudation when
collected is put into boiling water and
the balsam floats on the surface. It
is skimmed off and boiled again so as
to purify it. Peru Balsam is often
used in the manufacture of confec-
tionery, and medicinally it is valuable
in cases of throat irritation. (See
Balsam.)

Peruvian Bark.

(See Cinchona.)

Petroleum. (Fr. Petrole, Ger. Pe-
troleum, Bergol, Sp. Petroleo.)

Also called rock oil. It is a thick
oil consisting mainly of a mixture of
paraffins, defines, and hydrocarbons
of the benzene series. It is found
chiefly in the United States, Canada,
and Russia, the most celebrated springs
in the last named country being at
Baku. It oozes from the ground in
natural springs, though additional
supplie- are obtained by boring and
pumping. Petroleum is supposed to

be the result of the natural distillation
of coal and shale taking place beneath
the surface of the earth. When it is
obtained in its natural condition it is
unfit for use, but is subjected to frac-
tional distillation. The products thus
derived are of three different kinds.
The first consists of light oils, such as
benzoUne, wliich are liighly inflamma-
ble and dangerous as illuminants.
The second, or refined petroleum, are
the illuminating oils, especially the
paraffin oil of commerce. The third
are the heavy oils used as lubricants.
Petroleum has been and is still used to
a certain extent as a fuel for steam
boilers. The bye products obtained
from petroleum are extremely numer-
ous, including lampblack, dyes, car-
bolic acid, aniline, saccharine, oil of
mirbane, vaseUne, etc.

Pewter. (Fr. Etain, Ger. Hartzinn,
Schilsselzinn, Sp. Peltre.)

A common and useful alloy used
for the manufacture of jugs, pots,
plates, etc. It is composed of tin and
antimony, with the addition of either
copper or lead, the former giving the
better result. The best pewter, how-
ever, is an alloy of tin, antimony,
copper, and bismuth. It has a silvery
white appearance, and when well made
will not easily tarnish.

Phenacetin. (Fr. Phlnacitine, Ger.
and Sp., Phenacetin.)

This is a drug which is made from
carbolic acid. It is medicinally
valuable in cases of fever. It is
also used, like antipj?rin, for giving
relief from headaches, insomnia, and
nervousness.

Phenol.

(See Carbolic Acid.)

Phormium. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Phormium. )

A plant of New Zealand, formerly
known as New Zealand flax, but now
classed as hemp. The fibre is ex-
ported, and in Scotland it is manufac-
tured into sacking, sheeting, towelling
and table-cloths. The ropes made
from the fibre are not of great strength,
as they snap when knotted.

Phosphates. (See Manure.)

Phosphorus. (Fr. Phosphore, Ger.
Phosphor, Sp. Fosforo.)

One of the non-metaUic elements.
At ordinary, temperatures it is a
faintly yellcfw substance, with the

126

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[Pim

appearance and consistence of wax.
Its specific gravity is 1'83. It fuses
at 111° Fah., and takes fire at 140° Fah.
Owing to the low temperature at wliicli
it catches fire and also to the serious
nature of bums caused by it, great
care is required in the handling of this
substance. Phosphorus does not occur
free in nature, but it is found in almost
all animal and vegetable tissues. It
is generally prepared by treating burnt
bones with concentrated sulphuric
acid. Superphosphate of calcium and
an insoluble sulphate of calcium are
produced. The former is separated,
evaporated to a syrup, mixed with
charcoal, again evaporated to a dry
mass and heated in an earthen retort.
The phosphorus distils over as a
vapour, and is condensed in water.
When further purified it is made into
sticks. Phosphorus is of much che-
mical value, and enters into numerous
compounds. It is invaluable in the
composition of many artificial manures
and also of various medicines. Its
most important industrial use is in the
manufacture of lucifer matches.

Physic Nut.

A shrub of tropical America and also
of the East Indies, called Curcas
purgans, which yields seeds of con-
siderable medical value. These seeds
contain an acrid fixed oil which has
many of the properties of castor oil,
and which forms a substitute for it. In
America the oil is used for lamps and
also for dressing cloth. The East
Indian variety is used by the Chinese
for the preparation of a varnish, which
is obtained by boiling the oil with
oxide of iron.

Piassava. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Pias-
sava. )

Also called Piassaba and Piacaba.
The name of the vegetable fibre of two
species of palm found in Brazil. The
fibre is obtained from the stalks of the
fan-hke leaves of the palm and ex-
ported in large bundles from Bahia
and Para. It is used for the manu-
facture of coarse brooms and brushes
and also for street sweeping machines.
In Brazil it is employed in the manu-
facture of an inferior kind of rope.

Pickles. (Fr. Conserves au vinaigre,
Ger. Pokel, sauer Eingemachtes, Sp.
Salmueras.)

Various fruits, vegetables, and spices

specially prepared in different coun-
tries for home consumption and also
for export. The most important of
these are noticed under separate
headings.

Picric Acid. (Fr. Acide picrigue,
Ger. Pikrinsaure, Sp. Acido picrico.)

An acid met with in yellow crystals
obtained by the action of nitric acid
on equal parts of carbolic and con-
centrated sulphuric acid. Its che-
mical symbol is C6H,(N02) OH. It
is largely prepared in France and is
used as a yellow dye for silk, wool, and
leather.

Pigskin. (Fr. Cuir de cochon, Ger.
Schweinsleder, Sp. Cuero de puerco.)

The tanned skins of pigs are much
used for saddlery, book-binding, port-
manteau coverings, etc. They are also
used in the manufacture of certain
kinds of boots and leggings, and more
recently they have been applied to
dressing bags and to coverings for
furniture. Besides those obtained at
home there are large imports from the
pig centres of America.

Pilchard. (Fr. Sardine, Ger. Sar-
delle, Pilchard, Sp. Sardina.)

A fish of the herring family, abun-
dant off the coasts of Devonshire and
Cornwall, and ofi the south-west coasts
of Ireland. The fish is prepared on a
large scale in Cornwall, as sardines are
prepared in France, and from 15,000
to 20,000 hogsheads are annually ex-
ported from that county for Mediterr-
anean countries. The French sardine
belongs to the same family as the
pilchard, but is smaller.

Pimento. (Fr. Piment, Ger. Piment,
Nelkenpfeffer, Sp. Pimienta de Jam&ica. )

The well known spice, the dried
aromatic berries of the Eugenia
Pimenia. The tree is cultivated in
many of the West India Islands, but
the supply of pimento comes almost
exclusively from Jamaica, hence its
alternative name, Jamaica pepper.
The fruit is gathered when the berries
are green, and dried in the sun. The
colour then becomes brown. Each
berry is about the size of a pea and
contains two dark brown seeds. Pi-
mento has a peculiar taste and smell,
resembling that of a mixture of cinna-
mon, nutmeg, and cloves. For this
reason the name allspice has been given
to it. In cookery and confectionery it

127

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WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Pit

is largely used, and it is also prescribed
to a certain extent medicinally, though
mainly for the sake of giving flavour
to other drugs.

Pine. (Fr. Pin, Ger. Fichte, Tanne,
Sp. Pino.)

A most important genus of trees
belonging to the natural order of
Conifer ae. There are over 100 species
of this tree, and they abound in the
temperate and cold regions of Europe,
Asia, and America. The only species
indigenous to Britain is that erro-
neously known as the Scotch fir.
Besides its value as a timber tree, the
pine is valuable economically for the
tar, pitch, resin, and turpentine ob-
tained from its branches.

Pineapple. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Ananas.)

A much valued and delicious tro-
pical fruit, the product of the Ananassa
sativa. Large quantities are exported
from the Bahamas and the Azores.
Owing to the fact that hot-house pine-
apples are considered better than those
of the West Indies, the English foreign
supply is derived almost exclusively
from the Azores. West Indian pines
are sent to the United States where an
immense trade is carried on in canning
the fruit. Pineapples are also imported
from South Africa.

Pins. (Fr. £pingles, Ger. Steck-
nadeln, Sp. Alfileres.)

These wire fasteners, which are in
universal demand, are now made
exclusively by machinery. Their man-
ufacture is a characteristic industry
of Birmingham, though to a less extent
they are made in London, Warrington,
and Dublin. In the United States the
pin-making centre is Connecticut.

Pipeclay. (Fr. Terre a pipe, Ger.
Pfeifenerde, Pfeifenton, Sp. Arcilla
blanca.)

A variety of fine white plastic clay,
free from colouring impurities, used in
the manufacture of tobacco pipes and
certain classes of fine pottery. It
resembles kaolin but contains a larger
percentage of siUca. Pipeclay is found
in Devonshire, Dorsetshire, and Corn-
wall. It is of domestic utility for
whitening leather belts and similar
articles.

Pippins. (Fr. Reinettes, Ger. Re-
netten, Sp. Esperiegas.)

The name given to certain varieties

of apples, of which the best known
varieties are Ribston, Golden, and
Newtown, all grown in America. Pip-
pins is the name likewise applied to
apples that have been dried in the sun,
pressed, and stored for winter use. The
Normandy pippins are a well-known
example of these.

Pistachio Nuts. (Fr. Pistaches, pis-
iaches casees, Ger. Pistazien, Sp.
Alfonsigos.)

The fruit of the Pistacia vera, a
small tree of southern Europe, used,
like almonds, as a dessert fruit and in
confectionery. From the nuts an oil
is expressed which is employed in fla-
vouring wines and cordials in Greece.
The galls collected from the tree are
used in dyeing and tanning. The
commerce in these nuts and their pro-
ducts is small, and confined to Greece.

Pita. (Fr. Pite, Ger. Pitahanf, Sp.
Pita.)

A hempen fibre obtained from a
species of Bromelia, a plant of Central
America alUed to the pineapple. The
plant itself is sometimes known as silk
grass. At present it is not easy to
prepare, but it is supposed that pita
will become a most valuable article of
commerce if suitable machinery can
be devised for separating the fibre from
the plant.

Pitch. (Fr. Poix, Ger. Pech, Sp. Pez.)

The black, brittle, glossy solid ob-
tained from the distillation of wood or
coal tar, in which process the volatile
oils are driven off. A softer pitch is
obtained from bone tar and stearine
residues, and this is the pitch valued
by varnish and tarpaulin makers. The
name pitch is given to natural asphalt,
to bitumen, and also to the product
of the natural lakes of Tnnidad.
Wood tar pitch is much used for coat-
ing ironwork to prevent oxidation,
and for coating timber to protect it
from the weather and the attacks of
insects. That obtained from coal tar
is employed in the manufacture of
artificial fuel, such as briquettes.
Russia and France are the chief pitch
producing countries, and England
imports largely from both. Burgundy
pitch is the resinous exudation of a
pine tree, Abies excelsa, and is used
medicinally. in the preparation of sti-
mulating plasters, and also as an
irritant.

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[Pod

Pitchblende. (Fr. Urane oxyduU,
Ger. Pechhtende, Sp. 6xido de urano.)

A brownish or velvety-black mineral
of slight lustre, sometimes found in
silver or lead ores. It is largely com-
posed of protoxide of uranium, and
dissolves, when powdered, in nitric
acid. Its main use in the arts is for
painting on porcelain. Radium is found
in pitchblende, though in very small
quantities.

Plantain. (Fr. Plantain, Ger. We-
gerich, Pisang, Sp. Bananas.)

The fruit of a plant, Musa paradisiaca
which belongs to the same genus as the
banana. The tree is a native of the
East Indies, but its cultivation is
widely spread in tropical America.
Unlike the banana the plantain re-
quires cooking before it can be eaten.
The imports into Great Britain are very
small, as the fruit has never been held
in great esteem except in warm climates.

Plaster of Paris. (Fr. Pldire de
Paris, Ger. Steinmortel, gebrannter Gips,
Sp. Argamasa hecha de cal.)

A soft white powder, originally
found in the basin of the Seine, near
Paris. It can be prepared artificially
from sulphate of lime by reducing the
sulphate to an anhydrous state by
calcination. It is extensively used
for taking casts, and for various build-
ing purposes, especially internal deco-
ration. It is also employed in the
manufacture of cements and imita-
tion marble.

Plate Glass. (Fr. Glace, Ger. Spie-
gelglas, Sp. Vidrio ftno, cristal.)

Chiefly imported into this country
from Belgium. (See Glass.)

Plate Powder. (Fr. Poudre a polir,
Ger. Pvtzpulver, Sp. Polvos.)

The ordinary plate powder is com-
posed of a mixture of rouge, which
consists of a fine oxide of iron, and
prepared chalk. It is used for giving a
poUsh to gold and silver plate or plated
articles. Another kind of powder,
consisting of one part of mercury
and twelve parts of chalk, is frequently
employed on account of the brilUant
appearance it lends to plate, especially
silver plate. This latter compound,
however, is injurious, as it rapidly wears
away the silver surfaces of the articles
to which it is applied.

Platinum. (Fr. Platine, Ger. Platin,
Sp. Platina.)

q-(l484)

One of the so-called noble metals,
greyish white in appearance, and
generally associated in its ore with
various other metals, such as iridium,
osmium, palladium, rhodium, and
ruthenium. The ores are now mainly
obtained from the Ural Mountains,
and the metal is obtained by treating
the ore successively with nitric and
hydrochloric acids to dissolve out the
foreign substances present. With the
exception of osmium, platinum is the
heaviest substance known, its specific
gravity being 22'48. It is not affected
by exposure to the atmosphere and,
Uke gold, it does not dissolve except
in a solution of aqua regia. In addi-
tion it is hard and ductile, and these
various properties render it of great
value in the manufacture of chemical
and electrical apparatus. It is also
used for tipping gold pens, and for
making fine wire which is capable of
supporting heavy weights. Latterly
platinum has been applied with great
success to certain processes in
photography, and as the supply of
the metal is somewhat limited its
price has increased at an extraordinary
rate.

Plum. (Fr. Prune, Ger. Pflaume,
Sp. Cintela.)

The well-known fruit of various
species of Prunus, valuable as a dessert
fruit, as a preserve, and also in its dried
state. In addition to the plums grown
at home England imports very large
quantities from France, where many
fine varieties of the plum tree have
been cultivated, notably the Orleans,
the damson, and the greengage. Elvas
are imported from Portugal, and
Carlsbad plums from Germany are
frequently met with in the EngUsli
market. The wood of the plum-tree is
fine-grained and rather hard. It is
useful for making musical instruments,
and it is likewise employed by cabinet
makers.

Plumbago. (See Blachlead.)

Podophyllin. (Fr. PodophylUne, Ger.
Podophyllin, Sp. PodophylUne.)

The resinous extract obtained from
the root-stock of the Podophyllum,
or May apple, a tree which is common
in the shady woods of the United
States and Canada. It is of consider-
able value medicinally in cases of liver
complaint, but on account of its

129

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[Pot

powerful action it is rarely prescribed
except when combined with other
medicines.

Pomegranate. (Fr. Grenade, Ger.
Granatapfel, Sp. Granada.)

The orange-like fruit of a plant,
Punica granatum, cultivated in the
warmer temperate parts of Europe,
Asia, and Africa. The pulp is sweet
and cooUng, but the fruit has never
become popular in Great Britain, and
the small demand is suppUed by
Portugal. The rind contains a certain
amount of tannin, and is employed for
tanning some of the finest kinds of
leather.

Poplin. (Fr. Popeline, Ger. Poplin,
Sp. Popelins, populina.)

A mixed fabric, used for making
ladies' dresses, consisting of a warp
of silk and a weft of worsted, the latter
being thicker than the former. Some-
times flax or cotton is used instead of
worsted. This difference in thickness
gives a corded appearance to the sub-
stance. The manufacture of poplins
was introduced into Ireland by the
French Huguenots, and the Irish
poplins of Dublin are still much es-
teemed in the market. Poplins are
made at Manchester in England, and
at Lyons in France.

Poppy. (Fr. Pavot, Ger. Mahn, Sp.
Adormidera.)

A genus of milky-juiced herbs, of
which there are nearly twenty species,
distributed through Europe, Asia,
Africa, and AustraHa. The most im-
portant is the Papaver somniferum, or
opium poppy, Irom which opium is
derived. (See Opium.) In India the
seeds are used as a, condiment, and a
bland valuable oil is also extracted from
them. This oil is of a pale golden
colour and serves as a fine oil for
painters' colours, besides being used
in the adulteration of medicinal and
culinary oils in general.

Porcelain. (Fr. Porcelaine, Ger.
Porzellan, Sp. Porcelana.)

The finest kind of china ware, made
from kaolin, of a pure white colour
and having a certain amount of trans-
lucency. (See Pottery.)

Porcupine Quills. (Fr., Piquants de
pore-epics, Ger. Igelstacheln, Sp. Puas
del puerco espin.)

The thickened hair or spines of the
porcupine, a species of rodent of

southern Europe and northern Africa.
These spines are exported from the
Gold Coast, and are used for pen-
holders and fancy work.

Pork. (Fr. Pore, Ger. Schweine-
Peisch, Sp. Tocino, came de puerco.)

The flesh of the pig, consisting ot
those parts which are not smoked and
known as ham and bacon. In a
pickled state it is exported in vast
quantifies from the great centres of the
pig trade of the United States — nota-
bly Chicago. Fresh pork is imported
into Great Britain from Holland and
Belgium.

Porpoise. (Fr. Marsouin, Ger. Meer-
schwein, Sp. Marsopa.)

The name of a species of marine
animal of the whale genus. The
common porpoise is very common off
the coasts of Britain and is captured
for the sake of the oil supplied by its
blubber, and for its skin which makes a
strong and valuable leather, used for
the covering of carriages and other
similar purposes.

Port. (Fr. Porto, Ger. Portwein,
Sp. Vino de Oporto.)

A red wine produced in Portugal,
and largely exported from Oporto and
Lisbon. It takes some years to attain
perfection, but after a certain period
it deteriorates in quality. The newly-
made wine varies in colour from pale
rose to deep red, but after a time it
becomes a deep tawny brown. It is
not infrequently adulterated and co-
loured in order to give it the appear-
ance required by the exporters. The
most common adulterating agent is
jeropiga, a mixture of elderberries,
molasses, raisin-juice, and brandy.

Porter. (Fr. Porter, Ger. Braun-
bier, Sp. Cerveza roja.)

A dark-coloured Uquor, made in the
same manner as beer, but from an
inferior kind of malt. The colour is
heightened by the addition of liquorice
and caramel.

Potash. (Fr. Potasse, Ger. Pot-
tasche, Kali, Sp. Poiasa.)

Impure carbonate of potassiuln ob-
tained from the ashes of plants. Wood
is frequently used for its preparation,
and the ashes are boiled down until the
water has evaporated. The residue
is a dirty white solid. On further
heating, so as to burn off the organic
matter which gives the dirty colouring,

130

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world's commercial products.

[Pru

a whiter product is obtained and this is
known as pearl ash. Further puri-
fication gives refined pearl-ash. Both
potashes and pearl ash are used to
remove grease stains from fabrics, and
for the manufacture of caustic potash.
Large supplies of this substance are
drawn from the United States and
Canada. The salts of potassium,
called potashes, are extremely numer-
ous, and are used medicinally for various
purposes.

Potash Water. (Fr. Eau de potasse,
Ger. Kaliwasser, Sp. Agua potasea.)

An aerated water, often wrongly
called a mineral water, which is im-
pregnated with bicarbonate of potash
before receiving the charge of carbonic
acid gas.

Potassium. (Fr. Potassium, Ger.
Kalium, Sp. Potasio.)

One of the alkaline metals. It is
of a bluish white colour, has a strong
metallic lustre, and when heated burns
with a blue flame. Its specific gravity
is 'SSS, and when thrown upon water
it floats and abstracts the oxygen from
the water, while the liberated hydro-
gen takes fire. It does not occur in its
native state, and it is usually prepared
by distilUng a mixture of carbonate
of potash and charcoal in an iron re-
tort. The carbonate is obtained by
burning plants in dry pits, dissolving
the ashes in water, and evaporating
the whole until the foreign matters,
sulphates, chlorides, etc., separate in
crystals, and then boiling the mother
liquid to dryness in iron pots. Various
preparations made from potassium are
noticed under separate headings.

Potato. (Fr. Pomme de terre, Ger.
KaHoffel, Sp. Pataia.)

One of the most familiar and impor-
tant of vegetables, the edible root of
the plant Solatium tuberosum. The
only valuable part of the plant is its
tubers. Introduced from America, the
potato has been successfully cultivated
in most parts of the world, and so
valuable are the nutritive properties
possessed by the tubers that new
kinds ardbeing continually introduced.
At the present time there are no less
than 500 varieties in existence. In
addition to its domestic use, the potato
is largely employed as a food for cattle.
Its starch can be separated from the
potato with ease, by grating and

washing, and this substance is prepared
on a very large scale. It is chiefly used
in textile factories under the name of
farina, which is converted into dex-
trine. In Holland and in Russia large
quantities of the starch are converted
into sugar, and in various European
countries it is passed off as a substi-
tute for arrowroot. A spirit is also
obtained from the potato and made into
potato brandy. The British imports
fluctuate enormously, the quantity
depending upon the home supply.

Pottery. (Fr. Poterie, Ger. Steinzeug,
irdeneWare, Sp.Vidrtado, vasijerla.)

A name which includes all vessels
made from earthy materials, especially
clay, for use or for ornament. The
varieties of pottery are very numerous
according to the nature of the mate-
rials used, the pecuUarities of orna-
mentation, the method of glazing, etc.
Roughly speaking, however, a general
division may be made between hard
and soft ware, the former including
hard porcelain, European porcelain,
biscuit porcelain and stoneware, and
the latter delft, majolica, common
earthenware, and terra cotta. The
clays used vary greatly in fineness and
purity of colour, some, like kaolin, are
fire-resisting, while others, like pot-
ter's clay, are easily fusible owing to
the presence of lime, oxide of iron, and
other similar fluxes. The method of
treatment of the clay and the general
process of manufacture are noticed
elsewhere.

Powder. (See Gunpowder.)

Precious Stones. (Fr. Pierres pre-
cieuses, Ger. Edelsteine, Sp. Piedras
preciosas. )

These are noticed under separate
headings.

Printing Ink. (Fr. Encre d'impri-
meur, Ger. Druckerschwdrze , Sp. Tinta
de impresor.)

The thick composition made chiefly
of lampblack and linseed oil varnish,
and used by printers for inking type.

(See Ink.)

Prunelloes. (Fr. Pnmelles, Ger.
Prunellen, Sp. Prunellas.)

The name of small plums imported
from France and Austria.

Prunes. (Fr. Pruneaux, Ger. Getrock-
nete Pflaumen, Sp. Ciruelas pasas.)

The dried fruit of the Julian variety
of the common plum. The fruit is dried

131

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WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Put

either artificially or by simple exposure
to the sun. Nearly the whole of
the prunes of commerce are obtained
from various districts of France, the
major portion being grown chiefly in
the Bordeaux district. After the
JuUan variety, the Brignoles, the
Catherines, and the prunes d'Eute and
Robe Sergent are the best known.
From the orchards of the Loire the
Tours prunes are obtained, and from
Lorraine the variety called Quelche.
Small suppUes are drawn from Ger-
many, Bosnia, and Servia. In addition
to their use as dessert and for domestic
purposes, prunes are of value medicin-
ally and enter into the compound
known as confection of senna.

Prussian Blue. (Fr. Bleu de Prusse,
Get. Berlinerblau, Sp. Azul de Prusia.)
A deep blue chemical precipitate
useful for dyeing and also for tinting
writing paper. It is sometimes used
by laundresses. It is prepared by
adding yellow prussiate of potash to a
solution of green vitriol, and oxidising
the substance formed.

Prussic Acid. (Fr. Acide prussique,
acide hydrocyanique, Ger. Blausaure,
Cyanwasserstoffsdure, Sp. Acido priiico.)
The popular name for hydrocyanic
acid. It is a compound of hydrogen,
carbon, and nitrogen which combine
directly, and its chemical symbol is
HCN. It is usually met with in the
form of a weak solution in water.
Prussic acid is intensely poisonous, and
has an almond flavour. It is used to
some extent medicinally, but great
care is required in its employment.

Pulse. (Fr. Legume, Ger. Htilsen-
frucht, Sp. Legumbres.)

The collective name for the seeds of
leguminous plants. Peas and beans
are the most common and important,
and after them come kidney beans,
lentils, chick-peas, etc.

Pulu. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Pulu.)
A brown silky substance, consisting
of fine hairs, obtained from the lower
portion of the stalks of the Ciboiium
glaucum and other species of tree ferns
found in the Sandwich Islands. It
has great powers of absorption and is
used on the continent as a styptic. It
is also employed for stuffing pillows
and furniture.

Pumice Stone. (Fr, Ponce, pierre-
ponce, Ger. Bimsiein, Sp. PiedrapSmez.)

A species of fibrous froth-like lava.
Its composition varies, but it is largely
composed of silica and alumina. Owing
to its porous nature pumice floats upon
water. The main supplies are ob-
tained from the Lipari Islands, in the
Mediterranean, and the colour of the
stone is white or grey. A brown or
black variety is exported in small
quantities from the Canary Isles.
Pumice stone is a hard but brittle
rock. It is used for pohshing wood,
metal, glass, marble, Uthographic
stones, etc., and in preparing parch-
ment and vellum.

Pumpkin. (Fr. Citrouille, courge,
Ger. Kiirbis, Sp. Calabaza.)

A plant of the cucumber family, im-
portant on account of its edible fruit.
It is cultivated in all temperate parts
of the world. The fruit sometimes
attains great dimensions, and besides
forming a common food for man it is
also used as a cattle food. The seed
yields an essential oil.

Purpurine. (Fr. Purpurine, Ger.
Purpurm, Sp. Purpurina.)

One of the chief colouring matters
obtained from the madder root. It is
prepared by boiling madder in a strong
solution of alum and then treating it
with sulphuric acid. The red pre-
cipitate is afterwards dissolved in
alcohol, and the purpurin crystalUses
in red needles.

Purree. (Fr. Jaune des Indes, Ger.
Puree, Sp. Purree.)

This is a yellow dye used principally
in' India. It is obtained from the urine
of cattle which have been fed on mango
leaves.

Putchuk. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Put-
ckuk, pachac.)

The root of the Aucklandia Costus,
which has an odour resembUng that
of the orris root. The plant is found
on the mountain slopes of Cashmere
and exported from Bombay, mainly to
China. The root is used as an incense
both in India and China.

Putty. (Fr. Potee, mastic, Ger.
Kitt, Sp. Cimento.)

A plastic mixture composed of fine
dry whiting or powdered chalk and
linseed oil. The addition of a small
quantity of white lead improves its
quality. Putty is used mainly by
glaziers as a cement for fixing glass
window panes, and by painters in

132

Put]

world's commercial products.

[Qui

filling small holes and preparing ir-
regular surfaces for their wprk. Putty
is coloured by various pigments, such
as ochre or lampblack. Plasterers'
putty is composed of fine slaked white
lime and water, the mixture being
kneaded into a paste.

Putty-powder. (Fr. Potee d'^tain,
chaux d'Main, Ger. Zinnasche, Sp. Cal
de estano.)

The dioxide of tin, prepared from
the powdered oxide which forms on the
surface of melted tin. Its chemical
symbol is SnOa. This powder is used
for polishing stone and glass and for
giving an opague colour to the latter.
It is also employed for making white
enamel.

Pyrites. (Fr. Pyriie, Ger. Feuer-
stein, Schwefelkies, Sp. Piritas.)

The name given to the crude ores of
certain metals combined with sulphur
or arsenic. The most common are
iron pyrites, a bronze-coloured ore,
occurring in all parts of the world, the
source of the manufacture of sulphuric
acid and sulphate of iron. Copper
pyrites is a brassy coloured mineral,
extensively worked in Cornwall and
Devonshire, in England, in Sweden,
and in Germany. It is the chief source
of copper. Tin pyrites is the steel
grey mineral composed of tin, copper,
and iron. It is somewhat rarely found
in Cornwall. Others of importance
are cobaltite and nickeUte.

Pyroligneous Acid. (Ft. Acide pyro-
figneux, Ger. Holzsdure, Schwefelessig,
Sp. Vinagredemadera,dcido pirolignico.)

A crude commercial form of acetic
acid and sometimes known as wood
vinegar. It is produced by the
destructive distillation of wood, but
requires to be freed from its many
impurities before it is of any value.
It is mainly employed in the manufac-
ture of acetates and by dyers and calico
printers. When very pure it may be
substituted for vinegar in pickling.

In the manufacture of p3rroligneous
acid, by the destructive distillation ol
wood, a compound is obtained called
pyroxyUc spirit, or wood naphtha. It is
mainly composed of methylic alcohol,
and resembles alcohol in many of its
properties. It is a useful solvent of
resins and oils, and is valuable in the
manufacture of varnishes, as well
as in the preparation of cheap |

«33

perfumes. Its name of wood naphtha
IS derived from the fact of its naphtha-
like smell.

Pyroxylin. (See Gun Cotton.)

Quartz. (Fr. Quartz. Ger. Quarz, Sp.
Cuarzo.)

The general name for all minerals
composed of silica. When pure it is
colourless, but in most cases it is found
of various colours owing to the pre-
sence of foreign matter. Three types
of quartz are recognised, and of each
of these there are very numerous sub-
divisions.

Quassia. (Fr. Quassie, Ger. Quassia,
Bitterholz, Sp. Casia, cana fistnla.)

The bitter wood derived from the
Jamaica ash, a spreading tree of con-
siderable height, found in the West
Indies. An infusion of the wood is
much used in medicine as a powerful
tonic and in cases of dyspepsia. A
wood of the same bitter character is the
Surinam quassia, but it is rarely met
with and not often dealt in.

Quebracho. (Fr. Bois de quebracho,
Ger. Quebracoholz, Sp. Madera de que-
bracho.)

A wood derived from the Aspidosr
perma quebracho, a tree of the Argentine
Republic. Its bark is valuable for its
tannin and also for its medicinal pro-
perties, acting upon the system in the
same manner as quinine.

Queen'sMetal. {Fr.AlHage d lareinc,
Ger. Konigin-Metall, Sp. Metal de la
reina.)

An alloy intermediate in hardness
between pewter and Britannia metal.
It is composed of tin, antimony, lead,
and bismuth, one part of each of the last
three to nine parts of the first. Its use
is confined to the manufacture of the
cheapest kind of spoons, jugs, pots, etc.

Quercitron. (Fr. icorce de quer-
citron, Ger. Querzitronholz, Sp. Corteza
de quercitron.)

The bark of the Quercus tinctoria, a
species of American oak, useful for
tanning leather and also for the yellow
dye which it yields. The bark is
exported from the United States to
Europe in considerable quantities.
The timber of the tree is strong and
durable, and it is sometimes used in
shipbuilding.

Quicksilver. (See Mercury.)
Quills. (Fr. Tubes de plumes, Ger.

Qui]

world's commercial products.

[Rai

Federposen, Federhiele, Sp, Canones de
plumas. )

The modification oi the hair of some
animals, especially of the porcupine
family, and the large feathers of cer-
tain birds, such as the swan, goose, and
turkey. They are in considerable
demand for penholders, tubes for
artists' brushes, toothpicks, etc. Goose
quills are obtained from the Baltic
provinces of Russia, from Holland, and
from Germany.

Quince. (Fr. Going, Ger. Quitte, Sp.
Memhrillo.)

The yellow pear-shaped fruit of a
small tree, the Cydonia vulgaris, of the
natural order Rosaceae, found in many
parts of southern Europe. It is edible
when preserved with sugar, and makes
an excellent kind of marmalade, the best
variety for tlois purpose being the quince
obtained from Portugal. A wine re-
sembling cider or perry is made from it,
and the seeds afford an emollient which
is used for certain hair preparations.

Quinine. (Fr. Quinine, Ger. Chinin,
Sp. Quinina. )

The alkaloid obtained from the
cinchona bark whose chemical symbol
is C3oH24Nj,023H20. It is obtained
from the powdered bark by treating
it with Ume and then extracting the
mixture with alcohol. Efforts, as
yet unsuccessful, have been made to
prepare quinine artificially. Quinine
itself is not used as a medicine, but
some of its salts are, the most important
being sulphate of quinine, and that is
the substance which is popularly
known as quinine. It is a powerful
tonic, and the most useful and best
known remedy in cases of malarial
fever. (See Cinchona.)

Rabannas. (Fr. Rabane, Ger. Matte
aus Palmblatt-fasern, Sp. Rabannas.)

A species of matting made from the
fibre of the Raphia rufea, a small plant
of Madagascar. It is almost confined,
commercially, to the exports from
Madagascar to Mauritius.

Rabbits. (Fr. Lapins, Ger. Kanin-
cken, Sp. Conejos.)

The well known rodent, found abun-
dantly in Britain and in the north-west
and centre of Europe. Besides the
supplies obtained at home there are
large quantities imported into Great
Britain from Belgium. In Australia
and New Zealand the rabbits have

become- a pest, and strenuous efforts
have been made to reduce their num-
bers. In addition to their value as
food, rabbits are commercially im-
portant on account of their sldns, the
hair of wliich is well adapted for felting
purposes. The sldns are chiefly used
in the manufacture of felt hats and
imitation furs. This trade is an
extensive and growing one in England,
and there is a large market for the
imitation furs in the United States.
Rachat-lukumia.

A Turkish sweetmeat. It is com-
posed of sugar and starch and is soft
in character.

Racoon, (Fr. Raton laveur, Ger.
Waschbdr, Schupp, Sp. Coati.)

A species of small bear, which is
found only in the United States and
Canada. Its skin, which is of a greyish
colour, is highly valued as a fur, and
is exported from North America. The
animal is becoming very rare and the
supply of skins is therefore somewhat
restricted.

Radish. (Fr. Radis, rave, Ger.
Radies, Rettig, Sp. Rabanillo.)

The well-known root eaten alone
or made up into a salad. There are
at least six distinct species of radish,
but two forms are well marked, one
having a long carrot-like root, and the
other a round turnip-like root. It is
grown in all parts of Europe and Asia.
The oil radish is cultivated in China,
and from its root an oil is expressed.
Raffia Fibre. (See Rabannas.)
Rags. (Fr. Lambeaux, chiffons, Ger.
Lumpen, Sp. Trapos viejos.)

The remains of woollen and cotton
clothing after they have served the
purposes for which they were originally
made. Rags are utihsed for various
purposes according to the substances
from which they are derived. Linen
and cotton are still much used for the
manufacture of the best kinds of paper
and to some extent for the production
of surgical Unt. Woollen rags are
worked up into shoddy, and the fine
fragments are dyed and then used for
making flock papers for wall decora-
tions. Great Britain imports largely
from the continent and re-exports
about one half of the whole she receives
to the United States.

Rails. (Fr. Rails, Ger. Eisenbahn-
schiene, Sp. Carriles, rails.)

134

Rai]

World's commercial products.

Iron and steel rails form a consider-
able body of British manufactures
both for home consumption and for
export. The cheapness of foreign
production has led to increasing im-
ports from various European coun-
tries, especially Belgium.

Raisins. (Fr. Raisins sees, Ger.
Rosinen, Sp. Pasas.)

Dried grapes used for various pur-
poses, such as dessert, cooking, and
the manufacture of wines. The grapes
are the product of certain varieties of
vine grown in the Mediterranean
countries. Malaga and Valencia rai-
sins are obtained from Spain, sultana
raisins, which are seedless, from
Turkey, and muscatels from both coun-
tries. To prepare raisins the grapes
are dried either on the vines or plucked
and exposed to the heat of the sun for
about a fortnight. Those intended
for table use are often dipped in water
upon which there is a layer of olive
oil or a caustic sahne solution. The
smaller dried grapes of the Morea and
the Ionian Islands are the currants
of commerce. There is a custom's
duty of 7s. per cwt. imposed upon
raisins imported into Great Britain.

Rape Seed. (Fr. Graine de colza., Ger.
Riibsamen, Sp. Nabina.)

One of the most important oil seeds
of Russia and India, obtained from the
Brassica napus and iheBrassica campes-
tris, two plants of the same order as
the cabbage. The rape, which is also
known as coleseed, is now grown
extensively in Britain. The rape or
colza oil of commerce is obtained by
crushing the seed and is used extensi-
sively for oiling machinery and for
burning in lamps. Rape cake is the
residue after the oil has been extracted
and forms a good feeding stuff for
cattle, though it is inferior to hnseed
cake. When crushed the cake is a
valuable manure.

Rappee. (Fr. Tabac rdp&, Ger. Rap-
pee-Schnupftabah, Sp. Tabaco rapS.)

A coarse variety of snuff. Its name
is derived from a French word, rape,
signfying a " grater," as that was the
instrument originally used in its manu-
facture.

Raspberry. (Fr. Framboise, Ger.
Himbeere, Sp. Frambuesa.)

The red fruit of the cultivated
variety of the Rubus Tdaeus, a plant

[Rei

widely distributed through Europe
and Asia. The acid sweet fruit is not
only used as a dessert fruit, but is made
into jam, jelly, syrup, and raspberry
vinegar. The last named is prepared
by mixing crushed raspberries with an
equal proportion of malt or wine
vinegar, and allowing the whole to
stand for a few days. The juice is then
strained out, refined, cane sugar is
added, and the product is boiled.
Brandy is often added. After skim-
ming and cooling the raspberry vinegar
is bottled.

Rattans. (Fr. Rotins, rotangs, Ger.
Rotange, Indianische Rohre, Sp. Cartas
de Indias.)

The long stems of traiUng palms,
species of Calamus, sometimes known
as cane palms. They are natives of
the East Indies, and the slender and
jointed stems are exported thence in
bundles. They are used for a vast
number of purposes in the East, such
as chairs, mats, hats, baskets, ropes,
and even bridges. In European coun-
tries they are of value for the manu-
facture of cane-bottomed chairs,
couches, window screens, trellised
furniture, etc.

Realgar. (Fr. Realgar, rubine d'ar-
senic, Ger. Realgar, roter Arsenik, Sp.
Rejalgar.)

A red or orange coloured mineral,
a bisulphide of arsenic, occurring in
prismatic crystals in various parts of
Austria Hungary. When prepared
artificially it is used as a pigment.

Reindeer. (Fr. Renne, Ger. Renn-
iier, Sp. Rangifero.)

A species of deer found in the Arctic
regions of Europe, Asia, and America.
As a living animal it is invaluable to
the natives of the districts in which
it is found, and when dead its skin is
used in many ways, especially for
bedding and clothing, its antlers for
various horn materials, and its tongue
for food, particularly when tinned.
Tinned reindeer tongues are exported
from Russia. The flesh of the reindeer
is made into pemmican.

Reindeer Moss. (Fr. Mousse de
renne, Ger. Renntiermoos, Sp. Musco
de rangifero.)

An important lichen found in north-
ern cUmes and forming a winter food
for cattle. In Norway and Sweden
it is also used for stuffing pillows. It

'35

Res]

world's COMMERCIAI. PRODUCTS.

[Roc

is common in Britain and is employed
largely for the purpose of giving the
ground work to cases in wliich stuffed
birds are preserved.

Resins. (Fr. R^sines, Ger. Harze,
Sp. Resinas.)

A class of vegetable products of
great value in the arts. Some are ob-
tained as exudations from various
trees, some are found in a, fossil con-
dition, while others are extracted
from various plants through the agency
of alcohol. They are largely employed
in the manufacture of varnishes, while
medicinally they play an important
part in the mixing of ointments. All
the principal resins and their uses are
noticed under separate headings.

Rhatany Root. (Fr. Racine de
ratanhia, Ger. Ratanhiawurzel, Sp.
Raiz de ratanhia).

The root of a shrub, Krameria trian-
dra, found in Bolivia and Peru. When
dried it is a powerful astringent, and
its medicinal properties are recognised
in cases of diarrhoea. The powdered
root is also used in the manufacture
of various tooth powders. Almost the
whole of the commercial supply is
derived from Peru. Portugal imports
the root for the purpose of colouring
port wine a deeper red.

Rhea Fibre.

The inner fibre of the Bcehmeria
nivea, a plant of eastern Asia, used for
the manufacture of China grass cloth.
It is soft, silky, and strong. It is,
however, little used in comparison
with jute owing to the difficulty of
preparation.

Rhinoceros. (Fr. Rhinoceros, Ger.
Rhinozeros, nashorn, Sp. Rinoceronte.)

A horned animal of Asia and Africa,
valuable for its skin and horns, these
two alone entering into commerce.
The skin can be tanned, but its use
is limited. The horns are made into
cups, walking sticks, umbrella han-
dles, etc. The value of the horn de
pends upon its size.

Rhubarb. (Fr. Rhubarbe, Ger. Rha-
barber, Sp. Ruibarbo.)

Various species of herbaceous plants,
cultivated and valued for their roots.
The best comes from China, though it
is called Turkey rhubarb. Its root
has long been recognised as of medi-
cinal value owing to its astringent
properties. In Europe generally there

are several kinds of rhubarb cultivated
for the sake of their stalks, which are used
for making tarts, preserves, and wine.

Ribbons. (Fr. Rubans, Ger. Ban-
der, Sp. Bandas, cintas.)

Fabrics of silk, satin, cotton, or
other material used principally for
trimmings. They have innumerable
fancy names according to their texture
and the uses to which they are applied.
The centre of the ribbon manufacture
in England is Coventry. France com-
petes very strongly, and St. Etienne is
the principal seat of the trade in that
country. More recently Switzerland,
Belgium, and Germany have appUed
themselves to the production of rib-
bons, and Great Britain draws large
suppUes from each of these countries.

Rice. (Fr. Riz, Ger. Reis, Sp. Arroz.)

The grain of the Oryza sativa, a
species of grass closely resembling
barley in appearance. It is one of the
most important of human foods, being
the staple of about one-third of the
inhabitants of the world. It is grown
extensively in all tropical and sub-
tropical countries, and to some extent
in Spain, Italy, and Austria. After
the crop is cut, the grain is husked
and quickly dried, special machinery
being used for the former process. It
is then ready for the market. Besides
its use as a. foodstuff, a, wine is made
from it in China and Japan, and a
spirit can also be distilled from rice
and molasses. Rice is sometimes used
by distillers in Great Britain. It is also
in great demand for the manufacture
of starch, owing to its cheapness and
to the fact that it contains more starch
than wheat. Rice straw is employed
in the manufacture of bonnets. The
refuse of rice, consisting of the husk
and broken grain, forms a, valuable
cattle food.

Rice Paper. (Fr. Papier de riz,
Ger. Reispapier, Sp. Papel de arroz.)

A snowy white paper made in China
from the layers of the pith of the
A ralia papyrifera, a plant which grows
wild in the island of Formosa. It is
largely used for receiving coloured
drawings, for the manufacture of
artificial flowers, and for making toys..

Rochelle Salt. (Fr. Tartrate de
sonde et de potasse, sel de seignette, Ger.
Rochellsalz, Kalium-Nairiumtartrat, Sp.
Tartraio de potasio y de natron.)

136

Roc]

world's commercial products.

[Rug

Tartrate of potash and soda, pre-
pared from cream of tartar and carbon-
ate of soda. Its chemical symbol is
KNaC4N406-f4HaO. It is an agree-
able salt and is used medicinally
as a mild aperient.
Rock Salt.
(See Salt.)

Roots. (Fr. Racines, Ger. Wurzeln,
Sp. Raices.)

The principal roots, medicinal and
others, are noticed under separate
headings.

Rosemary. (Fr. Romarin, Ger.
Rosmarin, Sp. Romero.)

The blue flowering tops of the
Rosmarinus officinalis, an evergreen
shrub found in most countries border-
ing on the Mediterranean Sea. It is
cultivated chiefly for the sake of its
essential oil, oil of rosemary, which
is used as a stimulating ointment to
promote the growth of the hair and
as a perfume. It is also an important
ingredient of Eau de Cologne and
Hungary water. Spirit of rosemary
is obtained by distilling the sprigs of
rosemary with rectified spirit. It is
employed medicinally to give a pleas-
ant fragrance to plasters, ointments,
and liniments.

Rose Oil. (Fr. Huile de rose, Ger.
Rosenol, Sp. Aceite rosado.)

The fragrant perfume obtained by
the distillation of the leaves of certain
roses in water. The preparation of
this oil is a characteristic industry in
Persia and some parts of India. (See
Otto of Roses.)

Rosewood. (Fr. Bois de rose, bois
violet, Ger. Rosenhoh, Rhodiserholz, Sp.
Madera de rosal.)

A valuable fancy wood used chiefly
in furniture making, and obtained
from various South American trees.
The best comes from Brazil, two
distinct qualities being shipped from
Rio de Janeiro and Bahia respectively.
The timber is exported in large slabs
and planks. An inferior rosewood is
found in Honduras, and another species
of the same wood is obtained from
India. All the timber is beautifully
marked and veined, and has become
so popular that even the mahogany
made furniture has come to be stained
to imitate rosewood.

Rottenstone. (Fr. Terre pourrie,
Ger. Tripel, en^lische Erde, Sp. Tripol. )

A soft siliceous stone, brown in
colour, found in Derbyshire and South
Wales. It is easily scraped into a
powder and is used for poUshing and
cleaning metals and glass.

Rouge. (Fr. Rouge, fard, Ger.
Schminhe, Sp. Ajeite.)

A fine dark powder, a variety of
oxide of iron, used for poUshing gold,
silver, and speculum metal. It is
obtained by heating copperas until it
is completely decomposed. The
artificial colouring for the skin, also
called rouge, is prepared from safflower
by means of citric acid or lemon juice,
with the addition of French chalk.
This is a harmless preparation, thereby
differing from the various metallic
preparations in the market.

Ruby. (Fr. Rubis, Ger. Rubin, Sp.
Rubi.)

A pure transparent red coloured
variety of corundum, highly prized as
a gem. In hardness it is inferior
among gems to the diamond alone.
Its composition is almost wholly of
alumina. The best rubies are obtained
from Burmah, and these have the
colour of the blood of a pigeon. Rubies
of darker colour are found in Ceylon,
Siam, and China. Perfect specimens
of large rubies are rarely met with, and
when they exceed 4 carats in weight
they are more valuable than diamonds
of the same size and weight. The
rubies of Burmah are sometimes known
as Oriental rubies. Artificial rubies
have recently been prepared by fusing
a mixture of equal parts of alumina
and fluoride of barium with from two
to three per cent, of bichromate of
potassium. The temperature required
to effect the proper fusion is very high.
The artificial stones lack the brilliance
and beauty of the natural gem, but
they are not inferior for the purposes
of watchmakers in jewelling watches.

Rue. (Fr. Rue, Ger. Raute, Sp.
Ruda.)

An evergreen shrub, a native of
southern Europe, but now extensively
cultivated in many parts of the world.
Its leaves jdeld a powerfully smelling
volatile oil of acrid taste, and straw-
like colour, medicinally used in the
manufacture of syrup of rue, an
infantile remedy. The chopped leaves
make a beautiful garnish.

Rugs. (Fr. Couvsrtures, tapis de

137

Kum]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCtS.

[Sac

foyer, Ger. rauhe Decken, dicke Tep-
piche, Sp. Cubievtas.)

Woollen fabrics used as carpets, bed
coverings, wraps, etc. Besides the
large quantities required for home
consumption the woollen manu-
facturing districts of Great Britain
supply millions a year to various parts
of the world.

Rum. (Fr. Rhum, Ger. Rum, Sp.
Rom.)

The distilled spirit made in countries
where cane sugar is produced from the
skimmings of the sugar pans. An
inferior quality of rum is made from
the skimmings and molasses, and a
still poorer one from molasses alone.
Water is added and fermentation sets
in. This fermentation is allowed to
proceed for several days when the mash
is transferred to the still. The rum
is then coloured with caramel or burnt
sugar. Many different kinds of
flavourings are used, one of the com-
monest being pine-apple. In alcoholic
strength rum is about equal to brandy ;
when distilled it is generally 40 per
cent, over proof. When well made
rum improves greatly by keeping, and
it is perhaps the most wholesome of all
spirits. Jamaica and Demerara are
the principal places of production, and
Jamaica rum is the best in the market.
An inferior rum is made in France from
beetroot molasses, but it is an un-
wholesome spirit. A Uqueur is made
from rum, sugar, and hme juice, and
is called rum shrub.

Rushes. (Fr. Jones, Ger. Binsen,
Schilfe, Sp. J uncos.)

The popular name for the various
species of Juncus, found in all parts of
the British Isles, and imported by this
country from the Continent, especally
Holland. The stems are used for
making chair bottoms, baskets, mats,
etc. Millions of very cheap hats are
also made of rushes and exported from
Europe to China. The pith of certain
rushes are used for making candle-
wicks.

Russia Leather. (Fr. Cuir russe,
Ger. Russisches Leder, Juchtenleder, Sp.
Cuero de Moscovict.)

The red dyed, tanned, heifer hides
imported from Russia, used extensively
for book-binding, travelling bags,
cigar cases, purses, etc. The red
colour is -produced by a solution of

•alum and an extract of sandalwood,
and the characteristic smell is due to
the use in tanning of empyreumatic
birch oil. Russia-leather is soft,
pliant, and beautifully grained. It is
not affected by damp and its smell
saves it from being attacked by insects.
There is much imitation leather made
in England and France, where the
skins of sheep and goats are used
instead of those of heifers. (See Leather. )

Rye. (Fr. Seigle, Ger. Roggen, Sp.
Centeno.)

The edible grain of various grasses
allied to wheat and barley, the com-
monest being Secale cereale. It is
grown extensively in most parts of
the continent, rye bread being a
commoner food of the peasantry
abroad than wheaten bread. In
England it is grown only as fodder for
cattle. Besides its use for making
bread rye is cultivated for distillation,
the spirit called Hollands being made
from it. A good beer is obtained from
the malted grain. The straw is useful
for thatching and straw plaiting.

Sable. (Fr. Martre zibeline, Ger.
Zobel, Zobeltier, Sp. Marta cebellina.)

A mammal of the weasel family,
from which is derived the most valu-
able of all furs. The American or
Hudson's Bay sable fur is the skin
of the Maries zibellina. The fur is
generally brown with greyish-spots
scattered here and there. The skin of
the animal is most valuable if taken
in the early part of the winter, and in
order that it may be obtained as perfect
as possible the animal is captured by
means of traps. In addition to the
supplies obtained by Great Britain
from America, there are considerable
imports to this country from Russia
and Siberia. The fur is used for
making cloaks, muffs, boas, linings, etc.

Saccharin. (Fr. Saccharine, Ger.
Saccharin, Fruchtzucker, Sp. Sacarino,
azucarado.)

A white semi-crystalline powder of
intense sweetness, prepared by complex
processes from coal-tar. Its chemical
symbol is C6H4COSOjNH. Owing to
various circumstances saccharin, or
as it is sometimes called glucide, has
not yet become a formidable competi-
tor of sugar for domestic use, but it is
employed medicinally in the mixing of
drugs and also for sweetening the food

138

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[Sal

of patients suffering from diabetes.
It is also sonietimes introduced into
aerated waters.

Safes. (Fr. Coffres -forts, Ger. Ei-
serne Schranke, Sp. Armarios.)

Repositories for the preservation
and protection of valuable goods or
documents from thieves and fire. For
the former purposes the joints require
to be of great strength, the door
strongly hinged, and the locks of such
construction that bolts secure the doos
all round the edges. To resist fire a
special compound is placed between the
iron plates which together constitute the
wall of the safe. The compound origin-
ally used was charcoal steeped in an
alkaline solution ; but now it is
•generally composed of equal portions
'of pounded alum and gyp turn.
Another useful mixture is composed of
two parts of alum, and one part each
of clay and pounded marble.

Safflower. (Fr. Safran hdtarde,
carthame, Ger. Safflor, Sp. Azajran
rumi, cdrtamo.)

Also called bastard saffron. This
herb is extensively cultivated in India,
Persia, and other parts of the East,
and is valuable for the red dye cartha-
mine, which is obtained from its flowers
by treating them with an alkaline
solution. Its principal use is for dye-
ing silk and cotton, and for colouring
toilet rouge. Its importance as a dye
stuff has diminished rapidly since the
introduction of coal tar colours.

SaSron. (Fr. and Ger., Safran, Sp.
A zafran. )

The dried stigmata of the flowers of
the Crocus sativus, a plant widely culti-
vated in Mediterranean countries. It
is imported into England for culinary
purposes, and also for medical use as
a slight stimulant. In India its use
is extensive. The best quality of
saffron is obtained from Valencia.
Owing to its high price saffron is very
frequently adulterated.

Sage. (Fr. Sauge, Ger. Salbei, Sp.
Salvia.)

A culinary herb much used for
seasoning. There are many species
cultivated, but the best known and
the most common is the Salvia offi-
cinalis, found in most parts of Europe.
It is powerfully aromatic in odour and
bitter in taste. The leaves and flowers
when infused in tea are considered

tonic and astringent. An essential
oil obtained from the plant is some-
times used in the manufacture of lini-
ments which are useful in cases of
i-heumatism.

Sago. (Fr. Sagou, Ger. Sago, S-p.Sagu.)

A farinaceous substance of great
nutritive power obtained from the
pith of various species of palms, the
principal of which are the Sagus
Rumphii, the Sagus laevis, and the
Caryota urens. This substance is
obtained almost exclusively from the
East Indies. The trees are felled,
the stems cut into sections, split open,
and the pith removed. The pith is
then beaten in water to separate the
starch granules from the fibre, and
afterwards dried in the sun. The
result is sago flour, the raw material
used in the preparation of all other
kinds of sago. Sago is made in France
from potato starch. It is much
inferior to real sago, and the difference
between the two can be easily detected.

Sal. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Sal.)

The timber of a ti-ee of northern
India, the Shoren robusta. It is hard,
dark brown, coarse grained, and very
durable, though somewhat less so than
teak. Its cultivation is cared for by
the government. The wood is used
for making bridges, gun carriages,
railway sleepers, etc. From the bark
a resin exudes which is used as a
substitute for dammar.

Sal Ammoniac. (Fr. Hydrochlorate
ou muriate d'ammoniaque, Ger. Sal-
miak, Sp. Sal amoniaco.)

The hydrochlorate or muriate of
ammonia of extensive use in chemistry
and medicine. It is generally prepared
from the ammoniacal Hquor of gas
works by adding hydrochloric acid
and subliming it in iron pots. It
may also be made by mixing a solution
of ammonia with hydrochloric acid.
It is met with in crystalline masses, or
as a powder, and is used for soldering
and for cleaning the surfaces of metals.

Sal Prunellae. (Fr. Azotate de pot-
asse fondu, sel de prunelle, Ger.
Prunellensalz, Sp. Nitrato de potasa.)

Nitrate of potash, purified in mass,
or fused into circular cakes or small
balls. It is used for various chemical
purposes and also for the preparation
of gunpowder.

Sal Volatile. (Fr. Sel volatil

139

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world's commercial products.

[San

d'ammoniaque, Ger. Kohlensaures Am-
monium, Hirschhorn-sah, Sp. Amonio
carbSnico. )

A solution of carbonate ol ammo-
nium mixed with ammonia and dilute
alcohol. Very commonly oil of nut-
meg or oil of lemon is added, some-
times both. It is a strongly caustic
liquid, and should never be used unless
well diluted. It is the common smell-
ing salts of commerce.

Salicin. (Fr. Salicine, Ger. Salicin,
Sp. Salicina.)

A white crystaUine powder com-
posed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
of which the chemical symbol is
Ci3H,807. It is obtained from the
bark of several species of poplar and
willow. It is much used medicinally
as a substitute for quinine, and also
to adulterate that substance.

Salicylic Acid. (Fr. A cide salicylique,
Ger. Salicyhaure, Sp. Acido salicino.)

An organic acid, whose chemical
symbol is C7H6O3, originally prepared
from salicin, but now generally ob-
tained by heating sodium phenate in
a current of carbonic acid gas. It is
a white crystalline solid with a sweet
taste and dissolves readily in hot water.
It is a valuable antiseptic, being three
times as powerful as carbolic acid.
Taken internally as a medicine, it is of
the greatest value in cases of acute
rheumatism.

Salmon. (Fr. Saumon, Ger. Lacks,
Salm, Sp. Salmon.)

The choice river fish caught exten-
sively in various parts of the British
Isles, and imported into tliis country
fresh from Norway and Iceland. The
fish is cured in Scotland. Large
suppUes are obtained from British
Columbia, where the salmon are pre-
served and tinned and then exported
to all parts of the world.

Salsify. (Fr. Salsifis, Ger. Bocksbart,
Sp. Salsifis.)

A purple flowered herb common
throughout Europe and Asia. It is
chiefly cultivated on account of its
sweet edible roots, which are cooked
like carrots or parsnips, and make a
delightful vegetable. When prepared
in a particular way, especially in
America, the roots have the flavour of
oysters, and for this reason salsafy is
sometimes known in popular language
as the oyster plant.

Salt. (Fr. Sel, Ger. Sah, Sp. Sal.)
The universal condiment, generally
known as common salt, to distinguish
it from the large body of other sub-
stances known to chemists as salts.
Its chemical symbol is NaCl, and its
proper name is chloride of sodium,
chlorine and sodium being its consti-
tuent parts. Salt occurs in sea-water
and the suppUes of some countries are
still largely obtained by the evapora-
.tion of sea-water. For others the
great natural beds of salt found in
many parts are better and more ser
viceable. The largest deposits of rock
salt are found in the mines of Wie-
liczka, in GaUcia. This rock salt is
of a brownish colour owing to the
presence of a small quantity of peroxide
of iron, and requires treatment before
it is fitted for general use. In England
enormous suppUes are obtained from
the brine springs of Cheshire. The
brine is pumped up and evaporated.
If the brine is boiled down quickly the
salt separates into small crystals and
forms the best table salt. By slow
boiling large crystals are formed, and
the coarse grained salt is obtained
which is most suitable for curing. Bay
salt is the name of the salt evaporated
from sea-water. Salt has a specific
gravity of 2'15. Besides its common
domestic uses, salt is of the utmost
importance in the manufacture of soda,
hydrochloric acid, and soap. It is
also much employed for filling the pipes
of freezing machines.

Salt, Spirits of.

(See Hydrochloric acid.)

Salt Cake. (Fr. Sulfate de soude
Ger. Natrium-Sulfat, Sp. Suljato de
natron. )

An impure sulphate of soda, also
known as nitre cake.

Saltpetre. (See Nitre.)

Sandalwood. (Fr. Sandal, santal',
Ger. Sandelholz, Sp. Shndalo.)

The odoriferous wood obtained from
several species of the Santalum, a tree
of India and the East Indies. The
timber is close and fine-grained, and
is held in much esteem by cabinet
makers, carvers, and engravers. Owing
to its pecuUar smell it is proof against
the ravages of insects. The wood is
burned in India as an incense. From
the roots of the plant sandalwood oil
is distilled, the best being made in

140

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[Sat

England and France from the roots
■which are imported into Europe from
India. This oil is extensively used in
the manufacture of many perfumes,
and also of varnishes which give a
sandal odour to various woods which
are sold as sandal wood. One species
of santalum produces a dye stufi which
gives different colours to the article
dyed according to the mordant em-
ployed.

Sandarach. (Fr. Sandaraque, Ger.
Sandarak, Sandarach, Sp. Sandaraca.)

A yellowish inflammable resin ob-
tained by exudation from a certain
cone-bearing tree of the north of Africa,
principally Morocco. It resembles
mastic in appearance and some of its
properties, and is used for the prepara-
tion of French polish. The timber of
the tree is hard, compact, and durable,
and is used, though in small quantities,
for furniture and cabinet making.

Sappan Wood. (Fr. Sapan, Ger.
Sapanhoh, Sp. Sapan.)

The wood of th.^ Caesalpinia Sappan,
a large tree of southern India and
Ceylon. A red dye is obtained from
this wood which is largely used in
calico printing.

Sapphire. (Fr. and Ger., Saphir,
Sp. Zafiro.)

A transparent variety of corundum,
highly prized as a gem. Although
found of different colours blue is the
prevailing hue. The sapphire is com-
posed of almost pure alumina, and its
colour is due to the presence of small
quantities of foreign matter. It is
nearly as hard as the diamond. The
finest sapphires are found in Ceylon
and Burmah. Inferior ones are ob-
tained in Austraha and the United
States, whilst those of Bohemia are of
little or no value. The value of the
gem depends entirely upon its quality
and not upon its size as is the case with
the diamond and the ruby. Quite
recently artificial sapphires have been
produced by heating fusible aluminates
in the presence of siUca at a very high
temperature.

Sapucaia Nuts. (Fr. Noix de Sapucaia,
Ger. Sapucaia-Niisse, Sp. Nueces de
Sapucaia.)

The edible seeds of the urn-shaped
fruit of the Lecythis zabwajo, a tree
very common in the forests of the
north of Brazil. The fruit is often as

large as a human head, and when the
lid is taken off the seeds or nuts are
found packed much in the same fashion
as Brazil nuts. They are oval in shape
and slightly pointed at each end. The
quality of the nuts is much finer than
that of the Brazil nuts, and a valuable
oil can be extracted from them. They
are exported almost exclusively from
Para. In England they are commonly
known as monkey nuts.

Sardine. (Fr. Sardine, Ger. Sardine,
Sardelle. Sp. Sardina.)

A small fish very plentiful off the
coasts of France and Spain, deriving
its name from the island of Sardinia.
It is of the same genus as the pilchard.
In France an enormous trade is done
in curing the fish in the finest olive oil
and tinning them. The pilchard is
similarly treated in Cornwall. Large
quantities of the so-called French
sardines are really sprats.

Sarsaparilla. (Fr. Salsepareille, Ger.
Sarsaparilla, Sp. Zarzaparrilla.)

The dried roots of several species of
Smilax, a shrub of Central and Southern
America. There are two special
varieties obtained from Jamaica and
Lima respectively. The roots are very
long, of the thickness of a quill, dark
brown in colour, and bitter in taste.
Various decoctions made from the
roots are medicinally used as tonics
and diuretics, and derive their proper-
ties from the presence of starch, resin,
a volatile oil, and the crystalline
principle smilacine.

Sassafras. (Fr. Sassafras, Ger. Sas-
safras, Sp. Sasafraz.)

A species of laurel widely spread
over the United States and Canada.
The wood, the bark, and the root are
of great medicinal value, especially in
cases of skin diseases and rheumatic
affections. Instead of the wood, bark,
or root, the volatile oil, called oil of
sassafras, which is extracted from the
root,is used. Adye of considerable value
is likewise extracted from the wood.

Satin. (Fr. Satin, Ger. Satin, Atlas,
Sp. Raso, tela de seda.)

A well-known fabric composed of
closely woven silk, sometimes dressed
with gum, having a beautifully smooth
shining surface. This smooth shining
surface is due to the fact that for each
shot of the weft only the fifth, sixth,
seventh, eighth, or even tenth thread

141

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[Sea

is raised. Satins are known in the
market by different names according
to the method of manufacture. The
best are manufactured at Lyons, but
much satin is now made in England.
Its principal uses are for making dresses
and ribbons. Inferior kinds are called
satinet, and fabrics made of cotton and
wool, woven in the same manner as
the silk fabric, are known as sateen.

Satin Wood. (Fr. Bois sating, Ger.
A tlashoh.A dlerholz, Sp.Madera de dguila)

The yellow coloured wood obtained
from two different species of trees, one
found in Southern India, the other in
the West Indies. When polished it
possesses a lustre like that of satin. It
is used in the manufacture of certain
kinds of furniture, for panelling the
cabins of passenger steamers, for in-
laying, and for the manufacture of
picture frames, the backs of toilet
brushes, and other ornamental articles.

Sausages. (Fr. Saucisses, Ger.Wurste,
Sp. Morcillas.)

Various kinds of chopped meats,
mixed with flour or bread and spices,
and packed in inflated gut skins. The
skins are largely imported from
Australia. There are extensive ex-
ports of sausages from Germany and
also from Bologna in Italy. Owing
to the vast amount of adulteration and
to the use of unsound meat in their
manufacture, poisoning is of no rare
occurrence from indulgence in this
class of food.

Sauterne. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Sau-
terne. )

A French white wine produced in the
district of the Gironde, made from a
species of over-ripe grape. The best
brand is that of the Chateau Yquem,
and this wine is one of the finest and
purest produced in France.

Savin. (Fr. Sabine, Ger. Sdben-
baum, Sadebaum, Sp. Sahina.)

The oil obtained from the fruit of a
species of juniper, Juniperus Sabina, a
tree found in Italy and in some parts
of the United States. It is used in the
form of an ointment for keeping up
discharges from bhstered surfaces.
Owing to its poisonous nature its
internal medicinal employment re-
quires the utmost care.

Savoy. (Fr. Chou de Savoie, Ger.
SavoyerkoM, Wirsingkohl, Sp. Berza,
col.)

The well known winter cabbage,
resembhng the common cabbage in
every respect except that it has
wrinkled leaves.

Sawdust. (Fr. Sciure, Ger. Sdgemehl,
Sagespane, Sp. Aserraduras.)

The waste of wood when cut or sawn.
Besides its use for spriukhng floors,
stufi&ng dolls and cushions, and pack-
ing goods, sawdust is commercially
valuable in the manufacture of oxalic
acid, packing for fire proof safes, and
soda ash. Mahogany sawdust is used
for smoking fish, and that of boxwood
is employed by jewellers for drying
washed articles. When sawdust is
mixed with tar it can be made into a
kind of fuel like briquettes,

Scammony. (Fr. ScammonSe. Ger.
Skammonienharz, Sp. Escamonea.)

The grey gum resin obtained from
the root of the Convolvulus Scammonia,
a wild plant of Asia Minor. The root
is cut and the juice at once flows out,
quickly hardening on exposure to the
atmosphere. It has a smell resembling
that of cheese. The best scammony
is obtained from Aleppo, that of
Smyrna being of a very inferior quality.
Its use is entirely medicinal, scammony
mixture forming an excellent purga-
tive for young children.

Scrap. (Fr. Fer de rebut, Ger.
AUeisen, Sp. Hierro vieja.)

Waste old iron. It is bought up for
the purpose of re-melting. Thousands
of tons are annually exported from
England for re-manufaoture.

Screws. (Fr. Vis, Ger. Schrauben,
Sp. Tornillos.)

These well-known articles are now
made entirely by machines of ingenious
construction. They are of metal or
wood. The centre of the manufacture
in England is Birmingham.

Seal. (Fr. Phoque, veau marin, Ger.
Seehund, Sp. Can marino.)

The name commonly applied to all
species of Pinnipedia except the walrus.
They are found in the seas of the Arctic
and north temperate regions of Europe,
Asia, and America, and are valuable
for their furs and for the oil taken from
them. The greatest supplies are ob-
tained from the Behring Strait, Green-
land, and Newfoundland. The taking
of seals in Behring Strait has been
restricted by agreement betv/een Great
Britain and tU? United States, and the

143

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WOKLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Scs

price of seal skins has consequently
risen.

Sealing Wax. (Fr Cire (i cacheter,
Ger. Siegellach, Sp. Lucre.)

A composition used for securely
fastening letters and attaching im-
pressions. The best red sealing wax
consists of a mixture of shellac, Venice
turpentine and vermiUon, to which are
added small quantities of magnesia
and chalk. The whole are mixed
together at a good heat, stirred quickly,
and when sufficiently mingled poured
into moulds. The inferior substance
contains less shellac and vermilion,
whilst bottle wax is often composed of
pine-resin, turpentine, and chalk,
together with some colouring matter.
For making the various coloured seal-
ing waxes difierent substances are used ;
lamp black for black, amber for brown,
ultramarine for blue, chrome yellow
for green, and ochre for yellow. Quite
recently it has been found that the
colouring can be produced by means
of the aniline dyes.

Seidlitz Powders. (Fr. Poudres de
Seidlitz, Ger. Seidlitzpulver, Sp. Polvos
de Seidlitz )

A common aperient sold by chemists.
They are composed of bicarbonate of
soda and tartrate of potash, one part
of the former to three of the latter,
mixed in the form of a powder, and
powdered tartaric acid in quantity
equal to the bicarbonate of soda. The
first two ingredients are made up and
sold in a difierent packet from the last.
When taken the first are dissolved in
water, and the tartaric acid added to
produce efiervescence. The name is de-
rived from Seidhtz, a town in Bohemia,
where there is a natural spring of
water containing the same elements.

Seltzer. (Fr Eau de Seltz, Ger.
Seltzerwasser, Sp. Seltzer.)

The natural effervescing seltzer water
is obtained from the springs at Nieder-
Selters, in Nassau. According to one
analysis the water contains a large
number of substances in solution, but
the principal are bicarbonate of soda,
common salt, and carbonic acid gas.
It is a mild stimulant, and is largely
used as a table water. It is estimated
that more than three million bottles
are annually exported to all parts of
the world. The artificial seltzer water
is extensively manufactured, and

consists of the principal ingredients of
the natural water.

Semolina. (Fr. Semoule, Ger. Wei-
zengries, Sp. Semola.)

The grains of hard wheat which are
not ground into flour in the process of
milling, and purposely left in that
state by the arrangement of the mill
stones. Semolina is produced in Italy
and the substance is almost exclusively
obtained from that country. Owing
to the fact that there is a greater
amount of gluten in hard wheats than
in soft ones, semolina is liighly nutri-
tious, and is much used for making
puddings and soups.

Senega Root. (Fr. SJniSga, racine
de polygala de Virginie, Ger. Senega-
wurzel, Kreuzblumenwurzel, Sp. Raiz
de glauce.)

The dried root of a small herb, Poly-
gala Senega, found in the United States.
It is popularly known in America as
the snake root. Medicinally it is of
value in cases of bronchitis and
affections of the lungs.

Senna. (Fr. Sine, Ger. Sennes-
blatter, Sp. Sen.)

A drug of much medicinal value con-
sisting of the dried leaflets of several
species of Cassia. There are two
principal varieties, the Alexandrian,
chiefly grown in Egypt, and the Tinni-
velly, obtained from the East Indies.
It is taken either as an infusion, a
syrup, or a tincture. From 5,000 to
10,000 bales of senna leaves are
annually imported into Great Britain
from Alexandria.

Sepia. (Fr. S6pia, Ger. and Sp., Sepia.)

A brown pigment prepared from the
ink-bag of a species of cuttle fish found
in the Mediterranean. It is much used
as a water colour, and it is also employ-
ed by draughtsmen in the preparation
of plans and drawings.

Serge. (Fr. Serge, Ger. Serge, Sarsche,
Sp. Sarga.)

A rough variety of twilled cloth made
from worsted. It has a wide range of
quality, and is generally dyed black
or dark blue.

Sesame. (Fr. Sisame, Ger. Sesam,
Sp. S'esamo.)

The herb of the genus Sesamum,
commonly cultivated throughout the
East on account of its seeds, which
produce gingiU oil, a pale, straw-
coloured, sweet oil which is used for

143

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world's commercial products.

[She

perfumery and also as a substitute for
olive oil. Both the seeds and the oil
are extensively imported into Europe.

Seville Oranges.

(See Oranges.)

Shabrack. (Fr. Couverture a cheval,
Ger. Schabracke, Sp. Mantilla.)

The covering for cavalry saddles,
made from cloth or from sheep-skins
with short curly wool.

Shaddock. (Fr. Pamplemousse, Ger.
Pompelmuse, Sp. Shaddock.)

A tree of the citron order, a native
of the East Indies, but introduced and
cultivated in southern Europe and in
the West Indies. The name is derived
from Captain Shaddock, who was
responsible for its introduction from
China to the West Indies in the early
part of the nineteenth century. The
fruit is large, sometimes weighing as
much as twenty pounds, and bright
yellow in colour. The rind is thick and
the pulp watery and acid. It is a,
pleasant cooUng fruit and makes an
excellent preserve. A finer ' and
smaller shaddock, called pomelo, is
grown in Florida and in India.

Shagreen. (Fr. Peau de chagrin,
Ger. Chagrin, genarbtes Leder, Sp. Zapa. )

A kind of parchment or leather pre-
pared from the skins of horses and
asses. It has a granular appearance
and green colour, the former being due
to the pressure oJE seeds into the leather
before drying, and the latter to the
process of dyeing with oxychloride of
copper. It is much used for covering
cigar cases, cabinets, small boxes, and
similar ornamental articles. The name
is also applied to the prepared skins of
sharks, rays, and various other fish.

Shale. (Fr. Argile schisteuse, Ger.
Schiejerton, Bandschiefer, Sp. Arcilla
de pizarra.)

The rock resulting from stratified
and hardened mud and clay. It is
composed of alumina and silica, and is
coloured by oxide of iron. It is ob-
tained in various parts of England and
Scotland, and is commercially valuable
for the production of paraffin. Another
product obtained from certain shales
of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Lanark-
shire, through which sulphuret of iron
is disseminated, is alum.

Shawls. (Fr. Chdles, Ger. Shawls,
UmschlagtHcher, Sp. Chals.)
Wraps, chiefly made of wool, worn

in all parts of the world. Those ob-
tained from the East have always been
held in great esteem, especially the
shawls of Cashmere, made from the
soft inner wool of the Tibet goat. No
finer fabric is produced than this
material, and the dyes used in the
manufacture of the shawls are the
native colours, aniline dyes being prac-
tically prohibited. Imitation Cashmere
shawls are made at Lyons and Vienna.
There imported Tibet wool is used.
Common shawls, plain and chequered,
are made in various parts of England
and Scotland, where the woollen trade
is carried on. In the United States
the centre of the shawl trade is Massa-
chusetts. Silk and crape shawls, made
in imitation of Chinese work, are manu-
factured at Norwich ; grenadines and
chenilles at Lyons.

Shea Butter. (Fr. Suif de noungon,
Ger. Scheabutter, Sp. Oleo de galam.)

A greenish coloured oil, of the con-
sistence of tallow, obtained from the
seeds of the Butyrospermum parhii, a
tree of West Africa. The oil consists
of stearin and olein, 70 per cent, of the
former and 30 per cent, of the latter.
Besides acting as a food for the natives
of West Africa, it is exported to Europe,
chiefly from Sierra Leone, to be used
in soap making.

Sheep. (Fr. Mouton, Ger. Schaf,
Sp. Oveja.)

The domestic animal, of which there
are about twelve species, valued for
the food and the wool obtained from
it. Owing to the rapid consumption
within the British Isles, the number
of sheep has lessened considerably
during the last thirty years, and Uving
sheep are now imported from the
Continent. Fresh mutton is also sent
from the continent and frozen mutton
comes from Australia and New
Zealand. The chief suppUes of wool
derived from sheep comes from
AustraUa. Merino wool comes from
Spain. Sheep skins for leather
making, to the extent of about fifteen
millions a year, are obtadned from
South Africa and Australia.

Sheet Glass.

(See Glass.)

Shellac.

(See Lac.)

Sherry. (Fr. Vin de Xiris, Ger.
Xereswein, Sp. Vino de Jeres.)

144

Shil

WOfeLD's COMMERCIAL PRODUctS.

[Sini

The general name for the better sort
of white wines produced in the neigh-
bourhood of Xeres, near Cadiz, the
finest vineyards being situated at
Xeres de la Frontera. Pure sherry is
a pale, thin, dry wine, the principal
varieties being Vino Fino, Amontillado,
Manzanilla, and Montilla. The best
wines are kept at Cadiz in order to be
added to inferior wines and so improve
their quality. Before exportation all
sherry is strengthened by the addition
of brandy or alcohol. The exports
from Cadiz are mainly to England, but
the trade is considerably less than it
was thirty years ago.

Shingles. (Fr. Bardeaux, Ger. Dach-
sckindeln, Sp. Tablillas.)

Flat pieces of wood, generally oak
or pine, cut by machinery and used
for roofing Uke slates or tiles. They
are not much used in England, and
there is comparatively no international
commerce in these things.

Shoddy. (Fr. Laine artificielle, Ger.
KunstwoUe, Lumpenwolle, Sp. Lana
artificial.)

A material produced in Yorkshire
and Lancashire and largely used in the
manufacture of cloth. The chief
centres of the trade are Batley, Dews-
bury, and Leeds. It is made of the
wool obtained from worn and ragged
woollen goods, with the addition of a
certain amount of fresh wool. The
rags are torn, separated, and cleaned
by machinery, and the fabric made
from the short wool is re-manufactured
into rugs, friezes, flannels, inferior
cloths, etc. The trade has grown to
enormous proportions owing to the
demand for woollen cloths, and though
shoddy has not the durability of new
wool it is serviceable while it lasts.

Shola. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Shola.)

The white pith of an Indian plant,
JEschynomene aspera, which is a bad
conductor of heat and much used in
the manufacture of the helmets worn
by the British in India. The substance is
also employed for making fans, toys, etc.

Shumac. (See Sumach.)

Silk. (Fr. Soie, Ger. Seide, Sp. Seda. )

The fibre on the cocoon of the silk-
worm, chiefly the Bombyx mori. It is
the strongest, most lustrous, and most
valuable of all textile fabrics. The
climate of England is not favourable
to the cultivation of the silkworm.

Consequently the manufacture of silk
and of silk goods is mainly carried on
abroad, the principal countries manu-
facturing in Europe being France,
Belgium, and Holland. Silk goods are
imported into this country in various
forms, as broad stufis, ribbons, laces, etc.

Silkworm Gut. (Fr. Boyau de ver A
soie, Ger. Seidenwtirmdarm, Sp. Tripa
de gusano de seda.)

A very strong material used by
anglers for dressing the hook-ends of
fishing Unes. It is prepared from the
caterpillars of the ordinary silkworm.
The worms, when about to spin their
cocoons, are immersed in vinegar for a
considerable period and afterwards
pulled asunder. Along glutinous thread
is then formed by the silky secretion of
the caterpillar. These threads are
stretched on a board and allowed to
dry in the sun. This gut is mostly
prepared in Spain and Italy, though
some exports are still made from China.

Silver. (Fr. Argent, Ger. Silber. Sp.
Plata.)

The beautiful hard white metal
which has been held in highest esteem
from the earliest times. It is some-
times found in a free state, but fre-
quently compounded with other ele-
ments, as with chlorine to form horn
silver, and with sulphur to form silver
glance. It exists in small quantities
in samples of galena, and the most
productive of the ores obtained in the
British Isles are found in the Isle of
Man. In Europe, silver is found in
Spain, Austria, and Germany, but the
discoveries of the rich deposits of the
New World, from the United States to
ChiU, have led to the neglect of the
European mines. The specific gravity
of silver is 10-5. With the exception
of steel it is not exceeded by any other
metal in brilliancy of lustre. In hard-
ness it is intermediate between gold
and copper. Malleable and ductile, it
can be beaten into extremely thin
leaves, and drawn into very fine wire
possessing great tenacity. Silver is the
best known conductor of heat and
electricity, and in consequence it is
much employed in the manufacture of
delicate electrical instruments and
machines.

Simaruba. (Fr. Bcorce de simarouba,
Ger. Simarubarinde, Sp. Simaruba.)
The root bark of the Simaruba

lo— (1484) 20 PP-

145

Sis]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Snu

amara, a tree found in various parts of
the tropics in Asia, Africa, and
America, It has a characteristic
bitter taste. The bark is often used as
a substitute for quassia, and known as
such. It is of medicinal value in cases
of dysentery, and is also employed as a
tonic.

Sisal Hemp. (Fr. Chanvre d'Aml-
rique, Ger. Amerikanerhanf, Sisalhanf,
Sp. Canamo de America.)

The fibre obtained from the Agave
rigida, a plant of Mexico. At one time
this fibre, compressed into bales, was
largely imported into Great Britain.
The greater portion, however, is now
seiit to the United States. The best is
obtained from Yucatan. The fibre is
strong and glossy, and admirably
adapted for rope making on account of
its damp resisting properties.

Sissoo Wood. (Fr. Bois de rose,
Ger. Rosenholz, Sp. Madera de rosal.)

The timber derived from the Dal-
hergia Sissoo, a tree of the rosewood
type found in India. The wood is
hard and durable, and does not split
or warp. It is valuable, like other
kinds of rosewood, for the manufacture
of furniture.

Size. (Fr. Colle forte, Ger. Leim, Sp.
Cola.)

A species of glue or varnish used by
house-painters, papermakers, gilders,
etc. It is variously composed of lin-
seed oil, red lead, vermillion, etc.,
mixed with turpentine.

Skins. (Fr. Peaux, Ger. Felle, Haute,
Sp. PieUs.)

The coverings of animals. The
name is generally applied to the cover-
ings of the smaller animals, those of
the larger ones being known as hides.
The principal skins found in commerce
are noticed under separate headings.

Skunk. (Fr. Moufette, Ger. Stinhtier,
Skunk, Sp. Veso.)

A species of animal belonging to the
weasel family, found in many parts of
the United States. Its skin is of high
commercial value, and is often passed
off as Alaska sable.

Slag. (Fr. Scorie, Ger. Schlacke, Sp.
Escoria.)

The refuse obtained from smelting
works, glass foundries, etc., composed
of very different elements according to
its origin. At one time all slag was
waste, but it is now utilised for a great

number of purposes. By the action
of steam it is made into siUcate cotton,
a substance which is a bad conductor
of heat and sound, and therefore useful
for covering boilers and filUng up the
spaces between adjoining rooms. It
is sometimes cast into blocks of the size
of bricks and used for building and
paving purposes. The slag obtained
from the smelting of Cleveland pig-iron
contains a large amount of phosphoric
acid and forms a valuable manure.

Slate. (Fr. Schiste, Ger. Schiefer,
Sp. Pizarra.)

A hard clay-like rock which splits
up into thin sheets. It is of various
colours, gray, blue, green, purple, or
black, and a red slate is found in the
province of Quebec. The chief sup-
plies of slate are obtained from Wales,
the Lake District, and various parts
of Scotland. The large slabs of slate
are used for making billiard tables, and
the thin ones are employed for roofing
purposes and in the manufacture of the
common writing slate. Mantelpieces
and architectural panels are made of
enamelled slate. Various trade names
are given to roofing slates according to
their sizes : — " Ladies," 15 inches x
8 inches ; " viscountesses," 18 x 10 ;
" countesses," 20 x 10 ; " duchesses,"
24 X 12 ; " princesses," 24 x 14 ; and
" queens," 36 x 24. Slate pencils are
thin cylinders of slate used for writing
purposes. They are made out of soft
slate by cutting or turning, or by
pressing moist slate powder until it is
firm.

Smalt. (Fr. Smalt, bleu d'azur,
Ger. Schmalte, Sp. Esmalte.)

A metallic powder, blue oxide of
cobalt melted with carbonate of
potassium and sand, which is really
pulverised glass. It is used in the
manufacture of blue glass, in the
colouring of porcelain and earthenware,
and in tinting paperhangings, linen,
caUco, etc. The greater portion of the
smalt used in England comes from
Holland and Germany.

Snuff. (Fr. Tabac, tabac d, priser, Ger.
Schnupftabak, Sp. Tabaco de polvo.)

A powdered preparation of tobacco,
made by grinding the chopped leaves
and stalks of tobacco in which a
certain amount of fermentation has
been set up by moisture and warmth.
It is variously flavoured and fanciful

146

Soa]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Sod

names are given according to the place
and method of manufacture. The
snufi consumed in Great Britain is
almost entirely home made, the im-
ports from France and Brazil being
insignificant in amount.

Soap. (Fr. Savon, Ger. Seife, Sp.
Jabon.)

The chemical meaning of soap is
much wider than the commercial one.
The former includes all combinations
of fats or fatty acids with alkaUne or
metallic salts ; the latter is confined
to compounds containing potash and
soda only. There are two great divi-
sions of soap — hard and soft. Hard
soap is often known as soda soap, while
soft soap is potash soap. The principal
fats and oils used for the manufacture
of hard soap are tallow, greases, palm-
oil, lard, cocoanut oil, and olive oil.
The chief ingredients used in the manu-
facture of soft soap are linseed oil,
castor oil, and various fish oils.
In the process of manufacture the
oils used are boiled in & pan and
a solution of caustic soda or potash
added. The boiling is continued and
oils and the solution are alternately
added until the pan is filled. Salt to
the extent of ten per cent, of the fatty
matter is added, the effect being that
the soap is rendered insoluble in the
salted Uquid and rises to the surface.
The liquid is drawn off and the soap is
cast into moulds. For the manu-
facture of particular soaps there are
many intricate processes, some of
which are patented, and fancy and
scented soaps are made by the addition
of various dyes and perfumes.

Soapstone.

(See Steatite.)

Soapwort. (Fr. Saponaire, racine
de savonnier, Ger. Seifenwurzel, Sp.
Saponaria.)

The root of the Saponaria officinalis,
a herb of Asia Minor, though sometimes
found in various parts of Europe. It
contains a gum and a resin, and the
leaves of the plant produce a lather in
water like that of soap, and the liquid
is used for washing silk and wool, which
it thoroughly cleanses, and to which it
adds a beautiful lustre. It is sometimes
employed medicinally as an aperient.

Soda Ash. (Fr. Sonde, carbonate
dr soiide, Ger. Kohlensaures Natron,
Soda-Asche, Sp. Carbonato de natron.)

The commercial form of carbonate of
sodium, one of the most useful of
chemical products. It was formerly
obtained almost entirely from sea-
weed. Now it is made from common
salt by two distinct methods. In the
first, known as the Leblanc process,
salt is heated with sulphuric acid and
a salt cake is formed. This cake is
decomposed by charcoal and Ume with
the result that black ash is produced.
The black ash, when cold, is treated
with water, boiled down to dry-
ness, and the residue roasted. Soda
ash is then formed. The other method,
known as the Solvay process, consists
in dissolving common salt in a solution
of ammonia and passing a current of
carbonic acid gas into the liquid, when
bicarbonate of sodium is precipitated
in the form of white crystals. These
are collected and heated, the carbonic
acid gas and water are given off, and
the carbonate of sodium remains.
Hundreds of thousands of tons are
made annually for use in soap making,
glass manufacture, and bleaching.

Soda, Bicarbonate of. (Fr. Bicar-
bonate de soude, Ger. Doppel kohlen-
saures Natron, Sp. Bicarbonato de
natron.)

Commonly known as baking powder.
Its chemical symbol 'is 2NaHC03. It
is prepared by the passage of a current
of carbonic acid gas over soda crystals.
Besides its domestic use it is largely
employed in the manufacture of effer-
vescing drinks and in medicine.

Soda, Caustic. (Fr. Soude caustique,
Ger. Atznatron, Sp. Natron caustico.)

A white solid substance, whose
chemical symbol is NaOH, largely used
in the manufacture of soap, paper,
glass various fabrics, etc. It is most
commonly prepared on a large scale by
boiling lime and sodium carbonate
together with water, and evaporating
down to a clear solution, when a white
fibrous mass remains.

Soda Crystals. (Fr. Soude, Ger.
Natron, krystal lisierte Soda, Sp. Sosa.-

This is the ordinary washing soda,
the chemical symbol of which is
NaaCOalOHjO. It is prepared by
dissolving soda ash in water, boiling
down the solution to a certain extent,
and then allowing it to cool. The large
white crystals deposited represent the
substance. The crystals give off the

147

Sad]

WORLD'S COMMERCIAI, PRODUCTS.

[Spi

greater portion of their water when
exposed to the air.

Soda Water.

(See Aerated Waters.)

Sodium. (Fr. Sodium, Ger. Na-
trium, Sp. Sodio.)

The most widely distributed of the
metals of the alkalies, occurring; in
many compounds, especially common
salt, caustic soda, bicarbonate of soda,
etc. These compounds are noticed
under separate headings.

Sodium, Chloride of.

(See Salt.)

Sodium, Nitrate of.

(See Saltpetre.)

Sodium, Sulphate of.

(See Glauber's Salt.)

Solder. (Fr. Soudure, Ger. Lot, Lote,
Sp. Soldadura.)

A fusible alloy of lead and tin used
for joining metals. The exact propor-
tions in which these metals are com-
bined vary according to the particular
work for which the solder is required.
The commonest of all, for plumbers'
use, is composed of equal parts of tin
and lead, with the addition of small
quantities of borax, sal-ammoniac,
choride of zinc, or resin. The solder
used by silversmiths consists of a
mixture of silver and copper, or silver
and brass.

Sole. (Fr. Sole, Ger. SoMe, Seezunge,
Sp. Lenguado.)

A genus of flat fish, very common
round the shores of Great Britain, and
very largely taken and sold in English
markets. It is estimated that over
10,000 tons are sold annually in the
London markets alone.

Soy. (Fr. Spy, soul, Ger. Soya,
Soje, Sp. Sargueta.)

A sauce made in China and Japan
from the seeds of the Soja hispida, a
plant much cultivated in both these
countries. The seeds resemble small
kidney beans and are a very nutritive
food. In preparing soy, which is a
long. operation, the seeds are softened
by boiling with an equal quantity of
ground wheat or barley, and adding
a Uttle salt. After being allowed to
ferment, the mixture is strained and
put away in pQts. Soy is a common and
much used condiment in the East. It
is exported from China and Japan to
England and the United States, and it

enters into the composition of the
majority of English sauces.

Spanish Fly.

(See Cantharides.)

Spelter.

(See Zinc.)

Speculum Metal. (Fr. Mital de
miroir, Ger. Spiegelmetall, Sp. Metal
del espejo.)

The hard alloy composed of copper
and tin, two parts of the first being
mixed with one part of the second. It
is steel white in appearance and capable
of taking a very high polish. For that
reason it is used for the mirrors of
reflecting telescopes.

Spence's Metal.

A greyish black substance, some-
what hke cement, formed by melting
together sulphide of iron and sulphur.
It melts at a low temperature and is
used for making busts, medalUons, etc.,
and also Uke lead for joining pipes. It
was first made about twenty-five years
ago.

Spermaceti. (Fr. Spermaceti, sperme,
blanc de baleine, Ger. Walrat, Spermacet,
Sp. Espermaceti.)

A white fatty substance prepared
from the oil obtained from the head of
the sperm whale. The oil requires
repeated purification by washing and
boiUng with potash, and is afterwards
prepared for use by draining and
pressure. Commercial spermaceti is
without either taste or odour. Sperm
candles are made from a mixture of
spermaceti and wax, the amount of
the latter being about 3 per cent, of
the whole. These candles give a
brilUant and steady Ught, and are the
standard for comparing the illumina-
ting powers of artificial lights. Medi-
cinally spermaceti is no longer used
internally, but it is an ingredient of
many kinds of ointments. The whole
of this substance met with in commerce
is obtained from the islands of the
Pacific Ocean.

Spices. (Fr. apices, Ger. Gei/uurie,
Sp. Especias.)

Various aromatic condiments and
substances used for flavouring. The
principal of these are noticed under
separate headings.

Spiegeleisen. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Spiegeleisen.)

A variety of iron containing a large
proportion of carbon and manganese.
48

Spi]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Sta

The name, which is the German for
" mirror iron," is derived from the fact
that upon fracture the plates shine
Uke the glasses of a mirror. It is chiefly
used in the manufacture of bessemer
steel.

Spikenard. (Fr. Nard indien, Ger.
Narde, Sp. Nardo.)

This perfume, also known as nard,
is obtained from the root of the
Nardostachys Jatamansi, a small plant
which is found in the north of India.
Its aromatic properties are more
prixed in the East than in Europe,
though in Europe it is Valuable
for medicinal purposes, spikenard
possessing strong stimulating proper-
ties.

Spinach. (Fr. Epinard, Ger. Spinat,
Sp. Espinaca.)

The wholesome and well-known pot
herb, the deep green leaves of the
Spinacia oleracea, a plant cultivated
in all parts of Europe. For cuUnary
purposes it is served boiled and mashed,
or as an ingredient in stews and soups.
As in the case of many other pot herbs
and vegetables there are many varie-
ties of spinach ^own.

Sponge. (Fr. Eponge, Ger. Schwamm,
Sp. Esponja.)

The horny substance consisting of
the skeletons of certain marine animals
which are always found fixed to rocks.
There are many varieties with particular
names. The sponges of commerce are
mostly obtained in the Mediterranean
Sea and off the West Indies. The
finest are found in the waters of Tur-
key, and there is a large export trade
from Smyrna. The West Indian
sponges are neither so soft nor so dur-
able as those obtained from the Me-
diterranean. In addition to their
domestic uses, sponges are of much
value in surgery for removing blood
and checking haemorrhage. They are
also used as filters.

Sprats. (Fr. Sprats, Ger. Sprotten,
Sp. Meletas.)

Well known small fishes of the her-
ring genus. They are very abundant
off the shores of Britain and the west-
em coasts of Europe generally, espe-
cially in autumn and winter. Besides
being used as a food they are in much
request for the manufacture of anchovy
paste, and the surplus stock form
excellent manure.

Spruce. (Fr. Sapin, tpinttte, Ger.
Sprossenfichte, Sp. Pino.)

A species of pine tree. The best
known is found in Norway, and sup-
pUes white deal and the substance
called Burgundy pitch. Its bark is
used for tanning. The young shoots
are boiled down in water, and after
sugar or treacle has been added, the
whole is allowed to ferment with yeast.
In this way the beverage known as
spruce beer is produced. The liquor is
variously flavoured. Black beer is an-
other kind of spruce beer, made very
extensively at Danzig.

Squills. (Fr. Scilhs, Ger. Meer-
zwiebeln, Sp. Escilas.)

A genus of bulbous plants belonging
to the order Liliacea, of which there
are no less than seventy species. They
are natives of southern Europe, but
are now widely spread over most
parts of the old world. The variety
used medicinally is the Scilla maritima
of Algeria. From the bulbs the drug
of the chemist's shop is prepared. As
a medicine this drug is valuable in
cases of dropsy, and likewise as an
expectorant and emetic.

Squirrel. (Fr. ^cureuil, Ger. Eich-
hornchen, Sp. Ardilla.)

The skins of these Uttle rodents are
in much request for fur-linings. Large
numbers of the skins are annually
imported into this country from Russia
and Siberia, those obtained from the
latter country being esteemed the best.

Starch. (Fr. Amidon, Ger. Stdrke-
mehl, Sp. Almidon.)

The substance occurring in grains
in the cellular tissues of all plants,
excepting certain kinds of sea-weed
and Uchens. It is a compound of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, its
chemical symbol being CsHjoOj It
appears in the form of solid granules
possessing a distinct organised struc-
ture and varying in size with the
nature of the plant from which it is
derived. Starches are of two distinct
kinds according as they are used for
food or in the arts. The food starches
comprise, among other things, arrow-
root, sago, and tapioca. Starch for
industrial purposes is chiefly obtained
from potatoes, wheat, maize, and rice.
The chief centre of manufacture in
Great Britain is Paisley, where maize
is used. At Norwich starch is made

149

Stel

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

from rice, and at Belfast from wheat.
The processes of 'manufacture differ
according to the substances used. In ad-
dition to its use in laundry work starch
is in great demand for making dextrin,
for thickening and finishing calicoes,
and for several processes of photogra-
phy. When starch is ground and
perfumed it forms violet powder.

Steatite^ (Fr. SUatite, Ger. Speck-
stein, Sp. Galajia.)

A hydrous silicate of magnesia,
generally white or yellow in colour,
occurring in many parts of the world
and found in large quantities in Corn-
wall. It.is soft to the touch and easily
cut. Common -steatite, or soapstone
as it is generally called, is used for
various purposes, especially polishing
mirrors, fulling cloth, and diminish-
ing friction in machinery. It is also
used in the manufacture of porcelain,
and is the basis of French chalk and
rouge powder.

Steel. (Fr. A cier, Ger. Stahl, Sp.A cero. )

One of the three varieties of iron,
the other two being wrought iron and
cast iron. It is formed when bars of
wrought iron are heated to redness
for a certain time in contact with
charcoal. The bar becomes fine-
grained instead of fibrous, and the
substance is more malleable and more
easily fusible than the original bar-
iron, and contains carbon to the extent
of one or two per cent. When steel
is quickly cooled it becomes very hard
and brittle, and is especially adapted
for making cutting tools. (See Bes-
semer Steel.)

Steel Pens. (Fr. Plumes d'acier, Ger.
Stahlfedern, Sp. Plumas de acero.)

The common writing • instrument
manufactured entirely by machinery.
The centre of the industry is England,
and the principal place of production
in the world is Birmingham.

Stilton. (Fr. Fromage de Stilton,
Ger. Stiltonkdse, Sp. Queso de Stilton.)

The rich cheese, originally made at
Stilton in Huntingdonshire, but now
manufactured in several other parts
of the country. It is the best of all
English cheeses. It improves and
ripens by being kept. It is very
rarely put on the market until it is at
least two years old.

Storax. (Fr. Styrax, Ger. Storax,
Sp. Esforaque. )

[Str

A resin obtained by exudation from
the stem of the Styrax officinalis, a
shrub of Greece and Turkey. It was
formerly much used in medicine and
perfumery, but its place has been taken
by liquid storax, a soft, viscid, dark
brown resin obtained from the Liquid ■
ambar orientate, d, tall tree of Asia
Minor. This substance is exported
exclusively from Smyrna. Its me-r
dicinal value is confined to cases of
chronic bronchitis.

Straw. (Fr. Paille, Ger. Stroh, Sp.
Paja.)

The dried stalks or stems of various
cereals. It is much used in agricul-
ture as a bedding material and in the
making of farmyard manure, and it is
valuable for packing, thatching, mak-
ing door mats, baskets, mattresses,
etc. It is likewise a paper-making
material, the straw being reduced
to a pulp and transformed into sheets
when it is known as straw-board.
Enormous quantities are employed in
straw-plaiting, the straw obtained
from wheat being the best. In Eng-
land the centre of the trade is Luton.
The finest plaits, however, are made in
Tuscany. The common plaits are
made In China, and the European
market is flooded with the shipments
from Canton. The Chinese compe-
tition has seriously injured the straw-
plaiting industry of Luton and Bed-
ford, but it has stimulated the straw
hat and bonnet trade. Almost the
whole of the straw plaits from China
are shipped to England and afterwards
re-exported to the continent. The
chief external buyers of hats and bon-
nets are the Australian colonies.

Strawberries. (Fr. Praises, Ger.
Erdbeerin, Sp. Fresas.)

The sweet succulent fruit of various
cultivated species of Pragaria vesca-,
widely distributed through the tem-
perate regions of the globe. Forced
strawberries are obtainable throughout
the year, but the season for the natural
grown fruit in England is from the
beginning of June to the end of July.
They are not only used for dessert,
but in the manufacture of jams. For
the latter purpose there are extensive
imports, but the quality of the fruit
is not nearly so good as that which is
home grown.

Straw Hats. (See Straut.)

ISO

Str]

world's commercial products.

[Sug

Straw Plaiting. (See Straw.)

Strontium. (Fr. andGer., Strontium,
Sp. Estroncio.)

A metallic element resembling cal-
cium and barium in its chemical pro-
perties. It occurs as a constituent in
the minerals celestine and stronianite
found in Scotland, especially in
Argyleshire. It is a yellowish coloured
substance and tarnishes rapidly on
exposure to the atmosphere. Several
of its compounds are valuable in
chemistry, and nitrate of strontia is
used in the manufacture of fireworks,
particularly Bengal Ughts. It bums
with a. characteristic red flame.

Strophanthus Seeds. (Fr. Graines
de Strophante, Ger. Strophantin-
nusse, Sp. Nueces de Strophanthus.)

The seeds of the Strophanthus
hispidus, a plant of which there are
several species, found in the tropical
regions of Asia and Afrirca. The seeds
are rather over half an inch in length
and one quarter of an inch broad.
They are oval in shape and flattened
at the sides. Their medicinal pro-
perties are the same as those of
digitalis, but great care is required in
the use of the drug derived from the
seeds owing to its exceedingly poison-
ous nature. The imports are derived
almost exclusively from West Africa.

Strychnine. (Fr. Strychnine, Ger.
Strychnin, Sp. Estricnina.)

The powerful alkaloid poison ob-
tained from the seeds of the Strychnos
Nux Vomica, a shrub of the East Indies.
Its chemical symbol is CjiHjsNaOj.
Strychnine occurs in small colourless
crystals, and is only slightly soluble
in water. It is, however, easily dis-
solved in ether or chloroform. Its
taste is intensely bitter and its pro-
perties extremely poisonous. Used
in minute doses it is valuable medicin-
ally in cases of nervous diseases.

Sturgeon. (Fr. Esturgeon, Ger. Star,
Sp. Esturion.)

A fish belonging to the Ganoid
genus, of which there are about 25
different species. The common stur-
geon is sometimes found in the rivers
of Great Britain and is a royal per-
quisite. The sterlet is a small species
of sturgeon, found principally in the
Volga and the Danube. The products
of the sturgeon, isinglass and caviare,
form an important part of the

commerce of Russia, especially at
Astrakhan.

Suet. (Fr. Graisse, Ger. Nierenfett,
Sp. Sebo.)

The pure solid fatty matter which
occurs in masses about the intestines
of several domestic animals, especially
sheep and oxen. Beef suet is mainly
used in cookery, while mutton suet is
employed for medicinal purposes,
particularly in the preparation of
ointments and plasters. The suet is
obtained from the internal fats by
melting and straining. It is often
used as a. substitute for lard in pre-
serving potted meats, fish, etc., from
the action of the air. In addition to
the large quantities of suet produced
in Great Britain, vast imports are made
into the country from South America.

Sugar. (Fr. Sucre, Ger. Zucher, Sp.
Azitcar.)

The well known article of food
which occurs in the juices of many
plants, but which is prepared for com-
merce almost exclusively from the
sugar cane and the beetroot. The sugar
cane is a gigantic grass found in the
tropical regions of both hemispheres.
It has a cylindrical stem, the sap of
which is rich in sugar in its ripe con-
dition. After the stems have been cut
they are passed between heavy rollers
for the extraction of the juice, which is
run into tanks and heated with lime.
The substance is then allowed to stand
for a time and is afterwards skimmed.
The heating and skimming processes
are repeated several times until the mix-
ture is free from scum. A thick syrup
remains and this is passed into shallow
pans, in which, as it cools, sugar crystals
are formed. The crystalline mass is the
raw sugar, and the dark substance
which drains oS is molasses. Various
modified mechanical contrivances are
in use in different sugar producing
countries. Beetroot sugar is prepared
somewhat similarly from the beet.
The root is crushed or sliced and the
solution boiled down. The subsequent
processes are the same for both cane
and beet sugar. The manufacture of
sugar from the beetroot has long been
an important industry of France, Ger-
many, Austria, and Russia. In order
to prepare sugar for use and for com-
merce it is necessary to refine it. For
this purpose the raw sugar is dissolved

IS"

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world's commercial products.

[Sum

and filtered to remove impurities,
and further tieated with animal char-
coal to remove the colouring matter.
The purs colourless syrup is then run
into vacuum pans, where it is evapo-
rated until crystals are formed. This
is the sugar of commerce, though
further treatment is necessary to pre-
sent it in the different forms under
which it is sold.

During the last twenty years there
have been very great fluctuations in
the sugar trade. The beet sugar has
competed keenly with the cane sugar,
and the bounties granted by various
foreign countries have inflicted great
hardships upon the refining industry
in Great Britain. The effect of the
Great War will no doubt materially
change matters as far as the produc-
tion of sugar is concerned.

Suint. (Fr. Gras de laine, suint,
Ger. WoUenfett, Lanolin, Sp. Lanoline.)

The grease obtained from sheep's
wool during the process of washing,
sometimes known as wool fat, and also
as lanoUne. It has lately been used
for soap making. This substance is
obtained from the wool washing in
this country and also from AustraUa.

Sulphonal. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Sulfonal.)

An opiate of complex composition,
the chemical symbol of which is (CHj)^
C (SOsOHj^a. It consists of white
crystals. These are tsisteless, and
easily soluble in water. It has only
recently become recognised in medicine.

Sulphur. (Fr. Soufre, Ger. Schwe-
fel, Sp. Azufre.)

One of the most important of the
non-metaUic elements. It occurs free
in certain volcanic districts, parti-
cularly in Sicily and Iceland, where it
appears as yellow transparent crystals.
In combination with many metals it
forms sulphides, which constitute the
ores from which the metals themselves
are ordinarily obtained. The chief
of these sulphides are galena and
blende. The principal supplies of
sulphur come from. Sicily, where the
element is found in beds of blue clay.
In order to extract it the native sub-
stance is piled in a heap and loosely
covered with earth. Heat is appUed,
a portion of the sulphur is ignited, and
the remainder, being melted, trickles
down to the bottom of the heap where

it is collected. In this . form it is
exported, and when it arrives in this
country it is subjected to distillation,
the vapour being condensed in cham-
bers. If the vapour is quickly cooled
below its melting point it solidifies in
the form of a fine crystalline powder
known as flowers of sulphur. If then
the flowers of sulphur are greatly
heated the substance melts and may be
cast into sticks. This is the brimstone
or roll sulphur of commerce.

Sulphur is a yellow, brittle, solid
substance, with very little taste or
smell, insoluble in water, but soluble
in bisulphide of carbon, oil of turpen-
tine, benzol, and heated alcohol. At
a temperature of 150° C. it melts and
forms an amber-coloured thick fluid,
daxkening as the temperature rises
until it becomes like thick treacle. It
bums, when heated to 260° C, with
a pale blue flame, and emits a suffo-
cating odour. At a temperature of
440° it boils and gives off red-coloured
vapour.

In its various forms sulphur is used
for a considerable number of purposes,
chief among them being the manufac-
ture of sulphuric acid, gunpowder.
Inciter matches, vulcanite, and sulphur-
ous acid.

Sulphuric Acid. (FT^Acide sulfurique,
Ger. Schwefelsdure, Sp. A cido sulfurico. )

The most important acid known,
as it is used not only in various arts
and manufactures, but is the means
by which numerous other acids are
prepared. It is a brownish, heavy,
oily liquid, the chemical symbol of
which is HaS04. Commercially it is
generally known as oil of vitriol. It
is manufactured to the extent of
thousands of tons a week in south
Lancashire alone. Immense quanti-
ties are consumed in the manufacture
of soda and bleaching powder, in calico
printing, and in dyeing. Dilute sul-
phuric acid, mixed with various com-
pounds, is used medicinally as an
astringent.

Sultanas. (Fr. Sultanes, Gef. Sul-
tanrosinen, Sp. Sultanas, pasas.)

Small raisins imported from Turkey.
They have neither pips nor stones.
(See Raisins.)

Sumach. (Fr. Sumac, Ger. Sumach,
Sp. Zumaque.)

The wood of the Rhus cotinus, a tree

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[Tap

of southern Europe, from wliich a valu-
able yellow dye is obtained. The bark is
very rich in tannin, and is used ex-
tensively for the preparation of the
finest kinds of leather. It is also used
on occasions as a substitute for Peru-
vian bark. Practically the whole of
the sumach of commerce is derived
from Italy.

Sunflower. (Fr. Helianthe, helio-
trope, Ger. Sonnenblume, Sp. Eliotro-
pio, girasol.)

A genus of coarse plants, of which
the commonest example is the Helian-
thus annuus. In Germany and Russia
it is grown on a large scale for the sake
of its seeds, which are variously used
ia commerce as a food for poultry, as
a substitute for coffee, as a source of
oil which is little inferior to olive oil,
and as a substance for making oil
cake. A good strong fibre is obtained
from the stems of the plant and a
strong, brilliant, yellow dye from the
flowers. The various products of the
sunflower are mainly exported by
Russia.

Sunn Hemp.

Otherwise known as Indian hemp.
It is the fibre obtained in southern
Asia and tropical Australia from
various species of Crotolaria. The fibre,
which is less sott than jute, is used for
the manufacture of rope, twine, sack
cloth, and other materials.

Tacamahac. (Fr. Tacamaque, Ger.
Takamahakharz, Sp. Tacamahaca. )

Or Tacamahaca. The resinous exu-
dation of various trees of tropical
America, the principal being the Idea
tacamahaca of Brazil. It has an ex-
ceedingly bitter taste, but a pleasing
odour. It is often burned as incense
in churches. It is used medicinally
in the preparation of various oint-
ments, especially for application in the
case of indolent ulcers.

Talc. (Fr. Talc, Ger. Talk, Sp. Talco.)

A mineral composed almost en-
tirely of siUca and magnesia in the
proportions of two to one. It varies
considerably in colour from white to
green. It has a pearly lustre and is
unctuous to the touch. It occurs in
combination with other rocks in
Scotland, the Pyrenees, the Tyrol, and
the United States. Talc is used for
various purposes, among which may
be mentioned the manufacture of

lOA— (1484)

porcelain clay, fulling, and the making
of crucibles and crayons.

Tallow. (Fr. Suif, Ger. Talg, Sp.
Seho. )

The harder and less fusible varieties
of the fat of animals, especially that
of oxen and sheep. It is composed
of stearine, palmitin, and olein in
varying quantities. It is prepared by
melting the fat of animals at the lowest
possible temperature, allowing the
liquid to stand, and drawing off the
clear fat. Tallow is mainly used for
the manufacture of candles and soap.
A species of tallow, harder than animal
tallow, is obtained from the tallow tree,
a native of Japan and China, and now
largely cultivated in the southern parts
of the United States. This is also
used for the manufacture of candles
which are used in Chinese ' temples.
The seeds of the tree produce an oil,
and the leaves are used in dyeing black.

Tamarind. (Fr. Tamarin, Ger. Ta-
marinde, Sp. Tamarindo.)

The fruit of the leguminous Tama-
rindus indica, a lofty tree grown in the
tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and
America. The seeds of the tree are
contained in a pod, those of the East
being larger than those of the West.
The fruit is preserved in syrup and
is exported, mainly from the West
Indies, for medicinal purposes. The
wood of the tamarind tree is useful
for building and cabinet making, the
bark is employed as a tonic and
astringent, and the leaves yield a
yellow dye-stuff.

Tampico Fibre. (Fr. Fibre de Tam-
pico, Ger. Tampicofaser, Sp. Fibra de
Tampico.)

The fibre obtained from the leaves of
the Yucca baccata, a Mexican plant,
and shipped chiefly from Tampico, on
the Gulf of Mexico. It is manufac-
tured into cordage, rugs, and various
fabrics.

Tanning Substances.

The principal of these are noticed
under separate headings. (See Leather. )

Tapioca. (Fr. Tapioca, Ger. Tapioka
Sp. Tapioca.)

The granulated starch of a species
of Manihot, extensively cultivated in
South America, and also in the East
Indies. The starch is obtained from
the root of the plant, and carefully
roasted on hot plates, great care being

153

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[Tea

taken not to overheat it. In its com-
mercial form it appears as small
lumps, crisp, transparent, and very
irregular in shape. The varieties
known are fine flake, medium pearl,
and seed pearl. Tapioca is highly
nutritious and forms an excellent food
for infants and invalids. The chief
exports are from Brazil and Singapore.

Tar. (Fr. Goudron, Ger. Teer, Sp.
Brea. )

The dark, semi-solid substance, of
disagreeable smell, obtained as a pro-
duct of the destructive distillation of
various organic substances. The tars
of commerce are derived from the
distillation of coal and wood. Coal tar
is a highly complex mixture of a large
number of substances, the principal of
wliich are the hydrocarbons. Its
value as a commercial article has been
much increased in recent times by the
fact that it is the source of a large
number of the aniline colours. By
distillation coal tar is separated into
gases, ammoniacal liquor, light oil,
dead oil, and pitch. Wood tar is
largely obtained in connection with
the preparation of wood charcoal by
the combustion of fine trees. Tar has
valuable antiseptic properties, and is
used as a coating for preserving iron
and timber, for tarring cordage, and
for various medicinal purposes.

Tartar, Cream of. (Fr. Crime de
tartre, Ger. Weinsteinrahm, Kalium-
bitartrat, Sp. Cvemor de t&rtaro.)

Also known as bitartrate of pot-
ash, having as its chemical symbol
KHC4H406. 1 1 is obtained by purifying
crude argol. It is sometimes used as
a baking powder, and medicinally it
acts as a mild aperient.

Tartaric Acid. (Fr. Acide tartar-
ique, Ger. Weinsteinsaure, Sp. Acido
tartarico.)

An important organic acid, occurring
free or in combination with bases in the
fruits and juices of many plants,
especially the grape. Its chemical
symbol is C,Hs(OH),(COOH ). It
is prepared from argol, an impure
bitartrate of potash, which is depo-
sited in wine vats during fermenta-
tion, by treatment with chalk and
sulphuric acid. Tartaric acid, which
dissolves easily in water and has a
sour taste, appears in the form of white
transparent crystals. It is much used

in calico printing, and in the manu-
facture of effervescing drinks.

Tea. (Fr. Th^, Ger. Tee, Sp. T^.)

The dried leaves of a species of
plants included in the genus Camellia.
Although there are several species, the
tea of commerce is derived from the
Camellia theifera (var. Sinensis) of
China, and the Camellia theifera (var.
Assamica) of India. Until the middle
of the nineteenth century almost the
whole of the tea which entered into
commerce was obtained from China,
but since that time the cultivation of
the tea plant -has been increasing in
India and Ceylon, and now more than
one half of the supplies of the world
are derived from the Indian Empire.
The tea plant is an evergreen slirub
with thick leaves and white flowers.
The leaves are picked by hand and
subjected to various processes, drying
by exposure to air, roasting, rolling by
hand, and again roasting over charcoal
fires. The best tea is obtained from
the young leaves of the plant. The
different "kinds of tea depend upon
the varieties and qualities of the plant,
the soil, the climate, and the method
of treatment. Green tea is obtained
in the same manner as black tea, but
in the case of the former the leaves
of the plant are exposed to the air
for a shorter time than when the
latter is produced. Of black teas the
best known as Congou, Pekoe, Sou-
chong, and Bohea, while Hysons
and Gunpowder are the principal
green varieties. In central Asia and
Tibet tea, pressed into the shape of
bricks, and hence called brick tea, is
most commonly used. It is prepared
with a slight admixture of butter and
salt. Tea forms one of the commonest
articles of consumption and its sti-
mulating action is the result of the
presence of the alkaloid theine or
caffeine.

Teak. (Fr. Teck, tek, Ger. Te(a)k-
holz, Sp. Teca, encina de Africa.

The hard and durable timber of the
Tectona grandis, a gigantic tree of India
and the East Indies. It is particularly
prized for shipbuilding and the con-
struction of bridges. It is also used
for the making of railway carriages,
furniture, bridges, etc. The leaves of
the tree yield a red dye. Teak is
mainly exported from Burmah.

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Teasel. (Fr. Cardire, Ger. Karden-
distel, Sp. Cardencha.)

A species of herb of which the best
iiiown is the Dipsacus jullonum, found
to a certain extent in England, and
very common in southern Europe and
northern Africa. The flower heads
are used by cloth manufacturers for
passing over the surface of cloth and
raising the nap. There are enormous
imports of these flower heads into
England from France and Austria.

Terra-cotta. (Fr. Terre cuite, Ger.
^ehrannte Erde, Sp. Tierra cocida.)

A kind of pottery or earthenware,
the name signifying baked clay. It is
simply a superior variety of brickwork
a,nd is largely used for decorative pur-
poses, statuary, etc. It is composed
of a mixture of potter's clay and fine
colourless sand made into a paste and
moulded into the required shape, dried
in the air, and fired at a high tempera-
ture. Terra-cotta, when well made, is
close and smooth in texture and
retains its bright colour when exposed
to smoke or acid laden air. This
substance has recently come into
great favour, and is now largely
manufactured in south London.

Thread. (Fr. Fil, Ger. Faden, Gam,
Zwirn, Sp. Hilo.)

The fine cord or filament of cotton,
flax, or silk, used for sewing. Any
fibrous substance which is woven is
first spun into yam and called thread,
but sewing thread consists of two or
more yarns twisted together. Cotton
thread is made at Manchester and
Glasgow, but the chief centre of the
manufacture is Paisley, which turns
out about one half of the thread
required by the whole world. Silk
thread is often known by the name of
twist.

Thyme. (Fr. Thym, Ger. Thymian,
Sp. Tomillo.)

A species of shrub grown in various
parts of Europe, and used for culinary
purposes. From the lemon thyme an
oil of thyme is obtained by distillation,
and this is used for the preparation of
thymol, a useful antiseptic much
valued in hospitals to counteract the
bad smells arising from decomposing
animal matter.

Timber. (Fr. Bois de charpente,
Ger. Bauholz, Sp. Maderage.)

The principal kinds of timber are
noticed under separate headings.

Tin. (Fr. Etain, Ger. Zinn, Sp.
Estano.)

The well-known beautiful and lus-
trous white metal. It is extremely
malleable, and can be rolled out
into very thin plates, called tin foil^
Tin undergoes little change when
exposed to the air unless it is
heated, when a film of oxide forms on
its surface. Its specific gravity is 7'3.
Tin is rarely found native, but occurs
chiefly in the form of tinstone or
cassiterite, an ore which is abundant
in Cornwall and Devonshire, the Malay
Peninsula, and Australia. The ore
is broken into small pieces and finely
pounded in a stamping machine, after
which it is roasted in a reverberatory
furnace and gradually purified. It is
as a component of various alloys that
tin is especially valuable. The most im-
portant of these are gun-metal, bell-
metal, speculum metal, solder, pewter,
Britannia metal, and bronze. Mirrors
are silvered by an amalgam of tin and
mercury. Each of these substances is
noticed under separate headings. The
supplies of Great Britain are largely sup-
plemented by imports derived from
Australia, especially New South
Wales.

Tin plate is composed of thin sheet
iron covered with a thin coating of
metallic tin to preserve the iron from
oxidation by exposure to the atmos-
phere.

Tincal. (Fr. Tincal, borax hnit,
Ger. Tinkal, Sp. Atincar.)

The name for crude borax which is
imported from India in its impure
condition.

Tobacco. (Fr. Tabac, Ger. Tdbah,
Sp. Tabaco.)

The dried leaves of several species
of Nicotiana, the principal being the
Nicotiana persica, the source of the
highly prized Persian tobacco, the
Nicotiana rustica, from which the
tobacco of Latakia, Turkey, and Ma-
nilla are derived, and the Nicotiana
repanda, the American variety of the
plant. The tobacco plant is remark-
able for its straight stems and long
broad leaves. It is grown on both
sides of the equator, as far as the 50th
parallel of latitude, but its properties,
especially those of the volatile oil and

^SS

Tob]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Tots

alkaloid nicotine it contains, vary
according to the climate, the soil, and
the conditions of cultivation. To
prepare it for the market the leaves
of the tobacco plant are cut, dried,
and stripped. The process of drying
Varies in different parts of the world ;
sometimes it is done naturally by the
sun, while at other times artificial
means are used. The leaves are
generally allowed to lie in heaps for
a week or two and covered over,
during which period a slight fermen-
tation takes place. After being sorted
the leaves are pressed and packed in
barrels for exportation. The sub-
sequent treatment and manufacture
give rise to the various commercial
varieties which are well known in the
market. Shag is the moistened and com -
pressed leaves which are afterwards
cut into fine shreds. Cavendish
is the name given to tobacco leaves
which are moistened with syrup and
pressed into cakes. For the manu-
facture of twist tobacco the fermented
leaves are twisted either by hand or
macliinery into the form of rope — the
thin rope being called pigtail, and the
thicker rope bogie.

For the manufacture of cigars the
midribs of the dried leaves are first
removed. The leaves are then
moistened with water or a solution of
nitre and roiled round smaller frag-
ments into cylindrical form. For good
cigars the leaves should be uniform
throughout, but owing to various
causes common leaves are very fre-
quently used for the interior. The
best Havana cigars are all derived from
Cuba, but Havana boxes are fre-
quently filled with cigars of inferior
brands. Cheroots come from the
Philippine Islands. Mexican and Bra-
zilian cigars have recently come into
favour, as well as a cheaper kind
manufactured in India.

Cigarettes were at one time made
almost exclusively from tobacco grown
in Syria. They are now manufactured
from many different kinds, the tobacco
being frequently scented or adulterated
with opium.

, Snuff is made from moistened to-
bacco which, after fermentation, has
-been dried, powdered, and scented.

The suppUes of tobacco for Great
Britain are chiefly derived from

different parts of America, the Levant,
India, Sumatra, and the Philippine-
; Islands. Except under very limited
conditions, the cultivation of the to-
bacco plant in Great Britain is for-
bidden under heavy penalties.

Tokay. (Fr. Tokai, tokay, Ger.
Tokay er, Sp. Tokay.)

A renowned brownish-yellow wine
of Hungary, made from the grapes of
the vines which grow on the slopes of
the Hegyalja Mountains. There are
several varieties of this wine on the
market, the principal being the Es-
sence, regarded by some judges as the
best of all wines, and the Ansbruch.
Owing to its great reputation and its.
limited supply Tokay wine is difficult
to obtain in a pure condition. It is
very frequently largely adulterated
with inferior wines, and French and
German imitations are found in all the
markets of Europe.

Tolu. (See Balsam.)

Tomato. (Fr. Tomate, Ger. Tomate,
Liebesapfel, Sp. Tomate.)

The well-known culinary vegetable,
the fruit of the Lycopersicum esculen-
tum. It is often known as the love
apple. A native of South America, it
was introduced into Europe nearly
four centuries ago and thrives in most
countries, but especially in Italy. The
demand in Great Britain is so great
that the native supplies are altogether
inadequate. The fruit, when imported,
comes in an unripe condition. It is then
best fitted for pickling and for making
into sauces, etc. When ripe the tomato
is eaten either raw or cooked.

Tonca or Tonquin Bean. (Fr. FSve de
Tonca, Ger. Tonkabohne, Sp. Haba de
Tonca. )

The seed of the Dipterix odorata, a
tall trfee which grows in the northern
part of South America, especially
Guiana. It has the pleasant odour of
freshly mown hay, and is much used
by perfumers for scenting purposes,
and is often carried in snuff boxes to
give a pleasing smell to the snuff.

Tongues. (Fr. Langues, Ger. Zm»
gen, Sp. Ldnguas.)

The tongues of certain animals are
highly esteemed as food and enter
largely into commerce, especially
ivhen tinned. The chief of these
are ox tongues, which are exported
in enormous numbers from Uruguay

S6

fop]

WORLD S COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.

[Tul

and reindeer tongues which come from
Russia. Sheeps' tongues, fresh and
frozen, are obtained from Australia.

Topaz. (Fr. Topaze, Ger. Topas,
Sp. Topacio.)

A mineral generally included
among gems. It is largely composed of
silica, alumina, and a small quantity
of oxide of iron. It is extremely hard.
Its colour is generally of a yellowish
hue, but pink and blue varieties are
sometimes found. It occurs in many
parts of the world, but the topazes
most prized by jewellers come from
Brazil. The oriental topaz is a yellow
variety of corundum, scarcely differ-
ing, except in colour, from the eme-
rald, the sapphire, and the ruby. The
false topaz is merely a yellow variety
of quartz found in great abundance in
the Grampians.

Tortoise-shell. (Fr. Ecaille de tor-
tue, Ger. Schildkrotenschale, Sp. Con-
cha de iortuga.)

The epidermal homy plates which
cover the back of the hawksbill turtle,
the carnivorous reptile found along
the coasts of the United States. The
plates are peculisir in that they do not
join but overlap each other like the
tiles of a roof. In thickness they
seldom exceed one-eighth of an inch.
Their beautiful mottled colour and
semi-transparent character are well
known. In Great Britain the chief uses
of tortoise-shell are in the manufac-
ture of combs and other fancy objects,
and in inlaying ornamental furniture.
The plates can be removed from the
back of the turtle without injuring it,
but the quality of the plates of the
second growth is not so good as that
of the first.

Tow. (Fr. itoupe, Ger. Werg, Sp.
Esiopa.)

The waste fibre or refuse which
remains in carding flax and hemp. In
addition to the tow obtained in Great
Britain large quantities are imported
from various foreign countries. Tow
is largely employed in the manufacture
of bags, sheetings, and yarn. It is
also used in the manufacture of paper.

Toys. (Fr. Joueis, Ger. Spielzeug,
Sp. Trebejos.)

In addition to those made in Great
Britain, principally in London and
Birmingham, there are large imports
of toys from Germany, France, and

Switzerland. The centre of the manu-
facture on the continent is Nuremburg.
Many of the toys imported into Eng-
land are re-exported to the colonies
and to the United States.

Treacle. (Fr. Thiriaque, Ger. Deck-
syrup, Theriak, Sp. Teriaca.)

The dark, viscous, uncrystallisable
juice of the sugar cane obtained in the
manufacture of sugar. It is that
syrup which remains when the crystal-
lised sugar has been separated. It
has remarkable sweetening properties.
(See Sugar.)

Truffles. (Fr. Truffes, Ger. Triif-
feln, Sp. Criadillas.)

A genus of fungi which grow under-
ground, chiefly used as a flavouring
agent for culinary purposes. They are
generally found in light chalk soils and
in woods where beech, oak, birch, and
chestnut trees grow. They are not
common in England, but the crop in
France is said to be of the annual value
of one milUon sterling. Truffles are
usually black, or pinky white. In
order to obtain them a particular
breed of dog is employed, the discovery
being made by means of the smell. In
some parts pigs are trained for the
same purpose. The fungus is some
times as large as a cocoa-nut. France
is the chief exporting country, and
they are sent out packed in bottles.

Tulips. (Fr. TuUpes, Ger. Tulpen,
Sp. Tulipanes.)

The well known flowers which have
been, and are still, extensively culti-
vated in Holland. Hundreds of acres
are under cultivation in the Nether-
lands, principally in the neighbour-
hood of Haarlem, and bulbs are ex-
ported to the annual value of more
than ;£100,000. There are hundreds
of varieties of tulips, but all are ar-
ranged under the four groups of
bizarres, byblaemens, roses, and selfs.

Tulip Tree. (Fr. TuUpier, Ger.
Tulpenbaum, Sp. Tulipero.)

A magnificent tree of the temperate
parts of North America. Its pale
yellow timber is valued by coach
builders and cabinet makers on account
of its lightness, strength, and dura-
bility. The bark is used medicinally
for its bitter tonic properties.

Tulle. (Fr. Tulle, Ger. Ttill, Sp. Tul.)

The thin silk lace fabric of very open
structure, used for trimmings, caps.

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[Twi

veils, etc. An imitation tulle is made
of cotton. The manufacture is fairly
distributed, though it was originally
confined to the town of Tulle, in the
department of Corr&ze, France.

Tungsten. (Fr. Tungstine, Ger.
Wolfram, Sp. Tungsteno.)

A white, hard, brittle, heavy metal
found in Germany, generally in com-
bination with tinstone. It is some-
times used in small quantities to give
additional hardness to steel. One of
its compounds, tungstate of soda, is
soluble in water, and when added to
the starch employed for stiffening
light fabrics, such as muslin, the
tungstate renders the fabrics un-
inflammable. Also found in Cornwall.
Tunny. (Fr. Than, Ger. Thunfisch,
Sp. A tun.)

A fish of the mackerel order, found
abundantly in the Mediterranean. In
addition to its use as a food, an oil is
obtained from it, which, like several
other fish oils, is used for dressing
leather.

Turbot. (Fr. Turboi, Ger. Steinbutt,
Sp. Rombo.)

The well known flat fish, which is
highly prized as a food and which is
inferior in value to the sole alone. It
is very plentiful off the coasts of Great
Britain and France, and the demand
for it is very great in both countries.
Like the sole the turbot is entirely
absent from the coasts of America.

Turmeric. (Fr. Curcuma, Ger. Gelb-
wurz, Kurkume, Sp. Curcuma.)

The yeUow dye obtained from the
roots of the Curcuma longa, a. plant
which was originally cultivated in
India and other parts of Asia, but
now widely distributed throughout the
tropical regions of the globe. The
best turmeric is still obtained from
India. Besides being used as a dye
it is an important ingredient of various
condiments, especially curry powder,
and it is also used to adulterate
mustard.

Turnip. (Fr. Navet, rave, Ger.
Rube, Sp. Naba.)

The hardy biennial plant, the roots
of which are valuable as a cattle food
as well as a flavouring agent for soups,
stews, etc. There are two principal
varieties, the ordinary white turnip
and the yellow swede. It does not
form a, very nourishing article of diet

as it contains no starch, and more than
90 per cent, of it consists of water. It
is estimated that the total crop of the
United Kingdom is not less than
twenty-five million tons per annum.

Turpentine. (Fr. T^ribenthine, Ger.
Terpentin, Sp. Trementina.)

The oily, semi-solid, resinous sub-
stance which exudes from various
species of pine trees, though Venice
turpentine is obtained from the larch.
The chief seat of the turpentine in-
dustry is North Carolina, from which
state Great Britain imports over
twenty thousand tons per annum in
barrels. By distillation oil of turpen-
tine is obtained and resin is left behind.
This oil of turpentine is the ordinary
turpentine of commerce and has
the chemical symbol C.oHis. It is
extensively used in the prepwation of
oils, paints, and varnishes. Medicin-
ally it is valuable as a local irritant to
be applied in cases of rheumatism,
and as an antiseptic.

Turquoise. (Fr. Turquoise, Ger.
Tiirkis, Sp. Turquesa.)

A mineral occurring in differently
shaped masses, of a blue or bluish
green colour, much used in jewellery.
It is a phosphate of alumina containing
small quantities of the oxides of iron
and copper. The best specimens are
found in Persia.

Turtle. (Fr. Tortue, Ger. Schild-
krote, Sp. Tortuga.)

Marine reptiles, one of the most
valuable species being the green turtle
annually imported in large numbers
from Ascension for the maniifacture
of turtle soup. The hanksbill turtle of
America is the source of tortoise shell.

Tusseh. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Tusseh,
Tusser.)

A pecuUar coarse silk obtained from
several large moths of India, espe-
cially the Anther isa mylitta. During
recent years this silk has been in-
creasingly in demand and large im-
ports are made annually by Lyons.

Tweeds (Fr. ^toffes icossaises, Ger.
Schottlandische Stoffe, Sp. Materias de
Escocia.)

A special class of Scotch woollen
fabrics of a stout, close woven texture,
used for male clothing and sometimes
for ladies' mantles.

Twills. (Fr. ttoffes pUssUs, Ger.
GekSpertes Zeug, Sp. Telas de lana.)
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[Vel

Woven ribbed cloths in which the
warp is raised one thread and then
depressed two or more threads for the
passage of the weft. Owing to this
mode of manufacture twilled fabrics
have always the appearance of diag-
onal lines.

Ultramarine. (Fr. Otttremer, bleu
d'outremer, Ger. UUramarin, Sp. Ultra-
mar.)

A beautiful blue pigment used by
painters, paper-stainers, calico print-
ers, and others. It was formerly ob-
tained from lazulite, but is now arti-
ficially compounded by mixing china
clay, charcoal, and sulphate of sodium,
and roasting the whole with sulphur.
Ultramarine is manufactured exten-
sively in Germany, France, and Bel-
gium, and recently the manufacture
has been taken up in England, espe-
cially by the Lancashire Ultramarine
Company, Limited, near Ulverston.

Umber. (Fr. Terre d'ombre, ombre,
Ger. Umbra, Sp. Sombra.)

A pigment of various shades of
brown, a brown earthy mineral ob-
tained chiefly in Italy and Cyprus,
though sometimes found in England
and Wales. The mineral is ground to
powder, and is valuable in the prepara-
tion of oil and water colours. It is
also used as an ingredient of house
painter's colours.

Valencias. (Fr., Ger., and Sp.,
Valencias. )

A variety of raisins made from
grapes grown in Turkey. The bunches
of grapes are dipped into a hot alkaline
solution before being dried in the sun.
Valerian. (Fr. VaUriane, Ger. Bal-
drian, Sp. Valeriana.)

A well-known shrub of which there
are many different species, that of
Britain being the Valeriana officinalis,
or common valerian. The root is
valuable in medicine on account of
its stimulating properties, and it is
prescribed in cases of hysteria.

Valonia. (Fr. Vilan&de.noix de galle,
Ger. Knoppern, Sp. Avellanada.)

The commercial name of the acorn
cup of a species of oak, Quercui agilops,
which flourishes in southern Europe,
Asia Minor, and Syria. It is very rich
in tannic acid, and is consequently in
great demand by tanners. After oak
bark it is the most important of all the
substances used in the manufacture of

leather. Very large shipments are
made every year from Smyrna, and
a small quantity is also exported from
Greece.

Vanadium. (Fr. and Ger.. Vanadium,
Sp. Vanadio.)

A very rare metal, generally found in
certain iron ores and clays. It enters
but little into commerce, though some
of its salts are used for making aniline
black, and for colouring porcelain.

Vanilla. (Fr. Vanille, Ger. Vanille,
Sp. Vainilla.)

A species of orchid, and the only
variety which has any economical
value. The most esteemed fruit is a
native of the West Indies, but it is now
extensively cultivated in most tropical
countries. The fruit is a kind of
cylindrical food from seven to ten
inches in length. It is gathered before
it is ripe, and generally steeped in the
oil of the cachu nut. Vanilla has a
strong and agreeable smell and a sweet
taste. It is much used by perfumers,
and it is also employed for flavouring
chocolates, sweetmeats, ices, and
liqueurs. The chief imports are from
Mexico, Brazil, and Mauritius.

Varnishes. (Fr. Vernis, Ger. Fir
nisse, Sp. Barniz.)

Solutions of gum resins in various
volatile liquids and fixed oils, used for
coating wood and metal work to pro-
tect it from exposure to air and
moisture. The principal resinous sub-
stances employed in the manufacture
of varnishes are separately noticed.

Vaseline. (Fr. Vaseline, Ger. Vase-
lin, Sp. Vaseline.)

A pale yellow semi-solid substance
obtained from petroleum or paraffin.
It possesses neither taste nor smell.
Vaseline has the advantage over animal
fats of never becoming rancid. It is
largely used in the making of oint-
ments and salves, is an excellent
lubricant, and is valuable as a
coating for fine steel instruments to
preserve them from rust.

Vegetable Ivory. (See Ivory.)

Vegetable Marrow. (See Gourd.)

Vellum.

(See Parchment.)

Velvet. (Fr. Velours, Ger. Sam-
met, Sand, Sp. Terciopelo.)

A dress fabric made of silk, and
woven with a looped surface. This

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[W*l

surface is cut, and a thick, fine, close-
set pile is the result. A mixture of
cotton and silk stufis manufactured in
the same way as velvet is known as
velveteen. The great centres of the
velvet trade are Lyons and Crefeld.

Verdigris. (Fr. Vert-de-gns, Ger.
Grunspan, Sp. Verdete.)

A green or blue pigment used by
painters and dyers, and also employed
in the manufacture of other green
colours. It is a powdered acetate of
copper and is largely made in France
by exposing thin sheets of copper to
the vapour of acetic acid arising from
the marc or pressed skins of grapes by
fermentation.

Verditer. (Fr. Verdet, bleu de prime,
Ger. Steingrun, Berggrwn, Bergblau, Sp.
Verde tierra.)

A blue or green pigment, the hydra-
ted oxide of copper, the colour varying
according to the completeness of the
oxidation. It is mainly used for paper
staining. The varieties of verditer
are often known as Bremen blue and
Bremen green.

Vermicelli. (Fr. Vermicelle, Ger.
Fadennudeln, Sp. Fidios.)

The finer form of macaroni, made
entirely in Italy.

Vermilion. (Fr. Vermilion, Ger.
Gemahlener Zinnoher, Sp. Vermellon,
cinabrio.)

The red sulphide of mercury, also
called cinnabar, obtained by grinding
the native cinnabar. It is, however,
generally made artificially by heating
a mixture of mercury and sulphur, six
parts of the former to one of the latter,
in a revolving vessel until the combina-
tion is complete, and afterwards grind-
ing the whole. Vermilion is used in
painting and for colouring sealing wax.
In addition to the production in Great
Britain for home use, suppUes are
obtained from Germany and France.

Vermouth. (Fr. Vermout, Ger. Wer-
mut, Sp. Ajenjo.)

A bitter white wine flavoured with
wormwood, gentian, and other herbs.
It is manufactured in France and Italy,
and in the latter country it is much
used as a cordial and appetiser
especially when diluted. The small
English imports are obtained from
Geneva and Marseilles.

Vetiver. (Fr.,Ger., andSp., Vetiver.)

The fragrant fibrous root of a grass

called kuscus, found in swamps in
India. In the East the roots are used
for weaving into baskets, fans, screens,
and covers. In Europe vetiver is
valuable for an oil extracted from it,
which is used in perfumery. It is also
employed for driving away moths from
clothing.

Vevey. (Fr. Cigares de Vevey, Ger.
Vevey-Cigarren, Sp. Cigarros de Vevey.)

The name of a peculiar kind of cigars
which are manufactured and exported
from Vevey, a Swiss town situated on
the northern shores of the Lake of
Geneva.

Vinegar. (Fr. Vinaigre, Ger. Essig,
Sp. Vinagre.)

A form of acetic acid largely used for
culinary purposes. It is a product of
the fermentation of various vegetable
substances. In Great Britain, vinegar
is generally made from malt, while on
the continent of Europe it is chiefly
made from cheap sour wines. Wood
vinegar, obtained in the destructive
distillation of wood, is mainly used in
chemical operations, but it is very
frequently employed by pickle manu-
facturers. Aromatic vinegar, used
medicinally for filUng smelling bottles,
is a mixture of acetic acid, camphor,
oil of cloves, lavender, and other per-
fumes. Wine vinegar is imported into
Great Britain almost exclusively from
Bordeaux.

Vitriol, Oil of. (Fr. Acide sulfur-
ique, Ger. Schwefelsaure, Sp. Acido
sulfurico.)

The commercial name for sulphuric
acid.

Vulcanite.

(See Ebonite.)

Walnut. (Fr. Noix, noyer, Ger.
Walnuss, Sp. Nuez.)

The popular name of the fruit of the
Juglans regia as well as of the tree
itself. The timber is extremely hard
and durable, and does not spUt. It
takes a fine poUsh, and is used for
making furniture and gun stocks. The
bark is useful for tanning purposes.
The fruit is a hard green shell contain-
ing the well-known nut, which not only
serves as a dessert nut, but is fre-
quently pickled. Walnut oil is ex-
pressed from the kernel, and the oil is
employed by painters. The cake
which remains over forms a good feed-
ing stuff for cattle. The walnut tree

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[Win

is grown in England, but the demand
both for timber and nuts has to be
made up by importation, especially
from France and Belgium.

Walrus. (Fr. Morse, cheval marin,
Ger. Walross, Sp. Cdballo marino.)

A marine mammal of the northern
arctic regions, sometimes known as
the morse. It is commercially valu-
able for the oil obtained from its
blubber, and for the ivory obtained
from its tusks, which is whiter and
harder than elephant ivory. This
ivory is used for the manufacture of
trinkets, buttons, paper knives, etc.
The hide of the walrus is sometimes
made into leather.

Watches. (Fr. Montres, Ger. Uhren, .
Sp. Relofes.)

The watch making industry has been
revolutionised within late years through
foreign enterprise and competition.
The best watches are still made
in London, but the introduction of
machinery in the United States has
enabled watches and clocks to be pro-
duced at an extremely low price.
Switzerland, France, and Germany also
export large numbers of watches to all
parts of the world.

Water Melon.

(See Melon.)

Wax.

(See Beeswax, Candleberry, Japan
Wax.)

Whalebone. (Fr. Baleine, barbe de
baleine, Ger. Fischbein, Sp. Ballena.)

The long thin plates which are
developed in the roof of the mouth of
certain species of whale. They are
not bone at all, but rather a kind of
hair. Whalebone is strong, flexible,
compact, and light, and is used for a
large number of purposes, but es-
pecially for the manufacture of strong
brushes.

Wheat. (Fr. Froment, bU, Ger.
Weizen, Sp. Trigo.)

One of the most important of the
food grains of commerce, the product
of the Triticum vulgare. It is more
grown in the temperate parts of the
world than any other grain, and it is
the staple food of the more highly
civilised races. The various kinds of
wheat differ somewhat in their com-
position, but English wheat is made
Sp as foUows :— Water, 14-5 ; albu-
moids, chiefly fibrin, 11 ; starch, 69 •

fat, 1'2; cellulose and lignose, 2'6 ;
mineral matter or ash, 1'7. It is a
valuable flesh-forming and nutritive
substance. The chief supplies, to make
up the deficiencies of Great Britain, are
drawn from Canada, the United States,
Russia, Roumania, Australia, Argen-
tina, and India. The crushed grain of
wheat is flour, the cuticle of the grain
separated from the flour' being bran.
The stalk of the plant when dried is
straw, and contains a considerable
amount of silica.

Whisky. (Fr. , Ger. , and Sp. , Whisky. )

The well-known spirit distilled from
malt or a mixture of malted and raw
grain. It is also largely made from
potatoes and other starch yielding
materials. Pure malt whisky is made
almost exclusively in Scotland. In
Ireland only one-third of the materials
used is malt, the rest being barley,
oats, and maize. In England much of
the whisky is made from a root pre-
pared from various cereals with malt
and sugar. In all cases the method
of manufacture consists of two pro-
cesses — fermentation and distillation.
When first made whisky is a colourless
liquid, and its various shades are ob-
tained by storage in sherry or other
wine casks, or by the addition of some
colouring matter. Proof spirit con-
sists of equal parts of alcohol and
water, while that sold by the retail
dealers is generally from 10 to 20 per
cent, under proof.

White Lead. (Fr. Blanc de plomb,
ceruse, Ger. Bleiweiss, Sp. Albayalde.)

A pigment much used by painters,
made by the decomposition of lead
with various acids, especially dilute
nitric acid. When dry it is in the
form of cakes, in which form it
appears in the market.

Wincey.

A textile fabric of mixed character,
consisting of a cotton warp and worsted
weft. The fabric is either plain or
twilled. The manufacture is mainly
carried on at Perth and Aberdeen, and
the article is chiefly used for making
gowns.

Wine. (Fr. Vin, Ger. Wein, Sp. Vino.)

The alcoholic liquid obtained from
the juice of the grape, after it has been
expressed, by fermentation. The
juice, technically called must, is a
thick fluid and consists of a most

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[Yak

complex mixture of different sub-
stances. Great care is required when
the fermentation commences, and it is
upon this part of the process of wine
making that the success or failure of
the whole depends. If the fermenta-
tion is stopped before the whole of the
sugar is converted into alcohol, a
fruity wine is produced, while a dry
wine is the result of complete conver-
sion. Sparkling wines are the result
of bottfing while fermentation is still
going on. The colour of wines depends
partly upon the colouring matter in
the skins of the grapes and partly upon
the substances added. The principal
kinds of wine are noticed under
separate headings.

Wire. (Fr. Fil de mHal, Ger. Metall-
draht, Sp. Hilo de alambre.)

The thin threads or ribbons of
different metals, especially copper,
brass, steel, and iron. The manner in
which wire can be drawn depends upon
the property of ductiUty possessed by
the metal. Gold is the most ductile
of all and lead the least. Wire is most
extensively used in telegraphy and for
the manufacture of wire-ropes and
wire netting. Wire ropes have practi-
cally taken the place of cables and
chains for all kinds of heavy work.

Woad. (Fr. Pastel, guide, Ger.
Waid, Sp. Pastel, glasto.)

A plant which was formerly much
cultivated in Great Britain for the sake
of the blue dye obtained from it. The
commonest species is the Isatis tinc-
toria, found in Lincolnshire. Before
indigo was introduced into England
the woad dye was employed for dyeing
woollens. At the present time it is
used by dyers for mixing with indigo to
facilitate fermentation.

Wolfram. (See Tungsten.)

Wood. (Fr. Bois, Ger. Holz, Sp.
Madera.)

The principal trees which are culti-
vated for the supply of timber are
noticed under separate headings.

Wood Pulp. (Fr. Pdte de bois, Ger.
tiolzmasse, Sp. Medida de Una.)

A valuable commercial article used
for paper-making. The pulp is ob-
tained from the pine tree, and the main
export trade is done by Norway and
Sweden. It is sent out loose in boxes
or pressed into sheets and packed in
bales.

Wool. (Fr. Laine, poil, Ger. Wolle,
Sp. Lana.)

The hairy covering of certain animals,
used for the manufacture of various
fabrics. Next to cotton it is the most
important of all fibres. The wool of
the alpaca, the Angora goat, the camel,
and the mohair goat are largely used
for the production of woollen goods,
but the chief suppUes of the substance
are derived from the sheep. Parti-
cular kinds of wool are imported from
various European countries and India,
but the greater portion of sheep's wool
comes from Australia and South
Africa. London is the greatest wool
market of the world and a very large
-proportion of the wool imported is
re-exported. Wool is classified in
several ways, but there is one dis-
tinction invariably established between
long and short, the former being used
for the manufacture of worsteds and
the latter for woollen cloths. After
the fleeces are shorn from the sheep
they are scoured and dried. The dried
wool is then oiled. If it is long it is
combed, and if short carded. The
various processes to which it is after-
wards subjected are noticed elsewhere.

Wormwood. (Fr. Absinthe, armoise,
Ger. Wurmholz, Absinth, Wermut, Sp.
Ajenjo.)

The popular name of a genus of
plants of the Compositae order, the
best known being the Artemisia absin-
thium, which is common in Great
Britain and northern Europe. It is
cultivated on account of its tonic
properties, and for the volatile oil
obtained from its leaves. It is from
a species of wormwood that absinthe
is manufactured.

Writing Paper. (See Paper.)

Wurrus. (Fr. Safran bdtarde, Ger
Safflor, Sp. Azafran rumi.)

(See Safflower.)

The glands which cover the fruit of
the Mallotus Philippensis , a tree found
in the East Indies. From the glands
a rich orange brown dye is obtained
which is much used in India for dyeing
silk. It is sometimes known as bastard
saffron.

Yak. (Fr., Ger., and Sp., Yak.)

A species of ox domesticated in

Tibet. It is covered with long silky

hair which is used for spinning into

ropes and for making coverings for

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[Zin

tents. On the shoulders of the animal
is a soft fur which can be manufac-
tured into a fine strong cloth. The
white bushy tail is employed as a fly-
flapper. The trade in these products
of the yak is as yet inconsiderable.

Yarn. (Fr. Fil, laine fiXie, Ger.
Gam. Sp. Hilo.)

The name given to any textile fabric
prepared for weaving into cloth. Yarn
is produced entirely by machinery, and
the perfection of spinning in Great
Britain has led to its manufactrue on
a gigantic scale, not only for home
consumption but also for export. The
sizes of yarns vary considerably.

Yeast. (Fr. Levure, Ger. Hefe,
Barme, Sp. Giste, hez.)

The vegetable growth to which
fermentation is due, and of great value
in brewing, baking, etc. The yeast
obtained from the froth of fermenting
malt liquors or beer mash is known
as barm. German barm is made by
straining off the liquid portion of the
yeast ttoough a fine sieve and pouring
the residue into cold water in which it
sinks as a sediment. The sediment is
afterwards collected and pressed into
a dough like mass, a preparation of
potato starch being added. The value
of the German barm imported annually
is about a million sterling.

Yellow Berries. (Fr. Baies jaunes de
nerprun, Ger. Gelbbeeren, Sp. Pira-
cantas.)

The unripe fruit of the Rhamnus
infectorius, a tree of Asia Minor. The
berries are shipped exclusively from
Smyrna, and are sometimes sold under
the name of French and Persian
berries. A yellow dye is obtained
from them, and this is used in the
manufacture of morocco leather. The
juice is also mixed with alum, and this
forms the sap green of painters.

Yellow Metal. (Fr. MJtal jaune,
Ger. Gelbes Metall, Sp. Metal amariUo.)

An alloy of copper and zinc. It is
much used for sheathing ships' bottoms
as the compound is cheaper than
copper.

Yellow Ochre. (See Ochre.)

Zaffre. (See Cobalt.)

Zebra Wood. (Fr. Bois de zebre,
Ger. Zebraholz, Sp. Madera de cebra.)

The timber of the Omphalobium
lambestii, a native of Brazil. The
wood is light brown in colour with dark
stripes and very scarce. It is occa-
sionally met with in commerce, its use
being confined to the manufacture of
furniture.

Zedoary. (Fr. Zidoaire, Ger. Zit-
wer, Sp. Zedoaria.)

The root of certain species of Cur-
cuma, found in India, China, and the
East Indies. The best is obtained
from Ceylon. It possesses an aromatic
odour and a bitter taste. It is used
in a similar manner to ginger.

Zinc. (Fr. Zinc, Ger. Zinh, Sp.
Zinc.)

One of the most important of metals,
hard and malleable. Its colour is
bluish-white. Its specific gravity is
about 7. Zinc is never found pure in
nature, but its ores are fairly plentiful,
blende, calamine, and zincite. The
main source of the metal is the first
named of these ores, which is a sulphide
of zinc and is obtained in large quanti-
ties in Germany, Great Britain im-
porting about one-fifth of the whole.
In order to obtain zinc the ore is
crushed and roasted and afterwards
distilled with charcoal in earthenware
retorts, the vapour being collected and
condensed. The commercial name for
metallic zinc is spelter. The metal is
largely used in the construction of
electric batteries. It is also much
employed in preparing galvanised iron,
a substance obtained by dipping clean
iron into a bath of molten zinc. Gal-
vanised iron is of great value for roof-
ing, the iron being preserved by the
presence of the zinc from corroding,
owing to exposure to the atmosphere.
Oxide of zinc is used as a paint under
the name of zinc white, or permanent
zinc, and also medicinally in the
preparation of certain ointments. The
metal is also of value as an alloy,
entering largely into the composition
of brass and other compounds.

Printii by Sir Isam Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, Englani
■^-(1484)

PITMAN'S

BUSINESS HANDBOOKS

AN ABRIDGED LIST OF PRACTICAL GUIDES FOR
:: BUSINESS MEN AND ADVANCED STUDENTS ::

COMPLETE LIST OP COMMERCIAL BOOKS POST FREE ON APPLICATION

CONTENTS

Book-keeping and Accounts

Business Training

Insurance ....

Organisation and Management

Stock Exchange .

Shipping

Banking and Finance .

Secretarial Work

Income Tax.

Economics

Advertising and Salesmanship

Law

Business Reference Books .

PAGE

• 4

• 5
. 6

6
. 7

BOOK=KEEPING AND ACCOUNTS

ADVANCED ACCOUNTS. A Manual of Advanced Book-keeping and
Accountancy for Accountants, Book-keepers and Business Men. Edited
by Roger N. Carter, M.Com., F.C.A., Lecturer on Accounting at the
University of Manchester. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 988 pp., 7s. 6d. net.

AUDITING, ACCOUNTING AND BANKING. By Frank Dowler, A.C.A.
and E. Mardinor Harris, Associate of the Institute of Bankers. In
demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 328 pp., Ss. net.

THE principles OF AUDITING. A Practical Manual for Advanced
Students and Practitioners. By F. R. M. de Paula (of the firm of De
Paula, Turner, Lake & Co.) ; Fellow of the Institute of Chartered Account-
ants ; Lecturer to the Chartered Accountant Students' Society of London.
In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 224 pp., 5g. net.

ACCOUNTANCY. By F. W. Pixley, F.C.A., of the Middle Temple, Barrister-
at-Law, Ex-President of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. In
demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 318 pp., 5s. net.

COST ACCOUNTS in Principle and Practice. By A. Clifford Ridgway,
A.C.A. In demy Svo, cloth gilt, with 40 specially prepared forms, 6g.
net.

COMPANY ACCOUNTS. By Arthur Coles, F.C.I.S. With a Preface by
Charles Comins, F.C.A. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 320 pp., 7s. 6d. net.

MANUFACTURING BOOK-KEEPING AND COSTS. By George Johnson
F.C.I.S. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 120 pp., 3s. 6d. net.

GOLD MINE ACCOUNTS AND COSTING. A Practical Manual foe Officials,
Accountants, Book-keepers, etc. By G. W. Tait (of the South African
sta^ of a leading group of mines). In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 93 pp., 6s. net.

THE ACCOUNTS OF EXECUTORS, ADMINISTRATORS AND TRUSTEES.
With a Summary of the Law in so far as it relates to Accounts. By
William B. Phillips, A.C.A. (Hons. Inter, and Final), A.C.I.S. In demy
Svo, cloth gilt, 150 pp., 5s. net.
G T— 8

PITMAN'S BUSINESS HANDBOOKS

PRACTICAL BOOK-KEEPING. By Geo. Johnson, F.C.I.S. In crown 8vo.
cloth, 420 pp., 6s. net.

RAILWAY ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE. Railway Companies (Accounts and
Returns) Act, 1911. By Allen E. Newhook, A.K.C, Chief Accountant
to the London and South-Western Railway Company. In demy 8vo, cloth
gilt, 148 pp., 5s. net.

PERSONAL ACCOUNTS. By W. G. Dowsley, B.A., Lecturer in Book-
keeping on the Modern Side, St. Andrew's College, Grahamsfown. Size
ISJ in. by 9 J in., half leather, 106 pp., with interleaved blotting-paper,
6s. 6d. net.

FARM ACCOUNTS. By the same Author. Size 15J in. by 9^ in., half
leather, 106 pp., interleaved blotting-paper, 6s. 6d. net.

DEPRECIATION AND WASTING ASSETS, deaUng with their treatment
in computing annual profit and loss. By P. D. Leake, Fellow of the
Institute of Chartered Accountants. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 257 pp.,
lOs. 6d. net.

BUSINESS TRAINING

LECTURES ON BRITISH COMMERCE, including Finance, Insurance, Business
and Industry. By the Rt. Hon. Frederick Huth Jackson, G.
Armitage-Smith, M.A., D.Lit., Robert Bruce, C.B., Sir Douglas
Owen, W. E. Barling, J. J. Bisgood, B.A., Allan Greenwell, F.G.S.,
James Graham. With a Preface by the Hon. W. Pember Reeves. In
demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 295 pp., 7s. 6d. net.

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COMMERCE, Being a Complete Guide
to Methods and Machinery of Business. Edited by F. Heelis, F.C.I.S.,
Examiner in Business Training to the Lancashire and Cheshire Union of
Institutes, etc., etc. Assisted by Specialist Contributors. In demy 8vo,
cloth gilt, 620 pp., with many facsimile forms, 6g. net. Also in 2 vols.,
each, price 38. net.

THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF COMMERCE. By James Stephen-
son, M.A., M.Com., B.Sc, Head of the Higher Commercial Department,
Regent Street Polytechnic, London ; Examiner in Commercial English
and Business Methods to the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes.
In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 650 pp., with many facsimile forms, 6s. net.

INSURANCE

INSURANCE. A Practical Exposition for the Student and Business Man.

By T. E. Young, B.A., F.R.A.S., ex-President of the Institute of Actuaries.

With a Practical Section on Workmen's Compensation Insurance, by W.

R. Strong, F.I. A. ; and the National Insurance Scheme, by Vyvyan

Marr, F.F.A., F.I.A. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. In demy

8vo, cloth gilt, 440 pp., 7s. 6d. net.
INSURANCE OFFICE ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT, AND ACCOUNTS.

By T. E. Young, B.A., F.R.A.S., and Richard Masters, A.C.A. Second

Edition, Revised. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 150 pp., 5g. net.

ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT

OFFICE ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT. Including Secretarial
Work. By Lawrence R. Dicksee, M.Com., F.C.A., and H. E. Blain,
Late Tramways Manager, County Borough of West Ham. Fourth Edition.
In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 310 pp., 5s. net.

PITMAN'S BUSINESS HANDBOOKS

COUNTING HOUSE AND FACTORY ORGANISATION. A Practical Manual
of Modern Methods applied to the Counting House and Factory. By
J. GiLMOUR Williamson. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 182 pp., 6s. net.

PILING SYSTEMS. Their Principles and their Application to Modern
Office Requirements. By Edward A. Cope. In crown 8vo, cloth gilt,
200 pp. with illustrations, 2s. Gd. net.

INDUSTRIAL TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT. By Geo. B. Lissenden, Author
of " Railway (Rebates) Case Law," etc., etc. With a Foreword by Charles
E. MusGRAVE, Secretary, London Chamber of Commerce. In demy 8vo,
cloth gilt, 260 pp., 78. 6d. net.

MUNICIPAL OFFICE ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT. A Compre-
hensive Manual of Information and Direction on matters connected with
the work of Officials of Municipalities. Edited by William Bateson,
A.C.A., F.S.A.A., Borough Treasurer for the County Borough of Blackpool.
With contributions by eminent authorities on Municipal Work and
Practice. In crown 4to, half-leather gilt, with about 250 diagrams and
forms, 503 pp., 25s. net.

CLUBS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. By Francis W. Pixley, F.C.A.,
of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 240 pp.,
7s. 6d. net.

SOLICITOR'S OFFICE ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT, AND ACCOUNTS.
By E. A. Cope and H. W. H. Robins. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 176 pp.,
with numerous forms, 6s. net.

COLLIERY OFFICE ORGANISATION AND ACCOUNTS. By J. W. Innes,
F.C.A. (Swithinbank Innes & Co., Chartered Accountants), and T. Colin
Campbell, F.C.I. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 140 pp., 5s. net.

GROCERY BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND M,ANAGEMENT. By C. L. T.
Beeching, Organising Secretary of the Institute of Certificated Grocers.
With Chapters on Buying a Business, Grocers' Office Work and Book-
keeping, and a Model set of Grocers' Accounts. By J. Arthur Smart.
In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, about 160 pp., with illustrations, 6g. net.

DRAPERY BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT. By J.
Ernest Bayley. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 300 pp., 5s. net.

STOCKBROKER'S OFFICE ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT AND
ACCOUNTS (see below).

SHIPPING OFFICE ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT, AND ACCOUNTS
(see below).

BANK ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTS (p. 4).

INSURANCE OFFICE ORGANISATION (p. 2).

STOCK EXCHANGE

STOCKBROKER'S OFFICE ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT AND
ACCOUNTS. By Julius E. Day, Manager to an inside Firm of Stock-
brokers on the London Stock Exchange. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 243 pp.,
7s. 6d. net.

THE HISTORY, LAW, AND PRACTICE OF THE STOCK EXCHANGE. By
A. P. Foley, B.A., of the Inner Temple and Midland Circuit, Barrister-
at-Law ; and F. H. Carruthers Gould, of the Stock Exchange. Second
Edition revised and brought up to date. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 348 pp.,
6g. net.

SHIPPING

SHIPPING OFFICE ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT, AND ACCOUNTS.

A comprehensive Guide to the innumerable details connected with the
Shipping Trade. By Alfred Calvert. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 203 pp.,
with numerous forms, 6s. net.

PITMAN'S BUSINESS HANDBOOKS

THE EXPORTER'S HANDBOOK AND GLOSSARY. By F. M. Dudeney.

Foreword by W. Eglington, Founder and Editor of " The British Export

Gazette." In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 254 pp. 6s. net.
THE PRINCIPLES OF MARINE LAW. {See p. 7.)
CASE AND FREIGHT COSTS. The Principles of Calculation relating to the

Cost oi, and Freight on, Sea or Commercial Cases. By A. W. E. CrosFiELD.

In crown 8vo, cloth, 62 pp., Is. 3d. net.

BANKING AND FINANCE

MONEY, EXCHANGE AND BANKING, in their Practical, Theoretical, and
Legal Aspects. A complete Manual for Bank Officials, Business Men,
and Students of Commerce. By H. T. Easton, Associate of the Institute
of Bankers. Second Edition, Revised. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt 312 pp.,
6s. net.

FOREIGN EXCHANGE AND FOREIGN BILLS IN THEORY AND IN
PRACTICE. By W. F. Spalding, Certificated Associate, Institute of
Bankers ; Fellow of the Royal Economic Society ; Lecturer on Foreign
Exchange at the City of London College ; Author of " Foreign and Colonial
Banking Appointments." In demy Svo, cloth gilt, 227 pp., 6s. net.

EASTERN EXCHANGE, CURRENCY AND FINANCE. By the same Author.
In demy Svo, cloth, 375 pp., with 1 coloured and 6 black-and-white
full-page plates. 12s. 6d. net.

PRACTICAL BANKING. By J. F. G. Bagshaw, Member of the Institute of
Bankers. With chapters on "The Principles of Currency," by C. F.
Hannaford, Associate of the Institute of Bankers, and " Bank Book-
keeping," by W. H. Peard, Member of the Institute of Bankers in Ireland.
In demy Svo, cloth gilt, 400 pp., 58. net.

BANK ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT, AND ACCOUNTS. By J. F.
Davis, D.Lit., M.A., LL.B. (Lond.), Lecturer on Banking and Finance at
the City of London College. In demy Svo, cloth gilt, 165 pp., Ss. net.

BILLS, CHEQUES, AND NOTES. A Handbook for Business Men and
Lawyers. Together with the Bills of Exchange Act, 1882, and the Amend-
ing Act, Bills of Exchange (Crossed Cheques) Act, 1906. By J. A. Slater,
B.A., LL.B. (Lond.), of the Middle Temple, and the North Eastern Circuit,
Barrister-at-Law ; author of " Mercantile Law," etc. Second Edition,
revised and enlarged. In demy Svo, cloth gilt, 214 pp., 5s. net.

BANKERS' SECURITIES AGAINST ADVANCES. By Lawrence A. Fogg,
Certificated Associate of the Institute of Bankers. In demy Svo, cloth
gilt, 120 pp. 5s. net.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE MONEY MARKET (1385-1915). An Historical
and Analytical Study of the Rise ajid Development of Finance as a
Centralised, Co-ordinated Force. By Ellis T. Powell, LL.B. (Lond.),
D.Sc. (Econ., Lond.) ; of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. In demy
Svo, cloth gilt, 748 pp. lOs. 6d. net.

SECRETARIAL WORK

THE COMPANY SECRETARY'S VADE MECUM. Edited by Philip Tovey,
F.C.I.S. Second Edition, enlarged and revised. In foolscap Svo, cloth,
247 pp., 2g. net.

SECRETARY'S HANDBOOK. A Practical Guide to the Work and Duties
in connection with the Position of Secretary to a Member of ParUament,
a Country Gentleman with a landed estate, a Charitable Institution, with

PITMAN'S BUSINESS HANDBOOKS

a section devoted to the work of a Lady Secretary and a chapter dealing
with Secretarial work in general. Edited by H. E. Blain. In demy 8vo,
cloth gilt, 168 pp., 5g. net.

GUIDE FOR THE COMPANY SECRETARY. A Practical Manual and Work
of Reference for the Company Secretary, By Arthur Coles, F.C.I. S.
Second Edition, Enlarged and thoroughly Revised. In demy 8vo, cloth
gilt, 432 pp., with 75 facsimile forms, and the full text of the Companies
Acts, 1908 and 1913, and the Companies Clauses Act, 1845, 6g. net.

COMPANY ACCOUNTS. By the same Author. (See p. 1.)

DICTIONARY OF SECRETARIAL LAW AND PRACTICE. A Compre-
hensive Encyclopaedia of Information and Direction on all matters
connected with the work of a Company Secretary. Fully illustrated with
the necessary forms and documents. With Sections on special branches of
Secretarial Work. Edited by Philip Tovey, F.C.I. S. With contributions
by nearly 40 eminent authorities on Company Law and Secretarial
Practice, including : The Rt. Hon. G. N. Barnes, M.P. ; F. Gore-Browne,
K.C., M.A. ; A. Crew, F.C.I.S. ; J. P. Earnshaw, F.C.I.S. ; M. Webster
Jenkinson, F.C.A. ; F. W. Pi3dey, F.C.A. Second Edition, enlarged
and revised. In one handsome volume, half leather gilt, gilt top,
940 pp., 358. net.

THE TRANSFER OF STOCKS, SHARES, AND OTHER MARKETABLE
SECURITIES. A Manual of the Law and Practice. By F. D. Head,
B.A. (Oxon.), Late Classical Exhibitioner of Queen's College, of Lincoln's
Inn, Barrister-at-Law. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. In
demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 220 pp., 5s. net.

THE CHAIRMAN'S MANUAL. Being a guide to the management of meet-
ings in general, and of meetings of local authorities, with separate and
complete treatment of the meetings of public companies. By Gurdon
Palin, of Gray's Inn, Barrister-at-Law, and Ernest Martin, F.C.I.S.
In crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 192 pp., Ss. 6d. net.

HOW TO TAKE MINUTES. A Guide for Secretaries and others to the correct
method of taking and recording the Minutes of Meetings of Directors,
Shareholders, etc., etc. Edited by Ernest Martin, F.C.I.S., Author of
" Secretarial Work," etc. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 130 pp., 2g. 6(1. net.

WHAT IS THE VALUE OF A SHARE i Tables for readily and correctly
ascertaining (1) the present value of shares ; and (2) what dividends should
be paid annually to justify the purchase or market price of shares. By
D. W. RossiTER, Head of the Intelligence Department of the Consolidated
Gold Fields of South Africa, Ltd. In demy 8vo, Ump cloth, 20 pp.,
28. 6d. net.

INCOME TAX

INCOME TAX AND SUPER-TAX PRACTICE. Including a Dictionary of
Income Tax and Specimen Returns, showing the efiects of recent enact
ments down to the Finance Act, 1917. By W. E. Snelling, of the Inland
Revenue Department. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 450 pp., 12s. 6d. net.

INCOME TAX AND SUPER-TAX LAW AND CASES, including tlie
Finance Act, 1917. A Practical Exposition of the Law, for the use
of Income Tax Officials, Sohcitors, Accountants, etc. With an Analysis
of the Schedules, Guide to Income Tax Law, and Notes on Land Tax.
Third Edition, Revised. By W. E. Snelling. In demy 8vo, cloth
gilt, 432 pp., 12s. 6d. net.

COAL MINES EXCESS PAYMENTS, Guarantee Payments and Levies for
Closed Mines. This book deals with the Agreement entered into between
the Coal Controller and the colliery owners. By W. E. Snelling.
Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 176 pp., 128. 6d. net.

PITMAN'S BUSINESS HANDBOOKS

EXCESS PROFITS (Including Excess Mineral Rights) DUTY, and Levies
under the Munitions of War Acts. Incorporating the Provisions of the
Income Tax Acts made apphcable by Statute and by Regulation, also the
Regulations of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, and of the Minister
of Munitions. By W. E. Snelling. Third Edition, Revised and
Enlarged. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 262 pp. 12s. 6d. net.

ECONOMICS

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY, By J. McFarlane, M.A., M.Gom., Lecturer in
Geography in the University of Manchester. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt,
568 pp., with 18 illustrations, 7s. 6d. net.

OUTLINES OF THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF ENGLAND. A Study in
Social Development. By H. O. Meredith, M.A., MCom., Fellow at
King's College, Cambridge ; Professor of Economics, Queen's University,
Belfast. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 376 pp., 6s. net.

THE HISTORY AND ECONOMICS OF TRANSPORT. By Adam W.
KiRKALDY, M.A., B.Litt., Oxford ; M.Com., Birmingham ; Professor of
Finance in the University of Birmingham ; and Alfred Dudley Evans,
Secretary of the Birmingham Exchange. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 348 pp.,
7s. 6d. net.

THE ECONOMICS OF TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES. By John Lee,
M.A., Traffic Manager, Post Office Telegraphs. In crown 8vo, cloth gilt,
92 pp., 2s. 6d. net.

INDUSTRY AND FINANCE; WAR EXPEDIENTS AND RECONSTRUC-
TION. Being the Results of Inquiries arranged by the Section of
Economic Science and Statistics of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, during the year 1917. Edited and with a Preface by
Adam W. Kirkaldy, M.A., B.Litt., Oxford ; M.Com. Birm., and
contributions by other eminent authorities. In demy 8vo, 4s. 6d. net.

ADVERTISING AND SALESMANSHIP

THE CRAFT OF SILENT SALESMANSHIP. A Guide to Advertisement
Construction. By C. Maxwell Tregurtha and J. W. Frings. Size,
6i in. by 9i in., cloth, 98 pp., with illustrations. 3s. 6d. net.

ADVERTISING AS A BUSINESS FORCE. A Compilation of Expe:rience
Records. By P. T. Cherington, Instructor in Commercial Organisation
in the Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University.
In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 586 pp., 7s. 6d. net.

THE PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING ARRANGEMENT. By F. A.
Parsons, President of the New York School of Fine and Applied Art.
Size 7 in. by lOi in., cloth, 128 pp., with many illustrations, 6b. net.

THE NEW BUSINESS. A Handbook dealing with the Principles of Adver-
tising, Selling, and Marketing. By Harry Tipper, President, Advertising
Men's League, New York; Lecturer on Advertising, New York University.
In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 406 pp., 7s. 6d. net.

SALESMANSHIP. By W. A. Coreion and G. E. Grimsdale. In crown
8vo, cloth, 186 pp., 2s. Gd. net.

PRACTICAL SALESMANSHIP, A fareatise on the Art of SelUng Goods.
By N. C. Fowler, Jnr. Assisted by twenty-nine Expert Salesmen, Sales
Managers, and prominent business men. In crown 8vo, cloth, 337 pp.,
68. net.

COMMERCIAL TRAVELLING, A Guide to the Profession for present and
prospective salesmen " on the road." By Albert E. Bull. In crown
8vo, cloth gilt, 174 pp., 28. 6d. net.

PITMAN'S BUSINESS HANDBOOKS

LAW

MERCANTILE LAW. By J. A. Slater, B.A., LL.B. A practical exposition

for Law Students, Business Men, and Advanced Classes in Commercial

Colleges and Schools. Third Edition, Revised. In demy 8vo, cloth

gilt, 464 pp., 5s. net.
COMPANIES AND COMPANY LAW. Together with the Companies (Con-

soUdation) Act, 1908, and the Act of 1913. By A. C. Connell, LL.B.

(Lond.), of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law. Second Edition,

Revised. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 348 pp., 6s. net.
COMPANY CASE LAW. By F. D. Head, B.A. (Oxon.), Late Classical

Exhibitioner of Queen's College ; of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law. In

demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 314 pp., 7s, 6d. net.
THE LAW OF CARRIAGE. By J. E. R. Stephens, B.A., of the Middle

Temple, Barrister-at-Law. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 340 pp., gg. net,

THE LAW RELATING TO THE CARRIAGE BY LAND OF PASSENGERS,
ANIMALS, AND GOODS. By S. W. Clarke, of the Middle Temple and
the North Eastern Circuit, Barrister-at-Law. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt,
350 pp., 7s, 6d. net.

INCOME TAX AND SUPER-TAX LAW AND CASES. (See p. 5.)

THE LAW RELATING TO SECRET COMMISSIONS AND BRIBES (CHRIST-
MAS BOXES, GRATUITIES, TIPS, ETC.) ; THE PREVENTION OF
CORRUPTION ACT, 1906. By Albert Crew, of Gray's Inn, and the
South Eastern Circuit, Barrister-at-Law ; Lee Prizeman of Gray's Inn.
In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 198 pp., 6s. net.

BANKRUPTCY, DEEDS OF ARRANGEMENT, AND BILLS OF SALE. By
W. Valentine Ball, M.A., and G. Mills, B.A., both of Lincoln's Inn,
Barristers-at- Law. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 364 pp., 58. net. Third
Edition, Enlarged and Revised in accordance with the Bankruptcy Act,
1914, and the Deeds of Arrangement Act, 1914.

PRINCIPLES OF MARINE LAW. By Lawrence Duckworth, of the
Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law. Third Edition, Revised. In demy
8vo, cloth gilt, about 400 pp., 7s. 6d. net.

GUIDE TO THE LAW OF LICENSING. The Handbook for all Licence-
holders. By J. Wells Thatcher, Barrister-at-Law. In demy 8vo,
cloth gilt, 200 pp., 5s. net.

RAILWAY (REBATES) CASE LAW. By Geo. B. Lissenden. In demy
8vo, cloth gilt, 450 pp., lOs. 6d. net.

THE LAW RELATING TO THE CHILD : Its Protection, Education, and
Employment. With Introduction on the Laws of Spain, Germany,
France, and Italy ; and BibUography. By Robert W. Holland, M.A.,
M.Sc, LL.D., of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law. In demy 8vo,
cloth gilt, 166 pp., 5s. net.

GUIDE TO THE REGISTRATION OF BUSINESS NAMES ACT. By Kenneth
Brown, Solicitor. In crown Svo, paper boards. Is. net.

CONVEYANCING. By E. A. Cope. In crown Svo, cloth, 206 pp., 3s. 6d. net.

WILLS, EXECUTORS, AND TRUSTEES. With a, chapter on Intestacy.
In foolscap Svo, cloth, 122 pp., Is. 6d. net.

INHABITED HOUSE DUTY. The compUcated laws relating to Inhabited
Houses are treated in this volume in a comprehensive manner, and all
legal decisions of importance are given. By W. E. Snelling. In demy
Svo, cloth gilt, 200 pp., lOs. 6d, net.

THE LAW OF REPAIRS AND DILAPIDATIONS. By T. Cato Worsfold,
M.A., LL.D. In crown Svo, cloth gilt, 104 pp., 3s. 6d. net.

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THE LAW OF EVIDENCE. By W. Nembhard HiBBERT, LL.D. (Lond.),

Barrister-at-Law of the Middle Temple. Second Edition Revised. In

crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 144 pp., 5s. net.
THE LAW OF PROCEDURE. By the same Author. In demy 8vo, cloth

gilt, 122 pp., 6g. net.
BILLS, CHEQUES, AND NOTES. (See page 4.)
THE HISTORY, LAW, AND PRACTICE OF THE STOCK EXCHANGE.

(See page 3.)

BUSINESS REFERENCE BOOKS

COMMERCIAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA AND DICTIONARY OF BUSINESS. A

reliable and comprehensive work of reference on all commercial subjects,
specially designed and written for the busy merchant, the commercial
student, and the modem man of affairs. Edited by J. A. Slater, B.A.,
LL.B. (Lond.), of the Middle Temple and North- Eastern Circuit, Barrister-
at-Law. Assisted by upwards of SO specialists as contributors. With
numerous maps, illustrations, facsimile business forms and legal docu-
ments, diagrams, etc. In 4 vols., large crown 4to (each 450 pp.), cloth
gilt, £2 net. Half-leather gilt, £3 12s. 6d. net.

BUSINESS MAN'S GUIDE. Seventh Revised Edition. With French, German
Spanish and Italian equivalents for the Commercial Words and Terms.
Edited by J. A. Slater, B.A., LL.B. (Lond.). The work includes over
2,000 articles. In crown 8vo, cloth, 520 pp., 5s. net.

PUBLIC MAN'S GUIDE. A Handbook for all who take an interest in ques-
tions of the day. Edited by J. A. Slater, B.A., LL.B. (Lond.). In
crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 444 pp., 3s. 6d. net.

DICTIONARY OF COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE IN SEVEN LAN-
GUAGES : ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, SPANISH, ITALIAN,
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FILING SYSTEMS : Their Principles and their Application to Modern Oltice
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